CHAPTER 3:

F U N D A M E N TA L
DESIGN
CONTENT
3.1-Introduction
3.2-Concept of hydrology design
3.3-Fundamental of hydraulic
3.4-Design of rainfall intensity
3.5-Assessment of runoff
3.6-Assessment of flow and control
3.7-Assessment of contamination, transport and retention
 3.1 INTRODUCTION
• Hydrologic design concepts is implementation of
new stromwater runoff management practices.
• Site developement (increases):
– impervious surface
– surface runoff rates
– surface runoff volume
• Alternative (reduce):
– swale and biofiltration function
– detention basins
• swale • detention basins
TRADITIONAL METHOD FOR SITE DEVELOPMENT
NEW METHOD FOR SITE DEVELOPMENT
3.1 INTRODUCTION, CONT.
• Hydraulic fundametals in a stormwater system,
such as small transmission and on-site facilities.
• The design of rainfall intensity for each specific
state.
• Pollutant estimation, transport and retention are
basic information on stormwater quality and
proposes.
• Treatment of particulate settling and retention
capabilities in more detail.
3.2CONCEPT OF HYDROLOGY DESIGN

• OBJECTIVES of hydrologic analysis and design:

– estimate peak flow rates and/or flow hydrographs for the design of
conveyance and quantity control facilities
– estimate annual runoff volumes for approximating pollutant loads in the
design of water quality control facilities.
AEP & ARI
• Hydrologic events:
– Annual Exceedance Probability (AEP)
• an event of specified magnitude, or volume and duration, will be
exceeded in a time period.
• AEP=P (in percent)
– Average Recurrence Interval (ARI)
• referred to as the return period, is the average length of time
between events that have the same magnitude, or volume and
duration.
• ARI= Tr (in years)
AEP & ARI, CONT.

ARI know as return period, The term ARI is used throughout this
Manual, and is the recommended terminology to be used in Malaysia.

Sometime it is necessary to determine the probability of a specific

event being exceeded within a specific time.
N= Successive years
I= Exact number of times the event with the ARI
FREQUENCY ANALYSIS AND ARI
• Every rainfall event is unique.
• due to the prevailing climatic conditions at the time of the
storm.
• Surface conditions such as the amount of vegetation,
landuse, type of soil, soil condition, topography, and other
factors affect runoff volume and distribution.
• Hydrologic data are historical by nature.
• The variables relating to hydrologic data such as time and
space, rainfall variation, abstractions, surface conditions, and
numerous others that affect runoff are considered
continuous.
DESIGN FLOOD AND ACTUAL FLOOD

• Design Flood
– A design flood is a probabilistic or statistical estimate.
– An ARI or AEP is attributed to the estimate.
– the conditions are not known and must be assumed.
– ARI of the design rainfall and design runoff can be assumed to be equal.
DESIGN FLOOD AND ACTUAL FLOOD,
CONT.
• Actual Flood
– The actual antecedent conditions prevailing at the time of occurrence of the rain are very
important and must be allowed for in estimation of the resulting flood.
• Practical Consequences
1. Is that a particular procedure may be good or satisfactory for one case, but quite
unsuitable for the other.
2. Concerns the manner in which values of parameters are derived from recorded data and
the manner in which designers regard these values and apply them.
3. Practical consequence concerns the manner in which parameters are viewed by
designers and analysts.
MAJOR AND MINOR SYSTEM
• Major system
– comprises the many planned and unplanned drainage routes
– expected to protect the community from the consequences of
large
– 100 years major design storm.
• Minor system
– typically comprises of kerbs, gutters, inlets, open drains and
pipes.
– designed to convey runoff from a minor storm
– Typically range between 2 year and 10 year ARI.
MAJOR AND MINOR SYSTEM DESIGN
OBJECTIVES
Major System Minor System
Reduced injury and loss of life Improved aesthetics
Reduced disruption to normal business Reduction in minor traffic accidents
activities
Reduced damage to infrastructure services Reduced health hazards (mosquitoes, flies)

Reduced emergency services costs Reduced personal inconvenience

Reduced flood damage Reduced roadway maintenance
Reduced loss of production -
Reduced clean-up costs -
Increased feeling of security -
Increased land values -
Improved aesthetics and recreational -
opportunities
• This type of analysis is comparable to the economic cost-benefit analyses
sometimes undertaken for flood mitigation projects.
DESIGN FOR RISK
• Design of works to pass or safely contain a flood of a given
frequency implies that a failure will result with the occurrence
of a larger flood.
STRUCTURAL & NON-STRUCTURAL
MEASURES
• Structural • Non-structural
– long, flat overflow or causeway – flood warning and
sections on roads at or forecasting systems
adjacent to culverts and
– permanent and temporary
bridges.
warning signs
– fail-safe designs,
– land-use regulation to
– spillway sections restrict high-risk
– use of floodways and linear development
parks and open-space areas
– building controls, including
flanking streams and drains
the setting of minimum floor
– situations in urban drainage levels and/or platform levels
where excess flow at one inlet
– flood insurance schemes
can be handled by a
downstream inlet.
STORMWATER QUALITY DESIGN

• Differences between Design for Quantity and Quality

Quantity Quality
Runoff peak Runoff volume
Landuse % imperviousness Landuse activities
Management of infrequent storms Management of frequent storms

Multi storm ARI design approach Single storm ARI design approach
(major/minor)
Detention/retention may not perform in Ponds may not be efficient in
repeated/multiple storms infrequent storms

Event and continuous (retention only) Annual average load modelling

modelling
STORMWATER QUALITY DESIGN, CONT.

• Theoretical Approach
– One of the aims of an ecologically-based stormwater
management and planning approach is to identify the
sustainable pollutant exports from a site.
– Catchment planning of stormwater quality allows the
relative contributions of different pollutant sources and
changes in pollutant loads
– Estimates of stormwater pollutant loadings generated by
both existing and proposed catchment activities
– Pollutant loads are normally assessed as point source loads
plus non-point source loads
STORMWATER QUALITY DESIGN, CONT.

• Design Standards
– Many stormwater management decisions will have to be
made in the absence of a Catchment Management Study or
other planning investigations.
– For new development a minimum overall percentage
removal efficiency is specified.
– For redevelopment or drainage system upgrading, the
criteria are set in terms of a reduction in the average
annual pollutant load compared with the load under
existing conditions.
STORMWATER QUALITY DESIGN, CONT.
• Design Methods
– Water quality design procedures are somewhat different from
those more familiar procedures used for flow calculations.
– To achieve either the minimum pollutant retention or load
reduction criteria it is expected that around 90% of the average
annual flow volume will need to be treated.
– All flows in events up to and including the 3 month ARI event for
the critical storm duration for the catchment, and
– the rising limb of events that exceed the 3-month ARI event.
 ON-SITE AND COMMUNITY SYSTEMS

• On-site facilities are primarily minor drainage structures

provided on individual housing, industrial and
infrastructure sites.
• Community facilities are major drainage structures
provided to cater for larger areas, which can combine
different landuse areas.
ON-SITE AND COMMUNITY SYSTEMS, CONT.

• General Design Concept for Multilevel Stormwater System:

3.3 FUNDAMENTAL OF
HYDRAULIC
INTRODUCTION

• The planning and design of stormwater management and drainage system facilities require
understanding and application of fundamental hydraulics of water movement as well as
pollutant transport processes.
• In this chapter briefly discusses concepts, principles and formulae that are inherent in more
modern urban stormwater system including for open channels, pipes, ponds, porous
media and other structures.
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES (BASIC DEFINITIONS)
a) Fluid properties
• Density (ρ)= mass/volume
• Specific weight (ƴ) = weight/volume
• Density and specific weight can be related by the
equation:
ƴ = ρg, in which g = acceleration due to gravity. In
SI units, q is expressed in kg/m3 and for specific
weight is N/m3.
• An ideal fluid may be defined as one in which there is
no friction, i.e., viscosity is zero. In a real fluid, shear
force exists whenever motion takes place, thus
producing fluid friction. An ideal fluid does not exist in
reality, but the concept is useful in simplifying many
analyses. The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its
resistance to shear or angular deformation. If du/dy is
the velocity gradient and τ is the shearing stress
between any two thin sheets of fluid, then:
b) Fluid flow
• Velocity is the linear rate of movement or
displacement of a point with respect to
time (in meter per second, m/s).
• Discharge is the quantity/volume of liquid
flowing past a given point/section per unit
time (in cubic meters per second, m3/s).
• If the flow velocity (v) varies across the
section, then flow:
𝑗
𝑄 = න 𝑣𝑑𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴
𝐴
Where
v = velocity through infinitesimal area dA
V = mean velocity over the section

𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦

• The coefficient µ is called the absolute or dynamic

viscosity and its units are poise. The kinematic
viscosity v is defined as the dynamic viscosity µ
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
(BASIC DEFINITIONS)
i. Steady and Unsteady flow
• Steady flow exists if the velocity at a point
remains constant with respect to time.
Conversely, unsteady flow exists if the
velocity changes either in magnitude or in
direction with respect to time.
ii. Uniform and Nonuniform flow
• If at a given instant the velocity remains
constant with respect to distance along a
streamline, the flow is uniform. If there is a
change either in magnitude or in direction
along the streamline, the flow is
nonuniform.
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
(GOVERNING EQUATION OF MOTION)
a) Continuity equation
• In x-direction for example mass flow rate is
𝜕 ρu 𝜕ρ
ρu dy dz − ρu + dx dy dz = dxdydz
𝜕x 𝜕t
𝜕𝜌𝜇 𝜕𝜌
− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
• For the control volume, in three dimensions, the equation is reduced to:
𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤 𝜕𝜌
- − − =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

which is the equation of continuity in its most general form. For steady incompressible fluid flow, it forms:

• The differential form of the continuity equation in three- • For steady flow from section to section and average velocity is used for each section, the continuity
equation can be written as:
dimensional fluid space, for either steady or unsteady, is derived
based on control volume shown in Figure, with sides having length
dx, dy and dz. Let the velocity components in x, y and z direction be
u, v and w, respectively. in which the subscripts refer to different section. The equation is valid if there is no inflow or outflow between the
sections.

• According to Newtonian physics, mass must be conserved, i.e. the

sum of the rates of mass inflow to the control volume is equal to
the time rate of change of the mass in the control volume.
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
(GOVERNING EQUATION OF MOTION)
b) Momentum Equation
• By Newton's second law of motion, the time rate of change of momentum • For a steady uniform flow it results in the forces applied to the system are in
is equal to the net force applied in a given direction shown in figure equilibrium:

• There are three forces acting on the fluid control volume: friction, gravity and
pressure.
• The momentum equation may be written for a volume of water between two
cross sections in one-dimensional flow as:

• A momentum equation for an unsteady, nonuniform flow is:

in which
ΣF = vectorial sum of the component of all the external forces acting on
the water in the flow direction
Vout = flow velocity at the downstream cross section
• If nonuniform flow is steady it forms:
Vin = flow velocity at the upstream cross section
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
c) Energy Equation (GOVERNING EQUATION OF MOTION) • The energy equation, which contains scalar quantities,
can be applied to the solution of such problems as jets
issuing from an orifice, flow under a gate, flow over a
weir, siphons, transition flow in pipes and open
Where 𝐾𝑒1 (𝑉12 /2𝑔) and 𝐾𝑒2 (𝑉22 /2𝑔) are velocity heads at sections 1 and 2, respectively; p 1
channels, flow associated with pumps and flow through
/y and p2 /y are the pressure heads at the two sections; z1 and z2 are elevation heads, or the
elevation of the two sections above a certain datum plane; E M is the mechanical energy added
between the sections; EH is the heat energy added between the sections; hL is the head loss;
porous media. Furthermore, such phenomena
Ke1 and Ke2 are energy-flux correction factor for the two sections; V1 and V2 are average
velocities at the two sections; p1 and p2 are pressures at the two sections; g is the
gravitational acceleration; and y is the specific weight. The sum of the pressure head and the
frequently exist in flow systems and can sometimes be
elevation head is termed the piezometric head, h = (p/y) + z.
used as a means of measuring velocity, pressure, or
The velocity distribution across the flow is usually nonuniform. Since the average velocities discharge of the flow.
are used the effect of nonuniform distribution of velocity is corrected by Ke , which is
defined as:

where A is the cross-sectional area of flow, v is the local velocity for the incremental area
dA, and V is the average velocity over the area A. In practice, Ke is usually taken as 1.0.
STEADY OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
• Open channels include not only those, which
are completely, open overhead, but also closed
conduits which are flowing partly full.
• Examples of such closed conduits are tunnels,
storm pipes, culverts and various types of
pipelines. Tunnel
• Steady flow in open channels has three
classifications. Storm pipe
i. Uniform or nonuniform,
ii. Laminar or turbulent, and
iii. Tranquil (subcritical), rapid (supercritical), or
critical.

Culvert
STEADY OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
• Strictly uniform flow rarely exists. For practical purposes, flow in an open channel is generally considered as uniform if
the depth of flow is approximately constant in the direction of flow. The depth of uniform flow is called normal depth
(y0). The nonuniform flow is divided into gradually and rapidly varied flows as shown in figure below:

• Whether laminar flow or turbulent flow exists in an open channel depends upon the Reynolds number (Re) of the
flow, just as it does in pipes. Like the flow in pipes, turbulent flow may be over either a smooth boundary or a rough
boundary, depending on the relative size of the roughness elements as compared with the thickness of the laminar
sublayer.
• Unlike laminar and turbulent flow, tranquil flow and rapid flow occur only with a free surface or interface. The
criterion for this classification of flow is the Froude number Fr = V/√(gy). When Fr = 1.0, the flow is critical; when Fr
< 1, the flow is tranquil; and when Fr > 1, the flow is rapid.
• Uniform flow in an open channel occurs with either a mild, a critical, or a steep slope, depending on whether the flow
is tranquil, critical, or rapid, respectively.
 UNIFORM FLOW FORMULA
BY APPLYING FORCE BALANCE ALONG THE DIRECTION OF FLOW IN AN OPEN CHANNEL
HAVING UNIFORM FLOW, THE FOLLOWING EQUATIONS CAN BE DERIVED. BOTH OF THE
EQUATIONS ARE WIDELY USED FOR DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

V  Chezy
• The C 𝑅𝑆oformula • The Manning formula
Q  CA 𝑅𝑆o
Value of C is determine from
respective BG or SI Kutter’s
formula.

C = Chezy’s Constant
A = Cross-sectional area of flow
UNIFORM FLOW FORMULA
UNIFORM FLOW FORMULA
 UNIFORM FLOW FORMULA
c) Specific-head Diagram
• The following specific head or specific
energy equation is a very useful tool in
analysing the flow in open channels. d) Discharge Diagram
v2 When the discharge q is plotted as a function of the
H=y+
2g depth of flow y for a constant specific head H, the
• For a rectangular channel: resulting curve forms a discharge diagram. This curve
q2 indicates a maximum discharge 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 . By differentiating
H=y+ q, with respect to y and setting dq/dy = 0 it can be
2gy2
shown that this maximum discharge occurs at the
critical-flow condition and is equal to:
where, q is discharge per unit width of
the channel. 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑞 (2/3𝐻 3 ) = 𝑔𝑦𝑐3
NONUNIFORM FLOW FORMULA
(GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW)
a) Gradually varied flow
Gradually Varied Flow is defined as steady non-uniform flow in a
channel in which there are gradual changes in the water depth.
GVF implies that the changes occur over a long distance, in this
context the bed slope and channel friction become very important.
Since So and Sf (where Sf is the slope of the energy line) are
coincident for uniform flow (So= Sf and h = hn, the normal depth), the Classification of Flow Profiles
friction slope can be evaluated using Manning’s equation. Given Q, n
and So the solution of Manning’s equation results in only one possible
flow depth hn.

