TT 5021-TEXTILE FIBRES,

YARNS AND NON-WOVENS

properties and applications of common textile fibers, high-performance
fibers, and new development in fiber engineering. Textile yarns and
applications
 MELT SPINNING
• In this process, a polymer is melted and heated to a suitable viscosity for fiber
production.
• The melted polymer is pushed through a spinneret, which is a type of die
consisting of several small holes.
• Each hole produces an individual fiber, and the number of holes on a spinneret
defines the number of fibers in the yarn
• The melted polymer fibers then passes through a cooling region and the fibers
are combined to form a yarn and a spin finish is applied
• The yarn is then drawn using several godets rolls with very good speed and
temperature control to orient the molecules in the fibers and eliminate voids,
making the yarn stronger.
• If the polymer is thermoplastic, then melt spinning should be used for higher
productivity.
• Most of the manmade fibers, such as polyester, polypropylene, nylon and
PGA(polyglycolic acid) , are produced using melt spinning
REQUIREMENTS OF MELT SPINNING :
• The polymer should not be volatile.
• The polymer should not decompose in the molten state and the melting point
• Polymer should be 30 degree centigrade less than its decomposition temperature.

FIBER CHARACTERIZATIONS
• Different characterization methods were performed to study the resulting
fiber properties, mechanical properties, rheological properties, molecular
orientation, and crystalline behavior

FIBER WHICH PROCESSED BY MELT SPINNING

• Polyester, Nylons, Olefins, Polypropylene, Saran, Sulfar etc.
 Process flow chart of melt spinning
Process Flow Chart of Melt Spinning
Feeding (Polymer chips)
↓
Melting
↓
Metered extrusion
↓
Cooling and solidification by cold air
↓
Moisture conditioning
↓
Lubrication
↓
Yarn driving
↓
ADVANTAGES OF MELT SPINNING :
• Can be used for both staple and continuous filament.
• Direct and simple process
• No solvent required
• High production speed ( 2500 – 3000 ft/min ).
• Comparatively low investment cost involved

DISADVANTAGES OF MELT SPINNING :

• Required more proper maintenance of the Moisture content.
• Heat of input is high.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cn6K1m7yH0I
 SOLUTION SPINNING
• In solution spinning, a polymer is dissolved in a suitable solvent and is
extruded inside a coagulation bath containing a non-solvent (immersion-jet
wet spinning) or into a heated chamber of air (dry spinning).
 WET SPINNING
• These processes are used for thermoset polymers such as acrylic, liquid
crystalline polymers (Kevlar and Nomex), and polyurethane.
• In wet spinning, the polymer is dissolved in a solvent at a target
concentration to make a polymer solution with the desired viscosity.
• This polymer solution is then extruded under heat (if needed) and pressure
into a liquid coagulation bath.
• Then fibers are combined as yarn and the yarn is drawn, with very good
controls, to orient the molecules in the fibers so that it becomes stronger.
Working Flow Chart of Wet Spinning Process
Working Flow Chart of Wet Spinning Process
ADVANTAGES OF WET SPINNING :
• Large tows can be handled.
• Better than melt and dry spinning for temperature sensitive polymers.

DISADVANTAGES OF WET SPINNING :

• Slow process ( 70 – 150 yd/min ).
• Washing to remove impurities.
• Solvent and chemical recovery is costly.
• Lower production rates than melt or dry spinning due to viscous drag.
TYPICAL WET SPUN POLYMERS:
• Viscose ( Rayon )
• Cuprammonium rayon
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x0VFeMTSIb4
 DRY SPINNING
• Dry spinning is used to form polymeric fibers from solution. The polymer is
dissolved in a volatile solvent and the solution is pumped through a
spinneret (die) with numerous holes (one to thousands).As the fibers exit
the spinneret, air is used to evaporate the solvent so that the fibers solidify
and can be collected on a take-up wheel. Stretching of the fibers provides
for orientation of the polymer chains along the fiber axis.

