sensors
Communication
Design and Analysis of Small Size Eddy Current
Displacement Sensor
Sheng-Ching Wang * , Bo-Ren Xie and San-Ming Huang
Citation: Wang, S.-C.; Xie, B.-R.;
Huang, S.-M. Design and Analysis of
Small Size Eddy Current
Displacement Sensor. Sensors 2022,
22, 7444. https://doi.org/10.3390/
s22197444
Academic Editors: Tomasz Starecki
and Piotr Z. Wieczorek
Received: 22 August 2022
Accepted: 28 September 2022
Published: 30 September 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Sensors 2022, 22, 7444. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197444
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National United University, Miaoli 360302, Taiwan
* Correspondence: lywang@nuu.edu.tw
Abstract: A systematic method is employed for the design and analysis of a small size eddy current
(EC) displacement sensor. Simulations are first performed to determine the optimal winding structure
and dimensions of the sensor. A linear-fitting approach is then developed for converting the AC
displacement signal of the sensor to a DC signal. Finally, a compensation method is proposed
for mitigating the temperature drift of the EC sensor under different working temperatures. The
experimental results show that the proposed sensor has a sensitivity of approximately 3 µm, a
working temperature range of 25–55 ◦ C, and a linearity of ±1.025%.
Keywords: eddy current displacement sensor; linear-curve fitting; temperature compensation
1. Introduction
The term “eddy current” refers to the current produced in a metallic conductor by
a nearby time-varying magnetic field. Eddy currents have many practical applications
in industry, including position sensing, non-destructive testing, induction motors, and
more [1,2]. The design and analysis of eddy current position sensors has thus attracted
significant attention in the literature [3,4]. Many studies have focused on the various
sources of eddy current loss in eddy current (EC) sensors and have explored the effects
of unwanted losses on the sensitivity of the device [5,6]. Koibuchi et al. [7] found that
the performance of EC sensors is particularly sensitive to the eddy current loss produced
by the sensor casing. However, the finite element (FE) simulation results show that the
casing loss could be reduced by 14.24% through appropriate shielding of the magnetic
components of the sensor. Wang et al. [8] measure the normalization of non-magnetic
conductors of copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), stainless steel (SS) and titanium (Ti), and show
that the sensitivity of the EC sensor is mainly due to the difference in conductivity caused
by different materials. The study was also showed that at a high frequency of 10 MHz, the
resistance was easily affected by heat, and that it is difficult to perform the temperature
compensation. Furthermore, it was shown that the sensing performance improved with
both an increasing conductivity and a higher frequency.
The output signal of the EC displacement sensors should ideally vary linearly with
the sensing distance. However, this is rarely the case, and most sensors exhibit a non-linear
output, which varies with the material and dimensions of the target and the design and
structure of the sensor. Mizuno et al. [9] examined the effects of two sensing coil materials
(copper wire and magneto-plated copper wire) on the linearity range of an EC displacement
sensor. The results show that the magneto-plated wire not only improved the linearity of
the sensor output, but also increased the sensitivity by a factor of around 1.5 compared to
that achieved using a traditional copper wire coil. Wang et al. [10] proposed a nonlinear
compensation method for EC sensors based on a support vector machine (SVM), in which
the setting displacement parameter was taken as the input and the voltage parameter was
taken as the output.
Eddy current sensors exploit the fact that the flow of an AC current through a conduct-
ing coil generates an alternating magnetic field, which in turn induces a current flow in a
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 11

Eddy current sensors exploit the fact that the flow of an AC current through a con-
Sensors 2022, 22, 7444 ducting coil generates an alternating magnetic field, which in turn induces a current2 flow of 10

