BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the final year project entitled “GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF MAIN
ROAD A-B and B-C is the original project done by TWAGIRIMNA PIERRE (REG N0 FT
201340247) carried under my supervisor. Certified further, that to the best of my knowledge
the work reported herein does not form of any other Project Report or Dissertation on the
basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any other
candidate.

Signature of the supervisor Signature of H.O.D

Mr. GATESI JEAN DE DIEU Eng UWIMANA AIMABLE

Submitted for College examination held in August 18th, 2016 at Saint Joseph Integrated
Technical
College, Kigali-Nyamirambo.

I
DECLARATION

I, TWAGIRIMANA PIERRE hereby declare that this project entitled “DESIGN OF

MAIN ROAD A, B AND C done for the award of advanced diploma in civil engineering, I
declare that this is the original copy produced for the final year project and it has never been
previously submitted by any student from S.J.I.T.C or from any other institutions or
elsewhere..

Signature ……………………..
Date: 18st AUGUST 2016
TWAGIRIMANA PIERRE

II
ABSTRACT

The geometric design of a road deals with structural and functional requirement of a road to
be safe and secure for its users. Based on this, the current project intends to design
geometrically a road that will provide solutions to the problem of traffic in the area provided
in the topographic map A-B and B-C.
In order to achieve these objectives, different activities were done such as; Eventual
topographic survey, obtaining information to experienced persons in this field from different
companies, attending library and E-documentation.
The study will focus on the followings: geometric design of the road and hydraulic
structures design for the channel, as well as providing bill of quantities of soil for the soil
required for making the platform of the road in project. This project therefore will provide a
solution to mobility of the population, trafficability of the road, communication and welfare
of the population in that area, as well as selecting the right of way which will provide
solution to the mobility problem and rain water impact to the environment.

III
DEDICATION

TO GOD
TO MY PARENTS
MY FAMILLY
MY FRIENDS
MY CLASSMATE
TO EVERYONE WHO SUPPORTED AND CONTRIBUTED TO THIS PROJECT

IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to acknowledge GOD first and foremost for his guidance and protection.
I also wish thank my school and the lecturers for the knowledge and skills provided for the
last three years of learning.
I also acknowledge my supervisor for his undivided attention and support during my final
year project.
I wish also to extend my most sincere gratitude and appreciation to my family for their
advices and prayers, and also for their patience and understanding for the past three years.
I particularly thank the company to which I passed my industrial attachment for their
support in improving my skills which contributed to the process of making this project
successful.
Finally, I would like to thank my friend, my class mates, and everyone who supported me in
any way , I sincerely appreciated your support and encouragements, I hope to return it
someday! May GOD bless you all!

V
LIST OF APPENDICES
1. TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
2. LONGITUDINAL PROFILE
3. CROSS SECTIONAL PROFILES
4. PLAN VIEW

VI
Table of Contents
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE ................................................................................................................................. I

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................................... II

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................................... III

DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................................IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................................................V

LIST OF APPENDICES ..............................................................................................................................VI

1. TOPOGRAPHIC MAP .............................................................................................................................VI

2. LONGITUDINAL PROFILE.......................................................................................................................VI

3. CROSS SECTIONAL PROFILES ................................................................................................................VI

4. PLAN VIEW ...........................................................................................................................................VI

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................................ X

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................................. XI

CHAP I: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 1

I.1 BASIC DEFINITION ................................................................................................................................ 1

I.2 SCOPE OF STUDY .................................................................................................................................. 2

I.2.1 Extent ............................................................................................................................................ 2

I.2.2 Coverage ....................................................................................................................................... 2

I.2.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ....................................................................................................... 2

I.3 IMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION .................................................................................. 2

I.4 FUNCTIONS AND ORGANISATION OF ROAD NETWORK IN A COUNTRY .............................................. 4

I.5 ROLE OF ROAD CLASSIFICATION .......................................................................................................... 5

1.6 METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS .......................................................................................... 6

I.7 GENERAL OBJECTIVES........................................................................................................................... 7

I.8 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................ 7

I.9 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................... 7

VII
CHAP II: THEORITICAL AXIS OF THE ROAD .................................................................................................... 9

II.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 9

II.1.2 Subdivision of map into 4 zones .................................................................................................. 9

II.2. CLASSIFICATION OF TERRAIN ........................................................................................................... 10

II.3 SLOPE STUDY ..................................................................................................................................... 11

II.3.1. Calculation of an opening of compass ...................................................................................... 13

II.4 ROAD FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION ................................................................................................ 16

II.5. DESIGN SPEED .................................................................................................................................. 17

II.6. LANE WIDTH ..................................................................................................................................... 19

CHAP III: GEOMETRICAL ANALYSIS OF THE ROAD....................................................................................... 20

III.1. LONGITUDINAL PROFILE OF THE ROAD .......................................................................................... 20

III.2. INTERPOLLATION............................................................................................................................. 21

III.3 SIGHT DISTANCE ............................................................................................................................... 21

III.3.1 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE ...................................................................................................... 22

III.3.2 DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE ....................................................................................................... 24

III.3.3 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE ......................................................................................................... 24

III.4. FICTIVE POINT.................................................................................................................................. 26

III.5. SUPERELEVATION ............................................................................................................................ 27

III.5.1 SUPERELEVATION DESIGN ........................................................................................................ 29

III.6 Radius of the horizontal curve ......................................................................................................... 32

III.7. HORIZONTAL ALLIGNMENT DESIGN ................................................................................................ 33

III.8. VERTICAL ALLIGNMENT DESIGN...................................................................................................... 35

III.8.1 Gradient .................................................................................................................................... 36

III.8.2 Vertical curves ........................................................................................................................... 36

III.9 Simple circular curve design ............................................................................................................. 38

III.10 CROSS-SECTION PROFILE................................................................................................................ 39

VIII
 III.10.1 Definition:............................................................................................................................... 39

III.10.2 Cross-section design .................................................................................................................... 40

III.11 EXTRA-WIDENING .......................................................................................................................... 42

CHAP IV: HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES. ............................................................................................................ 46

IV.1 CULVERT ........................................................................................................................................... 46

IV.1.1 TYPES OF CULVERT.................................................................................................................... 46

IV.2. CULVERT DESIGN............................................................................................................................. 46

CHAP V: DESIGN OF SIDE DRAIN IN MASONRY ........................................................................................... 48

CHAP.VI: EARTHWORK QUANTITY AND BILLS OF QUANTITY...................................................................... 51

VI.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 51

VI.1.1. Definition ..................................................................................................................................... 51

VI.1.2. Calculation of areas of cross- section of project .......................................................................... 52

IV.2 DETAILS OF ESTIMATED EARTHWORK QUANTITIES ........................................................................ 53

IV.3 EARTHWORKS QUANTITIES AND EARTH WORKS MOVING ............................................................. 54

IV.4 LALANN’S GRAPHIC .......................................................................................................................... 55

IV.4 DETAILED ESTIMATED FOR BILLS OF QUANTITIES ........................................................................... 56

CHAP VII: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMANDATION .................................................................................... 59

VII.1: CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................. 59

VII.2: RECOMMANDATION ...................................................................................................................... 59

REFERENCE .................................................................................................................................................. 61

IX
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: map zoning ................................................................................................................................... 10

Figure 2 0pen compass................................................................................................................................ 13
Figure 3: Second theoretical axis of the road ............................................................................................. 15
Figure 4: Third theoretical axis of the road ................................................................................................. 16
Figure 5: longitudinal profile ....................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 6: contour line .................................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 7: Fictive point .................................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 8: Super elevation ............................................................................................................................ 28
Figure 9: super elevation design ................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 10: Forces in Super elevation ........................................................................................................... 32
Figure 11: horizontal alignment .................................................................................................................. 33
Figure 12: cross slope .................................................................................................................................. 35
Figure 13: crest vertical curves and sag vertical curves. ............................................................................. 37
Figure 14: cross section of road .................................................................................................................. 41
Figure 15: extra-widening at a horizontal curve ......................................................................................... 44
Figure 16: Pipe culvert ................................................................................................................................ 46
Figure 17: side drain cross section .............................................................................................................. 51