Characteristics of Flow Profiles

 NONUNIFORM FLOW FORMULA
(RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW)
b) Rapidly Varied Flow • Hydraulics jump is local non-uniform flow phenomenon
• RVF on the other hand, produces abrupt resulting from the change in flow from super critical to sub
changes in depth and velocity over very short critical. In such as case, the water level passes through the
distances, as in the case of flow over an critical depth and according to the theory dy/dx=infinity or
emergency spillway, through a hydraulic jump, or water surface profile should be vertical.
beneath a sluice gate. • This off course physically cannot happen and the result is
• RVF usually involves wave phenomena, which discontinuity in the surface characterized by a steep
preclude the use of uniform flow formulas. upward slope of the profile accompanied by lot of
Nonuniform flow can also be unsteady, as in the turbulence and eddies. The eddies cause energy loss and
passage of a runoff peak or flood wave through depth after the jump is slightly less than the corresponding
a stormwater drain or man-made channel. alternate depth. The depth before and after the hydraulic
jump are known as conjugate depths or sequent depths.
NONUNIFORM FLOW FORMULA
(RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW)
Hydraulics jump is local non-uniform flow phenomenon resulting from
the change in flow from super critical to sub critical. In such as case, the
water level passes through the critical depth and according to the theory
dy/dx=infinity or water surface profile should be vertical. This off course
physically cannot happen and the result is discontinuity in the surface
characterized by a steep upward slope of the profile accompanied by lot
of turbulence and eddies. The eddies cause energy loss and depth after
the jump is slightly less than the corresponding alternate depth. The
depth before and after the hydraulic jump are known as conjugate
depths or sequent depths.
y
y1 & y2 are called
conjugate depths
y2
y2
y1
y1

40
NONUNIFORM FLOW FORMULA
(RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW)
Classification of hydraulic jumps:
(a) Fr =1.0 to 1.7: undular jumps;
(b) Fr =1.7 to 2.5: weak jump;
(c) Fr =2.5 to 4.5: oscillating jump;
(d) Fr =4.5 to 9.0: steady jump;
(e) Fr =9.0: strong jump.

41
STEADY PRESSURE PIPE FLOW
(UNIFORM FLOW)
• Problems involving steady uniform flow in closed conduits may be
solved by the energy equation which is written for two sections, 1 and
2 as follows, assuming 𝐾𝑒 = 1.00 :
• where 𝐻𝐿 is the sum of the losses caused by both the shear resistance
ℎ𝑓 and the pressure resistance ℎ𝐿 ; that is 𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑙 . The shear
resistance can be evaluated by the Darcy-Weisbach equation
• where f is a resistance coefficient, L is the length of the pipe, D is the
diameter,V is the mean velocity of flow and g is the gravitational
acceleration. The resistance coefficient depends upon the Reynolds
number of flow and the relative roughness e/D, where e is the average
size of the roughness element.
• For laminar flow or for turbulent flow with a smooth surface, the
relative roughness is unimportant and hence f depends on Re alone.
For a rough boundary, Re is unimportant and then f depends on e/D
alone. The relationship between f, Re and e/D is related by the so-
called Moody resistance diagram.
• In this diagram the roughness e for various pipe materials and inside
coatings is given .The average value of the range of e should be used
unless additional information gives reason to use the smaller or larger
values of the range. However, it may be seen from the diagram that a
rather larger error in the estimate of e would result in a smaller error
in f.
• When Re is less than 2,000 the flow is laminar and f = 64/Re.
When Re increases, the laminar sublayer is penetrated by roughness
elements and the flow becomes turbulent. The region between Re =
2,000 to approximately Re = 3,500 indicates an indefinite transition for
flow to change from laminar to turbulent. For turbulent flow, the
resistance coefficient can be estimated from the following equations:
• For turbulent boundary layer over smooth boundary:
• For turbulent boundary layer over rough boundary:
STEADY PRESSURE PIPE FLOW
(UNIFORM FLOW)
• For the transition from smooth to rough
boundary, the above two equations can be
combined to produce the following
semiempirical form:
• For turbulent flow, this use of hydraulic
radius gives reasonably accurate results.
For laminar flow, however, it gives
increasingly inaccurate results as the shape
of conduit differs more and more from
circular.
STEADY PRESSURE PIPE FLOW
(NONUNIFORM FLOW)
• In nonuniform flow the changes in velocity result in a change in momentum flux, which is
accomplished only by pressures against the fluid in addition to the pressures, which would be
associated with uniform flow.
• Since the foregoing changes in velocity and the resulting head losses are caused by nonuniform
distribution of pressures on the boundary, the losses are termed structural/form losses because of
pressure resistance and the associated changes (usually increases) in shear resistance. The form
losses can be expressed as:

• where K is called the form-loss coefficient, and V is mean velocity of flow

STEADY PRESSURE PIPE FLOW
(NONUNIFORM FLOW)
a) Compound pipe
• The principles presented in all the forgoing discussion can be used in combination to solve
problems involving compound pipe.
• Figure 12.10 is an example of a compound pipe which consists of an entrance, a sudden
expansion, a sudden contraction, a manhole, a bend, a gradual expansion, an outlet, and pipes of
different diameters.
• Each of these items involves a head loss. The straight pipe involves friction resistance, and each
of the others involves both shear and pressure resistance to make up the form losses. The
energy equation may be written for any reach of pipe between sections a and b:
STEADY PRESSURE PIPE FLOW
(NONUNIFORM FLOW)
• If the upstream inlet is chosen as • Each of the losses must be determined by
section a and the downstream the methods already discussed, and then
added together to get hL.
reservoir as b, then hL is the sum of
all the losses indicated in Figure
12.10, or:
STEADY PRESSURE PIPE FLOW
(NONUNIFORM FLOW)
 STEADY PRESSURE PIPE FLOW
(NONUNIFORM FLOW)
b) Branching pipe
Figure 12.11 illustrates a branching pipe system and indicates that
the flow into the junction must equal the flow out of the junction.
Furthermore the piezometric head at the junction is common
for all three pipes. The three piezometric readings at A, B and C
can be considered as the water-surface elevations in three
inlets/reservoirs, as shown by broken lines, since the velocity head
is considered as insignificant in these problems when compared
with the head losses due to boundary resistance.
• There are three different flow conditions for the
continuity equation, any one of which may be
applicable for a given problem.
• Each flow condition depends upon the slope of
the hydraulic gradient as follows:
1. flow from pipe a into pipes b and c, so that the
piezometric head line for pipe b slopes
downward to the right and Qa = Qb + Qc
2. flow from pipes a and b into pipe c, so that the
piezometric head line for pipe b slopes
downward to the left and Qa + Qb = Qc
3. flow from pipe a into pipe c, with no flow in
pipe b, so that the piezometric head line for
pipe b is horizontal and Qa = Qc while Qb = 0.
 UNSTEADY SHALLOW SURFACE FLOW
• All hydraulic routing principles and some important
computer models involve solution of unsteady flow
equations.
• The types of free surface flows discussed in this
section are the overland, floodplain/ open
channel/partial pipe and pond/reservoir.
• Their governing unsteady flow equations are derived
based on general development of the continuity and
momentum equations with continuous vertical and where
lateral inflows. i = rainfall intensity
f = infiltration rate
• For the control volume shown Figure 12.12 the qL= lateral inflow
following equations of motion in the x-direction are 0 = slope
obtained: ı0= bed shear
b = bottom width
q = density
g = gravity acceleration

These equations are based on shallow water, small bottom

slope and uniform velocity distribution.
 UNSTEADY SHALLOW SURFACE FLOW
a) Kinematic waves equation
• For overland flow (Figure 12.13), kinematic wave
equation is valid and applied in which the inflow, free
surface slope and inertia terms of the momentum
equation are all negligible in comparison with those of
bottom slope and friction.
• For a typical land surface (from grass to tar or gravel),
there will be fluctuations in depth and roughness such
that the flow regime may vary from laminar to
turbulent.
• The solution of these overland flow problems is thus
contained in the following continuity and momentum
equations, respectively
• Where 𝛼 and m can be derived under laminar or
turbulent flow conditions.
b) Dynamic waves equation
• A one-dimensional dynamic equation applies to channel or partial pipe flow.
For flow through open channel, natural/infiltrating, the rainfall runoff
process has negligible effect upon the flow dynamics, hence (i-f ) term can
be omitted from the momentum equation. Lateral inflow, however, is
important if the width of the catchment is large with respect to depth of
the channel.
• In channel flow both the inertia and pressure forces are important and if
inflow terms are negligible and for a wide channel/shallow water the
following equations govern:
• For flow in vegetated drain/small stream, the class of channelised flows to
which the only significant inputs, continuous along the stream axis, are
rainfall, infiltration and overland flow. The continuity equation for small
stream can be written as:
UNSTEADY SHALLOW SURFACE FLOW
 UNSTEADY SHALLOW SURFACE FLOW
Hydrodynamics of Ponds and Small
Reservoirs
• Small water bodies where ratio of depth
over horizontal dimension is much less
than 1.0 are considered shallow and they
are subject to circulation created by
inflow- outflow and wind inputs in urban
stormwater processes. Pond