• Cellulose acetate (acetone solvent) is an example of a polymer which is dry

spun commercially in large volumes. Due to safety and environmental
concerns associated with solvent handling this technique is used only for
polymers which cannot be melt spun.
Process flow chart of dry spinning
ADVANTAGES OF DRY SPINNING :
• It is suitable for heat sensitive polymer.
• The post spinning operation is simple.
• High spinning speeds can be easily achieved.
• Moderate concentration of polymer is required.
• It is relatively flexible process and spinning conditions can be modified.
• Suitable for producing fine denier fibers.
• No need to wash the fiber.
DISADVANTAGES OF DRY SPINNING :
• Investment cost is high.
• Slow process
• Difficult to achieve exact cross section of
fibers.
• Additional post spinning process is required.
• Toxic and risk of explosion.
• Heat input is very high.
• Can not be used for staple fiber production
POLYMERS AND SOLVENTS IN DRY SPINNING:

PROPERTIES OF SOLVENT :
• Solvent should be volatile.
• It should be organic
• It should have low boiling point
• It should be comparatively cheap.
• It should be thermally stabilized.
 DRY JET WET SPINNING
• In this method the polymer is dissolved in an appropriate solvent to make
the fibre solution. This solution is then extruded under heat and ressure
into an air gap before it enters a coagulation bath. The produced fibre is
then washed and dried before it is heat treated and drawn.
• This is an alternative method to wet spinning and is required as spinning
directing into the bath, for some fibres, creates microvoids that negatively
affect the fibre properties, this is due to the solvent being drawn out of
the liquid too quickly. An inert atmosphere maybe required to prevent
oxidisation in some polymers, if so fibres are extruded into a nitrogen
atmosphere.
• This method is often required for high performance fibres with a liquid
crystal structure. Due to their structural properties their melt temperature
is either the same as, or dangerously close to their decomposition
temperature, therefore they must be dissolved in an appropriate solvent
and extruded in this manner.
Process flow chart of dry jet wet spinning
ADVANTAGES OF DRY JET WET SPINNING :
• High speed of spinning than wet spinning.
• High concentration of dope.
• High degree of jet stretch ratio.
• A greater percentage of solids can be tolerated in spinning solution.
• The solvent is removed to greater extent by evaporation into air.
• Control of coagulation kinetics by monitoring coagulation parameters.
DISADVANTAGES OF DRY JET WET SPINNING :
• Due to large amount of heat, it can effect adversely the properties
• of the produced filaments.
• It may give a color effect.
• Turbulence in air flow can disturb the regular filament.
 Acrylic fibers
• Acrylic Fiber is synthetic fiber is made of polymerization of
acrylonitrile with an molecule weight above ~100000, about 1900
monomer unit. For a called as ‘Acrylic”.
• Typical Co-monomer are vinyl acetate or methyl acrylate.
• Acrylic is defined as a refers to a fiber contain at least 85%
acrylonitrile monomer, while in modacrylic the percentage of
acrylonitrile must be less than 85% but greater than 35%.
 Acrylic fibers
Features of Acrylic Fiber
• Acrylic Fiber have replaced wool as it gives same properties as wool
fiber like warmth, etc..
• Acrylic monomer =(CH2=CH-CN) made by following reaction.
CH=CH + HCN ———>- (CH2=CH-CN)

(acetylene) (Hydrogen Cyanide) (Acrylonitrile)

 Acrylic fibers
Cross – Sectional Shape of acrylic fiber.
 Acrylic fibers
Properties of Acrylic Fiber:
• Density :-1.17 gm/cc ( light weight)
• Crystallinity :-65 to 85%
• Moisture Regain :- 2.5
• Tenacity :-2.0 to 3.6 Gpd
• Nature :- Thermoplastic
• Elasticity :- at 2% extension 35%
• Appearance :- Slightly wavy
• P. :- 232 to 255′ C
• Chemically: Resistance to weak alkali, less resistance to acid, no damage
due to sunlight, no attraction to moth larva and microorganisms.
 Acrylic fibers
Spinning of Acrylic Fiber:

(1). Solution Spinning

Wet Spinning.
Dry Spinning

(2). Melt Spinning

Out of above techniques wet spinning is mostly prefer for production of acrylic
fiber. Above all methods like wet spinning, in this fiber make by using solvents in
particular coagulation bath mix with appropriate percentage of solvent and other
chemical. This process take more time to produce fiber compare to other spinning
methods like, dry & melt.
 Acrylic fibers
Applications of Acrylic Fiber:

• Acrylic fiber is lightweight, soft, and warm, with a wool-like feel.