X
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: CLASSIFICATION OF TERRAIN ........................................................................................................ 11

Table 2: slope study .................................................................................................................................... 11
Table 3: Road functional classification ........................................................................................................ 17
Table 4: Design speed ................................................................................................................................. 18
Table 5: Lane width ..................................................................................................................................... 19
Table 6: showing the Comfortable Side-Friction Factor ............................................................................. 33
Table 7: table of earthworks quantities ...................................................................................................... 53
Table 8: Earthworks moving table .............................................................................................................. 54
Table 9: bill of quantities ............................................................................................................................. 56

XI
CHAP I: INTRODUCTION

I.1 BASIC DEFINITION

ROAD is a thoroughfare, route, or a way on land between two places that has been paved or
otherwise improved to allow travel by foot or some form of convenience, including cart ,
bicycle, or motor vehicle.
It consists of one or two roadways each with one or more lanes and any associated sidewalks
and road verges.
We have small and large road of different types and categories
Street road (Local Road): It is a local road with the lowest speed limit and it carries low
volume of traffic.
Mostly streets are in towns, cities and residential quarters
Highway: It is a main road (public) especially one that connect two or more destinations
E.g. Town, cities or major centers
Alignment: The vertical and horizontal location of a road. The position or layout of the
centre line of the highway on the ground.
Channelization (of road): The direction of the traffic flow into definite paths, by means of
traffic markings, islands, or other means.
Culvert: Any structure, not classified as a bridge, which provides an opening under the
roadway.
Excavation The acts of taking out materials, the materials taken out, or the cavity remaining
after materials have been removed.
Gradient: The percent of vertical or longitudinal slope.
Groundwater Table The level of water under the earth‟s surface.
Horizontal Curve (of Highway): Bend from a straight line or course along a roadway.

1
I.2 SCOPE OF STUDY
I.2.1 Extent
The current study is based on the new road located in the Topographic map provided A-B
and BC, limited within the topographic map.
I.2.2 Coverage
In project we shall deal with the concept design of flexible pavement road and its structural
layers. This project will cover all necessary data needed for the implementation and
construction of this new road in terms of design, by providing the review on road design,
different methods that were used in data analysis, type of materials which should be used in
construction and soil characteristic of the region.
I.2.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The current project will provide the solution of poor traffic ability due to bad road design,
then the population of the area will be able to move easily from their homes to the main
road, market,
Church, Schools and other services which are of the main importance to the human lives,
then
After this, the population will benefit and develop themselves through the well-designed
road when implemented, by having access to their work and at time and by reducing travel
time, traffic jams due to slow movement in muddy roads and increasing the ability to
maneuver and reduction of accidents.
Indeed the current project will provide the base for the one who will want to do its
Implementation with useful contents and it will help in information and data gathering for
road geometric design and channel design.

I.3 IMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION

Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural development of
any country. Transportation is vital for economic development of any region.
A country cannot develop so fast without a developed transport system. Development of
roads facilitates utilization of natural resources lying unutilized in different hills, mountains,
forests and mines.

2
Road is the most important infrastructure of all public assets for it makes a crucial
contribution to economic development and growth and brings important social benefits.
They are of vital importance in order to make a nation grow and develop. In addition
providing access to employment, social, health and education services makes a road network
crucial in fighting against poverty
Roads are the means that connect one place to another on the surface of the land. You must
have seen roads in your village, in towns and cities. You find different vehicles plying on
roads like bullock carts, cycles, motorcycles, cars, truck, buses, etc. All of these constitute
different means of road transport.
THE FOLLOWINGS ARE THE POINTS OF IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORT.
 Makes available raw materials to manufacturers or producers: Transport makes
it possible to carry raw materials from places where they are available, to places
where they can be processed and assembled into finished goods.
 Makes available goods to customers: Transport makes possible movement of
goods from one place to another with great ease and speed. Thus, consumers spread
in different parts of the country have the benefit of consuming goods produced at
distant places.
 Enhances standard of living: Easy means of transport facilitates large-scale
production at low costs. It gives consumers the choice to make use of different
quantities of goods at different prices. So it raises the standard of living of the
people.
 Helps during emergencies and natural calamities: In times of national crisis, due
to war or internal disturbance, transport helps in quick movement of troops and the
supplies needed in the operation.
 Helps in creation of employment: Transport provides employment opportunity to
individuals as drivers, conductors, pilots, cabin crew, captain of the ship, etc. who
are directly engaged in transport business. It also provides employment to people
indirectly in the industries producing various means of transport and other transport
equipments. People can also provide repairing and maintenance services by opening
service centers at convenient locations.
 Helps in labor mobility: Transport helps a lot in providing mobility to workers.

3
  Helps in bringing nations together: Transport facilitates movement of people from
one country to another. It helps in exchange of cultures, views and practices between
the people of different countries. Thus, it helps to promote a feeling of international
brotherhood
The means of road transport may be divided into three types:
i. Man driven;
ii. Animal driven; and
iii. Motor driven.
Road transport has the following advantages.
 It is a relatively cheaper mode of transport as compared to other modes.
 Perishable goods can be transported at a faster speed by road carriers over a short
distance.
 It is a flexible mode of transport as loading and unloading is possible at any
destination. It helps people to travel and carry goods from one place to another, in
places which are not connected by other means of transport like hilly areas.
I.4 FUNCTIONS AND ORGANISATION OF ROAD NETWORK IN A COUNTRY

A safe and efficient land transportation system is an essential element of sustainable regional
or national economy. Roads have been and continue to be the backbone of the land
transportation network that provides the accessibility for the required mobility to support
economic growth and promote social activities. As more and more advanced and speedy
modes of transportation are developed over time, and as the economic activities of the
human society grow in pace and sophistication, the roles of road shave multiplied and their
importance increased.
At the same time, the potential adverse impacts of road development have also grown in
magnitude, especially when proper planning, design, construction or management is not
carried out. To fully exploit the benefits of highway development and minimize possible
adverse influences, the study of highway engineering must expand from merely meeting the
basic needs of offering safe and speedy access from one point to another, to a field of study
that not only covers the structural and functional requirements of highways and city streets,

4
but also addresses the socio-economic and environmental impacts of road network
development.
According to their functions and based on American classification, roads can be classified
into:
 Freeways: roads that provide largely uninterrupted travel, often using partial or full
access control, and are designed for high speed.
 Arterials: are major roads that are expected to carry large volume of traffic.
 Collectors: roads that collect traffic from local roads, and distribute it to arterials.
 Local roads or streets: roads with the lowest speed limit, and carry low volume of
traffic.
I.5 ROLE OF ROAD CLASSIFICATION
The functional road classification is an indispensable tool for rational assessment and
assignment of responsibilities in the road sector. Road functionality is an important concept
that governs road access management. Functional road classification is an international
practice, whereby a road is classified in accordance to the current, and/or immediate future
function it provides to all road users including direct communities.
Functional classification is usually the basis of other dimensions and can be defined in
various ways.
The road network is divided into separate (hierarchical) classes each with a distinct function.
The following definition derives from the World Bank‟s highway functional classification
study guidelines traffic. Functional classification has become the major management tool
and is used in virtually all aspects of decision-making regarding roads: transport system and
economic planning, standards design and maintenance, access management, data
classification, resource allocation, road agency commercialization, intermodal and the size
of the network.
Rwanda National Road Network
The national road network, which was the subject of a reclassification study in May 2006,
has about
13,000km of roads spread out over two main categories:
 The 4,700km classified network under the responsibility of the MININFRA and the
Districts

5
  The unclassified road network, formerly known as “tertiary roads”, whose length is
more than 8,000km and is under the districts‟ responsibility.

