Chapter 2:

Cell structures
and Functions
 Cell theory
All organisms are made up of
similar units of organization  cells
Theory by Matthias Schleiden &
Theodor Schwann

 All known living things are made up of cells

 A cell is the structural and functional unit of all living
Cell things
theory  All cells come from pre-existing cells by division
states  Spontaneous generation does not occur
 Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which
passed on to new cells during cell division
  Only bacteria & archaebacteria
 Have single compartment
enclosed by cell membrane
 Lack nuclei and all cell
components are not separated
from each other

Similarities
 Enclosed by plasma membranes and have cytoplasm and ribosomes
 Have DNA as genetic material
 Perform most of the same types of functions with similar basic mechanism

 Make up protists (unicellular organisms

include protozoa), fungi, plants, animals
 Compartmentalisation
 Contain numerous membrane-bound
organelles DNA is enclosed in nucleus
 ANIMAL CELL Similarities PLANT CELL
 Both are eukaryotic and have similar cell organelles (nucleus, cytoplasm,
plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum &
ribosomes
ANIMAL CELL Differences PLANT CELL
Do not have fixed shape Shape Have fixed shape
(irregular)
Do not have cell wall Cell wall Have cell wall
Do not have vacuoles (or Vacuole Large vacuoles
small)
Do not have chloroplast Chloroplast Have chloroplasts
Glycogen Food storage Starch
Have centrioles Centrioles Do not have centrioles
Nucleus present near the Nucleus Nucleus usually located
centre at the side of the cell
due to vacuole
Organelles
There are two categories of organelles

Membranes - bound Non membranes - bound

organelles organelles

Nucleus Ribosomes

Plastids
Endoplasmic reticulum

Golgi apparatus Centrioles

lysosomes

mitochondria
 Plasma Membrane
/ cell membrane

 Boundary that separates the living cell from its

surroundings
 All membrane consist of a double layer of lipid
molecules in which proteins are embedded.
 Fluid structure (Not rigid like an egg shell)
 Thickness of cell membrane varies from 7-8 nm
 Is an amphipathic , which contains both hydrophilic
heads and hydrophobic tails
 A fluid mosaic
Fluid mosaic model
Proposed by SJ Singer and GL Nicolson

 Plasma membrane is not a static structure

 Dynamic fluid system

The model is named due to two characteristics:

1. The cell membrane is flexible, not rigid

2. The other molecules in the cell membrane give it
different patterns and textures –like tiles in a mosaic
 Membrane components
1 Phospholipid

 Amphipathic molecules have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic

regions :

 Allow the cell membrane to be selectively permeable

 Allow movement of lipid soluble molecules
 Reduce loss of water from inside cell
2 Membrane proteins
Peripheral proteins
 Called as extrinsic proteins
 Not Embedded in membrane
 Extracellular or cytoplasmic
sides of membrane
 Temporarily bound to lipid
bilayer or integral membrane
proteins
 Held in place by the
cytoskeleton
 Provides stronger framework
Integral proteins
 Called as Intrinsic protein
 Embedded in membrane
 Permanent bound to the lipid
bilayer
 Transmembrane with
hydrophilic heads/tails and
hydrophobic middles
 Act as channel, carrier, cell
recognition, receptor and
enzymatic proteins
3 Cholesterol

 Found in plasma membrane of animal cells between the

tails of phospholipids

Function:
 To regulate fluidity of membrane under the influence of
temperature
 Reducing fluidity of membrane /membrane less fluid at
warm /higher temperature
 Membrane more fluid at lower temperature
3 Membrane carbohydrates

Glycoproteins Glycolipids

 Short carbohydrate chain  Short carbohydrate chain

(oligosaccharides) attached (oligosaccharides) attached
to peripheral proteins to phospholipids

 Act as recognition sites

 Act as recognition sites E.g. Human blood ABO
E.g. neurotransmitter & system
hormones
 The lipid layer is made up
of phospholipids
 Phospholipid: a phosphate
group with two fatty acids
attached to glycerol
 Contains a polar head and
two nonpolar tails
 Structure of Plasma Membrane
Extracellular
matrix

Glycoprotein
Carbohydrate

Plasma
membrane Glycolipid

Microfilaments
of cytoskeleton
Integral
Cholesterol protein Peripheral
Cytoplasm protein
Phospholipid
 Form a boundary
 Give shape, mechanical strength and protection to the cell
Regulate and control the flow of materials in and out of the
cell
Provide receptor sites to detect the presence of chemical
messagers (signaling molecules)
Cell –cell recognition
Join cells together
Attachment to the cytoskeleton
Provide attachment sites for enzymes and acts as a surface for
enzymatic activity
Divide a cell into separate compartments
Acts as an intracellular transport system
 Cytoplasm