• Water flows in a shallow pond usually

predominant in horizontal plane and
variation of velocity and density in vertical
direction are small enough to be
Small reservoir
neglected. It is thus adequate to adopt the
depth averaged (vertically integrated) two-
dimensional dynamic equations to solve
this field problems.
POROUS MEDIA FLOW
1. Darcy’s law
• Darcy's law is valid for porous media flow in
any direction, saturated or unsaturated and
steady or transient
• The hydraulic head or fluid potential h=z+ ψ; is
basic to an understanding of porous media flow
and is a classical formulation of energy
conservation or Bernoulli equation.
• Total head

• This equation is applicable for steady saturated

or unsaturated flows, just as for steady flow in
conveyances
 POROUS MEDIA FLOW
U N S AT U R AT E D F L OW S AT U R AT E D F L OW
a) Steady Recharge Rate
a) Steady Recharge Rate
Darcy's flux for steady vertical unsaturated flow in isotropic
media is The following equation is derived for steady shallow
infiltration and for filtration that have achieved
saturated conditions in a homogeneous porous
b) Transient flow column
For general three-dimensional flow in an elemental control
volume the equation of continuity gives

In one-dimensional form (z-direction) the Equation 12.60

reduces to:

or in independent variable 0 it is:

POROUS MEDIA FLOW
(SATURATED FLOW)
 POROUS MEDIA FLOW
(SATURATED FLOW)
b) Infiltration/Recharge into Phreatic Aquifers
Stormwater infiltration or recharge, in steady or
transient conditions, into underlying phreatic or • The water table or the aquifer storage capability to react
unconfined aquifers can have impact on the water table with the designed infiltration/recharge magnitude can be
(Figure 12.18). analysed using the following nonlinear partial differential
equation (PDE) in general two-dimensional form:

• The Equation above is nonlinear because of h𝜕h/𝜕x and for

possible solution it is linearized into ℎ2 , forming the
following PDE:
POROUS MEDIA FLOW
Steady Well Flow Hydraulics
• Hydraulic of radial flow is important in the analysis and
design of stormwater recharge using wells. In most
literatures these fundamental hydraulics are not readily
available. However, hydraulics of pumping wells are
numerous, applied to both phreatic and confined aquifers
under steady or transient conditions. To some extent
the pumping well hydraulics can be applied to recharge
well, through inverted approximation.
• For steady flow of recharge into confined aquifer, the
equation is
• which corresponds to K = K (r ) for rw < r < re and a constant K
= K0 for the entire region rw < r < R. R is the radius of influence
where practically no build-up is observed. The additional build-up
thus obtained is due to clogging. When the permissible build-up is
limited, this means that the recharge rate Qr has to be reduced.
When the reduced recharge rates become uneconomic, cleaning
operations have to be undertaken in order to restore the
recharge capacity of the well.
• A natural, approximately uniform, flow exists in most undisturbed
aquifers. When recharging wells are introduced with such flows,
the method of superposition) may be employed to determine the
resulting flownets

• where Qr is the constant rate of recharge. The

build up/non-build up steady state expressions are
respectively, recommended as:
POROUS MEDIA FLOW

Integrated flow system

• An integrated flow, coupling unsaturated- • The model is also important for use in the
saturated equations, is useful in the planning of subsurface drainage facilities
planning and design of comprehensive especially in vulnerable hillslope zones
stormwater recharge schemes over a
regional urban groundwater basin. The
transient influences are felt most strongly
near the surface of the vadose zone.
POLLUTANT TRANSPORT AND
SETTLING PROCESSES 1. Transport processes

• In order to investigate environmental concerns,

stormwater specialists are usually called upon
to study the transport, settlement and
retention of various substances in surface
water and porous media.
• These substances, referred to as constituents,
may be contaminants, pollutants, artificial
tracers, solid particles or other materials. The
motion, spreading and settling of a mass may be
due to advection, diffusion and dispersion.
3.4 DESIGN RAINFALL
INTENSITIES
DEFINITION
• Rainfall event known as “design storm”
• Design storm reflect requires levels of protection, the local climate, and
catchment conditions.
• Main define of the storm and the range of applicability to ensure safe,
economical and standardized design.
• Types design storm
1. Synthetic
2. Actual

• Design storm duration is to defines the rainfall depth or intensity for a given
frequency and it’s effect the resulting runoff peak and volume
 RAINFALL INTENSITY-DURATION-
FREQUENCY (IDF) RELATIONSHIPS
• rainfall depths can be processed and converted into rainfall intensities (intensity
=depth/duration), which can presented in IDF curves.
• The curves are particularly in stormwater drainage design because many
computational procedures require rainfall input in the form of average rainfall
intensity.
• Variables that related in the curve; frequency, intensity and duration.
• The data are used as the input in most stormwater design processes.
• IDF curves give the rainfall intensity at a point.
• Storm spatial characteristics are important for large catchments; larger the catchment and the
shorter the rainfall duration, the less uniformly the rainfall is distributed over the catchment.
• Average recurrence interval (ARI) and duration; average rainfall depth/area < the point rainfall
depth
 AREA REDUCTIONAL FACTOR
• Area reduction factor = ratio of the areal average rainfall with specified duration and ARI to
the point rainfall with the same duration and ARI
• Applied to design point rainfall intensity only, to account for the fact that it’s not that rainfall
will occur at the same intensity over the entire area of a storm
• Areal reduction factor < 1.0
• For large catchment area, it’s calculated as

• FA = Area reductional factor, Ic = average rainfall over catchment, Ip =

point rainfall intensity
• No areal reduction factor is to be used for catchment area of up to 10 km2
• Should not applied to real rainfall data (daily recorded rainfalls)
 IDF CURVES FOR SELECTED CITIES
AND TOWNS

Limitation Of IDF curves

• The curves have not been revised 1991. the patterns should be reviewed using the additional data.
• The period data from which the curves was derived very in short term.
• Lower limit of the duration analyzed was 15 mins. Should expedite the installation
of digital pluviometers to capture data from short storm bursts, down to 5 mins
duration.
• Limit of rainfall ARI were between 2 years and 100 years.
• The curves were not in convenient form for use in modern computer models.
• No guidance given for urban areas outside the 42 centers listed.
• The curves in this “Hydrological Data” (1991) are valid for duration between 15
mins and 72 hrs. extrapolation of the curve beyond this limit will possible errors
and not recommended.
IDF CURVES FOR OTHER URBAN
AREAS
• IDF curves are calculated from local pluviometer data. Recognize the
precipitation data used to derive subject to some interpolation and smoothing.
POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATION OF
IDFCURVES
• This expression equation fitted for the 35 main cities/towns in Malaysia.

• Higher degree of polynomial can be used to get more accurate values of rainfall intensity.
• This expression cannot be used outside of the journal limits.
 IDF VALUES FOR SHORT DURATION STORM
• Estimation of rainfall intensities for durations between 5 and 30 minutes involves extrapolation
beyond the range of the data used in deriving the curve fitting coefficients.

• The relationship is valid for any ARI within the range 2-100 years.
• According to the equation, if intensity is required such roof drainage the depth Pd (mm) is
converted to an intensity I (mm/hr) per duration d in hours ; I = Pd /d
 IDF VALUES FOR FREQUENT STORMS

This equation derived by fitting a distribution to the I hr rainfalls and

extrapolating the distribution to frequent ARIs.
3.5 ASSESSMENT OF
RUNOFF

RU N O F F E S T I M AT I O N
• There are two basic approaches to computing stormwater flows from rainfall.

• Rational Method: relates peak runoff to rainfall intensity through a

proportionality factor.

• A rainfall hyetograph: accounts for rainfall losses and temporary storage

effects in transit, and yields a discharge hydrograph.