The classified network is itself divided into 3 categories:

 The paved national road network (1,120km long)
 The earth national road network (1,730km long)
 The district road network (1,850km long)

1.6 METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

The roads are generally classified on the following basis:
 Traffic volume
 Load transported or tonnage
 Location and function

The classification based on traffic volume or tonnage has been arbitrary fixed by different
agencies and they may not be a common agreement regarding the limits for each of
classification group. Based on the traffic volume, the roads are classified as: Heavy,
Medium and light traffic roads
These terms are relative and so the limits under each class should be clearly defined as
vehicle/day. Likewise the classification based on load or tonnage is also relative and the
roads may be classified as: Class I, II, III etc or Class A, B, and the limits may be
expressed as tones/day. The classification based on location and function should therefore
be a more acceptable classification for a country as they may be defined clearly.
They may be classified as:

 National highway (NH): Are main highways running through the length and breath
of the country, connecting major parts, foreign highways, capitals of large states and
large industrial cities.
 State highways (SH): Are roads of a state connecting up with the national highways
of adjacent state, district headquarters and important cities.

6
  Major district roads: Are important roads within a district serving areas of
production and markets.
 Other District roads: District roads which are not of major importance
 Village roads: Are roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each other
to the nearest road of a higher category

I.7 GENERAL OBJECTIVES

The general objective of this final year project is listed in the following points:
 Is to expose the prospective graduate to details and organized design on road project,
 To implement knowledge and skills learnt theoretically in class,
 To ensure a good carrier development.
I.8 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
The specific objectives of this project are given the following points:
 Design the road which is safe and economical
 Design an open channel to collect water from the road and adjoining land,
channelize them.
 Specify the use of uniform standard and practices for the design and construction of
safe and cost-effective local roads.
 Initiating the road geometric design in Rwanda with international known standards to
ensure that the road reaches its design life.
 Suggest the importance of satisfying the needs of all road users, both vehicular and
non-vehicular, meaning non motorized transport ; and
 Provide guideline for detailed geometric design that will result in a safe efficient,
affordable and convenient road and street system.
 Increase the development of the users by reducing the total cost and travel time used
on the road.
I.9 METHODOLOGY
For the Geometric design the following steps are taken into account and summarized in
these four design processes:

7
  Location design: refers to the macro-level routing of a planned highway connecting
two points through the existing highways, communities, natural terrain. Normally,
information such as lane use master plan; existing and projected population
distribution; survey maps; maps of existing infrastructure; geology, ecological,
biological, and environmental information; and aerial photographs are among the
essential inputs.
 Alignment design: The configuration of a road or roadway as seen in plans,
consisting of tangents, lengths of circular curve and vertical curves, and lengths of
spiral or transition curves.
 Cross sectional design: The transverse profile of a road.
 Access design: this consists of localize the road feeders and exits.

A more detailed site survey is then carried out to locate the key control points of the
alignments, in terms of geo-coordinates and elevations.

8
CHAP II: THEORITICAL AXIS OF THE ROAD
II.1 INTRODUCTION
Theoretical axis of the road is the line representative of the approximate axis of the road which
respects the imposed slope and it is obtained by arc of compass. Then it is guide for actual plotting of
axe of road
II.1.2 Subdivision of map into 4 zones
For the matter of precision, the map where the road project should be constructed has been divided
into equal 4 zones. For each zone we study at least 4 cases slope, then calculate the average slope for
each zone to find the general average slope to help in identifying the class of terrain.

Let us divide our map into 4 zones:

9
Figure 1: map zoning

II.2. CLASSIFICATION OF TERRAIN

Terrain classification is an important preliminary step in selecting values for highway

geometrics. The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain of
land through which the road passes. Elements such as design speed, shoulder width,
horizontal curve radius can vary with the class of terrain.
Terrain classification depends on the slope of that terrain; referring to the table given below
we can determine which class of terrain we are dealing with in other to make a safe and
economic road.

10
Table 1: CLASSIFICATION OF TERRAIN

S N0 TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION PERCENTAGE- SLOPE

OF COUNTRY
1. FLAT 0 to 10
2. ROLLING 10 to 25
3. MOUNTAINOUS 25 to 60

4 STEEP Greater than 60

Terrain is characterized as “level” or flat, “rolling”, “mountainous”, by both subjective description

and by the average ground slope. The average ground slope is measured as the number of 5 meter
contour line crossed per kilometer on straight line linking the two ends of the road section. (The
slope maybe interpolated using other contour intervals on a proportional basis).
 LEVEL (0-10 five meter ground per kilometer) flat or level or gently rolling terrain with
rolling terrain with largely unrest horizontal and vertical alignment. Minimum values of
alignment will rarely be necessary. roads will for some part follow the ground contours and
amounts of cut and fill will be very small
 ROLLING (11-25, five meter ground contours per kilometer). Rolling terrain with low
hills introducing moderate levels of rise and fall with some restrictions on vertical alignment
. whilst low standard roads will be able to follow the ground contours with small amounts
of cut and fill, the higher standards will require more substantial amounts.
 MOUNTAINOUS (greater than 25, five meter ground contours per kilometer).
Rugged, hilly and mountainous with substantial restriction in both horizontal and vertical
alignment, higher standard roads will generally require large amounts of cut and fill
II.3 SLOPE STUDY
The contour map has been elaborated from the collected point on terrain using the land survey
calculation. The table below shows all the points measured and its level of elevation.
Table 2: slope study

ZONE I

LINES ALT.1 (m) ALT.2 (m) DISTANCE (m) SLOPE (%)

11
L1 1404.22 1402.18 13.54 15.07

L2 1375.98 1373.80 12.32 17.70

L3 1388.08 1386.19 12.80 14.76

L4 1396.31 1394.26 12.63 16.23

S avg (%) 15.94%

ZONE II
L1 1398.82 1396.45 9.7 24.43

L2 1372.02 1370.50 8.05 18.90

L3 1390.07 1388.44 16.27 10

L4 1376.28 1374.11 13 16.70

S avg (%) 17.50%

ZONE III
L1 1420.02 1417.86 13.43 16.08

L2 1440.44 1438.00 10.41 23.43

L3 1424.06 1421.8 17.37 13.01

L4 1418.04 1415.95 20.05 10.42

S avg (%) 15.73%

ZONE IV
L1 1400.30 1398.15 11.67 18.42

12
L2 1395.81 1393.91 13.69 13.88

L3 1397.66 1395.64 11.36 17.78

L4 1396.01 1393.87 9.78 21.88

S avg (%) 18%

TS avg (%) 16.8%

The overall average slope is 16.8%.

Conclusion
After determination of overall slope, terrain is classified as „‟rolling” according to the standardized
table of different classifications of terrain.
II.3.1. Calculation of an opening of compass
A given scaled map of 1/2000 and having the contour interval of 0.25m and the maximum
slope of the road design is of 10%.

Cross-section of demonstration

Figure 2 0pen compass

13
X=E/T
X= (1403.07-1404.50)/0.1=14.3m
14.3=1430*1/2000=0.715cm
E: contour interval
T: slope
X: opening of compass

Our road design, it may have an opening compass of 0.715cm between two consecutive
contours.

The theoretical axis of the road is the line representative of the approximate axe of the road
which respects the imposed slope and it is obtained by arc of compass. Then it is guide for
actual plotting of axe of road. We choose the first theoretical axis because it seemed more
economical than others due to the following reason:

 The length of axis

 The imposed slope
 Earthwork (cut and fill)
Figure2. First theoretical axis of the road

14
Figure 3: Second theoretical axis of the road

15
Figure 4: Third theoretical axis of the road

II.4 ROAD FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION

Present Rwanda name convention, classification, description and traffic.

Rwandan roads are ranked by road functional classifications according to the services
provide.
The functional classifications include three classes: National roads, district road I roads,
district II roads (feeder).
There has been considerable recent effort in revising the existing road network, placing
roads in differing classifications than they had been previously placed. Check the table
below

16
 Road functional Design class Design traffic
Classification (AADT)

T
R CLASS 1 10,000-15,000
U
N
L K CLASS 2 500-10,000
I
C N CLASS 3 100-1,500
O K
L
L
E CLASS 4 20-200
C
T
F O
E R
E
D CLASS 5 0-100
E
R Single Lane 0-100

Table 3: Road functional classification

II.5. DESIGN SPEED

Design speed is the maximum speed in highway at which vehicles can continuously travel
safely under favorable condition. The choices of the design speed have to respond with
terrain

17
Conditions and the features like sight-distance, gradient and curves are detected by the speed
of the vehicle using the road.