 Jelly-like fluid within the plasma membrane that fills a cell

 Made up of 2 parts:

1) Cytosol ( cytoplasmic solution)- semi fluid portion of

cytoplasm, remains after all cell organelles and solids
2) Cell organelles (organs of the cell)

 carry out specific functions within cell, all organelles are to

be part of cytoplasm except nucleus- considered a discrete
cellular component due to unique characteristic and
important role.
 Nucleus
 The largest organelle and roughly spherical in
shape
 The control centre of the cell and the site where
hereditary information is stored
 Found within the nucleus, consists of chromatins,
not bounded by a membrane and rRNA is made
 nucleolus
 The surface of the nucleus is bounded by two
phospholipid bilayer membranes, make up the
‘nuclear envelope’
 The outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is
continuous with a membrane system
‘endoplasmic reticulum’
 The nucleolus is comprised of granular and fibrillar
components, as well as an ill-defined matrix, in addition to
DNA. The granular material consists of ribosomal subunits
that have already been formed but have not yet matured
and are waiting to be exported to the cytoplasm.

Nucleus

1 µm Nucleolus Nucleus
Chromatin

Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane

Nuclear pore

Pore
complex
Rough ER
Surface of nuclear
envelope. Ribosome 1 µm
0.25 µm

Close-up of
nuclear
envelope

Pore complexes (TEM). Nuclear lamina (TEM).

 On the surface of the nuclear envelope are nuclear
pores (20-50nm diameter).
 Found where the two membranes ‘pinch’ together.
 Nuclear pores are lined with proteins.
 Act as molecular channels and only two types of
molecules are given passage:
- proteins associated with nuclear structures or
nuclear activities.
- RNA and protein-RNA complexes
• Nucleoplasm  semi-fluid substance in the nucleus and
contains chromatins.

• Chromatins  chromosomes that are in their non-

dividing state (thread-like appearance), contain genetic
code that controls cell and it made of DNA & proteins,
has no particular shape.

• During cell division, chromatins condense to form thick

rod-like structures  ‘chromosomes’.

• In a non-dividing cell, the nucleus has a ‘grainy’

appearance.

• This is due to the presence of chromatins.

- to carry the genetic material of a cell in the form of
chromosomes
- as a control centre for the activities of a cell.
- to carry the instructions for the synthesis of protein in the
nuclear DNA.
- involved in the production of ribosomes and RNA.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Nuclear envelope
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Chromatin
Nucleolus
Nuclear pore

Ribosome
Cisternae
Endoplasmic reticulum
• An extension of the outer Smooth ER

nuclear membrane with Rough ER Nuclear

which it is continuous. envelope

• Membranes forms a
series of sheets which
ER lumen
enclose flattened sacs
called cisternae. Cisternae

• Primary function of the Ribosomes Transitional ER

ER to act as an internal Transport vesicle 200 µm

transport system,
allowing molecules to Smooth ER Rough ER
move from one part of
the cell to another.
The quantity of ER inside a cell fluctuates, depending
on the cell’s activity. Cells with a lot of ER include
secretory cells and liver cells.
The rough ER is studded with 80S ribosomes (site of
protein synthesis). It is an extension of the outer
membrane of the nuclear envelope, so allowing mRNA
to be transported swiftly into 80S ribosomes, where
they are translated in protein synthesis.
 The smooth ER  site of lipid and steroid synthesis, and is
associated with the Golgi apparatus, has no 80S ribosomes
and is also involved in the regulation of calcium levels in
muscle cells, and the breakdown of toxins by liver cells.
 Damage to a cell often results in increased formation of ER in
order to produce the protein necessary for cell repair.

Smooth endoplasmic Rough endoplasmic

reticulum reticulum
 Lysosomes

• Lysosomes (lysis-‘splitting’, soma-‘body’) are spherical

bodies, some 0.1-1.0 micrometer in diameter.
• Found in all eukaryotic animal cells; only a few plant
cells may have lysosomes.
• In other plant cells, the large central vacuole may act as
a lysosome.
• Contain around 50 enzymes, their contents are
generally acidic.
• Despite having acidic, digestive contents, the
membrane of the lysosome is not digested by the
enzymes.
• They isolate these hydrolytic enzymes from the
remainder of the cell and by doing so prevent
them from acting upon other chemicals and
organelles within the cells.
• Some cells may have just one lysosome, while
others may have many, e.g. white blood cells and
cells of tadpole tail.
- digest material which the cell consumes from the
environment.
- digest parts of the cell, such as worn-out organelles;
known as autophagy.
- after the death of the cell, the lysosome are
responsible for its complete breakdown, a process
called autolysis.
- release their enzymes outside the cell in order to
break down other cells
Functions of lysosomes
 1 µm Lysosome containing
Nucleus
two damaged organelles 1µm

