FB 230219174334

國立暨南國際大學國際企業學系
碩士論文
探討COVID-19後疫情時代，對 COVID-19的恐懼、衛生安全、旅遊
焦慮與旅遊意願關係之研究：兼論旅遊涉入之調節效果
A Study on the Relationship among Fear of COVID-19, Hygienesafety,
Travel Anxiety, and Travel Intention in Post-COVID-19 Pandemic:
with the Moderating Effect of Travel Involvement
指導教授：戴有德博士
陳靜怡博士
研究生：李尖尖 Poe Pwint Phyu
中華民國 112 年 1 月
doi:10.6837/ncnu202300027
doi:10.6837/ncnu202300027
Acknowledgment
In first place, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my thesis advisor, Professor Dai You-De, for
continuous support of my master’s study and research for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense
knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have
imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my master’s study. Thank you so much for the guidance from the
initial step in research enabled me to develop an understanding of the subject.
Besides my advisor, I would like to thank my co-advisors Professor Chen Ching-I giving me valuable
feedback on my analysis and also give the great opportunity in the seminar also. That feedback supports me on
my research also. also absolutely appreciate the valuable knowledge offered by my co-advisor Professor Chen
Ching-I in providing invaluable feedback on my analysis. I thank you for the great opportunity you gave me in all
your presentations in the seminar class, it was very rewarding.
Additionally, this endeavor would not have been possible without the generous support from Mr.Bean, who
financed my Master’s study and also many thanks to all of the members of the Office of International Affairs for
their kind support during my Master’s study.
I am also grateful to my friends and cohort members especially the one, for editing help, late-night
feedback sessions, and moral support. Thanks, should also go to the librarians, and study participants from the
university, who impacted and inspired me.
Lastly, I would be remiss in not mentioning my family. Their beliefs in me have kept my spirits and
motivation high during this process. I would also like to thank who is surrounding me for all the entertainment
and emotional support. Without them, I would not have been able to finish my thesis.
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論文名稱：探討COVID-19後疫情時代，對COVID-19的恐懼、衛生安全、旅遊焦慮與旅遊意願
關係之研究：兼論旅遊涉入之調節效果
校院系：國立暨南國際大學管理學院國際企業學系頁數：64
畢業時間：中華民國 112 年 1 月學位別：碩士
研究生：李尖尖指導教授：戴有德博士
陳靜怡博士
摘要
自 2019 年 12 月傳染性極高的流行病 COVID-19 開始以來，旅遊業和酒店業備受影

響。許多遊客對旅行過於焦慮。因此，了解對 Covid-19 的恐懼和衛生安全感如何影響旅
行意向，對於 Covid-19 之後的許多目的地來說至關重要。本研究的目的是找出對
Covid- 19 的恐懼、衛生安全感和旅行焦慮與台灣旅行者在 Covid-19 大流行後的旅行意
向之間的關係。問卷內容包括背景信息、對 Covid-19 的恐懼、衛生安全感、旅行焦慮、
旅行意向和旅行參與。數據是通過對 500 名停留在台灣的受訪者的調查收集的，收回的
420 份問卷是有效的。數據分析的方法包括描述性統計分析。確認性因子分析被用來測試
綜合可靠性、判別有效性和收斂有效性。採用多元回歸分析來檢驗研究假設。其結果顯
示，對Covid-19 的恐懼、遊客的衛生安全感、旅遊焦慮和 Covid-19 大流行後的旅遊意
向之間的關係以及旅遊參與的調節作用得到證實。結果顯示，對 Covid-19 的恐懼和旅行
焦慮對旅行意向有負面影響。而且還闡明了遊客的衛生安全感對旅行焦慮有積極的影響。
此外，旅行參與可以調節對 Covid-19 的恐懼、衛生安全感和旅行焦慮之間的關係。介紹
了未來的研究和實踐的意義。
關鍵詞:對 Covid-19 的恐懼，遊客的衛生安全感，旅遊焦慮，旅遊意向，以及旅遊參與度
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Title of Thesis: A Study on the Relationship among Fear of COVID-19, Hygiene safety, Travel
Anxiety, and Travel Intention in Post-COVID-19 Pandemic: with the Moderating Effect of
Travel Involvement
Name of Institute: Department of International Business Studies, College of Management,