in a nearby metallic conductor. However, when the ambient temperature rises, the re-
sistance of the coil increases and hence the induced current flow decreases. As a result,
effective
nearby methods
metallic for compensating
conductor. However,for the the
when thermal
ambient drifttemperature
effect are required
rises, theto ensure
resistance the
reliability
of of the sensor
the coil increases and measurements.
hence the induced Many temperature
current compensation
flow decreases. schemes
As a result, have
effective
methods for compensating
been proposed [11,12]. Wang for and
the thermal
Fang [13]drift effect are
proposed requiredfor
a method to reducing
ensure thethe reliability
thermal
of theof
drift sensor
an ECmeasurements.
displacement sensor Many temperature
by two orders compensation
of magnitudeschemes have been
by decoupling thepro-
im-
posed
pedance [11,12].
of the Wang and coil
sensing Fanginto
[13]two
proposed
physicala method
quantities,for reducing
namely the thermal
resistance drift
and of the
an
EC displacement sensor by two orders of magnitude by decoupling
inductance. The change in resistance of the coil under different temperatures was then the impedance of the
sensing
used to coil into two
calibrate thephysical
effect ofquantities, namelyon
the temperature thetheresistance
inductance.and The
the inductance.
results obtained The
change
using ain resistance
prototype of theshowed
device coil under
thatdifferent
the proposedtemperatures
approachwas then used
reduced to calibrate
the thermal drift
the effect
of the of the
sensor temperature
to just 2.6 nm/°C. onZheng
the inductance. The results obtained
et al. [14] compensated using a prototype
for the temperature drift of
device showed that the proposed approach reduced the thermal
the output signal of an EC sensor using an experimentally-derived temperature-voltage drift of the sensor to just
2.6 nm/ ◦ C. Zheng et al. [14] compensated for the temperature drift of the output signal of
calibration equation. It was shown that the proposed method enabled the temperature
an ECratio
drift sensor using
to be an experimentally-derived
reduced from 28.82% to 0.9% over temperature-voltage
the temperaturecalibration
range of −25~80equation.°C. It
was shown that the proposed method enabled the temperature
EC displacement sensors find widespread use throughout industry nowadays [15– drift ratio to be reduced
from 28.82% of −25~80 ◦ C.
17]; ergo, thetoproblem
0.9% overofthe temperature
developing range and
low-cost small-size EC displacement sensors
EC displacement sensors find widespread use throughout
remains an important concern. Accordingly, the present study designs, industry nowadaysanalyzes[15–17];
and
ergo, the problem of developing low-cost and small-size EC displacement
evaluates a low-cost EC displacement sensor with dimensions of just 6 × 5 mm (diameter sensors2 remains
an important
x height). concern. are
Simulations Accordingly, the present
first performed study designs,
to determine analyzes
the winding and evaluates
structure and casing a
low-cost EC displacement sensor with dimensions of just 6 × 5 mm 2 (diameter × height).
dimensions required to meet the specified sensing performance. A linear-curve fitting
Simulations
approach is are thenfirst performed
derived to determine
for converting the ACthe output
winding structure
signal of theand casing
sensor to adimensions
DC signal.
required to meet the specified sensing performance. A linear-curve
Finally, a constant-current-based compensation method is presented for mitigating fitting approach is then
the
derived for converting the AC output signal of the sensor to a DC signal. Finally, a constant-
temperature drift of the EC sensor output over a working range of 40~55 °C. The feasi-
current-based compensation method is presented for mitigating the temperature drift of
bility of the proposed approach is demonstrated by fabricating and characterizing an
the EC sensor output over a working range of 40~55 ◦ C. The feasibility of the proposed
experimental prototype.
approach is demonstrated by fabricating and characterizing an experimental prototype.
2. Theory
2. Theory of of EC
EC Displacement
Displacement Sensors Sensors
Figure11 presents
Figure presents aa simple
simple schematic
schematic illustration
illustration of
of the
the eddy
eddy current
current sensing
sensing process.
process.
Whenan
When analternating
alternatingcurrent,
current,I1 ,Iis
1, is passed through the conducting coil, it generates a
passed through the conducting coil, it generates a time-
time-varying magnetic field, H 1. If the coil lies sufficiently close to the metal conductor, a
varying magnetic field, H1 . If the coil lies sufficiently close to the metal conductor, a reverse
reverse magnetic
magnetic field, H2 , field, H2, isininduced
is induced in the conductor
the conductor in accordancein accordance
with Lenz’s with Lenz’s
law. The law.
change
The change in magnetic flux of this anti-coil then generates a time-varying
in magnetic flux of this anti-coil then generates a time-varying current, I2 , with a magnitude current, I2,
with a magnitude which depends on the strength of the magnetic field,
which depends on the strength of the magnetic field, the area of the coil, the rate of changethe area of the
coil,
of thethe rate
flux, andof the
change of the of
resistivity flux,theand the resistivity of the conductor.
conductor.

Figure1.1. Schematic
Figure Schematic illustration
illustrationof
ofEC
ECsensing
sensingprinciple.
principle.

The current
The current distribution
distribution depth
depth inin the
the conductor
conductor isis referred
referred to
to as
as the
the skin
skindepth
depth and
and
varies
variesas
asaafunction
functionofofthe
theresistivity ρ of
resistivity ρ ofthethe
conductor, thethe
conductor, magnetic
magneticpermeability µ ofμthe
permeability of
conductor, and the
the conductor, andangular
the angularfrequency ω of ω
frequency theofalternating current
the alternating as follows:
current as follows:
s
2ρ
δ= , (1)
ωµ
 ance with Equation (1) and leads to a wide distribution of the eddy current in the con-
ductor. Thus, low-frequency EC sensors are well-suited to applications such as internal
defect detection, coating thickness measurement, and so on. By contrast, for a high an-
gular frequency, the skin depth reduces, and the eddy current is distributed mainly on
the surface of the conductor. Such sensors are thus best suited to measuring the feedback
Sensors 2022, 22, 7444 change between the sensor and the conductor, and are therefore mainly used for3 of 10
dis-
placement, vibration, and eccentricity measurement purposes, for example.
The present study focuses on the design and analysis of an EC sensor, in which the
change in the
Eddy eddysensors
current current have
feedback is used
different to determine
application thedepending
fields distance between the sensor
on the design fre-
head and
quency ofthe
thesurface of the metal
eddy current. For aconductor.
low frequency,In theory, an EC
the skin displacement
depth increases in sensor can be
accordance
represented
with Equation using a mutual
(1) and inductance
leads to equivalent of
a wide distribution circuit model
the eddy such as
current thatconductor.
in the shown in
Figurelow-frequency
Thus, 2, in which theEC primary
sensorsside
are corresponds
well-suited to toapplications
the sensing coil suchand the secondary
as internal defect
side corresponds
detection, coatingtothickness
the metalmeasurement,
conductor. According
and so on. to Kirchhoff’s
By contrast, second law, the
for a high total
angular
frequency, the skin depth reduces, and the
voltages around the loops in Figure 2 are given byeddy current is distributed mainly on the surface
of the conductor. Such sensors are thus best suited to measuring the feedback change
R I + jωL1I1 − jωMI1 = U , (2)
between the sensor and the conductor,1 1and are therefore mainly used for displacement,
vibration, and eccentricity measurement purposes, for example.
2 + jω L2and
R2 Idesign jω MI 2 = 0of
I 2 − analysis , (3)
The present study focuses on the an EC sensor, in which the
change in the eddy current feedback is used to determine the distance between the sensor
The equivalent impedance of the primary side is thus defined as
head and the surface of the metal conductor. In theory, an EC displacement sensor can
be represented using a mutualUinductance ω ω 2 M 2 such
2
M2
equivalent circuit model as that shown in
Z = = R1 + R2 2 + jω[ L1 − L2 2 ], (4)
Figure 2, in which the primary Iside1 R2 + ω Lto
corresponds 2 2
2 the sensing + ω and
R2coil 2 2
L2 the secondary side
corresponds to the metal conductor. According to Kirchhoff’s second law, the total voltages
For an EC displacement sensor, the AC angular frequency, ω, is usually high. Con-
around the loops in Figure 2 are given by
sequently, Equation (3) can be simplified as
2
R1 I1 + jωL1 I1 −MjωMI = U,M2 (2)
Z = R1 + R2 2 + jω1[ L1 − 2 ] , (5)
L2 L2
R2 I2 + jωL2 I2 − jωMI2 = 0, (3)

Figure 2. Equivalent circuit model of EC displacement sensor.

sensor.