Mitochondrion
fragment

Peroxisome
Lysosome fragment

Lysosome contains Food vacuole Hydrolytic Lysosome fuses with Hydrolytic enzymes
active hydrolytic fuses with enzymes digest vesicle containing digest organelle
enzymes lysosome food particles damaged organelle components

Digestive
enzymes

Lysosome Lysosome
Plasma membrane
Digestion
Food vacuole Digestion
Vesicle containing
damaged mitochondrion
(a) Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food (b) Autophagy: lysosome breaking down damaged organelle
 Ribosomes
 Tiny granule-like organelles that conduct protein
synthesis.
2 major types: 80S (found in eukaryotes) and 70S (found in
prokaryotes).
Found abundantly in cells that produce a lot of proteins
such as pancreatic cells and liver cells.
A typical bacterial cell contains about 10000 ribosomes.

Ribosomes Cytosol

Free ribosomes

Bound ribosomes
Large
subunit

Small
0.5 µm subunit
TEM showing ER and ribosomes Diagram of a ribosome
Found in the nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria,
chloroplast
Each ribosome is made up of a small subunit and a
large subunit.
80S  60S + 40S
70S  50S + 30S
The small and large subunits combine in the presence
of magnesium ions to produce one functional unit.
• Both subunits are made from rRNA and proteins.
• They are both synthesized in the nucleolus.
• Chloroplasts and mitochondria have the 70S type of
ribosomes.
• This proves that chloroplast and mitochondria
originated from prokaryotes.
• Ribosomes are the site for protein synthesis.
• Proteins that are synthesized on the free ribosomes
are not destined for export. They are released in the
cytosol and are for the use of the cell.
• Function as enzymes or structural proteins for cell
growth.
• Proteins synthesized by the ribosomes on the ER are
passed into the ER cisternae and transported to the
GA.
• These proteins are then secreted from the cell as
digestive enzymes or hormones.
 Golgi Apparatus
Similar structure to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum but is
more compact.
Composed of stacks of flattened sacs made of membranes.
Sacs are fluid filled and pinch off smaller membranous sacs,
called vesicles, at their ends.
All proteins produced by the endoplasmic reticulum are
passed through the Golgi apparatus in a strict sequence.
• The GA has 2 faces: cis face (located near the ER and
nucleus) and trans face (located further away from the
nucleus).
• They pass first through the cis- golgi network, which
returns to the ER any proteins wrongly exported by it.
• They then pass through the stack of cisternae, which
modify the proteins and lipids undergoing transport
and add labels which allow them to be identified and
sorted at the next stage, the trans-Golgi network.
Here the proteins and lipids are sorted and sent to the
final destinations.
Movement between cisternae is by means of vesicles that
bud off from one cisternae and fuse with the nest.
The final products then packaged into secretory vesicles.

This vesicle buds off at the trans face.

The secretory vesicles will be delivered to:
-other organelles such as lysosomes or
- the plasma membrane, so that the contents of
the vesicle can be released to the outside of the
cell through exocytosis.
• The secretory vesicles may add to the surface area
of the plasma membrane.
• This is because; the vesicle will have to fuse with
the plasma membrane to conduct exocytosis.
• The membrane of the vesicle may remain as a
permanent addition to the plasma membrane.
• Golgi acts as the cell’s post office, receiving, sorting
and delivering proteins and lipids.
- producing secretory enzymes.
- stores and processes proteins, lipids and
carbohydrates.
- important intracellular transportation system.
- forming lysosomes.
cis face
(“receiving” side of
Golgi apparatus)

1 Vesicles move 2 Vesicles coalesce to 0.1 0 µm

6 Vesicles also from ER to Golgi form new cis Golgi cisternae
transport certain
proteins back to ER Cisternae
3 Cisternal
maturation:
Golgi cisternae
move in a cis-
to-trans
direction
4 Vesicles form and
leave Golgi, carrying
specific proteins to
other locations or to
the plasma mem-
brane for secretion
5 Vesicles transport specific trans face
proteins backward to newer (“shipping” side of
Golgi cisternae Golgi apparatus)
 Mitochondria
 Sausage-shaped organelle found in plant and animal cells.
 1-10 micrometer in length and 1 micrometer across
 ‘Power plant’ of the cell and the site of cellular respiration.
 Bound by two membranes: outer membrane and inner
membrane. The outer membrane is smooth.
 The inner membrane is folded to form structures called
cristae.
 The surface of the inner membrane is embedded with
proteins that carry out oxidative metabolism.
 Cristae project into a fluid-filled inner space called matrix
contain enzymes that break down carbohydrates.
 Mitochondrion

