Name: Leth-Leth P.

Jose
Year and Course: BTVTEd IV – D Food and Service Management
The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
ACTIVITY 1

DISCUSS THE FOLLOWING:

1. Research-based theories related to the broad dimensions of child and adolescent development
and their application to each particular developmental level of the learners
2. Pedagogical principles suited to diverse learners’ needs and experiences at different developmental levels;
3. Laws, policies, guidelines and procedures that provide safe and secure learning environments; and
4. Positive and non-violent discipline in the management of learner behavior

5.1 A. Definitions of Child and Adolescent Learners

1. Definitions from UNESCO, UNICEF and WHO
The concept of child and adolescent learners as given by UNESCO is as follows: Adolescence is an unique
period that occurs between childhood and maturity. Adolescence, according to Swiss developmental scientist
Jean Piaget, is the time when a person's cognitive faculties reach their complete maturity. According to Piaget,
the development of formal operational thinking, which is characterized by abstract reasoning, marks the passage
from late childhood to adolescent. Recent developments in neuroscience have demonstrated that the frontal
brain undergoes significant remodeling during adolescence. This region of the brain is in charge of higher-order
cognitive functions including planning, metacognition, and multitasking; favorable social interactions and
settings boost emotions of inclusion and belonging and produce favorable results. On the other hand, negative
events that worsen.

B. Growth and Development: Nature or Nurture?

Growth - Can be defined as physical changes of a person it is the changes in terms of age, height, weight,
behavior. And body parts of a person. While Development, is a growth process where in a person develops in
relation to physical, social, and environmental factors.

C. Periods of Development
Developmentalists often break the lifespan into eight stages:
1. Prenatal Development
2. Infancy and Toddlerhood
3. Early Childhood
4. Middle Childhood
5. Adolescence
6. Early Adulthood
7. Middle Adulthood
8. Late Adulthood

D. Developmental Tasks and Education (Havighurst)

According to R. Harvighurst, the term refers to tasks that arise in a social context during an individual lifetime.
Since the 1950's the concept of developmental-tasks has become an important theoretical approach in
educational science and theories of growth and development - but not in social work and social pedagogy.

E. Domains of Development
Domain 1: Biological (includes neuroscience, consciousness, and sensation)
Domain 2: Cognitive (includes the study of perception, cognition, memory, and intelligence)
Domain 4: Social and Personality (includes the study of personality, emotion, motivation, gender, and culture)

F. Context and Development

Child and Adolescent Development in Context Children and adolescents are embedded in a variety of physical,
social, and cultural environments that shape their development. These environments change under the influence
of the people in them, the connections between them, the passage of time, and historical events. 

G. Development and Pedagogy:

Pedagogy - aims of education

 Sensorimotor Coordination
Symbolizing
Development through different phases Language and Play
Logical Thought
Mid Adolescence
Comprehensive Problem Solving

Theory and Research

1. Theories and hypotheses
2. Methodology
3. Integrating theory and practice

5.2 Biological Development

A. Biological Beginnings - When a child is born, they have their own genetic instructions that influence their
specific characteristics at birth over the years as they grow up. As is, children inherit genes, but most of their
genes are shared with other children.  

B. Physical and Motor Development - Physical development and motor development are two similar but distinct
areas that describe child development. Physical development includes all the different changes that a child's
body go through. These changes include height, weight, and brain development. Motor development is the
development of controlling the body. 

C. Neuroscience and Brain development – Neuroscience and brain development. The human brain undergoes
significant changes during adolescence, which is often reflected in the behavior of young people. Throughout
life, experiences continuously shape our brains. Thanks to the flexibility of the brain, we continue to learn,
acquire new skills, and form new memories throughout our lives. 

D. Factors Affecting Biological/Physical Development - The 3 biological factors affecting growth and
development are: Genetic Inheritance, Gender, and Hormones

E. Theories
1. Developmental Milestones (Gesell) - Gesell’s theory is known as the Maturational Theory of Child
Development was introduced in1925 by Dr. Arnold Gesell, an American educator, pediatrician, and clinical
psychologist whose studies focused on “the course, the pattern, and rate of Maturational growth in normal and
exceptional children.

2. Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner) - According to Bronfenbrenner's theory, there are various
"layers" of the environment that have an impact on a child's development. This theory has recently been
renamed "bioecological systems theory". The development is fueled and guided by the interaction of elements
in his biologically maturing environment, his immediate family and community, and the social environment.

F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications

a. Continuous
b. Activities (educational application research, phonemic awareness)
c. Cognitive Development and Neuroimaging Lab
- Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study

"It is what teachers think, what teachers do, and what teachers are at
the level of the classroom that ultimately shapes the kind of
learning that young people get."