The
Onceequivalent impedance
the EC sensor of the primary
is designed, the values side
of is
R1thus defined
, L1 and ω areasfixed. Moreover, the
internal resistance R2 of the conductor is 2 very
2 small. Thus, the equivalent impedance of
U 2 ω 2M ω 2 M2
the primary side Zreduces
= =toR1−+jωR(2M 2/ L2 ) .2 In2 other
+ jω [ Lwords,
1 − L2 the equivalent
], inductance(4)
of
I1 R2 + ω L2 R22 + ω 2 L22
the sensor head has a direct effect on the magnitude of the output signal. In particular, a
higher
Forinductance sensitivitysensor,
an EC displacement leads the
to aAC greater
angularimpedance
frequency,change and ahigh.
ω, is usually higher dis-
Conse-
placement
quently, sensitivity.
Equation (3) canA change in theas
be simplified distance between the coil and the conductor (re-
ferred to hereafter as the sensing distance) also drives a change in the mutual inductance
M. M2 M2
Z = R1 + R2 2 + jω [ L1 − 2 ], (5)
L2 L2

Once the EC sensor is designed, the values of R1 , L1 and ω are fixed. Moreover, the
internal resistance R2 of the conductor is very small. Thus, the equivalent impedance of
the primary side reduces to − jω ( M2 /L22 ). In other words, the equivalent inductance of the
sensor head has a direct effect on the magnitude of the output signal. In particular, a higher
inductance sensitivity leads to a greater impedance change and a higher displacement
sensitivity. A change in the distance between the coil and the conductor (referred to
hereafter as the sensing distance) also drives a change in the mutual inductance M.

3. Design and Analysis of EC Displacement Sensor

The proposed sensor was designed with an output voltage range of 1~5 V, a displace-
ment measurement range of 0.1~0.6 mm, a sensitivity of 1 µm, a linearity of ±1%, a working
temperature range of 25~55 ◦ C, and an allowable thermal drift of ±0.8 µm/◦ C. Moreover,
the sensor size was designed as 6 mm × 5 mm (diameter × height). It is noted that a small
size design of EC sensor is the goal of this proposed study. As a result, other parameters
 3. Design and Analysis of EC Displacement Sensor
The proposed sensor was designed with an output voltage range of 1~5 V, a dis-
placement measurement range of 0.1~0.6 mm, a sensitivity of 1 μm, a linearity of ±1%, a
Sensors 2022, 22, 7444 4 of 10
working temperature range of 25~55 °C, and an allowable thermal drift of ±0.8 μm/°C.
Moreover, the sensor size was designed as 6 mm × 5 mm (diameter x height). It is noted
that a small size design of EC sensor is the goal of this proposed study. As a result, other
of the proposed
parameters sensor
of the are notsensor
proposed comparable
are nottocomparable
the commercial
to theone. Table 1 compares
commercial the1
one. Table
specification
compares theofspecification
the proposedofEC
thesensor withEC
proposed that of a commercial
sensor with that ofdevice.
a commercial device.

Table1.1.Specifications
Table Specificationsof
ofcommercial
commercialAEC
AECPU-03A
PU-03AEC
ECdisplacement
displacementsensor
sensorand
andproposed
proposedsensor.
sensor.

Specification
Specification Proposed
Proposed sensor
sensor PU-03A
PU-03A
Measured
Measured range
range 0.1~0.6
0.1~0.6 mmmm 0~1
0~1 mm
mm
Sensitivity
Sensitivity 3 μm
3 µm 11 μm
µm
Linearly level ±1% ±1%
Linearly level ±1% ±1%
Working temperature 25~55
◦
°C −20~180 °C
Working temperature 25~55 C −20~180 ◦ C
±0.8 μm/°C at −20~0 °C
Variable ±0.8 μm/°C µm/◦ Cat
±0.8μm/°C ◦C
−20~0 °C
at 0~180
Variable ±0.8 µm/◦ C ±0.6 ◦ ◦
±0.6 µm/ C at 0~180 C
Dimension ϕ6 mm × 5 mm ϕ9 mm × 135 mm
Dimension φ6 mm × 5 mm φ9 mm × 135 mm
The proposed sensor consisted mainly of a brass coil wound on a POM shaft and an
The proposed sensor consisted mainly of a brass coil wound on a POM shaft and an
aluminum casing. The design process commenced by performing simulations to inves-
aluminum casing. The design process commenced by performing simulations to investigate
tigate the effects of three parameters on the inductance sensitivity of the coil, namely, the
the effects of three parameters on the inductance sensitivity of the coil, namely, the inner
inner diameter of the coil, the number of winding layers of the coil, and the inner diam-
diameter of the coil, the number of winding layers of the coil, and the inner diameter of
eter of the aluminum casing. When performing the simulation, the coil material was
the aluminum casing. When performing the simulation, the coil material was brass, the
brass, the diameter of the brass coil was set as 0.056 mm, and an alternating voltage of 1.4
diameter of the brass coil was set as 0.056 mm, and an alternating voltage of 1.4 Vp-p was
Vp-p was used as the excitation source for the coil.
used as the excitation source for the coil.
Figure 3 shows the simulation results obtained for the variation of the inductance of
Figure 3 shows the simulation results obtained for the variation of the inductance
thethe
of coil, with
coil, withthethe
sensing
sensing distance
distance as as
a function
a function of of
thetheinner
inner diameter
diameterof of
thethe
coil. TheThe
coil. in-
2
ductance is calculated by Δ L = N / R , where N is the turns in
inductance is calculated by ∆L = N /R, where N is the turns in the wire coil, and R is
2 the wire coil, and R is the
magnetic
the magnetic reluctance
reluctancein inthethe
magnetic
magneticcircuit.
circuit.The
Thecalculation
calculationisis performed using Ansys
performed using Ansys
Maxwell software with an input variable of the inner coil diameter.
Maxwell software with an input variable of the inner coil diameter. Note that the coil Note that the coil
winding consists of 5 layers, 14 rounds, and 70 turns. As shown
winding consists of 5 layers, 14 rounds, and 70 turns. As shown in Figure 3b, for each in Figure 3b, for each
consideredcoil
considered coildiameter,
diameter,the the inductance
inductance increases
increases withwithan an increasing
increasing distance
distance between
between the
the sensing head and the conductor. Moreover, for a given sensing
sensing head and the conductor. Moreover, for a given sensing distance, the inductance distance, the induct-
ance increases
increases with an with an increasing
increasing inner inner
diameterdiameter
of the of the coil.
coil.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. (a)
(a)Coil
Coilwinding
windingarrangement with
arrangement 5 layers,
with and and
5 layers, (b) effect of inner
(b) effect coil diameter
of inner on in-
coil diameter
ductance.
on inductance.