• Experience has shown that the Rational Method can provide satisfactory
estimates of peak discharge on small catchments of up to 80 hectares. For larger
catchments, storage and timing effects become significant, and a hydrograph
method is needed.
RATIONAL FORMULA
• Experience has shown that the Rational Method can provide satisfactory estimates of peak
discharge on small catchments of up to 80 hectares. For larger catchments, storage and timing
effects become significant, and a hydrograph method is needed.
ASSUMPTIONS USED IN THE RATIONAL
METHOD ARE AS FOLLOWS:
1. The peak flow occurs when the entire catchment is contributing to the flow.
2. The rainfall intensity is the same over the entire catchment area.
3. The rainfall intensity is uniform over a time duration equal to the time of concentration,
tc..
4. The ARI of the computed peak flow is the same as that of the rainfall intensity, i.e., a 5
year ARI rainfall intensity will produce a 5 year ARI peak flow.
 THE RATIONAL METHOD IS NOT RECOMMENDED FOR
ANY CATCHMENT WHERE:
• the catchment area is greater than 80 hectares

• ponding of stormwater in the catchment might affect peak discharge.

• the design and operation of large (and hence more costly) drainage facilities is to be undertaken,
particularly if they involve storage.
 RAINFALL INTENSITY
• The rainfall intensity, I, in the Rational Formula represents the average rainfall intensity over a
duration equal to the time of concentration for the catchment
 RUNOFF COEFFICIENT

• The runoff coefficient, C , in Equation 14.7 is a function of the ground cover and a host of
other hydrologic abstractions

• When estimating a value for the runoff coefficient, the roles played by these hydrologic
processes should be considered
 HYDROGRAPH METHODS

• Hydrograph methods must be used whenever rainfall spatial and temporal variations or flow
routing/storage effects need to be considered.
HYDROGRAPH METHODS CAN BE COMPUTATIONALLY
INVOLVED AND COMPUTER PROGRAMS (REFER
CHAPTER 17) ARE USUALLY USED TO GENERATE
RUNOFF HYDROGRAPHS.
• Storm Intensity, Duration and Frequency
• Spatial Distribution
• Temporal Distribution
• Rainfall Excess
• Choice of Infiltration Loss Model
 IN DISCUSSING LOSSES IT IS IMPORTANT TO DISTINGUISH
BETWEEN DIRECTLY CONNECTED IMPERVIOUS AREAS (DCIA) AND
PERVIOUS AREAS.
• Evaporation Losses: Evaporation is generally insignificant and is neglected during the short-
duration storms of concern in stormwater drainage design.

• Impervious Area Losses: Impervious surfaces cause small rainfall losses due mainly to
depression storage. Recommended values are given in Table 14.4.

• Pervious Area Infiltration Loss Models: The predominant form of loss on pervious surfaces is
by infiltration. Some of the most frequently used types of loss models are illustrated in Figure 14.4.
These five types of loss models are described as follows:

• loss (and hence runoff) is a constant fraction of rainfall in each time period : this is similar to
the Rational Method runoff coefficient concept.
• constant loss rate : where the rainfall excess is the residual left after a selected constant
rate of infiltration capacity is satisfied.

• initial loss and continuing loss: which is similar to constant loss rate except that no runoff
is assumed to occur until a given initial loss capacity has been satisfied, regardless of the
rainfall rate. The continuing loss is at a constant rate. A variation of this model is to have an
initial loss followed by a loss consisting of a constant fraction of the rainfall in the remaining
time periods (the initial loss-proportional loss model).

• infiltration curve or equation : representing capacity rates of loss decreasing (usually

exponentially) with time. The Horton Loss Model is of this type.

• standard rainfall-runoff relation : such as the U.S. Soil Conservation Service relation.
 Time-Area Method

• Time-area methods utilise a convolution of the rainfall excess hyetograph with a time-area
diagram representing the progressive area contributions within a catchment in set time
increments. Separate hydrographs are generated for the impervious and pervious surfaces
within the catchment

• To apply the method, the catchment is first divided into a number of time zones separated by
isochrones or lines of equal travel time to the outlet
 Kinematic Wave Method
• The kinematic-wave method is a hydraulic routing method for routing runoff across planar
surfaces and through small channels and pipes.

• The kinematic-wave formulation couples the continuity equation with a simplified form of the
momentum equation that includes only the bottom-slope and friction-slope terms
 Non-linear Reservoir Method

• In the non-linear reservoir method, the catchment is conceptualised as a very shallow

reservoir. The discharge from this hypothetical reservoir is assumed to be a non- linear
function of the depth of water in the reservoir.
 RATIONAL METHOD HYDROGRAPH
METHOD
• This procedure extends the Rational Method to the development of runoff hydrographs. This
method is only recommended for the sizing of small on-site detention and retention storages,
and must NOT be used under any circumstances for the sizing of community or regional
detention and retention facilities.

• The RMHM relies on the assumptions of the Rational Method. Therefore, the RMHM is subject
to the same misunderstandings and misapplications as the Rational Method.
3.6 ASSESSMENTS OF
FLOW AND CONTROL
DESIGN ARI
• Design ARI should be selected on the basis of economic efficiency which
typically replaced by the concept of level of protection.
• ARIs to be used for the design of minor and major stormwater systems.
• In flow calculation, the design flow with a given ARI is produced by a design
storm rainfall of the same ARI.
• Performance of the drainage system be examined for a range of ARIs to ensure
that the system will perform satisfactorily
STEPS IN FLOW ESTIMATION
• Determination of time of concentration
• Rainfall estimation
• Calculation of rainfall excess
• Conversion of rainfall excess to runoff
• Runoff routing
3.6.3 TIME OF CONCENTRATION
(𝑻 )
o Time of concentration is the flow travel time from the most
𝒄
hydraulically remote point in the contributing catchment area to
the point under study.
o 𝑇𝑐 also considered to be the sum of the time travel to an
inlet + the time of travel in the stormwater conveyance
system.
o In design on stormwater drainage systems, this can be the
sum of the overland flow time and the times of travel in
street gutters, roadside swales, stormwater drains, drainage
channels, small streams and other waterways.
 COMPONENTS OF FLOW TIME
The calculations of 𝑡𝑐 will include one or a number of
components as shown in the table
CALCULATION OF FLOW TIME
1) Overland or ‘sheet’ flow
– Overland flow can occur on either grassed or paved surfaces
– Overland flow over unpaved surface initially occurs as sheet flow for a short time and distance
after which it begins to form a runnel or rill and travels thereafter in a natural channel form

Maximum flow
distance

Factors affecting
Infiltration rate time of
concentration for Surface slope
overland flow

Surface roughness
Rainfall intensity
-The length of overload flow will typically be less than 50 metres which the
flow will become concentrated against fence, paths or structures or intercepted
by open drains.
-The formula used in this method known as Friend’s formula

107. 𝑛. 𝐿1/2
𝑡0 =
𝑆 1/2
𝑡0 = Overland sheet flow travel (minutes)
L = Overland sheet flow path length (m)
N = Manning’s roughness value for the surface
S = Slope of overland surface (%)
2) Overland flow time over multiple segments
- The characteristics of segments of a sub-catchment are different in
- Terms of land cover or surface slope, the sub-catchment should be divided into these
segments and calculated travel times for each combined
Surface Type Manning, n
Recommended Range
Concrete/ Asphalt ** 0.011 0.01-0.013
Bare Sand** 0.01 0.01-0.06
Value of Manning’s ‘n’
for overland flow Bare Clay Loam**(eroded) 0.02 0.012-0.033
Gravelled Surface** 0.02 0.012-0.03
*From Crawford and
Packed Clay** 0.03 0.02-0.04
and Linsley (1966)
Short Grass** 0.15 0.10-0.20
-Obtained by calibration of
Stanford Watershed Model. Light Turf** 0.20 0.15-0.25
**From Engman (1986) by Lawns* 0.25 0.20-0.30
Kinematic wave and storage 0.35 0.30-0.40
Dense Turf*
analysis of measured rainfall
Pasture* 0.35 0.30-0.40
runoff data.
Dense Shrubbery and Forest Litter* 0.40 0.35-0.40
 it is incorrect to simply add the values of t0 for each segment as previos Equation of
𝑡0 which is based on the assumption that segments are independent of each other, i.e.
flow does not enter a segment from upstream.
 The following method (Australian Rainfall & Runoff, 1998) for estimating the total
overland flow travel time for segments in series is recommended. For two segments,
termed A and B:

For each additional segment, the following time value should be added:
Figure below show the segments of Overland over Multiple
3) Roof Drainage Flow Time