National Chi Nan University Pages: 64
Graduation Time：01/2023 Degree: Master
Student Name: Poe Pwint Phyu Advisor Name: Dr. You-de Dai
Dr. Ching-I Chen
Abstract
The tourism and hospitality industry has been deeply disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic
since its inception in December 2019. Many tourists are too anxious to travel. Thus, understanding
how fear of Covid-19 and hygiene safety perception influence travel intention is crucial for many
destinations in post-Covid-19. This research aims to find out the relationship between fear of
Covid-19, hygiene safety perception, and travel anxiety toward travel intention among travelers in
Taiwan during the post-Covid-19 Pandemic. The questionnaire includes background information,
fear of Covid-19, hygiene safety perception, travel anxiety, and travel intention and travel
involvement. The data was collected via a survey of 500 respondents who are willing to travel in
the post-covid19 pandemic and 420 returned questionnaires were valid. The methods of data
analysis include descriptive statistical analysis. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the
composite reliability, discriminant validity, and convergent validity. Multiple regression analysis
was used to test the research hypotheses. The results of this revealed that the relationship between
fear of Covid-19, tourists’ hygiene safety perception, travel anxiety, and travel intention in the
post-Covid-19 pandemic and the moderating role of travel involvement was confirmed. Results
show that fear of Covid-19 and travel anxiety negatively impact travel intention. And also clarified
tourists’ hygiene safety perception positively impact travel anxiety. Furthermore, travel
involvement moderates the relationship between fear of Covid-19, hygiene safety perception, and
travel anxiety. Future research and implications of practices are presented.
Keywords: fear of Covid-19, tourists’ hygiene safety perception, travel anxiety, travel intention,
and travel involvement.
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Table of Content
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................... i
摘要................................................................................................................................................. ii
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iii
Table of Content ............................................................................................................................ iv
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. vi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... vii
Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Research Motivation ................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Research Questions & Purposes ............................................................................................... 3
1.3 Definition of term ..................................................................................................................... 3
Chapter 2 Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Fear of COVID-19 .................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Hygiene Safety Perception ........................................................................................................ 6
2.3 Travel Anxiety .......................................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Travel Intention ......................................................................................................................... 8
2.5 The Relationship between Fear of Covid-19 and Travel Anxiety ............................................ 9
2.6 The Relationship between Hygiene Safety Perception and Travel Anxiety ........................... 10
2.7 The Relationship between Travel Anxiety and Travel Intention ............................................ 10
2.8 The moderating role of Travel Involvement ........................................................................... 11
Chapter 3 Methodolody ................................................................................................................ 13
3.1 Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................... 13
3.2 Participants and Sampling Methods ....................................................................................... 14
3.2.1 Sample.................................................................................................................................. 14
3.2.2 Sampling method ................................................................................................................. 14
3.2.3 Calculation of sample size ................................................................................................... 14
3.3 Measurement .......................................................................................................................... 15
3.3.1 Demographics ...................................................................................................................... 15
3.3.2 Fear of Covid-19 .................................................................................................................. 16
3.3.3 Hygiene Safety Perception ................................................................................................... 17
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3.3.4 Travel Anxiety ..................................................................................................................... 18
3.3.5 Travel Intention .................................................................................................................... 19
3.3.6 Travel Involvement .............................................................................................................. 20
3.4 Analysis plan .......................................................................................................................... 21
3.4.1 Descriptive statistical analysis ............................................................................................. 21
3.4.2 Confirmatory factor analysis................................................................................................ 21
3.4.3 Reliability analysis ............................................................................................................... 21
3.4.4 Regression Analysis ............................................................................................................. 21
Chapter 4 Results .......................................................................................................................... 22
4.1 Descriptive Statistical Analysis .............................................................................................. 22
4.2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis................................................................................................. 27
4.3 Reliability and validity analysis .............................................................................................. 33
4.4 Hypothesis testing ................................................................................................................... 34
Chapter 5 Conclusion and suggestion ........................................................................................... 39
5.1 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 39
5.2 Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 39
5.3 Implication .............................................................................................................................. 40
5.4 Limitation and Future Research .............................................................................................. 41
Reference ...................................................................................................................................... 42
Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 53
Appendix 1 – English Version ...................................................................................................... 53
Appendix 2 – Chinese Version ..................................................................................................... 59
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List of Tables
Table 3.1. Research variable summary ....................................................................................... 15