Figure 44 shows
Figure shows the
the effect
effect of
of the
the number
number ofof coil
coil winding
winding layers
layers on
on the
the inductance
inductance
sensitivity of the sensor, using Ansys Maxwell software. Figure 4a,b illustrate two
sensitivity of the sensor, using Ansys Maxwell software. Figure 4a,b illustrate two typical typical
coil arrangements with 5 layers and 10 layers, respectively. Since the total
coil arrangements with 5 layers and 10 layers, respectively. Since the total number of number of
turns and inner coil diameter are fixed at 70 and 2 mm, respectively, the height of the coil
arrangement (i.e., the number of rounds) reduces with an increasing number of layers. For
example, given the use of 5 coil layers, the total number of rounds is equal to 14. However,
for 10 layers, the number of rounds reduces to 7. As shown in Figure 4c, the inductance
sensitivity increases with the number of layers. In other words, the inductance sensitivity
improves as the coil height reduces.
 turns and inner coil diameter are fixed at 70 and 2 mm, respectively, the height of the coil
turns and inner(i.e.,
arrangement coilthe
diameter
number areoffixed at 70reduces
rounds) and 2 mm,
withrespectively,
an increasingthenumber
height ofofthe coil
layers.
arrangement (i.e., the number of rounds) reduces with an increasing number
For example, given the use of 5 coil layers, the total number of rounds is equal to 14. of layers.
For example,
However, forgiven the use
10 layers, the of 5 coil of
number layers, thereduces
rounds total number of shown
to 7. As roundsinisFigure
equal 4c,
to 14.
the
Sensors 2022, 22, 7444 5 of 10
However,
inductanceforsensitivity
10 layers,increases
the number withofthe
rounds reduces
number to 7. As
of layers. shownwords,
In other in Figure
the 4c, the
induct-
inductance sensitivity
ance sensitivity improvesincreases
as the with the number
coil height of layers. In other words, the induct-
reduces.
ance sensitivity improves as the coil height reduces.

Figure (a)Coil
4. (a)
Figure 4. Coilwinding
winding arrangement
arrangement withwith 5 layers,
5 layers, (b)
(b) coil coil winding
winding arrangement
arrangement with 10 layers,
with 10 layers,
Figure
and (c)4. (a) Coil windingofarrangement with 5 layers, (b) coil winding arrangement with 10 layers,
and (c) effect
effectofofnumber
number of layers on on
layers inductance sensitivity.
inductance sensitivity.
and (c) effect of number of layers on inductance sensitivity.
Figure
Figure55shows showsthe themagnetic
magneticflux fluxofof
thethecoilcoilforfora winding
a winding arrangement
arrangement of 5 oflayers
5 layers and
and Figure
14 5 shows
rounds using the magnetic
Ansys Maxwellfluxsoftware.
of the coil In for a windingthe
performing arrangement
simulations, ofthe5 layers
casing
14
and rounds using Ansys Maxwell software. In performing the simulations, the casing was
was14 rounds using
assumed Ansys Maxwell
to be fabricated software.with
of aluminum In performing
a thicknessthe simulations,
of 0.5 mm. The the metal casing
con-
assumed
was assumed to be fabricated
to be fabricated of aluminum
of aluminum with
with and a thickness
a thickness of 0.5 mm.
of 0.5distance
mm. The The metal
metal con- conductor
ductor was assumed to be SCM435 alloy steel, the sensing was set at 0.4
was
ductorassumed
was to
assumed be SCM435
to be5b,SCM435alloy steel, and
alloy steel, the sensing
and the sensing distance
distance was
was set at
set atmore0.4
0.4 mm. As
mm. As shown in Figure the equivalent inductance of the sensing coil decays
shown
mm. As in Figure
shown in 5b, the
Figure 5b,equivalent
the inductance
equivalent inductance of the
of thesensing
rapidly near the aluminum cover. Moreover, as shown in Figure 5c, the attenuation ratiosensing coil
coil decays
decays more
more rapidly
near
of the inductance increases rapidly to 85% for an inner case diameter (dc) of less than 2 of the
rapidlythe aluminum
near the cover.
aluminum Moreover,
cover. Moreover, as shown
as shown ininFigure
Figure 5c,
5c, the
the attenuation
attenuation ratio
ratio
of the but
mm, inductance
inductance then increases
increases
increases rapidlyrapidly
slowly to to 85%
to 85%
98% forfor
for 2 <an
an dc inner
inner < 4,case case
and diameter
diameter
finally (d(dc )c) of
becomes ofstable
less than
less than
at ap-22 mm, but
mm,
then but then
increases
proximately increases
99%slowly slowly
when dto c > 98%
to
4 mm. 98% for 2
< dc to
forIn2order <
< 4, d c
keep < 4,
andthe and
finally finally
size ofbecomesbecomes
EC sensorstable stable
small,at at ap-
theapproximately
inner
proximately
99% whenthe
diameter, d99% > 4when
cinner casedcdimeter,
mm. In> 4order
mm.andIn keep
to order to keep
the
the number size ofthe
of sizesensor
EC
layers of EC
and sensor
are small,
small,
turns the
the inner
chosen as 2inner
diameter,
mm, the
diameter,
inner
6 mm,case thedimeter,
5, and inner case
anddimeter,
70, respectively,the as and
number theof
parameters number
layers
for the of
andlayers
ECturns andare
sensor turns are chosen
chosen
prototype. as 2 mm,as 2 mm,
6 mm, 5, and
6 mm, 5, and 70, respectively, as parameters for the EC sensor prototype.
70, respectively, as parameters for the EC sensor prototype.