5.3 A. Cognitive Development Theories

1. This theory was created by French psychologist Jean Piaget in 1952 to explain the course of cognitive
development (Pass, 2007). According to Piaget's theory, children develop intelligence in four key stages, with
specific developmental activities identifying each phase. The theory emphasizes the four key phases of a child's
cognitive development.

2. This theory is premised on the assumption that knowledge is passed from adults to children through social
interactions. The theorist argues that a child acquires knowledge through the interaction with experienced
persons such as teachers or other older groups of people. As opposed to the Piaget’s theory that does not
emphasize on communication, Vygotsky insists that communication is essential.

B. Intelligence and Individual Differences

1. Concept of Intelligence (Binet)
In research studies, intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures. This tends to be “school smarts” and
it tends to be culture-specific
Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use our knowledge to
adapt to new situations.

2. General Intelligence (Spearman)

General intelligence is a broad mental capacity that influences performance on cognitive ability measures,
allowing people to acquire knowledge and solve problems. Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence is based
on the g-factor, which is composed of subcomponents known as s-factors.

3. Primary Mental Abilities (Thurstone)

Thurstone's theory was based on the idea that there are seven primary mental abilities that are independent of
one another. These abilities, which he referred to as "factors," included verbal comprehension, numerical
ability, spatial visualization, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, memory, and reasoning.

4. Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)

It is higher-level abilities (such as abstract reasoning, mental representation, problem-solving, and decision-
making), the ability to learn, emotional knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meet the demands of the
environment effectively. Gardner believed that the conventional concept of intelligence was too narrow and
restrictive and that measures of IQ often miss out on other “intelligence” that an individual may possess
5. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Sternberg)
Intelligence is defined in terms of the ability to achieve success in life based on one’s personal standards–and
within one's sociocultural context. The ability to achieve success depends on the ability to capitalize on one's
strengths and to correct or compensate for one's weaknesses

6.

Cognitive Information Processing Theory (Atkinson and Shiffrin)

Tkinson and Shiffrin propose that there are three components of human memory: Sensory Register, Short-Term
Store, and Long-Term Store. Sensory Register is where any sensory information that has been collected by the
brain will enter a person's memory, while Short-term Store is where information is "rehearsed" and can be
stored for an indefinite period. For the sensory register component, two types of memories are collected most
commonly: visual and auditory, or iconic and echoic respectively. It is important to note that every human sense
collects a memory.

C. Factors Affecting Cognitive Development

This research paper explores some of the most influential factors that can affect cognitive development. These
factors include genetics, environment, health and nutrition, language, and social interaction. A discussion of
each factor is included, along with how researchers have studied them in relation to cognitive development

D. Language Development
Language development is a process of learning in which children acquire the forms, meanings, and uses of
words and utterances from linguistic input.

E. Factors Affecting Cognitive and Language Development

The factors that affect the cognitive development of learners include environment, home environment, social
status, hereditary characteristics, experiences, learning opportunities, nutrition, and socio-economic status.
Environment plays a key role in influencing cognitive development, with Lucurto (1990) observing that a
child's intelligence increased when they were surrounded by an encouraging and positive environment. The
home environment can also affect their cognitive development, while social status and economic health can lead
to better educational attainment. Heredity is responsible for determining when a child's cognitive senses are
ready and matures to develop cognitive skills, and experiences can have a major influence on their cognitive
development.

F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications

Current Research and Pedagogical Application
A new application for the concept of pedagogical content knowledge: teaching advanced social science research
methods. This paper examines the concept of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and how experienced
social science research methods teachers use it to teach advanced social research methods to others.

5.3 A. Socio-emotional Development

Social-emotional development is a child’s ability to understand the feelings of others, control their own feelings
and behaviors, and get along with peers. In order for children to attain the basic skills they need such as
cooperation, following directions, demonstrating self-control, and paying attention, they must have social-
emotional skills. Feelings of trust, confidence, pride, friendship, affection, and humor are all a part of a child’s
social-emotional development.

B. Development of Self and Social Understandings

Children's sense of self includes both their beliefs about who they are as people (self-concept) and their
judgments and feelings about their value and worth (self-esteem, self-worth). Most children tend to interpret
events in ways that allow them to maintain a positive self-image.

1. Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)

Psychoanalytic theory is the theory of personality organization and the dynamics of personality development
relating to the practice of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology. First laid out by
Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century, psychoanalytic theory has undergone many refinements since his work.

2. Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)

Erik Erikson’s (1958, 1963) psychosocial development theory proposes that our personality develops through
eight stages, from infancy to old age. He argued that social experience was valuable throughout life, with each
stage recognizable by the specific conflict we encounter between our psychological needs and the surrounding
social environment.

3. Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Social Learning Theory, theorized by Albert Bandura, posits that people learn from one another, via
observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and
cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.

C. Development of Motivation and Self-Regulation

The development of the capability to self-regulate cognition, motivation, effect, and behavior is an important
developmental task. This chapter focuses on self-regulated learning that takes place in classroom settings. This
chapter focuses on the development of self-regulatory capabilities in school-age children.