While considerable uncertainty exists in relation to flow travel time on roofs,

the time of flow in a lot drainage system to the street drain, or rear of lot
drainage system is generally very small for residential lots and may be adopted
as the minimum time of 5 minutes (Chapter 23). However, for larger
residential, commercial, and industrial developments the travel time may be
longer than 5 minutes in which case it should be estimated using the
procedures for pipe and/or channel flow as appropriate.
4) Kerbed Gutter Flow Time
The roughness of the kerb,
gutter and paved surface

The velocity of water flowing The cross-fall of

In kerbed gutters is affected by the pavement

The longitudinal grade of

The flow carried in the the kerbed gutter
kerbed gutter

• The flow velocity vary along the length of gutter as the flow normally varies along the
length of the kerbed gutter due to lateral surface inflows.
• Initial assessment can be made as the unknown amount of gutter flow for the initial
analysis of a sub-catchment, the flow velocity and hence the flow time cannot be
calculated directly.
• An approximate kerbed gutter flow time can be estimated from the previous equation or
by the following empirical equation:
*L for the equation should be use only for L<100
5) Channel Flow Time
 The time stormwater takes flow along an open channel may be determined
by dividing the length of the channel by the average velocity of the flow.
 The average velocity of the flow is calculated using the hydraulic characteristics of the
open channel.
The manning’s equation is recommended for this purpose:
6) Pipe Flow Time
 The velocity V in a pie running just full can be estimated from pipe flow charts.
 The time of flow through pipe, 𝑡𝑝 is given by:
𝐿
𝑡0 = 𝑉
Where,
L= pipe length (m)
V= average pipe velocity (m/s)
 For the unknown diameter of the pipe can be estimated in the given flow at the
upstream end of the pipe reach and the average grade of the land surface
between its end.
TIME OF CONCENTRATION FOR NATURAL CATCHMENT

• For larger systems times of concentration should preferably be estimated on the

basis of locally observed data.
• For natural/landscaped catchments and mixed flow paths the time of
concentration can be found by use of the Bransby-Williams' Equation.
• In these cases the times for overland flow and channel or stream flow are
included in the time calculated as shown below:
• For small catchments up to 0.4 hectare in area, it is acceptable to use the
minimum times of concentration the given in table instead of performing
detailed calculation.
Drainage Element Minimum t c
(minutes)
Roof and property 5
drainage
Road inlet 5

Small areas < 0.4 10

hectare
FLOW ROUTING AND ATTENUATION PRINCIPLES
Flow routing is the process of converting a hydrograph that passes through some
part of a flow system to allow for the changes that occur during its passage

Channel routing, which Catchment routing, which

allows for the changes converts a rainfall excess
in hydrographs as they hyetograph into a
flow along river or Main types of hydrograph at the catchment
channel reaches, flow routing outlet, allowing for the
caused by variations in distribution of rainfalls over
the channel geometry the catchment surface, and
which result in storage various lags or delays along
effects Reservoir routing, flow paths
which allows for
storage effects in a
concentrated, “level
pool” reservoir
• Flow routing is an analytical procedure intended to trace the flow of water
through a hydrological system, pond, conveyance, or porous media, given some
runoff event hydrograph as input.
• The procedure determines the flow hydrograph at a point downstream.
• Routing by lumped system methods is called hydrological routing.
• These methods calculate the flow as a function of time alone.
• Routing by distributed system methods is called hydraulic routing, and the flow is
calculated as a function of both space and time throughout the system.
For hydrologic routing the inflow I(t), outflow O( t), and storage S(t) are related by
the continuity equation:
 FLOW THROUGH POND AND RESERVOIR
3.6.5.1 Hydrologic Routing
• Level-pool routing is a procedure for calculating the outflow hydrograph from a
pond reservoir, assuming a horizontal water surface, given its inflow hydrograph
and storage-discharge characteristics. When a reservoir has a horizontal water
surface, its storage is a function of its water-surface elevation, or depth in the
pool. Likewise, the discharge is a function of the water surface elevation, or
head on the outlet works. Combining these two functions yields the invariable
single-valued function
• Integration of the continuity equation (Equation 14.14) over the discrete time
intervals provides an expression for the change in storage over the 𝑗𝑡ℎ time
interval j∆t , 𝑆𝑗+𝑡 - 𝑆1 , which can be rewritten as:
• The relationship between water-surface elevation and reservoir storage
can be obtained using topographic maps or from field surveys.
• The stage-discharge relationship is derived from hydraulic equations
relating head and discharge for various types of spillway and outlet
works
• Input requirements for routing method
the storage-discharge
relationship

the storage-
initial values of indication
the outflow relationship
rate (O1) and
storage (S1)

the routing
interval
the inflow (Ot)
hydrograph
 FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA
3.6.6.1 Routing through Infiltration Facility
The constant infiltration model provides a method of analysis and evaluating the hydraulics
of soakage pits. This model can be used to calculate the maximum water level occurring
in a given infiltration system during a design storm event, thus allowing the required depth
of a system to be calculated. This section introduces equations for a maximum water
level for both plane and three- dimensional infiltration drainage systems.
The hydrological balance equation may therefore be written as:
𝑑𝑣 𝑑ℎ
n − 𝑄𝑖𝑛 - 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑡
FLOW THROUGH LAYERED MEDIA
For the two layered materials shown in Figure 14.12, which are typically found in
practice, vertical flow (infiltration or filtration ) through the layers are:
HYDRAULIC OF AQUIFER RESPONSE TO INFILTRATION
Infiltration drainage systems are found in the unsaturated zone above the water
table. A diagrammatic representation of the conceptual model of soakage pit
hydraulics in which groundwater flow in the unsaturated zone is taken into
account is shown in this figure

It is envisaged that a 'bulb' of saturation becomes established around the pit. As

groundwater flows away from the pit area through which it passes increases due to
the three- dimensional nature of the flow and the soil becomes unsaturated. Thus
to provide a realistic description of the hydraulic behavior of infiltration system,
both saturated and unsaturated groundwater flows have been considered in this
section.
A) SATURATED GROUNDWATER HYDRAULICS
Allowing for storage to occur in the soil for non-steady flow conditions, the
general 3-dimensional equations of motion for homogeneous-isotropic saturated
phreatic groundwater flow is:

(b) Unsaturated Groundwater Hydraulics

Unsaturated groundwater flow differs from saturated groundwater flow in that the
hydraulic properties of the soil, the hydraulic conductivity and the storage
coefficient both depend on the degree of saturation of the soil. As there is both
water and air present in the soil, capillary action exerts a force, or soil suction, and
so the water in the soil is below atmospheric pressure.
From Darcy's equation, the one-dimensional infiltration equation of motion
for unsaturated groundwater flow is:
(C) COUPLED SATURATED-UNSATURATED HYDRAULICS
The integrated solution of Equations 14.27 and 14.28 are useful for the planning
and design of larger stormwater recharge schemes under more complex
environments. They are also important for use in municipal subsurface drainage
design especially in vulnerable hillslope vadose areas.
 FLOW THROUGH CONVEYANCE
3.6.7.1 Hydrologic Routing
A widely used hydrologic method for routing flows in conveyance systems is the
Muskingum method. It models the storage volume of flow in a channel reach by a
combination of wedge and prism storage as in shown in the figure.