• It can also be made to mimic other fibers, such as cotton, when spun on
short staple equipment.
• Some acrylic is used in clothing as a less expensive alternative to cashmere,
due to the similar feeling of the materials.
• Some acrylic fabrics may fuzz or pill easily, though there are low- pilling
variants.
• Acrylic takes color well, is washable, and is generally hypoallergenic. Acrylic
fibers are used in Hand Knitting, Hosiery Garments, Upholstery, Blankets,
carpet etc…
 Viscose Rayon
Introduction :
• Viscose Rayon is the oldest commercial
man-made fiber.
• Viscose rayon is the naturally regenerated
cellulosic fiber that can be made from
naturally occurring cellulosic based material
(such as cotton linters, wood pulp etc).
• It can be found in cotton-like end uses as
well as silk-like end uses. Due to its fine silk-
like properties, it is also known as
“Artificial Silk”.
 Viscose Rayon
Chemical Structure:
Chemical structure of viscose is same as that of cotton i.e.
Cellulose, But the polymer chains are much shorter. The
degree of polymerization value of rayon is 400 – 700 while
that of cotton is 5000.
 Manufacturing
The process of manufacturing viscose rayon consists of the
following steps mentioned, in the order that they are carried out:
• Steeping
• Shredding https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zcxcPVX5ejY
• Aging https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f_AvqnMTJjg
• Xanthation
• Dissolving
• Ripening
• Filtering
• Degassing
• Spinning
• Drawing
1. Steeping:
Cellulose pulp is immersed in 17-20% aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at a temperature in the range
of 18 to 25°C in order to swell the cellulose fibers and to convert cellulose to alkali cellulose(soda
cellulose).
(C6H10O5)n + nNaOH —> (C6H9O4ONa)n + nH2O

The first step in Viscose Rayon manufacture is the production of alkali cellulose. The cellulose pulp sheets
are steeped in warm caustic soda for an hour
2. Shredding:
The pressed alkali cellulose is shredded mechanically to yield finely divided, fluffy particles called “crumbs”.
This step provides increased surface area of the alkali cellulose, thereby increasing its ability to react in the
steps that follow.

3. Ageing:
The alkali cellulose is aged under controlled conditions of time and temperature (between 18 and 30° C) in
order to depolymerize the cellulose to the desired degree of polymerization. In this step the average
molecular weight of the original pulp is reduced by a factor of two to three. Reduction of the cellulose is
done to get a viscose solution of right viscosity and cellulose concentration.
4. Xanthation:
In this step the aged alkali cellulose crumbs are placed in vats and are allowed to react with carbon
disulphide under controlled temperature (20 to 30°C) to form cellulose xanthate.
(C6H9O4ONa)n + nCS2 —-> (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n
The almost white crumbs turn gradually yellow and then orange as sodium cellulose xanthate is formed

5. Dissolving:
The yellow crumbs of cellulose xanthate is dissolved in aqueous caustic solution. Because the cellulose
xanthate solution (or more accurately, suspension) has a very high viscosity, it has been termed
“viscose”. It forms a thick orange brown solution. There is a loose association at this stage between the
sodium cellulose xanthate and the sodium hydroxide.

The luster of the rayon is controlled at this stage. If rayon is produced from the sodium cellulose
xanthate solution without adding anything to it the rayon will have a silk-like sheen. Often however, a
duller appearance is preferred,and this is achieved by adding a fine white pigment, usually titanium
dioxide to the spinning solution
6. Ripening:
• The viscose is allowed to stand for a period of time to “ripen”.
• Two important process occur during ripening: Redistribution and loss of xanthate groups.
• The reversible xanthation reaction allows some of the xanthate groups to revert to cellulosic
hydroxyls and free CS2.
• This free CS2 can then escape or react with other hydroxyl on other portions of the cellulose
chain
• In this way, the ordered, or crystalline, regions are gradually broken down and more complete
solution is achieved
• The CS2 that is lost reduces the solubility of the cellulose and facilitates regeneration of the
cellulose after it is formed into a filament.
(C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + nH2O —> (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + nNaOH

7. Filtering:
The viscose is filtered to remove undissolved materials that might disrupt the
spinning process or cause defects in the rayon filament.
8. Degassing:
Bubbles of air entrapped in the viscose must be removed prior to extrusion or they would cause voids, or weak
spots, in the fine rayon filaments.