Traffic speeds are measured and quoted in kilometers per hour. The Highway Capacity
Manual
(US Transportation Research Board 1994) lists definitions of ten different speeds, such as
spot speed, time mean speed, space mean speed, overall travel speed, running speed, etc. In
the current report, reference is principally to design speed and operating speed.

The design speed is a speed selected for the purposes of the design and correlation of those
features of a road (such as horizontal curvature, vertical curvature, sight distance and super
elevation) upon which the safe operation of vehicles depends.

The operating speed is the highest running speed at which a driver can travel on a given
road under favorable weather and prevailing traffic conditions without, at any time,
exceeding the design speed. Implicit in this definition of operating speed is the idea that the
design speed is also the maximum safe speed that can be maintained on a given section of
road when traffic conditions are so favorable that the design features of the road govern the
driver‟s selection of speed. Sight should not be lost of the fact that a degree of arbitrariness
attaches to the concept of maximum safe speed. The absolute maximum speed at which an
individual driver is safe depends as much on the driver‟s skill and reaction time, the quality
and condition of the vehicle and its tires, the weather conditions and the time of day (insofar
as this affects visibility) as on the design features of the road.
Table 4: Design speed

ROAD TYPE TERRAIN DESIGN SPEED(km/h)

Primary road (national, 1.Flat area 80-110
expressway) 2.Hilly 55-80
3.Mountainous 40-55
Secondary road (state, 1.Flat area 60-80
district road) 2.Hilly 50-60
3.Mountainous 35-50

18
Tertiary road (village, other) 1.Flat area 50-60
2.Hilly 35-50
3.Mountainous 25-35

CONCLUSION
Type of road = Tertiary road
Type of terrain =Rolling
Design speed =40Km/h
II.6. LANE WIDTH
The selection of lane width affects the cost and performance of a highway. Typical lane
widths range from 3 metres (9.8 ft) to 3.6 metres (12 ft). Wider lanes and shoulders are
usually used on roads with higher speed and higher volume traffic, and significant numbers
of trucks and other large vehicles. Narrower lanes may be used on roads with lower speed or
lower volume traffic.
Narrow lanes cost less to build and maintain, but also reduce the capacity of a road to
convey traffic. On rural roads, narrow lanes are likely to experience higher rates of run-off-
road and head-on collisions. Wider roads increase the time needed to walk across, and
increase stormwater runoff.
Table 5: Lane width

NUMBER OF LANES WIDTH OF

CARRIAGEWAY
1.single lane with raised kerb 3.75 m
2.two lanes without raised kerbs 7.0m
3.Two lanes with raised kerbs 7.5m
4.Width on multiple lane without 3.25-3.5m
raised kerb

In This project we shall provide two lanes with raised kerbs which have width of 7.5m

19
CHAP III: GEOMETRICAL ANALYSIS OF THE ROAD

The geometric design of the road is concerned with the positioning of the physical elements
of the roadway according to standards and constraints. The basic objectives in geometric
design are to optimize efficiency and safety while minimizing cost and environmental
damage. Geometric design also affects an emerging fifth objective called "livability," which
is defined as designing roads to foster broader community goals, including providing access
to employment, schools, businesses and residences, accommodate a range of travel modes
such as walking, bicycling, transit, and automobiles, and minimizing fuel use, emissions and
environmental damage.

Geometric roadway design can be broken into three main parts:

 The alignment is the route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal
tangents and curves.
 The profile is the vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag curves,
and the straight grade lines connecting them.
 The cross section shows the position and number of vehicle and bicycle
lanes and sidewalks, along with their cross slope or banking. Cross sections
also show drainage features, pavement structure and other items outside the
category of geometric design

III.1. LONGITUDINAL PROFILE OF THE ROAD

Longitudinal profile will help to know the longitudinal section which passes on the axis of
the road following the vertical plane. Outline of a vertical section on the ground, ground data
and recommended works along the centerline.

20
Figure 5: longitudinal profile

III.2. INTERPOLLATION
The interpolation is done on the line of higher slope which is perpendicular to the contour
lines and not to the project line

Figure 6: contour line

Elevation c = or we can say again

Elevation c = where e is equidistance

Take 2.5 m as equidistance

Elevation C = 1403.07+ *2.5m= 1404.03m

III.3 SIGHT DISTANCE

Road geometry affects the sight distance available to the driver. Sight distance, in the
context of road design, is defined as "the length of roadway ahead visible to the driver."[1]

21
Sight distance is how far a road user (usually a vehicle driver) can see before the line of
sight is blocked by a hill crest, or an obstacle on the inside of a horizontal curve or
intersection. Insufficient sight distance can adversely affect the safety or operations of a
roadway or intersection.
The sight distance needed for a given situation is the distance travelled during the two
phases of a driving maneuver: perception-reaction time (PRT), and maneuver time (MT).
Perception-reaction time is the time it takes for a road user to realize that a reaction is
needed to a road condition, decided what maneuver is appropriate, and starts the maneuver.
Maneuver time is the time it takes to complete the maneuver. The distance driven during
perception-reaction time and maneuver time is the sight distance needed.
During highway design and traffic safety investigations, highway engineers compare the
available sight distance to how much sight distance is needed for the situation. Depending
on the situation, one of three types of sight distances will be used:
III.3.1 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

Stopping sight distance is the distance traveled during perception-reaction time (PRT) while
the vehicle driver perceives a situation requiring a stop, realizes that stopping is necessary,
and applies the brake, and maneuver time (MT) while the driver decelerates and comes to a
stop. Actual stopping distances are also affected by road conditions, the mass of the car, the
incline of the road, and numerous other factors. For design, a conservative distance is
needed to allow a vehicle traveling at design speed to stop before reaching a stationary
object in its path. Typically the design sight distance allows a below-average driver to stop
in time to avoid a collision.
The values of stopping sight distance used in design represent a near worst-case situation.
For design, a conservative distance is needed to allow a vehicle traveling at design speed to
stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. A generous amount of time is given for
the perception-reaction process, and a fairly low rate of deceleration is used. The design
sight distance allows a below-average driver to stop in time to avoid a collision in most
cases.
Driver perception/reaction distance is calculated by:
dPRT = 0.278 Vt (Metric)

22
 Where:
dPRT = driver perception-reaction distance, m (ft)
V = design speed= 40km/h= 11.11m/s
t = brake reaction time=2.5s
The design standards of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) allow 1.5 seconds for perception time and 1.0 second for reaction time.
Based on the results of many studies, 2.5 seconds has been chosen for a perception-reaction time. This
time will accommodate approximately 90 percent of all drivers when confronted with simple to
moderately complex highway situations. Greater reaction time should be allowed in situations that are
more complex.

So, dPRT= 0.278*11.11*2.5= 7.72m

Braking distance is calculated by:

dMT = 0.039 V2⁄a (Metric)

Where:
dMT = braking distance, m (ft)
V = design speed=40 km/h= 11.11m/s
a = deceleration rate=3.4m/s2
Actual braking distances are affected by the vehicle type and condition, the incline of the
road, the available traction, and numerous other factors.
A deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2 (11.2 ft/s2) is used to determine stopping sight
distance approximately 90 percent of all drivers decelerate at rates greater than that. These
values are within most drivers' ability to stay within his or her lane and maintain steering
control. Also, most wet pavement surfaces and most vehicle braking systems are capable of
providing enough braking force to exceed this deceleration rate.