When the flood wave is advancing, inflow exceeds outflow and a positive wedge of
storage is produced. When the flood is receding, outflow exceeds inflow and a
negative wedge results. In addition, a prism of storage is formed by a volume of
(approximately) constant cross-section along the length of the channel reach.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL HYDRAULIC ROUTING
 Procedures for distributed-flow hydraulic routing are popular because they
compute flow rate and water level as functions of both space and time. The
methodologies are based upon the Saint-Venant equations of one-dimensional
flow. In contrast, the lumped hydrologic-routing procedures discussed in the
previous sections compute flow rate as a function of time alone.
 Unsteady flow is described by the conservation form of the Saint-Venant
equations. This form provides the flexibility to simulate a wide range of flows
from gradual flood waves in rivers to pipe flows, and can simulate lateral inflows
or outflows such as weirs and pumping.
The Saint-Venant equations operate under the following assumptions:
1. The flow is one-dimensional with depth and velocity varying only in the
longitudinal direction of the conveyance. This implies that the velocity is
constant and the water surface is horizontal across any section perpendicular
to the longitudinal axis.
2. There is gradually varied flow along the channel so that hydrostatic pressure
prevails and vertical accelerations can be neglected.
3. The longitudinal axis of the channel is approximated as a straight line.
4. The bottom slope of the channel is small and the bed is fixed, resulting in
negligible effects of scour and deposition.
5. Resistance coefficients for steady uniform turbulent flow are applicable,
allowing for a use of Manning's equation to described resistance effects.
6. The fluid is incompressible and of constant density throughout the flow.
3.7 ASSESSMENT OF
CONTAMINATION,
TRANSPORT AND
RETENTION
 POLLUTANT
1. Standard Stormwater Pollutants
 TSS Total suspended solids
 BOD Biochemical oxygen demand
 COD
 TP
Chemical oxygen demand
Total phosphorus (as P)
CHARACTERISATION
 SP Soluble phosphorus (as P) 2. Flow, Concentration and Load Relationship
 TKN Total Kjedahl nitrogen (as N)
 NO2, NO3 Nitrite & nitrate (as N) • The primary measure of the quantity of a constituent is its
concentration, C , defined as:
 Cu Total copper
C = quantity (mass) of constituent
 Pb Total lead volume of fluid
 Zn Total zinc
 Oil and grease • Concentration may also be defined for variables not measured in
mass units. For example, bacteria are often measured as a number
 Faecal Coliforms (e.g. most probable number or MPN) per unit volume.
• Load may mean either the total mass M in a volume V of water:
M = C ×V
• This selection is based on USEPA Nationwide Urban • or the mass flow rate L (mass/time) in water flowing with a rate Q
Runoff Program (1983). (volume/time):
 "The list includes pollutants of general interest which L =C ×Q
are usually examined in both point and non-point • The use of load measures is not appropriate for non-
source studies and includes representatives of conservative pollutants, such as faecal coliforms which decay.
important categories of pollutants, namely, solids, • Some pollutants are non-conservative (meaning that their mass is
oxygen consuming constituents, nutrients, and heavy not constant), due to either change of state such a change to
gaseous form, or to biological growth and decay.
metals.” • An example of the first group is Ammonia, and an example of the
second is Faecal Coliforms.
3. Event Mean Concentration • Just as instantaneous concentrations vary within a storm, EMCs
• The event mean concentration (EMC) is the flow-weighted mean vary from storm to storm, as illustrated in Figure 15.2, and
concentration of a pollutant. from site to site as well.
• The EMC is computed as the total storm load (mass) divided by • The median or 50th percentile EMC at a site, estimated from a
the total runoff volume, although EMC estimates are usually time series of the type illustrated in Figure 15.2, is called the site
obtained from a flow-weighted composite of concentration median EMC.
samples taken during a storm.
• In general, stormwater contaminant concentrations have
considerable variations.
• Where : • Although variations among landuses are significant the
C(t) = time-variable concentration differences are generally not statistically significant, and the data
Q(t) = flow measured during the runoff event may be combined to characterise a typical urban site.
M = pollutant mass
V = runoff volume
4. Suspended Solids
 Many pollutants occur in particulate form and appear to have a strong affinity to suspended solids.
 The removal of TSS will very often remove many of the other particulate pollutants found in urban stormwater.

the percentages of
settleable pollutants

pollutant load in the particle size

stormwater by type distribution

the density of the settling characteristics of TSS and distribution of the

settleable pollutants associated pollutants: solids by their
settling velocities

particle volume distribution of

distribution of the pollutants by settling
solids velocities
DESIGN CRITERIA
1. Water Quality Design Storm
 Like most decisions on design standards, the selection of a suitable design standard for water quality control
works involves considerations of economics.
 It requires a trade- off between the benefits of providing a higher level of protection, performance and the size
and cost of works needed to provide that protection.
 The calculation methods used to derive Figure 15.3 involve a number of assumptions.

2. Rainfall Data for Water Quality Design Storm

• This Chapter requires data on design rainfalls for storm events smaller than the 2 year ARI storm.
RUNOFF VOLUME ESTIMATES
1. Runoff Estimation
• It is necessary to estimate runoff volumes before any assessment can be made of pollutant
loads.

2. Volumetric Rational Formula

• A formula similar to the 'Rational Formula' can be used for preliminary volume calculations.
R = D .Cv
where,
R = average annual runoff depth (mm)
D = average annual rainfall depth (mm), and
Cv = weighted average annual runoff coefficient

• There is no restriction on urban catchment size for the application of Volumetric Rational
Formula.
a) Volumetric Runoff Coefficient
 the average annual runoff coefficient Cv. will be less than the Rational Method runoff coefficient
 C for events of large ARI (say >2 years), and Cv will be greater than C for events of small ARI.
 The most reliable method to determine the average volumetric runoff coefficient Cv is from long-term
flow gauging data.

b) Runoff Estimation Procedure

• If there is no gauging data available, an approximate method can be used to estimate runoff.
• The resulting runoff volume-frequency relationship then provides a basis for estimating catchment
pollutant loads.
• The estimation method uses the Rational Method runoff coefficient C to predict runoff depth from
individual events.
• Event runoff Rn can be estimated from Equation :
Rn = Dn .C
where,
Rn = runoff depth (mm) in event with ARI 'n’
Dn = rainfall depth (mm) in event with ARI 'n’
C = the Rational Method runoff coefficient, from Design Chart 14.3 or 14.4
POLLUTANT LOAD ESTIMATES
 The next step in water quality design is to estimate the magnitude of the pollutant loads.
 Pollutant loads can vary as a result of a large number of factors, including:
• rainfall
• soils
• vegetation type
• land use
• storm drainage practices
• wastewater management (sewerage) practices

 Nevertheless it is useful to be able to estimate pollutant loads for comparative studies, such as
assessing the impact of urbanisation of a catchment, and for predicting the performance of treatment
measures.
 Sensitivity testing should be carried out in order to assess the effects of uncertainty in the adopted
pollutant load estimates.
1. Alternative Expressions for Pollutant Load
o A number of empirical approaches have been proposed as a basis for calculating pollutant loads.
o The best-known and widely applicable approaches are:
– Event Mean Concentration (EMC) Method
– Pollutant Export Rate Method
– Build-up and Washoff Method
– USLE Method
o It is the responsibility of the user to select a suitable method for each application.

a) Event Mean Concentration Method

 Although the definition of EMC relates to a single rainfall event, the assumption is often made that the
EMC is the same for all events.
L = 10–4 ·C.VR . A
Where,
L = Annual load of pollutant (kg)
C = EMC of pollutant (mg/l)
VR = Annual runoff depth (mm) A
A = Catchment area (ha)
 Table 15.2 gives suggested guideline values of EMCs for selected pollutants in urban runoff in
Malaysia.
 There is generally insufficient data to give guideline values for other pollutants.
b) Pollutant Export Rates Method
• An alternative to the use of the simple EMC is to represent event pollutant loads as a function of
runoff.
• The form of the function should be derived by regression analysis of real data.
• If locally-collected data is to be used, the statistical effects of a small sample size and sampling errors
should be taken into account.
• The general form of the pollutant export equation is:
L = a . 𝑅𝑒
where,
L = event load in kg/km2/ day,
R = event stormwater runoff(mm/day),
a = an empirical coefficient, and
e = an empirical exponent
c) Build-up and Wash-off Method
 Build-up refers to the processes whereby pollutants accumulate in an urban area, as a function of
time.
 For example, a long dry period is likely to lead to a larger accumulation of pollutants in the urban
catchment due to deposition and littering.
 Build-up is modified by management practices such as street sweeping.
 Wash-off is the process whereby accumulated pollutants are washed into the stormwater system.
 The pollutant build-up and wash-off approach offers potentially a more accurate way of
characterising pollutant loads, as it attempts to represent the physical processes rather than merely
providing a statistical correlation.

d) Universal Soil Loss Equation Method

Sediment load in watercourses typically does not follow a build-up / wash-off process.
Rather, it is more likely to be influenced by erosion processes in the catchment area.
Sediment load on exposed areas, such as construction sites, is also largely dominated by erosion.
The USLE method has been modified by FRIM for Malaysian conditions. In this form, the Modified Soil Loss
Equation (MSLE) is written as:
qc = R . K . LS .VM
Where,
qc = the annual rate of soil erosion
R = rainfall erosivity
K = soil erodibility
LS = length-slope factor
VM= vegetation management factor