Spinning – (Wet Spinning):

Production of Viscose Rayon Filament:

• The viscose solution is metered through a spinneret into a spin bath containing sulphuric
acid (necessary to acidify the sodium cellulose xanthate), sodium sulphate (necessary to
impart a high salt content to the bath which is useful in rapid coagulation of viscose), and
zinc sulphate (exchange with sodium xanthate to form zinc xanthate, to cross link the
cellulose molecules).
• Once the cellulose xanthate is neutralized and acidified, rapid coagulation of the rayon
filaments occurs which is followed by simultaneous stretching and decomposition of
cellulose xanthate to regenerated cellulose.
• The dilute sulphuric acid decomposes the xanthate and regenerates cellulose by
the process of wet spinning.
• The outer portion of the xanthate is decomposed in the acid bath, forming a
cellulose skin on the fiber.
• Sodium and zinc sulphates control the rate of decomposition (of cellulose
xanthate to cellulose) and fibre formation.
(C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + (n/2)H2SO4 –> (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + (n/2)Na2SO4

In standard viscose of 30-50 poise viscosity made with 32% CS2 is spun into an aqueous
acid salt spin bath of the following type at a temperature of 40-50 0c .
H2SO4 = 8-10%
Na2SO4 = 16-24%
ZnSO4 = 1-2%
 Modified Viscose Rayons
1. Tyre yarn:
A viscose solution of viscosity 100 poise containing modifiers 1-3% by weight of cellulose and with a CS2
content of 40% is spun underripe (salt index-6-15) into a aqueous spinning bath containing –
H2SO4 :8-10%
Na2SO4 :16-24%
ZnSO4 :6%
The spin bath temperature is kept around 550c and the spinning speed is between 40 and 60 m/min. The
stretch applied is 75-125%

2. High wet-modulus yarns (HWM):

• In this process the ageing of alkali cellulose is eliminated and dissolving cellulose xanthate in water rather
than in caustic soda also eliminate the ripening of cellulose xanthate.
• Lower the concentration of acid used in spinning bath with little salt.
• These are known high wet modulus which means to have greater resistance to deformation when wet.
3. Polynosic fibre
• Polynosic is similar rayon fibre but difference in process of manufacturing than viscose rayon. Since the
manufacturing process is different so their morphological structure also different.
• Generally polynosic fibre has high crystallinity and high orientation.
• This give high mechanical strength and chemical resistant, high wet modulus and more dimension stable.
• NOTE- In polynosic process we eliminated the Ageing stage, Ripening stage ,Diluted acid concentration &
zinc sulphate.

4. Super high wet modulus rayon:

• By adding 1% formaldehyde to spin bath or to the viscose substantially increases the toughness and
plasticity of viscose gel.
• We can get the stretch of 500-600%
• Disadvantage of this compound is that it is very toxic.
 Chemical Properties
Viscose rayon consists of cellulose of lower DP than cotton cellulose. Also amorphous region of Viscose
rayon is present to a greater extent, therefore, Viscose rayon reacts faster than cotton with chemicals.

1. Acids like H2SO4 , HCL breaks the cellulose to hydrocellulose.

2. Oxidising agents like Na(OCl)2, Bleaching powder, K2Cr2O7, KMnO4- form oxycellulose.
3. Cold acid solutions for a short time do not attack viscose rayon.

4. Action of Solvents: Textile solvents can be used on Viscose rayon without any
deteriorating effect. Viscose rayon dissolves in cuprammonium hydroxide solution.

5. Effect of Iron: Contact with iron in the form of ferrous hydroxide weakens viscose
rayon yarns. Therefore staining, marking or touching of rayon to iron or iron surface
should be avoided.
6. Action of Microorganisms: Microorganisms ( moulds, mildew, fungus, bacteria) affect the colour,
strength, dyeing properties and lustre of rayon. Clean and dry viscose rayon is rarely attacked by moulds and
mildew.

7. Action of Soaps: Ordinary soaps in usual textile concentration have no direct effect on regenerated
cellulose materials. Improper use of soap or use of poorly made soap results in rancidity and odor in rayon
fabrics or yarns.