Figure 5. (a) Coil winding arrangement with 5 layers, (b) magnetic flux, and (c) effect of case inner
Figure
Figure 5.5.(a)
diameter (a)Coil
on Coilwinding arrangement
winding
inductance with with
arrangement
attenuation. 5 layers, (b) magnetic
5 layers, flux, andflux,
(b) magnetic (c) effect of case
and (c) inner
effect of case inner
diameter on inductance attenuation.
diameter on inductance attenuation.
4. Temperature Compensation Method
4.
4.Temperature
Temperature Compensation Method
Many studiesCompensation
have shown thatMethodthe performance of EC displacement sensors is criti-
Many
cally Many studies
dependent havetheshown
onhave workingthat temperature
the performance of EC displacement
[1,2,14,15]. Accordingly, sensors
some is criti-
form of critically
studies shown that the performance of EC displacement sensors is
cally dependent
temperatureon on the
compensation working temperature [1,2,14,15]. Accordingly, some form of
dependent the workingscheme is required
temperature such that,
[1,2,14,15]. for a givensome
Accordingly, displacement, the
form of temperature
temperature
sensor providescompensation schemeirrespective
the sameisoutput is requiredofsuch that, for temperature.
the aambient a given displacement,
Inthe the
the sensor
present
compensation
sensor provides
scheme
the same
required
output
such that,
irrespective of
for
the
given temperature.
ambient
displacement, In the present
provides
study,
the samethe coil
output is therefore modeled
irrespective of the as a series-combined circuit of resistance and in-
study, the and
ductance, coil temperature
is therefore modeled
compensation asambient
a is temperature.
series-combined
performed using
In of
circuit theresistance
the circuit
present study,
design shownand in- the coil is
in
thereforeand
ductance, modeled as a series-combined
temperature compensation is circuit of resistance
performed using the and inductance,
circuit design shown andin tempera-
Figure 6, which ensures that a constant current flows through the coil for all values of the
ture compensation
Figure 6, which ensuresis performed
that a using
constant the circuit
current flows design the
through shown
coil in all
for Figure
values6, of
which
the ensures
working temperature. In Figure 6, resistance R3 serves to control the current, while re-
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEWthat a
working constant current
temperature. In flows
Figure through
6, the
resistance coil
R3 for
servesall values
to controlof the
the
sistance R4 lies on the load side and serves to load constant current. The amplifier then working
current, 6 of temperature.
11
while re- In
Figure 6,
sistance R4resistance
lies on the R3 loadserves
side and to control
serves tothe loadcurrent,
constant while resistance
current. R4 lies
The amplifier on the load
then
side and serves to load constant current. The amplifier then acts as a voltage follower to
acts
keepas the
a voltage
VE offollower
the PNP to transistor
keep the VEstable.
of the PNP transistor stable.
Temperature Temperature
compensation com- performed by
is then
pensation is then performed by an MCU, as described in the following:
an MCU, as described in the following:

Figure
Figure6. 6.
Constant-current circuitcircuit
Constant-current diagram.
diagram.

If the system satisfies β R3 ≥ 10R1 , where β is a coefficient, a constant current Ic can

be obtained. Referring to Figure 6, voltage V1 is defined as
RV
V1 = 1 CC , (6)
R1 + R2
Sensors 2022, 22, 7444 6 of 10

Figure 6. Constant-current circuit diagram.

If
If the
thesystem satisfiesβRβ3R≥
systemsatisfies 10R1 , ,where
3 ≥ 10 R1
whereβ βisisa coefficient, a constant
a coefficient, current
a constant Ic can
current be
Ic can
obtained. Referring to Figure 6, voltage V1 is defined as
be obtained. Referring to Figure 6, voltage V1 is defined as
R RV
V CC ,
V1 =V1 = 1 1 CC , (6)
(6)
R1 +R
R1 + R22
VoltageV3
Voltage V3isisthen
thenobtained
obtainedfrom
fromthe
thefixed
fixedbias
biasvoltage
voltageVVBE as
BE as