Table 3-2. Fear of Covid-19 ....................................................................................................... 16
Table 3- 3 Hygiene Safety Perception ........................................................................................ 17
Table 3- 4 Travel Anxiety ........................................................................................................... 18
Table 3- 5 Travel Intention ......................................................................................................... 19
Table 3- 6 Travel Involvement ................................................................................................... 20
Table 4- 1 Demographics Descriptive Data Analysis ................................................................. 23
Table 4- 2 Fear of Covid-19 Statistical Analysis ........................................................................ 24
Table 4- 3 Hygiene Safety Perception Statistical Analysis......................................................... 24
Table 4- 4 Travel Anxiety Statistical Analysis ........................................................................... 25
Table 4- 5 Travel Intention Statistical Analysis ......................................................................... 26
Table 4-6 Travel Involvement Statistical Analysis ..................................................................... 26
Table 4- 7 Goodness of Fit Statistics .......................................................................................... 28
Table 4-8 Confirmatory Factor Analysis .................................................................................... 29
Table 4-8 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (continued) ................................................................. 30
Table 4-9 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for Variables ................................................. 34
Table 4- 10 Multiple Regression results for moderating role of travel involvement in the
relationship between fear of Covid-19 and travel anxiety .................................................... 35
Table 4- 11 Multiple Regression results for moderating role of travel involvement in the
relationship between hygiene safety perception and travel anxiety ..................................... 36
Table 4- 12 Multiple Regression results between travel anxiety and travel intention ................ 37
Table 4- 13 Summary of test results ........................................................................................... 38
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List of Figures
Figure 3- 1 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................ 13
Figure 4- 1 Moderating effect of travel involvement on the relationship between hygienesafety
perception and travel anxiety ................................................................................................ 38
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Chapter-1 Introduction
1.1 Research Motivation
Since the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 as a pandemic in 2020, the biggest
global lockdown has taken place with an emphasis on international travel for tourism (Turnšek et
al., 2020). Thus, tourism experienced its worst in the year of 2020 in history with a decrease
reaching 74% in international arrivals with an expectation to rebound to normal levels in 2023
(UNWTO, 2021). It is estimated that the global tourism and travel industry may decline by 58%
to 78% with international arrivals in 2020, roughly equal to a loss of USD 320 billion (UNWTO,
2020). Furthermore, at least 75 million jobs are at immediate risk, and the annual loss of global
tourism and hospitality may reach 2.1 trillion USD in 2020 (WTTC, 2020). Based on McKinsey's
prediction, the industry may take 3–4 years to achieve a full recovery, and the cumulative losses
may reach USD 3–8 trillion (McKinsey & Company, 2020).
The pandemic’s effects on the tourism industry not only relate to the invalidation or
suspension of visas, requirements for medical certification, self-isolation or quarantine, and
complete or partial blockade but also the situation that the fear of COVID-19 has increased
dramatically around the world, thereby changing people’s future travel behavior (Hassan, S.B.,
Soliman,2020). The choice of tourist destinations and tourist behavior, in recent years, have been
influenced by tourists' concerns about health risks or the possibility of contracting infectious
diseases (Chinazzi et al., 2020). The consequences and impacts of the Covid 19 pandemic are not
the same as those caused by other disasters such as material damage, but Covid 19 has a wider
impact such as job losses, economic crises, psychological disorders, and instability (Bae & Chang,
2020). Confusion, anxiety, fear, and fatigue were common during the Covid 19 Pandemic
(Chinazzi et al., 2020). The increase in the number of cases and deaths subsequently resulted in
unprecedented levels of anxiety, fear, and panic. Consequently, tourism research seeks to identify
appropriate solutions to mitigate these disruptive effects. Some studies have attempted to explore
the feasibility of new forms of tourism during the pandemic, including intact tourism (Bae&
Chang,2020), travel bubbles (Luo & Lam,2020), and 360-degree virtual tours, which are believed
to help ensure travelers’ safety, health, and social distancing. According to Rather (Rather,2021)
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fear of COVID-19 and perceived risk play important roles in influencing attitude and behavioral
intention. Zajonc’s(2020) theories suggested that researchers should consider cognition and
emotion to work independently during mental processing.
Health crises that have occurred, such as the SARS, H1N1, Ebola, (Quintal et al., 2010),
and the Covid-19 outbreak (Kuang et al., 2020) have greatly affected the economy in the tourism
industry and tourist behavior. The health crisis has generated bad trust and anxiety in tourists that
travel is unsafe in these conditions, especially to large, densely populated cities. This explains
that tourists are sensitive to the health crisis. (Neuburger & Egger, 2020) showed that the Covid
19 travel risk perception, and travel cancellations during covid 19 increased, and the intention to
travel decreased. This explained that the impact of Covid 19 on the tourist travel risk perception
and intention to travel was significant. (Bae & Chang, 2020) said that travel risk perception of
Corona Virus Disease is a significant antecedent of tourist attitude including travel intention.
Health risk perception (Jonas, Mansfeld, Paz & Potasman,2011) and general travel risk
perception (Mizrachi &Fuchs, 2016) have been examined in current tourism research. However,
the relationships between fear of covid-19, tourists' perception of health risks, travel anxiety, and
travel intention have not been studied yet much in the Post Covid-19 pandemic. In this study, the
fear of Covid-19 and the hygiene-security perceptions of tourists in the Post Covid-19 pandemic,
and the outcome of travel anxiety related to the pandemic on their intention to travel are
examined.
Chen (2010) pointed out involvement as the interest stimulated in certain situations as
well as the perceived importance of an individual. The general view of involvement in tourism
has been focused on examining temporary personal feelings of heightened involvement that
accompany a particular situation, such as destinations (e.g. O’Leary, &Morrison,2004) or travel
decisions (e.g. Cai, Feng, & Breiter, 2004). There are no previous studies to examine travelers’
involvement in the Post Covid-19 pandemic. In this study, we examined travel involvement as a
moderating variable to test the relationship between the fear of Covid-19, Hygiene Safety
Perception, and Travel Anxiety. In order to conclude this study, the remaining sections are
arranged as follows: Hypotheses development is presented in the Literature Review section. The
methodology and respondent profile is summarized in the Research Method section. Data
analysis is shown in the Results section. Under the section Discussion and Conclusions, the
findings are discussed and concluded.
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1.2 Research Questions & Purposes
This study investigates the fear of the Covid-19 pandemic and tourists’ hygiene safety
perception and travelers’ anxiety related to the post Covid-19 pandemic. The travel anxiety of the
participants about the pandemic affected their intention to travel. This study is expected to be
helpful to understand more about people’s travel behaviors and their travel intention in the post
Covid-19 pandemic. Therefore, this research will help how to recover to tourism industry the post
Covid-19 pandemic. Based on the above statements. There are 5 research questions in this study.
The research questions are as the following:
Research question 1. Does fear of Covid-19 positively affect on travel anxiety?
Research question 2. Does hygiene safety perception negatively affect travel anxiety?
Research question 3. Does travel anxiety negatively affect travel intention?
Research question 4. Does travel involvement positively moderate the relationship between fear
of Covid-19 and travel anxiety?
Research question 5. Does travel involvement negatively moderate the relationship between
hygiene safety perception and travel anxiety?
According to the study’s research questions, accordant with the research motivation above.
There are 5 research purposes in this study. The research purposes are as the following:
Research purpose 1. This study aims to discuss the positive relationship between fear of Covid-19
and travel anxiety.
Research purpose 2. This study aims to discuss the negative relationship between hygiene safety
perception and travel anxiety.
Research purpose 3. This study aims to discuss the negative relationship between travel anxiety
and travel intention.
Research purpose 4. This study aims to discuss to travel involvement positively moderates the
relationship between fear of Covid-19 and travel anxiety.
Research purpose 5. This study intends to discuss to travel involvement negatively moderates the
relationship between hygiene safety perception and travel anxiety.
1.3 Definition of term

(1) Fear of Covid-19: Based on Environ et al. (2022) and Ahorsu et al. (2020), this study
defines the COVID-19 pandemic was caused by a new influenza virus that emerged rapidly
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and spread around the world because most people were not immune to the virus that caused
the virus (World Health Organization, 2021). Fear is an emotional response to a threat as
perceived by an individual and is considered a functional, adaptive, and transient response
to stimuli, briefly resulting in physiological changes (Adolphs 2013, Pappas, Kiriaze,
Giannakis, Falagas, 2009).
(2) Hygiene Safety Perception: The risk perceived by tourists in the tourism sector can be
defined as individual perceptions of the possibility that action can lead them to danger
which then influences their travel decisions and behavior if the danger is considered to
exceed an acceptable level (Luo & Lam, 2020).
(3) Travel Anxiety: Anxiety is a subjective feeling that arises from exposure to a real or
potential risk; it is a feeling of tension, worry, stress, vulnerability, discomfort, restlessness,
fear, or panic (McIntyre and Roggenbuck 1998).
(4) Travel Intention: The intention to travel is the result of an individual's mental process that
will influence actions and change motivation into behavior or action (Karagöz et al., 2020).
(5) Travel Involvement: Hulusic and Rizvic (2013) also indicated that the idea of involvement
changes from consumer behaviors to leisure opinions and leisure behaviors are strongly
correlated with enduring involvement; involvement is therefore defined as the
psychological state of motivation, encouragement, or interest among individuals, groups,
or products.
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Chapter 2 Literature Review
This chapter will review the literature including fear of COVID-19, tourist hygiene safety
perception, travel Anxiety, travel intention and travel involvement to discuss the background and
develop the framework. The last section will discuss the moderating role of travel involvement in
the relationship between Fear of Covid-19, hygiene Safety Perception and travel anxiety.
2.1 Fear of COVID-19