Biological Properties:
1. Rayon resist all insects except silverfish.
2. Regular rayon fibers are subject to harm by rot-producing bacteria
3. High wet modulus fibers are fairly resistant to bacteria.
Physical Properties
Shape: Controllable
Colour: Controllable
Luster: Controllable
Tenacity:
• Dry 1.5 – 3.0
• Wet 1.1 – 1.5
Elongation: 20%
Elastic recovery: Good
Density: 1.5 g/c cm
Moisture Content: 10 – 15 %
Dimensional Stability: Good
Resistance against:
• Alkali Average
• Acid Poor
• Sunlight Average
Thermal:
• Heat Not above 150°C
• Flame Burn
 Identification
Microscopic View:

Longitudinal: Uniform diameter Cross-sectional: highly servated

with striation running parallel to (nearly round for polynosic)
the fiber.
BURN TEST:
Burns slowly without flame with slight melting and smell of burnt
paper, leaves soft black ash.

Solubility test:
Soluble:
80% Sulphuric acid (m/m) at room temperature for 15 min.

Insoluble:
•Nitric acid (conc.) at room temperature for 15 min.
•Acetone at room temp.
•Chlorine bleach 5%.
•90% Phenol or m-cresol at room temp.
•Formic acid 90%.
 USES
Blends:
Regular rayon and high wet modulus usually blend with many fibers like polyester, acrylic,
nylon, acetate, cotton, flax, wool and ramie.

With polyester, nylon and acrylic:

Rayon contributes absorbency, comfort, and softness when blended with them.
With cotton:
It alters appearance to create soft luster.
With wool:
It will decrease the cost.
With flax and ramie:
It can help produce appearance that are typically associated with linen like fabrics.
 Specialty rayon:

1. Flame retardant fibers:

• Flame retardance is achieved by the adhesion of the correct flame- retardant chemical to
viscose.
• Examples of additives are alkyl, aryl and halogenated alkyl or aryl phosphates,
phosphazenes, phosphonates and polyphosphonates.
• Flame retardant rayon have the additives distributed uniformly through the interior of
the fiber and this property is advantageous over flame retardant cotton fibers where the
flame retardant concentrates at the surface of the fiber.

2. Super absorbent rayons:

• This is being produced in order to obtain higher water retention capacity (although
regular rayon retains as much as 100 % of its weight).
• These fibers are used in surgical nonwovens.
3. Micro denier fibers:
• Rayon fibers with deniers below 1.0 are now being developed and introduced into the
market.
• These can be used to substantially improve fabric strength and absorbent properties.

4. Cross section modification:

Modification in cross sectional shape of viscose rayon can be used to dramatically

change the fibers aesthetic and technical properties. For example:

• Viloft: A flat cross sectional fiber sold in Europe, which gives a unique soft handle,
pleasing drape and handle.
• Fiber ML(multi limbed): Another modified cross section fiber that has a very well
defined trilobal shape. Fabrics made of these fiber have considerably enhanced
absorbency, bulk, cover and wet rigidity all of which are suitable for usage as
nonwovens.
Union Fabrics:
• Viscose is also used in constructing a union fabric with other yarns. One great
example is Viscose Rayon with Eri silk.
• Viscose Rayon as warp with Eri silk of three different counts viz., 2/40s, 2/60s and
2/80s as weft were interwoven on a semi-automatic power loom to produce union
fabrics. Its is also used with cotton fibers to make union fabric.

Special colour effect of Viscose Union fabrics (stain test):

• When viscose is used in union fabric with other fiber it gives special contrast when
dyed with same dye due its different stain test.
• Lets take example of different dye mixtures (shirlastains):

Shirlastain D
Fiber Colour
Cotton Bright Blue
Viscose Bright green
 Shirlastain A