1. Content Theories
- Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)
Maslow's need-hierarchy theory argues that job satisfaction implies that an individual's need in the job
environment is based on a five-tier model of human needs, arranged in ascending order of importance
(physiological, safety, belonging, esteem, and self-actualization).

- ERG Theory (Alderfer)

Clayton Paul Alderfer is an American psychologist who developed Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into a theory of
his own. Alderfer’s ERG theory suggests that there are three groups of core needs: existence ( E ), relatedness
( R ), and growth ( G )—hence the acronym ERG.

- Theory of Needs (McClelland)

McClelland's Theory of Needs In his acquired-needs theory, David McClelland proposed that an individual's
specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by one's life experiences. Most of these needs can be
classed as either achievement, affiliation, or power.

- Two Factors Theory (Herzberg)

The two-factor theory is based on Maslow's theory and argues that job satisfaction is inherent to the job itself
and is composed of motivator and hygiene factors. It has introduced double scales to measure job satisfaction
and challenges the conventional assumption that money is the principal factor of employee satisfaction.
However, it is limited by its methodology and ignores situational variables.

2. Process Theories
- Reinforcement Theory (Skinner)
Reinforcement theory is a psychological principle suggesting that behaviors are shaped by their consequences,
and that individual behaviors can be changed through reinforcement, punishment and extinction. According to
Skinner, a person’s internal needs and drives are not important areas of concern because their current behaviors
follow the law of effect and are based on the consequences of former behaviors. This means that behaviors can
be altered or manipulated over time.
Managers using reinforcement theory to motivate staff should explain to employees which behaviors will result
in positive feedback. Positive reinforcement involves providing rewards to reinforce desired behaviors, while
negative reinforcement involves the removal of aversive stimuli to reinforce the target behavior. Extinction
involves withholding valued consequences to reduce the occurrence of undesired behaviors. To avoid unwanted
extinction, managers must continue to reward desired behaviors.

- Expectancy Theory (Vroom)

Victor Vroom established the expectancy theory in 1964.
He stated that people will act in a certain way because they expect a specific outcome and that the intensity of
their work will depend on how desirable this outcome is for them.
In a nutshell, people are motivated and work harder if they believe their efforts will help them achieve a specific
goal and gain the reward they want.

There are three fundamental principles to Vroom’s expectancy theory:

Expectancy and Instrumentality: It’s the individual’s belief that they can reach a particular target or achieve a
specific goal if they put more effort into a task.
Valence: It’s how valuable a reward is for someone.

- Goal Setting Theory (Locke)

Edwin Locke’s goal-setting theory is among the most dominant theories of work motivation. Edwin Locke’s
goal setting theory believes that a person who has found his goal will also find the knowledge and skills
necessary to achieve it. Edwin Locke found that the conditions necessary for goal accomplishment change on
the basis of feedback, goal commitment, ability, and task complexity.

- Self-determination Theory (Deci & Ryan)

Self-determination theory grew out of the work of psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, who first
introduced their ideas in their 1985 book Self-Determination and Intrinsic Motivation in Human Behavior. They
developed a theory of motivation that suggested that people tend to be driven by a need to grow and gain
fulfillment.

D. Moral Development Theories

 Moral development refers to the process through which children develop the standards of right and
wrong within their society, based on social and cultural norms, and laws. Lawrence Kohlberg describes
moral development as a process of discovering universal moral principles and is based on a child's
intellectual development. Piaget conceptualizes moral development as a constructivist process, whereby
the interplay of action and thought builds moral concepts. Piaget (1932) was principally interested not in
what children but in what they think. In other words, he was interested in children’s moral reasoning.

 Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is a theory that focuses on how children develop morality and
moral reasoning. Kohlberg’s theory suggests that moral development occurs in a series of six stages and
that moral logic is primarily focused on seeking and maintaining justice.

 Elliott Turiel’s Moral Domain Theory outlined three separate components to the moral development of
an individual. Turiel’s theory believes that the gaining of moral knowledge begins at an extremely
young age. The three components are societal, psychological and moral.

 Gilligan’s stage theory of moral development is also important to psychology for reasons that go beyond
the issue of moral development. Her theory represents an effort to ensure that researchers do not
unintentionally portray developmental changes in boys as being synonymous with developmental
changes in humans in general.

E. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications

A new application for the concept of pedagogical content knowledge: teaching advanced social science research
methods.

5.4. A. What is Learning? - A common definition of learning is a somewhat permanent change in behavior
brought on by experience. It may be simple to slip into the trap of simply contemplating formal education that
occurs during infancy and early adulthood when you think of learning.