Emotions are difficult to define because it is difficult to observe how emotions develop,
create and express themselves. (Frijda,1986). The common consensus on the definition of emotion
is that it is difficult to observe. Emotions involve several component processes encompassing
subjective feelings, expressive motor behavior, physiological arousal, cognitive appraisal, and a
behavioral tendency. Therefore, the volume edited by Joyce Davidson, Liz Bondi, and Mick Smith
demonstrates the significance of emotions not merely to our interpretations of reality, but also to
how we locate, relate to, and represent the places that we inhabit. (Davidson, Bondi,Smith, 2012.).
Therefore, emotions play an important role in explaining personal behavior and attitudes.
Fear is defined as a basic, intense emotion aroused by the detection of an imminent threat,
involving an immediate alarm reaction that mobilizes the organism by triggering a set of
physiological changes (American Psychological Association. APA dictionary of psychology: fear.
Am Psychol Assoc (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic is caused by a new influenza virus that
quickly emerged and spread worldwide since most people did not have immunity against the virus
that caused COVID-19 (World Health Organization,2021). Some of the researchers identified
various domains of fear related to the fear of COVID-19 infection, such as fear of oneself. For
example, fear of contracting the disease yourself or your family, fear of financial loss and
unemployment, fear of using avoidance behavior to learn about the epidemic, or fear of making
behavioral decisions, such as visiting your parents, should you look up information about it.
mortality, etc. The COVID-19 pandemic is an epidemiological crisis, but also a psychological one.
In addition, COVID-19 issues related to the pandemic, such as social distancing, isolation, and
quarantine, as well as social and economic impacts, have also affected psychology such as sadness,
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anxiety, fear, anger, frustration, dissatisfaction, guilt, helplessness, loneliness, and nervousness. tocause
toxic mediators. Most countries have imposed social distancing restrictions, curfews, travel restrictions,
and restrictions on social gatherings and business activities to slow the rate of infection. Because of these
restrictions have automatically caused interference in business activities, the result in unemployment,
bankruptcies, and economic slowdowns. Regardless of thefield of study, anxiety and fear are considered
two different emotions (Barlow, 2000). According to the theory, fear is a basic emotion felt by all people,
regardless of age, race, and culture. Fear isthe perception of danger. Anxiety is an unpleasant sensation
and a physiological response when a person is afraid (Beck, A.T.T.; Emery, G. Guilford, NY, USA,
1979.). COVID-19 has infected more than 600 million people worldwide and total of 6.64 million deaths;
hence, people easily feelfear, panic, and anxiety. When a large amount of unverified, fake, or exaggerated
information is shared through social media and online, Rubin and Wessely argued that such incorrect
informationincreases the level of panic.
2.2 Hygiene Safety Perception

Tourism is one of the most sensitive sectors that affect health crisis issues and safety
problems and epidemics (Sánchez-Cañizares et al., 2020). The coronavirus outbreak is starting to
have an impact on Taiwan tourism, both in terms of supply and demand. The tourism sector in
Taiwan has become very sluggish since the implementation of instructions to maintain social
distancing and to stop some activities outside the home. The reduced demand for travel during a
health crisis is the result of the perception of the risk of tourist travel (Sánchez-Cañizares et al.,
2020). The risk perceived by tourists in the tourism sector can be defined as individual perceptions
of the possibility that action can lead them to danger which then influences their travel decisions
and behavior if the danger is considered to exceed an acceptable level. So many researchers found
that the travel risk posed by tourists is a determinant of tourist behavior itself (Luo & Lam, 2020).
Among the previously described health-related risks in tourism are HIV, schistosomiasis,
Legionnaires’ disease, sexually transmitted infections, and SARS (e.g., Bauer, 2007; Jonas et al.,
2011; Joseph et al., 1996; McKercher and Chon 2004; Schwartz et al., 2005). The consequences
and impacts of the Covid 19 pandemic are not the same as those caused by other disasters such as
material damage, but Covid 19 has a wider impact such as job losses, economic crises,
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psychological disorders, and instability (Bae & Chang, 2020). Confusion, anxiety, fear, and fatigue
were common during the Covid 19 Pandemic (Chinazzi et al., 2020). The increase in the number
of cases and deaths subsequently resulted in unprecedented levels of anxiety, fear, and panic.
Several previous studies reported these perceived risks have the potential to significantly
ruin tourism demand, such as after the outbreak of the swine flu pandemic in the UK (Song&
Wu,20). It is also very vital to understand the basic human need for safety and security and to make
potential visitors feel safe before or during their vacation (Sonmez & Graefe, 1998). For example,
travellers who considered certain destinations to be “at risk” are likely to avoid them in their future
travel plans (Kozak,Crotts & Law,2007). The bad experiences can make potential tourists worry
about their future travel options. Understanding that domestic destinations are perceived as safe, it
is fair to accept that those who associate high risk with international traveler will perfer to vacation
at home. the influence of tourists’ health-related risk perceptions on travel behavior during the
previous SARS outbreak, as well as the significant effects of cultural dimensions, previous
experience, and perceived control (e.g., Jonas et al., 2011; Kozak et al., 2007).Previous
explanations of health risk perceptions include factors such as people’s knowledge and
understanding of the disease, personal experience, trust, and cultural values, as well as
demographic, cultural, and personality characteristics (Prati & Pietrantoni, 2016; van der Linden,
2015; Zambrano-Cruz et al., 2018). These factors can exert a great influence on tourists’ behavior
than the disease itself (Cooper, 2006; McKercher & Chon, 2004). For example, study conducted
by Karataş (2020), it was determined that there was an average of 85-90% increase in the behaviors
of individuals regarding measures such as cleaning, hygiene, mask and gloves after the pandemic
and a decrease of 95% in the behaviors of being in crowded places and using public transportation
vehicles. Therefore, tourism puts safety at the center of travel and the ongoing risks associated
with tourism. It is important to identify the antecedents of health risk perceptions in tourism and
ascertain their effects on tourists’ behavior.
2.3 Travel Anxiety