Fiber Colour
Cotton Pale purple
Viscose Bright pink
Diacetate Greenish yellow
Triacetate Off white
Bombyx Silk Dark brown
Tussah silk Chestnut brown
Regenerated protein Yellow – Orange
Wool Bright yellow
Nylon Cream to yellow
Etc.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1daBc3lP9xA
 Textile yarns
• Yarn is “a generic term for a continuous strand of textile
fibers,
• filaments, or material in a form suitable for knitting, weaving, or
otherwise intertwining to form a textile fabric.
• Yarns play an important role in the fabric manufacturing process
since a majority of the textile materials are constructed with yarns.
• Yarns are also used for products such as sewing and embroidery
thread, string, and rope.
• Yarns are produced in various sizes and textures, and also vary in
other characteristics. Performance, end-use, and fabric care are
affected by these yarn characteristics.
 Textile yarns
• Fiber length is used to broadly divide yarns into:
• Spun yarns (made from short, staple fibers)
• Filament yarns (made from continuous filament fibers)
• Yarn processing methods for spun yarns are very different
from those of filament yarns.
 Textile yarns
• Classification of
yarns
 Types of yarns
Classification based on the number of strands
• Yarns can be described as single, or one-ply; ply, plied, or
folded; or as cord, including cable and hawser types.
cord yarn