V3 = V1 −VBE , (7)
V3 = V1 − VBE , (7)
The constant current IC is then obtained as
The constant current IC is then obtained as
V
I E = 3 = ( β +1) I B ≅ IC , (8)
V3 R3
IE = = ( β + 1) IB ∼= IC , (8)
R3
5. Experimental Setup and Results
5. Experimental Setup and Results
Figure 7 shows the coil winding structure and sensor assembly process of the pro-
Figure 7 shows the coil winding structure and sensor assembly process of the prototype
totype of the sensor head. The casing and the coil shaft were manufactured from alumi-
of the sensor head. The casing and the coil shaft were manufactured from aluminum and
num and POM, respectively. The length of the sensor head was set at 5 mm, while the
POM, respectively. The length of the sensor head was set at 5 mm, while the outer and
outer and inner diameters of the casing were set at 6 mm and 5 mm, respectively. The
inner diameters of the casing were set at 6 mm and 5 mm, respectively. The diameter and
diameter and the length of the coil shaft were set at 2 mm and 0.83 mm, respectively. The
the length of the coil shaft were set at 2 mm and 0.83 mm, respectively. The coil was wound
coil was wound using brass wire with a diameter of 0.056 mm and consisted of 5 layers
using brass wire with a diameter of 0.056 mm and consisted of 5 layers with 70 turns
with 70 turns (Figure 7a). The output signal of the sensor was transmitted by a cable with
(Figure 7a). The output signal of the sensor was transmitted by a cable with a diameter of
a diameter of 0.13 mm (Figure 7b). Finally, the coil was inserted into the aluminum cover
0.13 mm (Figure 7b). Finally, the coil was inserted into the aluminum cover and fixed by
and fixed by epoxy (Figure 7c)
epoxy (Figure 7c).

Figure 7.7.Photographs
Figure Photographsof of
thethe
coilcoil
winding structure
winding and the
structure andsensor assembly
the sensor process: process:
assembly (a) coil winding,
(a) coil
(b) wire connection,
winding, and (c) complete
(b) wire connection, and (c) sensor assembly.
complete sensor assembly.
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 11
Figure
Figure 88shows
showsthe experimental
the experimentalsetup used
setup to evaluate
used the performance
to evaluate of the of
the performance proto-
the
type EC sensor. As shown in Figure 8a, the system consisted mainly of a manual
prototype EC sensor. As shown in Figure 8a, the system consisted mainly of a manual three-axis
stage, an SCM435
three-axis stage, anmetal sample
SCM435 mounted
metal sampleon the movable
mounted on thestage, the prototype
movable stage, the EC sensor
prototype
measure the
mounted sensing distance. The EC sensor was interfaced to 805.5306)
a circuit board
EC sensor mounted on a fixed stage, and a multimeter (Sylvac_NANO 805.5306)the
on a fixed stage, and a multimeter (Sylvac_NANO to measure to
(DesignSpark
sensing distance.PCB)
Theand
EC asensor
portable
wasreconfigurable
interfaced to aI/O (RIO)
circuit device
board (NI myRIOPCB)
(DesignSpark embedded
and a
device). reconfigurable I/O (RIO) device (NI myRIO embedded device).
portable

Figure8.8.Experimental
Figure Experimentalsetup:
setup:(a)
(a)schematic
schematicillustration,
illustration,and
and(b)
(b)photograph.
photograph.

Linearity Analysis Results

Figure 9 shows the correlation between the output voltage of the EC sensor and the
sensing distance under ambient temperature conditions of 25 °C. It is seen that the output
voltage (y) varies linearly with the displacement (x) over the range of 0.1~0.6 mm as y =
8.2559x + 0.1517. Moreover, the correlation coefficient has a value of R2 = 0.9996. Thus, the
Sensors 2022, 22, 7444 Figure 8. Experimental setup: (a) schematic illustration, and (b) photograph. 7 of 10

Linearity Analysis Results

Linearity Analysis
Figure 9 shows Results
the correlation between the output voltage of the EC sensor and the
sensing
Figure 9 shows theambient
distance under temperature
correlation between the conditions of 25 °C.ofItthe
output voltage is seen that theand
EC sensor output
the
voltage distance
sensing (y) variesunder linearly with the
ambient displacement
temperature (x) overofthe
conditions ◦
25 range
C. It ofis 0.1~0.6
seen that mm theasout-
y=
8.2559x
put + 0.1517.
voltage Moreover,
(y) varies thewith
linearly correlation coefficient(x)
the displacement hasover
a value of R2 =of
the range 0.9996. Thus,
0.1~0.6 mmthe as
ylinearity
= 8.2559x +of0.1517.the Moreover,
sensor is confirmed.coefficient
the correlation The linearity
has a valuecan of R2be evaluated
= 0.9996. Thus, theas
eL = (ΔYmax / YF .S ) ×100
linearity of the sensor ,iswhere Δ
confirmed.Ymax
The
and YF .S
linearity can
are be
the evaluated
maximum as e =
deviation
L ( ∆Y and
max /Ytotal
F.S ) × 100,
range
of the ∆Y
where max and
output YF.S are
voltage, the maximum
respectively. Baseddeviation
on a detailedand total range of
inspection of the output
Figure voltage,
9a, the line-
respectively. Based on a detailed inspection of Figure 9a, the linearity
arity of the sensor is found to be ±1.025%. Figure 9b shows the relationship between the of the sensor is
found be ±1.025%.
outputtovoltage and theFigure
sensing 9bdistance
shows the over relationship
four repeated between
trials. the
Theoutput voltageofand
repeatability the
the
sensor (evaluated as eR = (ΔRmax / YF.S ) ×100 ) is found to be 0.925% (where ΔRmax = 0.037as
sensing distance over four repeated trials. The repeatability of the sensor (evaluated V
e R = (∆Rmax /YF.S ) × 100) is found to be 0.925% (where ∆Rmax = 0.037 V is the maximum
is the maximum
deviation). deviation).
Furthermore, withFurthermore,
a minimum with a minimum
measured voltagemeasured
of 0.024 V,voltage of 0.024 of
the resolution V,
the resolution of the sensor is
the sensor is thus determined to be 3 µm. thus determined to be 3 μm.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Correlation
Correlation between
between output
output voltage
voltage and
and sensing
sensingdistance
distanceover:
over: (a)
(a) single
single test,
test, and
and (b)
(b) four
four
repeated tests.
repeated tests.