In psychopathology, anxiety is defined as a mental disorder captured along cognitive,
behavioral, emotional, and physiological dimensions (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Anxiety is a subjective feeling that arises from exposure to a real or potential risk; it is a feeling of
tension, worry, stress, vulnerability, discomfort, restlessness, fear, or panic (McIntyre &
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Roggenbuck 1998). Travel-associated anxieties and fears are common. Locke and Feinsod2 have
suggested that enjoyment of travel depends upon a predisposition to cope well with a variety of
physical and psychological stresses. Emotions were a center of interest in tourism research due to
their impact on tourists' cognitive evaluations and behavioral responses (Cohen & Cohen, 2012;
Volo, 2021). Anxiety is a normal phenomenon of everyday living and as a response to real or
imagined threats to the person, is to a minor degree a part of the cultural norm. For travelers with
anxiety and panic attacks; Holidays don't always feel like getaways, even before Covid-19. A
century ago, Sigmund Freud referred to this feeling as "reiseangst", from the German for "fear of
travel".
Travel anxiety can be a collection of symptoms and fears that can ruin a vacation.
(Shadel,2021). Anxiety that arises when traveling is also caused by uncertainty, not knowing the
destination, not knowing what to do at the destination, and feeling unsafe when in a tourist
destination (Ozascilar et al., 2019). Traveling anywhere involves risk and uncertainty; therefore,
one must assess various factors such as product quality or destination, possible negative
consequences, needs, and costs. Anyway, people have so many different kinds of evaluations of
many products. For example, some people may think that a destination creates fear and tension;
others may think the destination promotes feelings of relaxation, well-being, and wellness. Some
may consider the purchase risky; others may consider it not risky.
The only study on travel anxiety and stress in tourism is based on the physical, social and
psychological effects of road accidents on different types of road users (Mayou and Bryant 2003).
The purpose of this study was to understand the impact of travel anxiety on perceptions of travel
intention.
2.4 Travel Intention

According to (Jang et al., 2009) intention to travel can be defined as an individual's intention
to travel or a commitment to travel. In addition, the intention to travel is the result of an individual's
mental process that will influence actions and change motivation into behavior or action (Karagöz
et al., 2020). The degree of certainty of tourists about their destination; obstacles that may exist
that can cause tourists to respond differently and can affect their intention to travel (Yun et al.,
2012) or it can also be said to be a decision taken by tourists regarding the tourism services offered,
(Khasawneh & Alfandi, 2019). The intention to travel is affected by various factors, which can
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both drive and limit travel intention (Makhdoomi & Baba, 2019). As was stated in the subsections
earlier, travel intention is, among others, impacted by crises, since health crises, for example, can
increase the demand for certain types of tourism (Wen et al., 2005). However, crises can limit
travel intention as well (Promsivapallop & Kannaovakun, 2017; Senbeto & Hon,2020), among
others through the perception of risk related to crises (Hajibaba et al., 2015).
The risk that will be accepted by tourists, as well as the possibility of safety, will greatly
affect the intention of tourists to visit a place (Henthorne et al., 2013) therefore, tourists may take
several steps to avoid these risks such as continuing to travel plans, changing the purpose of travel,
or getting more relevant information about the area to be visited. But usually, tourists will prefer
tourist areas or destinations with lower risk possibilities and avoid tourist destinations that have a
high-risk level (Reichel et al., 2007). Previous research has confirmed that travel risk perception
in the Covid-19 context is the perception of individuals about the possibility or uncertainty of
taking an action on a tourist trip that can harm or influence their travel decisions during the
pandemic Covid 19 (Nazneen et al., 2020). (Neuburger & Egger, 2020) identified that travel risk
perception and the willingness to change or cancel travel plans significantly impact the intention
to travel.
2.5 The Relationship between Fear of Covid-19 and Travel Anxiety

Ahorsu et al., (2020) established the “Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19)” to identify the
level of fear among the population. This could include the fear of losing One life, and to be infected,
and so on. Previous studies have attempted to measure the level of fear among populations (i.e.,
Bratićet al., 2021; Luo and Lam, 2020, Magano et al., 2021; Wachyuni and Kusumaningrum, 2020).
The two terms fear and anxiety are overlapped but they are different. Themost obvious distinction
is that fear is an awareness of actual danger while anxiety is a response to anticipated threats (Luo
and Lam, 2020). Fear happens because of a particular reason while anxiety does not require a
certain motivation (Perusini and Fanselow, 2015). A study has shown that negative psychological
outcomes are common among people during the COVID-19 outbreak.Therefore, there should be
mental health care for the population in the community (Li, 2020). Anxiety is more pronounced in
people with preexisting mental disorders especially those associated with high levels of anxiety
such as panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, health anxiety disorder, and generalized
anxiety disorder. COVID-19 results in many types of
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stress such as media exposure, exposure to death/loss, movement restrictions, and economic
hardships. All these possibly stimulate people with pre-existing anxiety disorders to have increased
anxiety. Ahorsu et al. (2020) found a positive relationship between the fear of COVID-19 and
hospital anxiety. When people are constantly exposed to local and international news on fatalities
and the infection rate of COVID-19, the degree of fear and anxiety increases.
Thus, the first hypothesis in this study is initiated as follows:
H1: Fear of Covid-19 has a positive effect on travel anxiety.
2.6 The Relationship between Hygiene Safety Perception and Travel Anxiety
In economic and psychological research, tourism studies apply distinct explanations of risk
perceptions, mostly associated with tourists’ fear, anxiety, worry, and nervousness (Fuchs et al.,
2013; Reichel et al., 2007; Wolff et al., 2019). Tourists’ concerns about financial and security risks
are abundant in the tourism and hospitality literature (Fuchs & Pizam, 2011; Pizam et al., 1997;
Quintal et al., 2010), while a minority of studies described other categories of tourists risk
perceptions such as security (Liu & Gao, 2008), property loss (Dolnicar, 2005), crime (Maser &
Weiermair, 1998), terrorist attacks (Law, 2006), and natural disasters (Fuchs & Reichel, 2011).
Unknown risks are usually perceived as more frightening than known ones. In the case of SARS
and the COVID-19 pandemic, the fear of new and unknown viruses, coupled with contradictory
information about origin and outcomes, had significant negative effects on tourists’ perceptions,
attitudes, behavioral intentions, and travel anxiety.
Overseas travel and exotic destinations can often carry higher risks and uncertainties
regarding personal health and safety. For example, there may be an increased risk of contracting
contagious infections on public transport, on poorly sanitized beaches, or through ticks or
mosquitoes (Irwin, 2020). In the study, the H2 hypothesis given below has been tested.
H2: Tourists' hygiene-safety perceptions have a negatively significant on travel anxiety
2.7 The Relationship between Travel Anxiety and Travel Intention