So, dMT= dMT = = 1.41m

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) is the sum of reaction distance and braking distance

SSD = dPRT + dMT

SSD= 7.72+1.41= 9.13m

23
III.3.2 DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE

Decision sight distance is used when drivers must make decisions more complex than stop
or don't stop. It is longer than stopping sight distance to allow for the distance traveled while
making a more complex decision. The decision sight distance is "distance required for a
driver to detect an unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source or
hazard in a roadway environment that may be visually cluttered, recognize the hazard or its
threat potential, select an appropriate speed and path, and initiate and complete the required
maneuver safely and efficiently. Ideally, roads are designed for the decision sight distance,
using 6 to 10 seconds for perception-reaction time and 4 to 5 seconds to perform the right
maneuver.
Calculation of decision sight distance for the stop avoidance maneuvers are;

DSD = 0.278 Vt + 0.039

Where:
DSD = decision sight distance, ft. or m,
t = premaneuver time, s
V = design speed, km/h,
a = deceleration rate, 11.2 ft/sec2 or 3.4 m/sec2

So, DSD= (0.278*11.11*8) +0.039 =26.12m

III.3.3 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

Passing Sight Distance (PSD) is the minimum sight distance that is required on a highway,
generally a two-lane, and two-directional one that will allow a driver to pass another vehicle
without colliding with a vehicle in the opposing lane. This distance also allows the driver to
abort the passing maneuver if desired. AASHTO defines PSD as having three main distance
components: (1) Distance traveled during perception-reaction time and acceleration into the
opposing lane, (2) Distance required to pass in the opposing lane, (3) Distance necessary to
clear the slower vehicle.
The first component d1is defined as:
d1= 1000t1 (u-m+ )

24
Where;
 t1 = time for initial maneuver
 a= acceleration (km/h/sec),
 u= average speed of passing vehicle (km/hr),
 m = difference in speeds of passing and impeder vehicles (km/hr)
The second distance component d2 is defined as:
d2= (1000ut2)
Where;
 t2= time passing vehicle is traveling in opposing lane,
 u = average speed of passing vehicle (km/hr).
The third distance component d3 is more of a rule of thumb than a calculation. Lengths to
complete this maneuver vary between 30 and 90 meters.
With these values, the total passing sight distance (PSD) can be calculated by simply taking
the summation of all three distances.

dp= (d1+d2+d3)

25
III.4. FICTIVE POINT

A fictive point is a point where project line intersects with the line of natural ground, at this
point cut and fill are zero.
The importance of calculate the fictive point is to indicate the contractor at which distance
he do not need to cut or fill during construction.
Fictive point is located between two successive cross-sections.
On this project the fictive point is located between cross-section 7 and cross-section 8

26
Figure 7: Fictive point

The design of fictive point or grade point is based on the relation of similar triangle

= =

= = and =

X= = =11.36

Y= = =13.64

Verification: X+Y = 25
11.36+13.64 = 25m

III.5. SUPERELEVATION

Super elevation is the amount of cross slope or "bank" provided on a horizontal curve to
help counterbalance the outward pull of a vehicle traversing the curve. The maximum rate of
super elevation (emax) depends on several factors including climatic conditions, terrain
conditions and type of area (rural or urban).

27
In other words super elevation is the inwards transverse slope provided throughout the
length of the horizontal curve by raising the outer edge of the pavement with respect to inner
edge.

This is also called cant or banking and is generally denoted by „e‟.

It is provided to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and reduce the tendency of the
vehicle to overturn or skid when it is moving on the horizontal curve.
The super elevation is expressed as the ratio of the height of outer edge with respect to the
horizontal width of the pavement.
Super elevation, e = =tan∅

Figure 8: Super elevation

In practice the value of Ø is so small than tanØ is equal to sinØ.

From figure 2.1 e = tan∅ =sin∅ = =

Maximum and minimum super elevation

The value of super elevation increases with the increase in speed or decrease in radius of
horizontal curve for particular value of coefficient of friction.
The maximum value of super elevation for different terrain should not exceed the following
values:
a. In plain and rolling terrain--- 7%

28
 b. In hilly road not bound by snow--- 10%
In order to counteract the effects of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of the
vehicles to overturn or skid the outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the inner
edge this providing transverse slope. Throughout length of the horizontal curve, this
transverse inclination to the pavement surface is known as super elevation.
The super elevation ˝e˝ is expressed as the ration of the height of outer edge with respect to
the horizontal curve.
III.5.1 SUPERELEVATION DESIGN

For fast moving vehicles, providing higher superelevation without considering coefficient of
friction is safe, i.e. centrifugal force is fully counteracted by the weight of the vehicle or
superelevation. For slow moving vehicles, providing lower superelevation considering
coefficient of friction is safe, i.e. centrifugal force is counteracted by superelevation and
coefficient of friction. The superelevation designed is located at p.16 on the road map

Figure 9: super elevation design

Where:
b= Width of road =7.5m
W= extra-widening =20%*b= 1.5m

29
We know that:
d1=2.5%

d2 = = = 8.89%

Then we have:

X= d2 = 0.467m

Y= d2 = 0.467m

And Z= Y-U

Z= d2- d1= (d2-d1) +W*d2

Z= (8.89%-2.5%) +1.5*8.89%= 0.37m

Z= = = 0.0187= 1.8%

FIRST DETAIL AT A

T= (g2-g1)

R= = = 1283.4m

Xs= *(g1-g2) = (0.0187 − 0) = 12m

Ys= = *(g1*g2) = *0*0.0187= 0m

The coordinate of intermediate points are given by following equation

YA=

XA YA
6m 0.014
12m 0.056
18m 0.126
24m 0.224

30
SECOND DETAIL AT A

T= (g2-g1)

G2= =

R= = = 512.82m

Xs= *(g1-g2) = = (0.0468 − 0) = 12m

Ys= = *(g1*g2) = *0*0.0468= 0m

The coordinate of intermediate points are given by following equation

YA=

XA YA
6m 0.035m
12m 0.140m
18m 0.316m

31
24m 0.561m

III.6 Radius of the horizontal curve

The design of horizontal curves should be based on a combination of design speed,

curvature, and super elevation, subject to the laws of physics and limitations of human
comfort and tolerance.
Figure 10: Forces in Super elevation

The designer should use the above governing equation to select a suitable combination of e
and R that satisfies v. There are however, practical limitations of e and ƒ .Firstly, e≤0.12
(almost 1 in 8).most common value is e≤0.04 to e≤0.06. AASHTO recommend the use of
ƒ=0.15 for v=60km/h, when the product of e and ƒ become negligible, the above equation
may be re-written into conservative form of

R=

32
Table 6: showing the Comfortable Side-Friction Factor

Speed (km/h)) Comfortable side

friction factor
40 0.21
50 0.18
55-80 0.15
>110 <0.10

SO:
We have:
Design speed of 40km/h
Super elevation of 0.05 and V=40km/h =11.11m/sec, and take f that correspond to our
design speed, f=0.21

R= = 50m

III.7. HORIZONTAL ALLIGNMENT DESIGN

Horizontal alignment
Horizontal alignment deals with the design of the directional transition of the highway in a
horizontal plane. A horizontal alignment consists, in its most basic form, of a horizontal arc
and two transition curves forming a curve which joins two straights. In certain situations the
transition curve may have zero length.
The design procedure itself must commence with fixing the position of the two straight lines
which the curve will join together. The basic parameter relating these two lines is the
intersection angle. Figure below indicates a typical horizontal alignment.
Minimum permitted horizontal radii depend on the design speed and the superelevation of
the carriageway, which has a maximum allowable value of 7% in the UK, with designs in
most cases using a value of 5%. The relationship between superelevation, design speed and

33
horizontal curvature is detailed in the subsection below.

Figure 11: horizontal alignment

Horizontal alignment in road design consists of straight sections of road known as tangents,
connected by circular horizontal curve. It is the design of the road in the horizontal plane,
should provide safe travel at a uniform design speed.
It deals with design of curves and considers previously discussed radius, width, and sight
distance in addition to super elevation, cross slope should be also considered in the design

The cross slope: is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to drain
off rain water from the road surface. According to this project the cross slope we used was
2.5% of slope.
The design of horizontal curves should be based on a combination of design speed,
curvature, super-elevation and transverse friction force subject to the laws of physics and
limitations of human comfort and tolerance.
A horizontal curve provides the directional transition on the horizontal plane, between two
straight sections of the highway running in different directions. (Highway geometric design)

34
The designed curve is located at p.16 on the road map.

Figure 12: cross slope

The length of tangent (T) is T= R tan ( )

The middle ordinate (M) is= R [1-cos ( )]

The length of the curve (L) =

R=50m
Δ=30

=15

T= R tan ( ) =500*tan15 =133.77m

Half cord = Rsin ( ) = 50 sin ( ) = 11.67m

M=R [1-cos )] = 50(1-cos15 ) = 1.38m

(L) = = = 26.17m

Xm= Rsin ( ) =50sin ) = 11.67m

Ym= R [1-cos ] = 50(1-cos15 ) = 1.38m

III.8. VERTICAL ALLIGNMENT DESIGN

The purpose of vertical alignment design is to determine the elevation of selected points
along the roadway, to ensure proper drainage, safety, and ride comfort.
A vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the centre line of the road. It consists of
grades, and vertical curve (as shown on the figure below) and it influences the vehicle speed,
deceleration, SSD, and comfort of vehicle movements at high speed.