hawser
Cabled yarn
 Textile yarns
Single yarn :
• Single, or one-ply, yarns are single strands composed of fibers
held together by at least a small amount of twist; or of filaments
grouped together either with or without twist; or of narrow strips
of material; or of single synthetic filaments extruded in sufficient
thickness for use alone as yarn (monofilaments).
• Single yarns of the spun type, composed of many short fibres,
require twist to hold them together and may be made with either
S-twist or Z-twist. Single yarns are used to make the greatest
variety of fabrics.
 Textile yarns
Single yarn :
 Textile yarns
Ply yarn :
• Ply, plied, or folded, yarns are composed of two or more single
yarns twisted together.
• Two-ply yarn, for example, is composed of two single strands;
three-ply yarn is composed of three single strands.
• In making ply yarns from spun strands, the individual strands are
usually each twisted in one direction and are then combined and
twisted in the opposite direction.
 Textile yarns
Ply yarn :
• When both the single strands and the final ply yarns are twisted
in the same direction, the fiber is firmer, producing a harder
texture and reducing flexibility.
• Ply yarns provide strength for heavy industrial fabrics and are also
used for delicate-looking sheer fabrics
 Textile yarns
cord yarn :
• Cord yarns are produced by twisting ply yarns together, with the
final twist usually applied in the opposite direction of the ply
twist.
• Cable cords may follow an SZS form, with S-twisted singles made
into Z-twisted plies that are then combined with an S-twist, or
may follow a ZSZ form.
• Hawser cord may follow an SSZ or a ZZS pattern. Cord yarns may
be used as rope or twine, may be made into very heavy industrial
fabrics, or may be composed of extremely fine fibers that are
made up into sheer dress fabrics.
 Textile yarns
cord yarn :
 Textile yarns
Novelty yarns:
• Novelty yarns include a wide variety of yarns made with such
special effects as slubs, produced by intentionally including small
lumps in the yarn structure, and synthetic yarns with varying
thicknesses introduced during production.
 Textile yarns
Novelty yarns:
• Natural fibers, including some linens,
wools to be woven into tweed, and the
uneven filaments of some types of silk
cloth are allowed to retain their normal
irregularities, producing the
characteristic uneven surface of the
finished fabric.
• Synthetic fibers, which can be modified
during production, are especially
adaptable for special effects such as
crimping and texturizing. tweed
 Textile yarns
Novelty yarns:
• Novelty yarns, typically made of two or more stands, are produced
to provide decorative surface effects.
• Based on the purpose, each strand is referred to as base/core,
effect,or binder.
• The base/core strand provides structure and strength.
• The effect strand creates decorative detail such as knots and loops.
• The binder is used to tie the effect yarn to the base yarn if binding is
necessary.
 Textile yarns
Novelty yarns:
• There is a wide variety of novelty yarns that are produced using
different techniques and types of fibers and strands.
• The terminology, as well as the classification for novelty yarns,
varies considerably.
 Textile yarns
Novelty yarns:
Slub yarns can be either single or ply yarns. These yarns are characterized by the soft bulky
area that is spun at regular or irregular intervals.
 Textile yarns
Novelty yarns:
Flock/flake yarns have small tufts of different colored fibers added at intervals. These tufts
can be easily pulled out. Flock/flake yarns are generally single yarns.
This novelty yarn is a variation on a slub yarn, in
which the flake or slub is created by inserting soft,
puffy clumps of roving at intervals held in place by
an accompanying binder yarn. As a result, the
ending yarn has variations in thickness and
softness throughout the length of the finished
yarn. Applications for a flake yarn are mainly in
end-use fabrics where a fancy effect texture to the
fabric is desired.
 Textile yarns
Novelty yarns:
Nub, knot, and spot yarns are ply yarns in which the effect yarn is twisted around the base
yarn to produce a thicker area or a bump.
Also known as knot or spot yarns,
this novelty yarn is made by twisting
the ply around the core ply many
times within a very short space. This
twisting process causes bumps or
nubs to appear at intervals along the
length of the twisted yarn.
 Textile yarns
Novelty yarns:
Bouclé and loop yarns are ply yarns that use three sets of yarns – base or core yarn, effect
yarn, and tie yarn. The effect yarn is looped around the base or core yarn and tied with a
binder yarn.
 Textile yarns
Novelty yarns:
Spiral and corkscrew yarns are ply yarns in which one ply is soft and thick and the other is
fine.
 Textile yarns
Novelty yarns:
Chenille yarns are pile yarns that are often made by slitting leno weave fabrics into narrow
strips in the warp direction.
A chenille yarn consists of a cut pile that is trapped by the core yarns. The
production of chenille yarns can be accomplished on a dedicated chenille
machine. These yarns can also be produced by other methods such as
weaving or flocking.
Further twisting may be necessary to enhance the binding of the piles
formed from the cut weft yarns. It should be obvious that chenille yarns
made in this way are expensive.
A faster and more economical process for making chenille yarns is flocking.
To ensure the fibers form standing piles on the core strand, flocking is
usually carried out in an electrical field. The loose fibers are charged with an
opposite electrostatic charge to the core strand. Chenille yarns produced by
flocking tend to have lower abrasion resistance, as the fiber pile is only
stuck to the core by the adhesive, whereas the pile in other chenille yarns is
trapped by intertwining yarns
 Textile yarns
Novelty yarns:
Slub yarns can be either single or ply yarns. These yarns are characterized by the soft bulky
area that is spun at regular or irregular intervals.
Flock/flake yarns have small tufts of different colored fibers added at intervals. These tufts
can be easily pulled out. Flock/flake yarns are generally single yarns.
Nub, knot, and spot yarns are ply yarns in which the effect yarn is twisted around the base
yarn to produce a thicker area or a bump.
Bouclé and loop yarns are ply yarns that use three sets of yarns – base or core yarn, effect
yarn, and tie yarn. The effect yarn is looped around the base or core yarn and tied with a
binder yarn.
Spiral and corkscrew yarns are ply yarns in which one ply is soft and thick and the other is
fine.
Chenille yarns are pile yarns that are often made by slitting leno weave fabrics into narrow
strips in the warp direction.
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Textured yarns:
• Texturizing processes were originally applied to synthetic fibers to
reduce such characteristics as transparency, slipperiness, and the