Travel decision involves a complex process of cognitive feelings, emotions, and risks that
may recall a state of anxiety in case of threats which is negatively associated with the travel
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intention (Reisinger & Mavondo, 2005). When a destination is viewed as “unsafe”, people may
form a negative perception (George, 2003). This form of perception is developed via information
sources, such as the news from mainstream and social media (Koo, 2016). For example, when
mainstream media focuses on the number of infected people, the number of deaths, the number of
stores that have closed, and the businesses that have gone bankrupt due to COVID-19, people
begin to worry about their jobs. In tourism, researchers explored the effect of anxiety on travel
behavioral intention in different countries. Recently, Zenker et al. (2021) developed a scale for
anxiety and found that anxiety is negatively influencing intentions. This finding was previously
confirmed by Reisinger & Mavondo (2005) revealing that anxiety has a negative impact on travel
intention. Likewise, Luo & Lam (2020), Wachyuni & Kusumaningrum (2020), Magano et al.
(2021), and Bratić et al. (2021) found similar results regarding the negative effect of anxiety on
travel intention and behavior. People will grow anxious and their perceived level of safety in a
destination decreases; hence, travel intention is reduced (Reisinger & Mavondo (2005), Wachyuni
& Kusumaningrum (2020). Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses. Therefore, the third
hypothesis is developed as follows:
H3: Travel anxiety is negatively related to travel intention.
2.8 The moderating role of Travel Involvement

Involvement is an individual’s perceived correlation based on the demands, values, and
interests in certain events (Hair et al.,2010). Hulusic & Rizvic (2013) also indicated that the
idea of involvement changes from consumer behaviors to leisure opinions and leisure behaviors
are strongly correlated with enduring involvement; involvement is therefore defined as the
psychological state of motivation, encouragement, or interest among individuals, groups, or
products. Koo & Ju (2010) pointed out involvement as a personal correlation with a certain event
and the tactic of influencing consumers to receive and deal with information.
Involvement is widely viewed as a predictor for understanding travelers’ decision-making
because of its potential impact on people’s intent to travel, attitude, and risk perception. (Havitz,
1990). Shih (2009) indicated that enduring involvement would affect experiences, images, and
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revisit intention, while experiences would influence destination image and revisit intention. A
visitor with more involvement in a touring spot would present higher destination affirmation. The
unique attraction of a destination was the major factor in visitors collecting data and selecting
destinations. In other words, the more involvement in a touring destination, the higher emphasis
appeared. Similarly, consumers with higher enduring involvement in tours revealed higher
concerns. With the Covid 19 Pandemic, people are more likely to involve their travel plans, travel
information, and also travel destinations to protect themselves by infecting from Covid-19. In this
study, the traveler’s travel involvement may affect the relationship between the fear of Covid-19
and travel anxiety. The traveler’s travel involvement also would like to affect Traveler’s hygiene
safety perception and travel anxiety. Subsequently, the following hypotheses are proposed in this
study:
H4. Travel Involvement has a positive moderating effect on the relationship between the fear of
Covid-19 and travel anxiety.
H5. Travel Involvement has a negative moderating effect on the relationship between hygiene
safety perception and travel anxiety
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Chapter 3 Methodolody
There are five sections: conceptual framework, participants and sampling methods,
calculation of sample size, measurement, and analysis plan in this chapter to explain how this study
uses research methods. This study aims to examine the relationship between fear of Covid-19,
tourist’s hygiene safety perception, travel anxiety, travel intention, and travel involvement in the
post COVID-19 pandemic. The independent variable in this research is Fear of Covid-19 and
Hygiene Safety Perception which will then be seen in its influence on the dependent variable,
which is travel anxiety and travel intention and travel involvement as a moderating variable. In
this research, the method used is quantitative, namely research that can be calculated using
statistical methods (Abdus-Saboor et al., 2019). Quantitative research emphasizes its management
by using numerical and numerical data processed by statistical methods. The study was conducted
by distributing an online questionnaire to potential tourists who are interested to travel in the post-
pandemic situation to understand how tourists perceive travel anxiety and travel intentions in
response to the post-Covid-19 pandemic.
3.1 Conceptual Framework
This study investigates the relationships among fear of Covid-19, tourist’s hygiene safety
perception, travel anxiety, travel intention, and travel involvement of travelers who are willing to
travel in the post COVID-19 pandemic.
H4
H5
H1
H3
H2
Figure 3- 1 Conceptual Framework
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3.2Participants and Sampling Methods
3.2.1 Sample
Subjects in the study are the potential tourists who are interested to travel in the post-Covid
pandemic. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between fear of Covid-19,
tourist’s hygiene safety perception, travel anxiety, and travel intention as well as the moderating
role of travel involvement among travelers who are planning to travel in the post Covid pandemic.
3.2.2 Sampling method