With suitable adaptations, the MSLE can also be used for other types of landuse. qc is expressed in tonnes
of soil loss per hectare per year.
The rainfall factor (R), is a measure of the erosive energy of the rainfall.
R = (E · 𝐼30 ) / 170.2
E = 9.28 P – 8838.15
𝐼30 = the maximum 30-minute rainfall intensity (mm/hr) for the storm of required ARI,
E = annual erosivity (units of J/m2)
P = annual rainfall (mm)
The soil-erodibility factor, K, is a measure of the intrinsic susceptibility of a given soil to
detachment and transport by rainfall and runoff, on the basis of five soil parameters :
percent silt, percent sand, organic matter content, soil structure and permeability of the
soil profile.
K = 2.1x 10–6( 12 – OM)M 1.14 + 0.0325( S – 2) + 0.025( P – 3)
Definitions of OM, M, S and P are given in FRIM (1999)

The length-steepness factor (LS) , combines the effects of slope and length of eroding
surface.
It is the ratio of soil loss per unit area from a slope land to that from a standardised
measured plot.
𝑚
LS = ( / 22.13) ( 0.065+0.046S+0.0065S 2 )
Where,
= the slope length (m)
S = the slope in percent
Exponent m = 0.2 for S <1, 0.3 for 1<S <3, 0.4 for 3<S <5, 0.5 for 5<S <12 and 0.6 for
S>12%
 The vegetation management factor (VM), is defined as the ratio of soil loss from a field subject to a
system of control measures to that from the same site without any control provision.
 It combines two factors C and P used in the original USLE.
VM = C · (1 – IA)
where IA is the fraction of impervious area in the catchment, and C ranges from 1.0 for bare soil, to 0.45
for established grass cover (Goldman et al, 1986).

2. Floatables, Litter, and Debris Load Estimation

 There is no particular method that can estimate these large floating objects in runoff as they are highly
variable and are influenced by municipal- and social practices.

3. Pollutants in Rainfall
There is a body of evidence, primarily from overseas, of small but significant concentrations of
pollutants in rainfall in and near urban areas.
Some at least of these pollutants probably originate from urban activities, eg lead from motor vehicle
exhausts.
When rain falls to the ground, these pollutants form part of the total pollutant load.
 POLLUTANT TRANSPORT AND
SETTLING
1. Conservative Pollutants
 The mass of most solid and dissolved pollutants is conserved as they are transported downstream
in a drainage system.
 Nevertheless, conservative pollutants do undergo some changes as they are transported along a
waterway.
SIGNIFICANT
EFFECTS Settling. Due to sedimentation
Dispersion. "Slugs" of processes, suspended sediments
pollutant load will spread separate into bedload and
out as the are conveyed suspended load during transport.
downstream due to a In turn, deposited sediments can
combination of effects be re-suspended during high flows.
including turbulence and This separation can be related to
variations in velocity the hydraulic characteristics of the
profiles waterway as described in the
following Section.
2. Non-Conservative Pollutants
» Some pollutants are non-conservative (meaning that their mass is not constant), due to either change
of state such a change to gaseous form, or to biological growth and decay.
» An example of the first group is Ammonia, and an example of the second is Faecal Coliforms.

3. Settling Theory
× The primary technology for removal of stormwater pollutants is through settling or sedimentation.
× Sedimentation occurs when particles have a greater density than the surrounding liquid.
× Sediment particles settle through water under the influence of gravity and follow one of three modes
of settling:
1. Particles settle as separate elements with little or no interaction among them. This type of
settling is usually found in waters with relatively low solids concentrations and is called free or ideal
settling.
2. Independent particles coalesce or clump together during sedimentation. The larger resulting
particles settle at a faster rate. This type of settling is often aided by the addition of chemicals which pull
particles together.
3. At some concentration higher than in free settling, particles will start to interact and
hinder settling. Instead of falling freely, the particles will settle as a group. This is called zone settling.
4. Pollutant Removalin Ponds and Settling Basins
• The design of sediment basins assumes free or ideal settling.
• It also assumes round soil particles and relatively uniform specific gravities.
• Once particles have settled to the bottom of a basin, they may be resting on other particles or be
separated from them by electrostatic repulsion.
• Considerable water can be trapped among the particles. This water may be:
I. driven out as the weight of more particles is added to the top of the mass
II. drained slowly at the bottom of the mass through capillary action as particles shift and settle,
or
III. evaporated when the overlying layer of water is removed

• The efficiency, y, of a sedimentation basin or trap is measured as the proportion of the incoming
pollutant load retained in the trap:

• where Loadin and Loadout are the total incoming and outgoing pollutant loads obtained from the
sums of the products of the flow and concentration ordinates and the routing interval.
a) The Ideal Settling Basin
o A simple model of an ideal sediment basin illustrates the fundamentals of basin design.
o For simplicity, it is assumed that soil particles have a uniform density.
o In Figure 15.5, a flow Q enters a basin of settling depth D, width W, and length L.
o It is assumed that a `plug flow' in the basin i.e., uniform flow in one direction.
(b) Real Settling Basin

 Turbulence in a basin is travel by water and particles in other than a straight line between inlet and outlet, i.e.
travel in apparently random currents and swirls.
 Quiescent conditions, with little wasted motion of particles and laminar flow of the water, approximate the
ideal sediment basin.
 The recommended sizing method which is based on the work of Einstein (1965), is summarised in Equation :

where,
L = basin length (m)
Ph = percentage of sediment deposited in any given hour
qh = hourly discharge per unit width (m2/s)
Us = fall velocity of sediment particle (m/s)

5. Transport Hydrology in Ponds

 The previous section considered pollutant removal efficiency under constant discharge conditions, showing
the effects of flow turbulence and short-circuiting.
 The procedures however need extending to determine pollutant removal under varied flow conditions as
defined by an inflow hydrograph.
 From the continuity equation principle, the sediment concentration variation with time in a fully mixed pond
or reservoir is expressed as:

where,
C = concentration of pollutant in the reservoir
Ci = concentration in the inflow, I
S = storage volume of the reservoir
A = surface area of the reservoir
t = time
Vs = pollutant settling velocity

 This equation assumes no variation in pond volume.

6.Transport Hydraulics in Ponds

 Maximising pollution removal efficiencies in ponds or lakes, requires consideration of flow patterns
and hydraulic routing.
 the flow and mass transport equation must be solved in two or three- dimensions.
 The equation for two-dimension is:

in which Dx and Dy are dispersion coefficients in longitudinal and transverse directions. R is a reactive
term and for particulate pollutants (e.g. total suspended sediments, organic nutrients and heavy metals),
term R is determined by settling or deposition process.

7. Transport Hydraulic in Porous Media

 As rainfall/stormwater percolates into the soil, it carries with it dissolved chemicals from pollutants
accumulated on the land surface.
 Infiltration drives contamination into the soil through the vadose zone which extends from the ground
surface to the water table and then past the water table to the groundwater zone in which the
chemicals may be transported laterally for distances of thousands of feet or meters.
 The presence of air in the soil complicates not only water flow but also flow of immiscible fluids such as
hydrocarbons which may vaporise.
 Similarly the movement of dissolved constituents in unsaturated and saturated media is affected by three factors:
1. advection of the constituent with the water flowing through the media
2. dispersion of the constituent
3. sources and sinks of the constituent within the volume such as chemical reactions or adsorption onto the solid matrix

(a) Unsaturated Media

• The vertical convective dispersive equation that describes solute transport in unsaturated soils under steady state water flow can
be expressed as:

Where,
t = time (T)
z = the distance (L)
C = the solute concentration in the liquid phase (M.L-3)
S = the sorbed concentration (M.L-3)
0 = the volumetric water content (L3.L-3)
q = the bulk density of the porous medium (M.L-3)
D = a dispersion coefficient (L2.T-1)
v = the pore water velocity (L.T-1)

• The solution of Equation above requires the knowledge of 6S/6t or S in terms of C as given in the Freundlich isotherm often used
to characterise adsorption equilibrium:

• where S is the sorbed concentration (M.L-3), C is the solute concentration (M.L-3), Kd is the sorption constant and b is a real
exponent, 0 < b < 1.
(b) Saturated Media

 The governing transport equation in saturated media under similar conditions, is identical except that effective
porosity (ne) is used instead of water content (0).

 As the stormwater spread into the larger groundwater system, the one-dimensional transport equation of
saturated media can be extended to two-dimension and three-dimension for practical uses.