possibility of pilling (the formation of small fiber tangles on a
fabric surface).
• Texturizing processes make yarns more opaque, improve
appearance and texture, and increase warmth and absorbency.
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Textured yarns:
• Textured yarns are synthetic continuous filaments, modified to
impart special texture and appearance.
• In the production of abraded yarns, the surfaces are roughened
or cut at various intervals and given an added twist, producing a
hairy effect.
• Bulking creates air spaces in the yarns, imparting absorbency and
improving ventilation.
• Bulk is frequently introduced by crimping, imparting waviness
similar to the natural crimp of wool fiber; by curling, producing
curls or loops at various intervals; or by coiling, imparting stretch
 Textile yarns
Textured yarns:
• Such changes are usually set by heat application, although
chemical treatments are sometimes employed.
• In the early 1970s bulky yarns were most frequently produced by
the “false twist” method, a continuous process in which the
filament yarn is twisted and set and then untwisted and heated
again to either stabilize or destroy the twist.
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Textured yarns:
• The “stuffing box” method is often applied to nylon, a process in
which the filament yarn is compressed in a heated tube,
imparting a zigzag crimp, then slowly withdrawn.
• In the knit-de-knit process, a synthetic yarn is knitted, heat is
applied to set the loops formed by knitting, and the yarn is then
unraveled and lightly twisted, thus producing the desired texture
in the completed fabric.
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Textured yarns:
• Bulk may be introduced chemically by combining filaments of
both high and low shrinkage potential in the same yarn, then
subjecting the yarn to washing or steaming, causing the high
shrinkage filaments to react, producing a bulked yarn without
stretch.
• A yarn may be air bulked by enclosing it in a chamber where it is
subjected to a high-pressure jet of air, blowing the individual
filaments into random loops that separate, increasing the bulk of
the material.
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Textured yarns:
Different texturing methods
 Textile yarns
Textured yarns:
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Stretch yarns:
• Stretch yarns are frequently continuous-filament synthetic yarns
that are very tightly twisted, heat-set, and then untwisted,
producing a spiral crimp and giving a springy character.
• Although bulk is imparted in the process, a very high amount of
twist is required to produce a yarn that has not only bulk but also
stretch
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Stretch yarns:
Stretch yarn can be made by using any of the following methods:
• By using special heat setting treatment on thermoplastic filament
fibers such as nylon and polyester.
• From elastomeric fibers
• From bi-component fibers
• From bi-constituent fibers
• From chemically treated natural fibers.
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Stretch yarns:
• Spandex is the generic term for a highly elastic synthetic fiber
composed mainly of segmented polyurethane.
• Uncovered fibers may be used alone to produce fabrics, but they
impart a rubbery feel.
• For this reason, elastomeric fiber is frequently used as the core of
yarn and is covered with a non stretch fiber of either natural or
synthetic origin.
• Although stretch may be imparted to natural fibers, other
properties may be impaired by the process, and the use of an
elastic yarn for the core eliminates the need to process the covering
fiber.
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Metallic yarns:
• Metallic yarns are usually made from strips of a synthetic film, such
as polyester, coated with metallic particles. In another method,
aluminum foil strips are sandwiched between layers of film. Metallic
yarns may also be made by twisting a strip of metal around a
natural or synthetic core yarn, producing a metal surface.
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Bulk yarns:
• Bulk Yarns are softer and much more pliable then tightly
constructed twisted yarns.
• Bulk yarns also have a better cover. They create a less transparent
fabrics are of two types:
High bulk yarns
Loop-bulk or airjet yarns
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Measurement systems:
• Yarn measurements are expressed as yarn number, count, or size,
and describe the relationship between length and weight (or
approximate diameter).
• Because methods of measurement were developed in various areas
of the world, there has been a lack of uniformity in such systems.
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Indirect systems:
• Indirect measuring systems are those employing higher numbers to
describe finer yarns and are based on length per unit weight
• Most countries measure yarns made from staple fibers according to
the weight of the length of yarn
• If one pound is used as a standard unit, for example, a very fine
yarn will have to be much longer than a coarser yarn to weigh a
pound, so higher counts indicate finer yarns.
• The size number is an indication of the length of yarn needed to
reach a weight of one pound
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Indirect systems:
• In the United States, the system is based on the number of hanks
per pound, with a hank of 840 yards for cotton and spun silk, 300
yards (a lea) for linen, 256 yards for woolen yarns, and 560 yards for
worsted yarns.
• A widely used Continental system is based on the number of hanks
of 1,000 meters (one kilometer) required to reach a weight of one
kilogram
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Denier system:
• The denier system is a direct-management type, employed
internationally to measure the size of silk and synthetic filaments
and yarns, and derived from an earlier system for measuring silk
filaments (based on the weight in drams of 1,000 yards).
• Denier number indicates the weight in grams of 9,000 metres of
filament or filament yarn.
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Denier system:
• For example, if 9,000 meters of a yarn weigh 15 grams, it is a 15-
denier yarn; if 9,000 metres of a yarn weigh 100 grams, it is a 100-
denier yarn and much coarser than the 15-denier yarn.
• Thus, a smaller number indicates a finer yarn. This system is not
convenient for the measurement of staple yarns because their
greater weight would require the use of very large numbers
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Tex system:
• The tex system, originally devised in 1873, is a universal method
developed for the measurement of staple fiber yarns and is also
applicable to the measurement of filament yarns.
• It is based on the weight in grams of one kilometer (3,300 feet) of
yarn