Figure 10
Figure 10 shows
shows the
the correlation
correlation between
between the the output
output voltage
voltage andand the
the sensing
sensing distance
distance
underdifferent
under differentworking
workingtemperatures
temperatures in in
thethe range
range ◦ C.°C.
of 40~55
of 40~55 It isItnoted
is noted
thatthat the tem-
the tempera-
perature
ture
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW
rangerange was chosen
was chosen based
based on on the equipment
the equipment availableavailable when performing
when performing the ex-
the experiments.
8 of 11
Itperiments. It both
is seen that is seen
thethat both the
absolute absolute
value value ofvoltage
of the output the output
and thevoltage and the
sensitivity of sensitivity
the sensor
of the sensor
reduce with an reduce with an
increasing increasing temperature.
temperature.

Figure 10.Correlation
Figure10. Correlationbetween
betweenoutput inductive
output voltage
inductive andand
voltage sensing distance
sensing for working
distance tempera-
for working tem-
tures in theinrange of 40~55 ◦ C.
peratures the range of 40~55 °C.

In
In order
order to
to quantify
quantify the
the effect
effect of
of the
the temperature
temperature on on the
the output
output voltage,
voltage, aa thermal
thermal
voltage parameter is introduced here, as DC voltage is a function of temperature.
voltage parameter is introduced here, as DC voltage is a function of temperature. Figure 11
Figure
shows the variation of the thermal voltage with the sensing distance for each
11 shows the variation of the thermal voltage with the sensing distance for each of the of the working
temperatures considered
working temperatures in Figurein11.
considered As shown,
Figure the thermal
11. As shown, voltagevoltage
the thermal increases from
increases
around 2.48 V to 2.62 V as the temperature increases from 40 ◦ C to 55 ◦ C. Moreover, for
from around 2.48 V to 2.62 V as the temperature increases from 40 °C to 55 °C. Moreover,
each working temperature, the thermal voltage increases slowly as the sensing distance
for each working temperature, the thermal voltage increases slowly as the sensing dis-
approaches 0.4 mm, and then remains approximately constant thereafter. Overall, the
tance approaches 0.4 mm, and then remains approximately constant thereafter. Overall,
results presented in Figure 11 show that the temperature drift is equal to δvt = 9 mV/◦ C.
the results presented in Figure 11 show that the temperature drift is equal to δ vt = 9
mV/°C.
 working temperatures considered in Figure 11. As shown, the thermal voltage increases
from around 2.48 V to 2.62 V as the temperature increases from 40 °C to 55 °C. Moreover,
for each working temperature, the thermal voltage increases slowly as the sensing dis-
tance approaches 0.4 mm, and then remains approximately constant thereafter. Overall,
Sensors 2022, 22, 7444
the results presented in Figure 11 show that the temperature drift is equal to δ vt8 of=109
mV/°C.

11. Correlation
Figure 11. Correlation between
between thermal
thermal voltage
voltage and
and sensing
sensing distance
distance for
for working
working temperatures
temperatures in
◦ C.
40~55 °C.
range of 40~55

Figure
Figure 12
12shows
showsthethecorrelation
correlationbetween
between thethe
temperature
temperature driftdrift
andandthe sensing distance
the sensing dis-
in the in
tance absence of temperature
the absence compensation.
of temperature As shown,
compensation. the maximum
As shown, the maximumtemperature drift is
temperature
approximately −18.5 mV/ ◦ is δoff =is− ◦ C, and the
drift is approximately
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW −18.5C, while while
mV/°C, the average variation
the average variation 14.2
δoff mV/mV/°C,
= −14.2 and
9 of 11
sensitivity is obtained fromfrom
the slope of theofcurves = δ−sen3 =mV/
as δsenas ◦ C. It is It
also noted that
the sensitivity is obtained the slope the curves −3 mV/°C. is also noted
the
thatvoltage signalsignal
the voltage obtained at a temperature
obtained of 40 ◦ Cof
at a temperature was40 used
°C was for compensation purposes.
used for compensation
purposes.

Figure12.
Figure 12.Correlation
Correlation between
between temperature
temperature driftdrift and sensing
and sensing distance
distance with nowith no temperature
temperature com-
compensation.
pensation.
In this study, the voltage signal obtained at a temperature of 40 ◦ C was used for
In this study,
compensation the voltage
purposes. signal the
In particular, obtained at a temperature
temperature of 40 was
calibration factor °C was usedasfor
defined
compensation purposes. In particular, the temperature calibration factor was defined as
∆T = (Vt − V40 )δvt , (9)
ΔT = (Vt − V40 )δ vt , (9)
where V and V
where Vtt and V40 are the measured output voltages at the working temperature
40 are the measured output voltages at the working temperature t and the
t and the
reference temperature 40 ◦ C, respectively. In addition, δvt = 9 mV/◦ C is the variation of
reference
the thermal temperature 40 °C, in
voltage obtained respectively. In addition,
Figure 11. Any
δ = 9 mV/°C issensing
measuredvtdisplacement the variation
signal V of
the then
can thermal voltage
simply obtained in
be converted toFigure 11. Any measured
a corresponding displacement sensing
temperature-compensated signalVV
voltage 0
can then
as follows: simply be converted to a corresponding temperature-compensated voltage V’ as
follows: V 0 = V − ∆T × δo f f , (10)
After displacement compensation, V ′ = the
V −output δoff , signal obtained at any working
ΔT ×voltage (10)
temperature is the same at 0 mm (V 40◦ C_0m ). Therefore, the average sensitivity deviation
After displacement
δsen obtained in Figure 12compensation,
can be appliedtheto output
achievevoltage signal
the final obtained at any work-
temperature-compensated
ing temperature is
00
output voltage V as the same at 0 mm (V 40°C_0m). Therefore, the average sensitivity devia-

tion δsen obtained in Figure 12 can be applied to achieve the final tempera-
00
ture-compensatedVoutput = V 0 voltage
× (1 − ∆T
V’’×asδsen ) + V40◦ C_0mm × (∆T × δsen ), (11)