Questionnaires were provided in two languages (English and Chinese) that are distributed to
the people tourists who are interested to travel in the post-pandemic and delivered questionnaires
via social media platforms. This survey questionnaire was written in English. Some of the
respondents are Taiwanese so the questions must be translated into Mandarin traditional Chinese.
Convenience sampling and purposive sampling were adopted. To prevent respondents from
choosing answers other than their intentions as influenced by social desirability, this study adopted
the suggestions of Podsakoff, Mac Kenzie, & Podsakoff (2012) before the formal distribution of
questionnaires. The suggestions were as below: First of all, respondents were told that the survey
was for academic research; second, it was clarified later that the questionnaire was anonymous and
that no one except the researcher was able to observe respondents’ answers; third, it was explained
to respondents that the information asked for in the questionnaire responded to would-be analyzed
giving results for groups rather than observed individually; fourth, respondents could feel free to
stop filling in the questionnaire in the process; finally, the completed questionnaires were collected
by the researchers in person, so that respondents’ concern about the exposure of their answers
could be alleviated. Regarding sample size, from the viewpoint of Tinsley a& Tinsley (1987), 100
is not a good sample size. 250 is considered the standard sample size. 300 is a good sample size,
and 450 is a very good sample size. Hence, the study distributed 500 questionnaires.
3.2.3 Calculation of sample site
Podsakoff et al. (2003) suggested the following preventive methods to reduce the common
method variance (CMV) bias: such as adding reverse items and arranging to measure items in the
questionnaire, concealing the purpose of the study, and concealing the relationship between
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questions. The questionnaire was formulated based on the principles suggested by Podsakoff et al.
(2003), involving reverse items, random item arrangement, anonymity, and concealing the purpose
of the study.
3.3 Measurement
The measurement variables of the questionnaire include background information,
demographics, fear of Covid-19, tourist hygiene safety perception, travel anxiety, travel intention
and travel involvement All measurements are based on a 5-point Likert scale with anchors ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The following describes the operational definition
of each variable, the items of each construct, and the standard of measurement.
3.3.1 Demographics
Demographics are included gender, age, education, occupation, and nationality. The scale of
each variable is shown in Table 3-1.
Table 3.1. Research variable summary
Variables Scale of measure Ranging of scales
Gender Nominal 3 categories
Age Ordinal 6 categories
Education Ordinal 4 categories
Occupation Nominal 5 categories
Nationality Nominal 3 categories
Fear of Covid 19 All measurements are based on

Hygiene Safety Perception 5- a point Likert scale with
Travel Anxiety Interval anchors ranging from 1
Travel Intention (strongly disagree) to 5
Travel Involvement (strongly agree)
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3.3.2 Fear of Covid-19
Measurement of Fear of Covid-19 is based on a scale of (10 items) by J.Environ et al. (2022)
and Ahorsu et al. ( 2020 ). This study defines the fear of Covid-19 as how the Covid-19 pandemic
effect travel anxiety. Five items are measured on a 5-point Likert scale with anchors ranging from
1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The items are shown in Table 3-2.
Table 3-2. Fear of Covid-19
Construct Items
1. I am scare of coronavirus-19.
2. I feel distressed when I think about coronavirus-19.
3. I concern a lot about coronavirus-19.
4. Coronavirus-19 is an unusual disease
5. My mind is irritated when I think about coronavirus-19.
6. I am afraid to die because of coronavirus-19.
Fear of Covid-19
7. I feel nervous when I saw the news about coronavirus-19
on Television or social media
8. I can’t fall asleep if I think about getting coronavirus-19
9. My heart becomes abnormal or fast when I think about
getting coronavirus-19
10. I don’t want to travel during coronavirus-19
Source:Environ et al. (2022) and Ahorsu et al. ( 2020 )
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3.3.3 Hygiene Safety Perception
Measurement of hygiene safety perception is based on a scale of (4 items) by Kandemir
Altuner, G. (2020). This study defines how tourists’ hygiene safety perception effect on vel anxiety.
Four items are measured on a 5-point Likert scale with anchors ranging from 1 (stronglydisagree)
to 5 (strongly agree). The items are shown in Table 3-3.
Table 3- 3 Hygiene Safety Perception
Construct Items
1. Travel hygiene requirements have changed since Covid-19

2. In the Post Covid-19, I am focusing on the cleanliness and
safety of public transport
Hygiene Safety
3. In the Post Covid-19, I am concerned about the cleanliness and
Perception
safety of public recreation areas
4. In the Post Covid-19, I am very concerned about the
cleanliness and safety of hotels
Source: Kandemir Altuner, G. (2020).
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3.3.4 Travel Anxiety
Measurement of Travel Anxiety is based on a scale of (6 items) by Int. J. Environ. (2020).
This study defines how tourists’ travel anxiety effect on vel intention. Six items are measured on
a 5-point Likert scale with anchors ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The
items are shown in Table 3-4.
Table 3- 4 Travel Anxiety
Construct Items
1. I don’t want to plan a trip or tour in the post-Covid-19pandemic

period
2. I feel that my body is bulk after planning a trip in the post Covid-19
the pandemic
Travel Anxiety 3. I don’t want to go on a trip in the post Covid-19
4. I will discomfort when I travel in the post Covid-19
5. I feel anxious after deciding to travel in the post Covid-19
6. My heartbeat is so fast when I think of going on a tour in the post
Covid-19 pandemic
Source: Int. J. Environ. (2020).
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3.3.5 Travel Intention
Measurement of travel intention is based on a scale of (3 items) by Int. J. Environ. (2020).
Three items are measured on a 5-point Likert scale with anchors ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)
to 5 (strongly agree). The items are shown in Table 3-5.
Table 3- 5 Travel Intention
Construct Items
1. If given the chance to travel, I will always take it

Travel Intention 2. I will try my best to improve my capability to travel
3. I will collect travel-related information in the future.
Source: Int. J. Environ. (2020).
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3.3.6 Travel Involvement
The measurement of travel involvement is based on a scale of (6 items) developed by
Zaichkowsky (1994), Kim, Woo & Uysal, (2015), Yu & Tian, (2013). This study defines travel
involvement as a moderate role between fear of covid-19 and hygiene safety perception impact on
these two. Six items are measured on a 5-point Likert scale with anchors ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The items are shown in Table 3-6.
Table 3- 6 Travel Involvement
Construct Items
1. Traveling is an important part of my life

2. It gives me great pleasure to travel.
Travel 3. I love spending money on travel.

Involvement 4. I attach great importance to a vacation.
5. I frequently travel
6. I am so pleaseful to spend time travelling.
Source: Zaichkowsky (1994), Kim, Woo, & Uysal, (2015).
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3.4 Analysis plan
SPSS 23.0 and Lisrel 8.72 softwares were used in the data analysis. According to conceptual
framework to analyze questionnaires by methods shown as bellows:
3.4.1 Descriptive statistical analysis

The sample of demographics include gender, age, education, occupation, residence,
3.4.2 Confirmatory factor analysis