35
A vertical curve provides a smooth transition between two tangent grades.
III.8.1 Gradient

The gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the
horizontal. It is expressed as a ratio l of 1 in x (1 vertical unit to x horizontal units)
sometimes the gradient is also expressed as a percentage, n i.e. n in 100 Gradient is divided
into the following categories:
 Ruling gradient
 Limiting gradient
 Exceptional gradient
 Minimum gradient
III.8.2 Vertical curves
A vertical curve provides a smooth transition between two tangent grades. There are two
types of vertical curves: crest vertical curves and sag vertical curves. Example profiles of
crest and sag vertical curves are shown in Figure below, with the initial grade G1; final
grade G2; and their signs. As a departure from the horizontal curve, the points of curvature,
intersection and tangent of a vertical curve are denoted by PVC, PVI and PVT, respectively.
The length of curve L is the distance between PVC and PVT measured along the horizontal
plane. The PVI is at the midpoint between PVC and PVT along the horizontal plane

36
Figure 13: crest vertical curves and sag vertical curves.

Vertical Curve of highway: A curve on the longitudinal profile of a road to provide for
change of gradient or slope.

The form of the parabolic curve is y=

The curve to be analyzed is a summit curve 3; case of upgrade and downgrade

First slop g1= 5.51%
Second slop g2= 3.87%
Suppose that tangent T=155m
T= = (G1+G2)

<―>R= = =3304.90m

Coordinates of summit of the parabolic curve

Xs= (G1-G2) = (0.0551-0.0387) = 27.10m

Ys= (G1*G2) = (0.0551*0.0387) = 3.52m

Calculation of intermediate points of the parabolic curve

At left of center O

For intermediate points, their coordinates is given by following equation: YA =

OX= T+XS = 155m + 27.10 = 182.1m

By dividing OX in 3 equals parties, each one should have a length L= 60.7m

R(m) XA(m) YA(m)

3304.90 60.7 0.557

37
3304.90 121.4 2.229
3304.90 182.1 5.016

At right of center O

OY= T - XS = 155m – 27.10m = 127.9 m

By dividing OX in 3 equals parties, each one should have a length L= 42.63m

R(m) XA(m) YA(m)

3304.90 42.63 0.275
3304.90 85.26 1.100
3304.90 127.9 2.474

III.9 Simple circular curve design

Circular curves are defined by radius (tightness) and deflection angle (extent). The design of
a horizontal curve entails the determination of a minimum radius (based on speed limit),
curve length, and objects obstructing the view of the driver.

When vehicles reach a curve, sideways friction is developed between the tires and road
surface. This friction must be less than the maximum available friction if the curve is to be
traversed safely.
Using AASHTO standards, an engineer works to design a road that is safe and comfortable.
If a horizontal curve has a high speed and a small radius, an increased superelevation (bank)
is needed in order to assure safety. If there is an object obstructing the view around a corner
or curve, the engineer must work to ensure that drivers can see far enough to stop to avoid
an accident or accelerate to join traffic.
Where: a =angle =600
C: Long chord MN: Mid-point
(X, Y): Coordinate of mid-point

38
N: coordinate of any point on the curve
Then using the drawing given bellow, we have following equation:
T =R tan α/2
T= 120m tan 30 = 69.28m
C/2= R sin α/2 ↔ C= 2R sin α/2
C= 2*120m*sin 28.86 =115.84m
MM‟ =120m *sin 28.86 = 57.92m
XM‟ =R-M‟0‟ and M‟0‟ =R cos α/2
By replacing M‟0‟ by its value
XM‟= R-R cos α/2 =R (1- cos α/2)
M‟0‟ =120m cos 28.86 =105.09m
XM‟= 120m-105.09m = 14.91m
The coordinate of mid –point is C(R sin α/2; R (1- cos α/2)

C (105.09m; 14.91m)
And the coordinate of any point on the curve is given by N=XX‟ ↔ Where XX‟=R- O‟X‟
And O‟X‟ = R cos α/2 =120m cos 28.86 =105.09m
N= R- 0X „=120m- 105.09m =14.90m, Length of Arc lc is given by lc = * = 19.91m

Where β =14.260 ↔lc = *14.260 = 29.85m

III.10 CROSS-SECTION PROFILE

III.10.1 Definition:

The cross-section profile is a section following the real axis of the road, perpendicular at the
axis of the road.

Cross section elements

In selecting the appropriate cross-section elements and dimensions, designers need to
consider a number of factors, including the following:

39
  Volume and composition (percent trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles) of the
vehicular traffic expected to use the facility.
 The likelihood that bicyclists and pedestrians will use the route.
 Climatic conditions (e.g., the need to provide storage space for plowed snow)
 The presence of natural or human made obstructions adjacent to the roadway (e.g.,
rock cliffs, large trees, wetlands, buildings, power lines).
 Type and intensity of development along the section of the highway facility that is
being designed.
 Safety of the users.
III.10.2 Cross-section design

The cross-section of a road provides accommodation for moving and parked vehicles,
drainage, public utilities, non-motorized vehicles and pedestrians. It is also required to serve
more than just movement related activities. Movement, as an activity served by the cross-
section, comprises a spectrum of needs. One end of the spectrum of the movement function
relates to pure mobility, as typified by the freeway and urban arterial. Vehicle movement is
the sole concern and pedestrians are totally excluded from these roads. The other end of the
spectrum is concerned with accessibility and the needs of the pedestrian. Vehicular
movement may be necessary on these roads but it is tolerated rather than encouraged and is
subject to significant restrictions. Between these two extremes, mixed usage is found with
vehicular and non-vehicular activities sharing the available space. The flexibility of the road
reserve in accommodating such widely disparate needs derives from the disaggregated
nature of the cross-section,

The cross-section may comprise all or some of the following components:

• Lanes:
-Basic
- High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes
- Auxiliary (turning or climbing)
- Parking
- Cycle

40
• Medians: - Shoulders
- Central island

• Shoulders: - Verges
- Sidewalks
�.2. Determining the carriage way of the road:
Carriage way is the part of project and all facilities that allow the exploitation action. It is
composed by these four:
 Carriage way
 Shoulders
 Drain or flumes
 Zones.

Figure 14: cross section of road

Characteristics of cross-section of project.

Carriage way=7m
Shoulder=1.5m
Transversal slope=2.5%
Fill slope=6/4

41
Cut slope=4/4
Right of way=16m
Thickness of carriage way=45cm

Cross-section calculation
There exist two cases:
The slope of project (P) and the slope of natural ground are in the same direction.
1st case:

Details A: Consider the similar triangle ACD and BCD.

hfBC=CD*P‟ (2) or X*P‟

B
P AC=CD*P (1) or X*P
P‟ B AB=hf=AC-BC (3)

DC X=

DC (1) And (2) in (3) hf=X (P-P’)

X

III.11 EXTRA-WIDENING

Extra widening refers to the additional width of carriageway that is required on a curved
section of a road over and above that required on a straight alignment.
 Vehicles travelling on a curve occupy a greater width of pavement than they do on a
straight - at low speeds the rear wheels track inside the front wheels and at high
speeds thenrear wheels track outside the front wheels.

42
  Vehicles tend to deviate more from the centerline of the traffic lane on a curve than
on a straight.
 To maintain clearances between vehicles to those on straight sections of road.
 Other factors, such as overhang of the front of the vehicle, wheelbase and track
width, also contribute to the need for curve widening.
-The first and most important is the additional width required for a vehicle taking a
horizontal curve
-The second is due to the tendency of the drivers to ply away from the edge of the
carriageway as they drive on a curve.
The first is referred as the mechanical widening and the second is called the psychological
widening. These are discussed in detail below.