Figure 13 shows
′′ =correlation
V the V ′ × (1 − Δbetween
T × δ senthe
) +V 40°C _ 0mm × (ΔT × δ sen ) , output voltage
temperature-compensated (11)
and the sensing ◦
Figure 13 distance
shows thefor working temperatures
correlation between the in the range of 40~55 C. As shown
temperature-compensated in
output
Figure 13, over the sensing distance range of 0~1.0 mm, and the output voltage
voltage and the sensing distance for working temperatures in the range of 40~55 °C. As range of
shown in Figure 13, over the sensing distance range of 0~1.0 mm, and the output voltage
range of 1.05~2.45 V, the compensated temperature drift is 1.92 μm/°C (±0.96 μm/°C).
Figure 14 presents the corresponding results for temperature drift with the sensing dis-
tance. As shown, the maximum temperature drift is reduced from −18.5 mV/°C with no
 tion δsen obtained in Figure 12 can be applied to achieve the final tempera-
ture-compensated output voltage V’’ as
V ′′ = V ′ × (1 − ΔT × δ sen ) + V40°C _ 0mm × (ΔT ×δ sen ) , (11)

Sensors 2022, 22, 7444 Figure 13 shows the correlation between the temperature-compensated output 9 of 10
voltage and the sensing distance for working temperatures in the range of 40~55 °C. As
shown in Figure 13, over the sensing distance range of 0~1.0 mm, and the output voltage
range of V,
1.05~2.45 1.05~2.45 V, the compensated
the compensated temperature temperature
drift is 1.92 drift
µm/◦isC1.92 μm/°C
(±0.96 µm/(±0.96 μm/°C).
◦ C). Figure 14
presents the corresponding results for temperature drift with the sensing distance. dis-
Figure 14 presents the corresponding results for temperature drift with the sensing As
tance. As
shown, theshown,
maximum the temperature
maximum temperature
drift is reduceddrift is reduced
from from
−18.5 mV/ ◦ C−18.5 mV/°C
with no with no
temperature
temperature compensation (Figure 12)
compensation (Figure 12) to just 2.7 mV/ C.to◦ just 2.7 mV/°C.

Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 11

Figure13.
Figure 13.Correlation
Correlation between
between output
output voltage
voltage and sensing
and sensing distance
distance following
following temperature
temperature com-
compensation.
pensation.

Figure 14.
Figure 14.Correlation
Correlation between
between temperature
temperature drift
drift and anddistance
sensing sensingfollowing
distancetemperature
followingcompensation.
temperature
compensation.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
This study has employed a systematic approach to conducting the design and analysis
of anThis
EC displacement
study has employedsensor. aFinite element
systematic (FE) simulations
approach to conductinghavethe
been performed
design and anal- to
determine the optimal coil winding structure and sensor housing
ysis of an EC displacement sensor. Finite element (FE) simulations have been performed geometry. A linear-
fitting approach
to determine thehas then been
optimal coil used to convert
winding the and
structure AC output
sensor signal
housingof the sensor to
geometry. Aaline-
DC
signal. Finally,
ar-fitting a temperature
approach has then been compensation method
used to convert the based on a constant-current
AC output signal of the sensor circuit
to a
and
DC temperature
signal. Finally, coefficient parameter
a temperature has been usedmethod
compensation to minimize
basedtheontemperature drift of
a constant-current
the EC and
circuit sensor and to ensure
temperature a linearparameter
coefficient and stable sensing
has been usedresponse. The simulation
to minimize results
the temperature
have shown that for the given sensing specification (see Table 1), the optimal
drift of the EC sensor and to ensure a linear and stable sensing response. The simulation coil winding
structure
results haveconsists
shownofthat5 layers
for theand 70 turns.
given sensingMoreover, the (see
specification optimal
Tableouter diameter
1), the optimaland coil
thickness of the casing are 6 mm and 1 mm, respectively. The experimental
winding structure consists of 5 layers and 70 turns. Moreover, the optimal outer diameter results have
shown that under
and thickness ambient
of the casing temperature
are 6 mm and conditions (25 ◦ C), theThe
1 mm, respectively. sensor achieves a results
experimental linear
response over a displacement range of 0.1–0.6 mm, with a sensitivity
have shown that under ambient temperature conditions (25 °C), the sensor achieves a of 3 µm and a linearity
of ±1.025%.
linear Furthermore,
response given the use
over a displacement of the
range of proposed
0.1–0.6 mm, temperature compensation
with a sensitivity of 3 μmscheme,
and a
the sensor is capable of operating over a working temperature range of 40–55 ◦ C with
linearity of ±1.025%. Furthermore,◦given the use of the proposed temperature compensa-
ation
temperature
scheme, the drift of ±is
sensor 0.96 µm/ of
capable C.operating
In general, theasmall-size
over EC displacement
working temperature rangesensor
of 40–
designed and fabricated in the present study provides a stable and precise measurement
55 °C with a temperature drift of ±0.96 μm/°C. In general, the small-size EC displacement
performance under realistic operating conditions, and thus has many potential practical
sensor designed and fabricated in the present study provides a stable and precise meas-
applications, such as surface crack inspections, structure vibrations, etc.
urement performance under realistic operating conditions, and thus has many potential
practical applications, such as surface crack inspections, structure vibrations, etc.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, S.-C.W.; software, validation, formal

analysis, investigation, resources, data curation, B.-R.X.; writing—original draft preparation, writ-
ing—review and editing, visualization, S.-C.W., B.-R.X.; supervision, project administration,
funding acquisition, S.-M.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Sensors 2022, 22, 7444 10 of 10

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, S.-C.W.; software, validation, formal anal-

ysis, investigation, resources, data curation, B.-R.X.; writing—original draft preparation, writing—
review and editing, visualization, S.-C.W. and B.-R.X.; supervision, project administration, funding
acquisition, S.-M.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided to this study
by Hiwin Company.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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