B. Approaches to Learning – It is domain focuses on how children learn. It refers to the skills and behaviors that
children use to engage in learning. It incorporates emotional, behavioral, and cognitive self-regulation as well as
initiative, curiosity, and creativity.

1. Behavioral perspective - It is a theoretical perspective that explains learning and behavior in terms of
stimulus-response relationships. It assumes that people's behaviors are a result of their interaction with
the environment and that learning must involve a behavioral change. Animals and humans learn in
similar ways.

2. Social cognitive - Cognitive psychology is a theoretical perspective that focuses on learning based on
how people perceive, remember, think, speak, and problem-solve. It acknowledges the existence of
internal mental states, such as belief, desire, ideas, and motivation, and claims memory structures
determine how information is perceived, processed, stored, retrieved, and forgotten.

3. Information processing – Information processing, Acquisition, recording, organization, retrieval,

display, and dissemination of information. Today the term usually refers to computer-based operations.
Information processing consists of locating and capturing information, using software to manipulate it
into a desired form, and outputting the data.

4. Cognitive constructivist - Cognitive constructivism refers to the process that combines the logic of
cognitive behavior and the personal approach of constructivist behavior. In this process, the individual
uses logic to understand things, and couples it with a different learning style that comes from a
behavioral and humanistic factor.

5. Social constructivist - Social constructivism is the view that learning occurs through social interaction
and the help of others, often in a group. Social constructivism posits that the understanding an individual
develops is shaped through social interaction.
At the foundation of this theory is the belief that knowledge is not a copy of an objective reality but is
rather the result the mind selecting and making sense of and recreating experiences. This means that
knowledge is the result of interactions between both subjective and environmental factors.

In this view, the processing of new knowledge involves three steps:

Construction - building an understanding of a new concept by drawing on many separate pieces of
knowledge
Storage - the mental process of putting new information into memory
Retrieval - finding and using information already stored in memory

C. Connectionism - Connectionism is present in some form in most classrooms, but more significantly in those
of teachers or professors that students tend to remember for years to come and truly learn from.

D. Conditioning - Child development is closely associated with the way in which parents may condition them to
develop favorable and appropriate behaviors throughout the period of growing up. Thus, operant conditioning,
which was initially developed by B.F. Skinner is implemented to change behaviors by using a system of
rewards and punishments.

1. Classical – According to Russian Physiologist named Ivan Pavlov, it focuses on involuntary, automatic
behaviors and involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex. Classical conditioning is a process that
involves creating an association between a naturally existing stimulus and a previously neutral one.

2. Contiguous - Contiguity theory is intended to be a general theory of learning, although most of the
research supporting the theory was done with animals. Guthrie did apply his framework to personality
disorders.
 3. Operant - First described by B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist, it involves applying
reinforcement or punishment after a behavior and focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary
behaviors.

E. Behavior Analysis in Education - Behavior analysis has been used for over 60 years to improve teaching and
increase learning across content areas, grade levels, and student populations. It provides a scientific approach to
designing, implementing, and evaluating instruction based on analyzing interactions between what the teacher
does and student learning. Key features include high rates of relevant learner responses with contingent
feedback and ongoing instructional decision-making based on direct and frequent measures of student
performance. It also informs curriculum development from basic academics to concept formation and problem-
solving.

F. Gestalt-Insight Learning - Insightful learning is also known as Gestalt learning which means that learning is
concerned with the whole individual and arises from the interaction of an individual with his situations or
environment. Through this interaction emerge new forms of perception, imagination and ideas which altogether
constitute insight.

G. Experiential Learning Theory - Experiential learning is the idea that experiences are generated through our
ongoing interactions and engagement with the world around us, and learning is an inevitable product of
experience. This theory of learning is different from cognitive and behavioral learning theories as it takes a
more holistic approach.

H. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications

5.5 A. UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and PD 603

UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and PD 603 *UN CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE
CHILD A legally-binding international agreement known as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of
the Child (UNCRC) outlines the civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights of every child, regardless
of their color, religion, or ability.

B. Anti-Bullying Act of 2013 (Republic Act 10627)

Republic Act 10627, or the Anti-Bullying Act (the “Act”), aims to protect children enrolled in kindergarten,
elementary, and secondary schools and learning centers (collectively, “Schools”) from being bullied. It requires
Schools to adopt policies to address the existence of bullying in their respective institutions.

C. Child Protection Policy

The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) aims to protect children from all forms of physical or mental
violence, injury, and abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment, and exploitation, including sexual
abuse.

D. Positive Discipline
The Positive Discipline process emphasizes an employee’s responsibility and accountability for his/her behavior
and actions by communicating an expectation of change and improvement in a respectful, non-threatening way
while maintaining concern for the seriousness of the situation. Key aspects include recognizing and encouraging
superior performance, correcting performance problems through coaching and counseling, building
commitment to high work standards and safe work practices, and promoting excellence in the delivery of
services.