Mechanical widening
The reasons for the mechanical widening are: When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve,
the rear wheels follow a path of shorter radius than the front wheels as shown in figure 15.5
This phenomenon is called off- tracking, and has the effect of increasing the effective width
of a road space required by the vehicle. Therefore, to provide the same clearance between
vehicles traveling in opposite direction on curved roads as is provided on straight sections,
there must be extra width of carriageway available. The expression for extra width can be
derived from the simple geometry of a vehicle at a horizontal curve as shown in figure
below.

43

Figure 15: extra-widening at a horizontal curve

Psychological widening
Widening of pavements has to be done for some psychological reasons also. There is a
tendency for the drivers to drive close to the edges of the pavement on curves. Some extra
space is to be provided for more clearance for the crossing and overtaking operations on
curves.

Iii) Drivers have psychological stoyness to arrive close to the edge of the pavement on
curves.
Necessary extra pavement S= S1+S2 , Generally the dimensions of extra pavement is 10%
with the minimum of 1.00m for Radius from 250 m to 100m , 20% for radius from 100-50m
, and 40% for smaller radius the extra pavement is sent;
on inner edge

On outer edge

44
* Either is sent on two edges moistening the real axis of the road.

The widening is introduced gradually starting from the beginning of the transition curse or
the tangent point (T.P) and progressively increased at uniform rote , till the full value of
designed widening is leached at the end of transition curve where full values of super
elevation is also provided.
The total widening required on a horizontal curve is given by;
Where: n = number of traffic lanes
L = length of wheel base of longest vehicle in m.

The value of l may normally be taken as 6.2m or broom for commercial vehicle if not
known
V = design speed k m/h
R= Radius of horizontal curve.

According to this project the speed which was considered is 40 because my terrain is hilly
and Road classification is tertiary them the minimum speed is 35 and maximum is 50.

45
CHAP IV: HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES.

After all information data and observation of longitudinal profile, I choose to use the culvert.
IV.1 CULVERT
Is a structure which is built under the road to allow the transversal passage of water from
drains.
IV.1.1 TYPES OF CULVERT
-circular culvert
-Box culvert
-Arch culvert.
IV.2. CULVERT DESIGN
Definition before explaining the procedure for determination of culvert size it is necessary to
define the following concepts:
 Headwater depth;
 Tail water depth;
 Out let velocity;
 Culvert flow with outlet control
Headwater culverts generally constrict the natural flow of a stream and cause a rise in
Upstream water surface.

Figure 16: Pipe culvert

46
Tail water depth is the flow depth in the drown stream channel measured from the Tail water
invert at the culvert out let.
Tail water depth can be an important factor in culvert hydraulic design because a submerged
outlet may cause the culvert to flow full rather than partially fully.
There are two major types of culvert flow:
 Flow with inlet control
 Flow with outlet control

A culvert operates with inlet control when the flow capacity is controlled at the inlet control
entrance by the following factors:

 Culvert type (shape of barrel)

 Type of culvert inlet
 Culvert cross- sectional area:
 Headwater depth
Outlet control when a culvert operates under outlet control the flow capacity is determined
by the same factors as under inlet control, but in addition to that the performance depends
on:
 Roughness of the inner surface of the culvert (barrel rougheness);
 Longitudinal slope of the culvert (barrel slope )
 Tail water depth or critical depth

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HW= H+ho - LSo
Where:
HW= Tailwater depth in m
H = Head loss in m determined from appropriate nomograph; figure 11. 9 shows an outlet
- control nomograph for concrete pipe culverts flowing full;
Ho= vertical distance in m from invert at outlet to the hydraulic grade line ( in this case ho
equal TW);
So= slope of barrel in mm-1;
L = culvert length in m.
For tail water elevations less than the top of the culvert at the outlet , find the headwater
depth , HW, as above except that
Ho = dc+D/2
Or TW, whichever is greater,
Where:
dc =critical depth in m ; see figure 11.10 for pipe culvert ;
D= height of culvert opening in m (for pipe culverts D equals the diameters)

CALCULATION OF CIRCULAR CULVET

Q=0.75m3/sec
Max velocity = 3m/sec
Q =A*V
A =π*D2/4
D=√ *4A/
D=√ *4/
= 0.56mm
Let take culvert of 90cm for security
CHAP V: DESIGN OF SIDE DRAIN IN MASONRY

By using rational method, the flow rate can be calculated using following equation.

Q= = =

48
Q= 0.73m3/s
If we assume that the velocity of water in channel is V= 1m/sec
And know that Q= A*V

The side drains to be designed have a trapezoidal shape

Where:
T= top width
b= bottom width
y= maximum depth of water in channel
A=area of channel
Ɵ= side angle of inclination
C = side length of drain
m= Cotangent of Ɵ= cot Ɵ

(1) Conditions for most economical trapezoidal channel section:

(1) Half top width = side length

= √ (This is the condition for best side slopes)

Other equations to be used are following

A= (b+my) y
P= 2(b+my)
R=

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 = =y√

tan

(Eq2)
To this case m = cot60= 0.58

=y√ =√

- 1.16y

b= 2.32y-1.16y
b= 1.16y (Eq 3)

= A (b+my)*y

Replacing b and m by their respective values, we have

A= (1.16y+0.58y) y
A= 1.74y2
Y= = = 0.65m

b = 1.16*0.65m= 0.75m
t= b+2my = 0.75+2*0.58*0.65= 1.5m
Final result:
t= 1.5m
b= 0.75m
y= 0.65m
A= 0.73m2
Q= 0.73m3/s
Ɵ = 60o

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Figure 17: side drain cross section

CHAP.VI: EARTHWORK QUANTITY AND BILLS OF QUANTITY

VI.1 Introduction
This earth work may be either earth excavation or earth filling or sometimes both will get
according to the desired shape and level. Basically the volume of earthwork is computed
from length, width, and depth of excavation or filling.

VI.1.1. Definition
Earthwork is the study of volume of fills and cuts with their transport distance.
If the volume of cuts and fills are equal, we say that we have the total compensation. On the
cross-section we obtain the surface of cuts and fills, on the longitudinal profile, we obtain
distance between two consecutive profiles. These two elements help in calculation of

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 volume of cut and fill. Its study is called “Earthwork quantities”

( )

( )

NOTE: It is important to indicate the fictive point (FP) for calculation of volume because
the distance is considered in the length of the road but the volumes are zero.
VI.1.2. Calculation of areas of cross- section of project
We have four different methods used to calculate the area of cross-section.
1. Using a planimeter
2. Garceau‟s method
3. Decomposition in triangles and trapezoids.
4. Coordinates system of each point.
I preferred to use coordinates system. The formula for calculation:

2S=Xn [(Yn+1- Yn-1)] S=

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IV.2 DETAILS OF ESTIMATED EARTHWORK QUANTITIES

Table 7: table of earthworks quantities

Num. CORDINATE LENGTH Surfaces PARTIAL VOLUME ACCUMULATE

VOLUME
FILL CUT FILL CUT FILL CUT
P.1 0 12.5 8.77 0 109.61 0 110 0
P.2 25 25 0 12.59 0 314.716 110 315
P.3 50 25 0 12.13 0 303.339 110 618
P.4 75 25 0.31 7.41 7.822 185.161 117 803
P.5 100 25 2.25 0.73 56.205 18.249 174 821
P.6 125 25 6.98 0 174.459 0 348 821
P.7 150 25 7.69 0 192.345 0 540 821
P.8 175 25 9.34 0.01 233.392 0.192 774 822
P.9 200 25 1.87 0.4 46.639 9.91 820 832
P.10 225 25 5.13 0 128.054 0 949 832
P.11 250 25 6.35 0 157.957 0 1106 832
P.12 275 25 11.54 0.15 283.051 3.893 1390 835
P.13 300 25 8.13 0 201.156 0 1591 835
P.14 325 25 11.14 0 274.914 0 1866 835
P.15 350 25 38.74 0 959.264 0 2825 835
P.16 375 25 52.47 0 1299.156 0 4124 835
P.17 400 25 44.11 0 1093.807 0 5218 835
P.18 425 25 39.07 0 967.43 0 6185 835
P.19 450 25 23.3 0 580.083 0 6765 835
P.20 475 25 23.62 0 590.506 0 7356 835
P.21 500 25 13.95 0 348.721 0 7705 835
P.22 525 25 8.04 0.35 201.09 8.639 7906 844
P.23 550 25 8.98 0.02 224.392 0.401 8130 844
P.24 575 25 2.51 2.86 62.644 71.407 8193 916
P.25 600 25 7.81 0 195.151 0 8388 916
P.26 625 25 1.14 2.36 28.412 58.928 8416 975
P.27 650 25 0 10.92 0 272.967 8416 1248