Intermembrane space
Outer
membrane

Free
ribosomes
in the
mitochondrial
matrix
Inner
membrane
Cristae
Matrix

Mitochondrial
DNA 100 µm
The space between the inner membrane and the outer
membrane is called the ‘intermembrane space’.
Mitochondria has its own DNA. It is not replicated
through cell division but replicates by itself.
Meaning, a parent mitochondria divides into two
daughter mitochondria to multiply.
However, mitochondria is not able to replicate
independently, outside the cell.
 Chloroplast
• Are plastids.
• Plastids  organelles that conduct photosynthesis
and store starch.
• Larger and more complex than mitochondria.
• Organisms with chloroplast are able to make their
own food  called ‘autotrophs’.
• Contain the photosynthetic pigment called
chlorophyll  gives plants their green colour.
• Have an outer membrane and an inner membrane.
• Contain a closed compartment of stacked membranes
called grana (granum) may be made up of many
stacked, disk-shaped structures called thylakoids.
 Chloroplast

Ribosomes
Stroma
Chloroplast
Inner and outer
DNA
membranes

Granum

1 µm

Thylakoid
 Chlorophyll is located within the thylakoid membranes.
 Surrounding the thylakoids is a fluid matrix called stroma
which contains enzymes that catalyze reactions involved in
synthesis of carbohydrates.
 Chloroplasts also have their own DNA and can replicate by
themselves.
- To produce organic compounds especially carbohydrates.
- Trap light energy and convert it to chemical energy in the
form of ATP.
- This energy is used for carbon fixation that converts carbons
in CO2 into organic compounds in the stroma.
-Carry out the process of photosynthesis.
 3 types of plastids
• Chloroplast - green coloured plastids containing
green pigments called chlorophyll along with
enzymes and other molecules that function in the
photosynthetic production of food
• Chromoplast - coloured plastids rich in pigments
such as carotenoids that give fruits, flowers and
leaves their yellow, red and orange colour
• Leucoplasts - non-coloured plastids that do not
contain any pigments
 Vacuole

• A sac surrounded by a single lipoprotein

membrane; spherical in shape.
• The lipoprotein membrane surrounding the
vacuole is called tonoplast.
• 3 types of vacuole: sap or central vacuole; food
vacuole; contractile vacuole.
• A fluid-filled space bound by a membrane. Fluid
contains large amounts of water, sugars, ions and
pigments.
Vacuoles are usually found in the centre of plant
cells.
In animals cells, vacuoles are smaller and more
numerous  called vesicles.
Other types of vesicles are food vacuoles and
contractile vacuoles.

A food vacuole is formed when a cell engulfs a particle

through phagocytosis.
Contractile vacuole are found in freshwater organisms,
like the Chlamydomonas and Paramecium.
They remove excess water that diffuses into the cell
due to osmosis.
- as a storage centre
- gives shape and support to the cell.
- maintains water and salt balance of the cell.
- increases the surface-to-volume ratio of the plant
cell
- stores cell’s waste products
- contributes to the growth of the cell by taking in
water and enlarging.
 Centrosome
 Found only in animal cells.

 Is considered to be a “microtubule-organizing center”.

 Centrosome is a clear part of cytoplasm near the nucleus,

inside this centrosome is a pair of centrioles.

 Centrioles are composed of microtubules in triplet

arrangement.

 It make up of 9 sets of triplet microtubules and has the

“9+0” pattern.

 Organizes microtubules that attach to chromosomes

during cell division.
 Centrosome

Microtubule

Centrioles
0.25 µm

Centriole: “9 + 0”
pattern ring
Longitudinal section Microtubules Cross section
of one centriole of the other centriole
 Cell Wall

 The outer most layer of the cell

 Non – living, not considered to be part of the protoplasm
although it is secretory product of cell
 Not classes as a cell organelle
 Composed of cellulose and pectin
 0.1 µm to several micrometers
 Rigid and strong
 Found around cells of algae, fungi and plants
 Cell wall has 3 types of layers:

Primary wall
 First portion of cell wall created by young growing cell
 Only layer formed as long as cell continues to grow
 Thin, flexible, and extensible layer of cellulose, pectin and
hemicellulose

Secondary wall
 Thick layer rich in lignin that strengthens and waterproofs the
wall

Middle lamella
 Pectin –rich intracellular material that glues the adjacent cells
together
Protection of the cell
Maintains and determining cell shape
Maintains osmotic integrity of the cell
Provide mechanical support and allows the plants to
grow tall
Biochemical activity in wall contributes to cell- cell
communication
Cytoplasmic streaming: The movement of cytoplasm within a living
cell. Cytoplasmic streaming, also called cyclosis, transports nutrients,
enzymes, and larger particles within cells, enhances the exchange of
materials between organelles, as well as between cells. In some
unicellular organisms, such as amoeba, it provides the mechanism for
cell locomotion.
DIFFERENCES