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 P.28 675 25 0 16.4 0 410.094 8416 1658
P.29 700 25 0 18.15 0 453.719 8416 2112
P.30 725 25 0 10.68 0.039 267.071 8416 2379
P.31 750 25 0.56 2.74 14.122 68.545 8430 2447
P.32 775 23.77 2.11 0 50.038 0 8480 2447
P.33 797.54 11.27 6.44 0.28 72.597 3.111 8553 2450

TOTAL 352.35 98.18 8553 2450 8553 2450

IV.3 EARTHWORKS QUANTITIES AND EARTH WORKS MOVING

Table 8: Earthworks moving table

section Fill( ) Cut( cut used fill used cut>fill cut<fill

P.1 109.61 0 109.61 109.61

P.2 0 314.716 314.716 0 314.716 0

P.3 0 303.339 303.339 0 303.339 0

P.4 7.822 185.161 177.339 0 177.339 0

P.5 56.205 18.249 0 37.956 0 37.956

P.6 174.459 0 0 174.459 0 174.459

P.7 192.345 0 0 192.345 0 192.345

P.8 233.392 0.192 0 233.2 0 233.2

P.9 46.639 9.91 0 36.729 0 36.729

P.10 128.054 0 0 128.054 0 128.054

P.11 157.957 0 0 157.957 0 157.957

P.12 283.051 3.893 0 279.158 0 279.158

P.13 201.156 0 0 201.156 0 201.156

P.14 274.914 0 0 274.914 0 274.914

P.15 959.264 0 0 959.264 0 959.264

P.16 1299.156 0 0 1299.156 0 1299.156

P.17 1093.807 0 0 1093.807 0 1093.807

P.18 967.43 0 0 967.43 0 967.43

P.19 580.083 0 0 580.083 0 580.083

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P.20 590.506 0 0 590.506 0 590.506

P.21 348.721 0 0 348.721 0 348.721

P.22 201.09 8.639 0 192.451 0 192.451

P.23 224.392 0.401 223.991 223.991

P.24 62.644 71.407 8.763 0 8.763 0

P.25 195.151 0 0 195.151 0 195.151

P.26 28.412 58.928 30.516 0 30.516 0

P.27 0 272.967 272.967 0 272.967 0

P.28 0 410.094 410.094 0 410.094 0

P.29 0 453.719 453.719 0 453.719 0

P.30 0.039 267.071 267.071 0 267.071 0

P.31 14.122 68.545 54.423 0 54.423 0

P.32 50.038 0 0 50.038 0 50.038

P.33 72.597 3.111 69.486 69.486

IV.4 LALANN’S GRAPHIC

DEFINITION
It is a graphic representation that shows the transportation of earth economically.
We provide the horizontal line which represent the length of the road with the length of
chosen scale .That line is called „‟ earth initial line‟‟
 Fills are shown by negative with partial distance
 Cuts are shown by positive vertical arrows
 Profile are indicated separately with the partial distance

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IV.4 DETAILED ESTIMATED FOR BILLS OF QUANTITIES
Table 9: bill of quantities

WORK DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT(frw)

PRELIMINARY WORKS
Site installation and its removal LS 1 12,000,000 12,000,000
Mobilization and demobilization LS 2 500,000 1,000,000
Topographic works(before and after) Km 1.366 600,000 819,600
Removal of herbs and grass, clearing of LS 1 4,000,000 4,000,000
the road land
Evacuation of all useless materials m3 12 60,000 720,000
whatever is disposal distance(10cm)
Displacement of underground water Lm 2,000 10,000 20,000,000
pipes up to 2
Removal of existing culverts Lm 80 15,000 1,200,000
S/total 39,739,600
EARTHWORKS

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Cutting top organic soil and put in m2 98.18 1250 122,725
dump area
Removable arable soil and grass 30 cm m3 188 5,000 94,000
and disposal in dump area
Cutting soil of all nature and put in m3 2450 6,000 14,700,000
dump area
Backfilling with lateritic soil for m3 8553 10,000 855,500,000
compaction
Leveling ,compaction and finishing of m2 352.35 1800 634,230
platform
S/total 871,050,955
WORKS ON THE CARRIAGE
WAY OF ROAD WAY
Setting up of the foundation coarse in m3 65 10,000 650,000
lateritic soil whatever is the distance of
transport (including shoulders)
Setting up of a bed layer in Granit m3 124 55,000 6,820,000
material whatever is the distance of
transport( including shoulders)
S/total 7,470,000
CHANNEL DESIGN
Ditch(drain) in stonework (w=1220cm, Lm 600 2500 1,500,000
H=50cm)
Retaining wall in stone works with m3 262.5 60,000 15,750,000
cement mortar (150*75*25)
Marker post in RC of signage painted in Pce 80 11,000 880,000
red/white
Culverts Pce 2
S/total 18,130,000
OTHER WORKS

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Pedestrian slabs in RC(150x50x15) m3 12.500 250,000 3,125,000
S/total 3,125,000,
TOTAL FOR ALL WORKS 939,515,555
TAX (18%) 169,112,800
TOTAL AMOUNT 1,108,628,355
The amount required is one billion, hundred eight million, six hundred twenty eight
thousand and three hundred fifty-five Rwandan francs (1,108,628,355 Rwf )

Done at Kigali august, 2015

Elaborated by: TWAGIRIMANA PIERRE

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CHAP VII: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMANDATION

VII.1: CONCLUSION
The current project was conducted in order to search for solutions to the problem of mobility
on a local road in topo map provided A-B and B-C by designing it geometrically and
proposing its drainage system, resulting were a well designed road following the standard
and safety requirements for the welfare of the population of the area.
The sight distances and clearance of the road were provided, surface rain water drainage and
its channelization was provided with allowable slope and gradient so that there will be no
sliding of vehicles on the road, no accidents caused by rain water which was destroying
adjoining properties, vehicular channelization was guaranteed by the provision of a round-
about intersection to serve as conflict reducer, the cost of transport will be reduced because
the maintenance cost also will be low and different types of vehicles and motorbike will be
able to move safely.
This project also has clarified the design requirements and applications of different
softwares like AutoCAD, Autopiste and Microsoft office elements, so this work can serve as
reference for everyone who would like to do a work with similarity or even for the one who
will need to implement it.
Finally this final year project was achieved successfully and it is useful for every civil
engineer and even the community.

VII.2: RECOMMANDATION

We recommend the following

To the Universities and other Higher learning Institutions:
 To provide to the student more workshops and more training.
 To support students during their project period by giving them good access to the
internet for them to make their research
 To set up a schedule concerning students and their supervisor to assess their project
and help them solve encountered difficulties on time and effectively.

59
To my fellow students
 Practice more in their specific fields and even beyond them so that they will be able
to help and assist the people in our country and worldwide.
 Make continuous research to increase their knowledge.
 To attend class and even technical seminars because it is where interesting and useful
things are spoken and taken, even key people‟s contacts are given there.

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REFERENCE

 The Kiewit Center for Infrastructure and Transportation

 High way engineering by Martin Rogers (Department of Civil and Structural
Engineering Dublin Institute of Technology Ireland.
 T.F. Fwa, The Handbook of Highway Engineering, New York 2006
 Fred L.Mannering. Scott S, Walter P. Kilareski, Principles of Highway Engineering and
traffic Analysis.
 Nicholas j.garbel, Lester A Joel, traffic and high way engineering 4th edition
 A.K Upadhyay, Transportation engineering
 note books

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