Lisrel 8.72 was used to carrier out Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and path analysis,
which also show the structural model’s respecification, unidimensionality, convergent validity and
discriminant validity in order to verifying hypothesis. Outputs for this research including SFL, SE,
t-value, SMC, X2, df, X2/df, IFI, CFI, and RMSEA to examine measurement model’s reliability,
validity, goodness of fit (Hair, Anderson, Tatham and Black, 2009).
3.4.3 Reliability analysis
This work used Cronbach’s α to assess the reliability of the measures. It is generally believed
that if Cronbach’s α is > 0.7, it means the reliability of this measure is consistent and credible if
Cronbach’ α is higher (Vogt, 1999). When the sample size is larger than 350, the factor loadings
should be greater than 0.30 at least (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 2009). Practically,
Cronbach’s α value is at least greater than 0.5, preferably greater than 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978).
3.4.4 Regression Analysis
In this study, regression analysis was used to test the impact of fear of Covid-19, hygiene
safety perception, travel anxiety, travel intention, and the moderating role of travel involvement.
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Chapter 4 Results
4.1 Descriptive Statistical Analysis
The collection of respondent data began in August 2022 by distributing questionnaires online
using Google forms and then sending them via message on social media like Facebook and
Instagram. The questionnaires were delivered to respondents who are interested to travel in the
post pandemic. Most of the respondents are females (57.1%) and the rest (42.9%) are male, those
who are private company employees (23.8%), government employees (14.0%), University
students (50.7%) and the rest are others profession. 16.0% of the sample with age under 20 years
old were 67 people. The majority, accounted for 49.0% of the sample, with a total number of 206,
aged from 21 to 30 years old. 18.8% of the sample aged 31 to 40 years old were 79 people. 7.9%
of the sample with ages ranging from 41 to 50 were 33 people. 6.0% of the sample with ages above
60 years old were 25 people. The minority of the sample, with a total number of 10 (2.4%), were
ages ranging from 51 to 60 years old. They were asked to participate and have the right to agree
or not. After discarding unusable responses, individual survey ratings were collected. Most of them
had traveled in the post Covid 19 pandemic, about 62%. Of the total who traveled in the post
pandemic, 42% of those were on vacation, 38% on business trips, and 1.3% fever travel during
pandemic.
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Table 4- 1 Demographics Descriptive Data Analysis
Variable Item Frequency Percent Rank
Male 180 42.9 2
Gender Female 240 57.1 1
Other 0 0 3
Under 20 67 16 3
21~30 206 49 1
31~40 79 18.8 2
Age 41~50 33 7.9 4
51-60 10 2.4 6
Over 60 25 6.0 5
High School 40 9.5 3
College/ University 177 42.1 2

Education
Graduate School & above 180 42.9 1
Other 23 5.5 4
Student 213 50.7 1
Government employees 59 14.0 3
Occupation Office workers 100 23.8 2
Retired 27 6.4 4
Other 21 5.0 5
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Table 4- 2 Fear of Covid-19 Statistical Analysis
Measurement Items Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis
Fear of Covid 19 (n=420)
I am scare of coronavirus-19. 3.92 .597 -1.96 8.07
I feel distressed when I think about coronavirus- 4.11 .753 -1.05 2.27
19.
I concern a lot about coronavirus-19. 4.10 .695 -1.14 3.42
Coronavirus-19 is an unusual disease. 4.21 .647 -.981 3.02
Table 4- 3 Hygiene Safety Perception Statistical Analysis
Hygiene Safety Perception (n=420)
Travel hygiene requirements have changed since 3.17 .821 .632 .262
Covid-19
In the Post Covid-19, I am focusing on the 2.98 .860 .393 -.175

cleanliness and safety of public transport
In the Post Covid-19, I am concerned about the 2.99 .867 .545 .054
cleanliness and safety of public recreation areas
In the Post Covid-19, I am very concerned about 2.96 .855 .480 .171
the cleanliness and safety of hotels
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Table 4- 4 Travel Anxiety Statistical Analysis
Travel Anxiety (n=420)
I don’t want to plan a trip or tour in the Post 3.825 .755 -1.579 3.341
Covid-19
I feel that my body is bulk after planning a trip in 3.967 .915 -1.034 .853
the Post Covid-19
I don’t want to go on a trip in the Post Covid-19 3.908 .969 -1.205 1.150
I will discomfort when I travel in the Post Covid- 3.992 .935 -1.056 .686
19
I feel anxious after deciding to travel in the Post 3.844 .864 -1.078 1.125
Covid-19
My heartbeat is so fast when I think of going on a 3.872 1.008 -1.006 .440
tour in the Post Covid-19
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Table 4- 5 Travel Intention Statistical Analysis
Travel Intention (n=420)
If given the chance to travel, I will always take it 4.18 .661 -.862 2.32
I will try my best to improve my capability to 4.21 .560 -.549 3.40

travel
I will collect travel-related information in the future 4.22 .565 -.285 1.15
Table 4-6 Travel Involvement Statistical Analysis
Travel Involvement (n=420)
Traveling is an important part of my life 4.31 .561 -.240 .532
It gives me great pleasure to travel. 4.29 .527 -.059 .839
I love spending money on travel. 4.21 .575 -.471 1.91
I attach great importance to a vacation. 4.17 .619 -.485 1.06
I frequently travel 4.15 .605 -.383 .943
I am so pleased to spend time traveling. 4.18 .512 .126 .865
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4.2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Since the measures of the constructs in this study refer to the established scales, according
to Anderson and Gerbing (1988), a two-step procedure is the main analysis procedure in this
research; which means before investigating relationships between variables in the hypothesized
model, the measurement model should be examined using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to
validate the research constructs. As shown in Table 4-7, this study conducted a series of CFA,
using Lisrel 8.72 to examine the distinctiveness of our study variable based on chi-square statistics
and fit indices of RMSEA and CFI (Anderson & Gerbing 1988). The results fit indthe ex of
hypothesized 5-factor model including fear of Covid-19, hygiene safety perception, travel anxiety,
travel intention and travel involvement showing χ2=2644.068, degree of freedom =754, χ2/df= 3.5,
RMSEA=0.076, IFI= 0.982, CFI=0.982, NFI=0.968 and RFI=0.964. These CFA results also
provide support for the distinctiveness of the five variables for subsequent analyses.
As shown in Table 4-8, the 29 observed items were significant (t> 1.96, p< 0.05).
Additionally, all the average variance extracted (AVE) were between .40 and .73. Convergent
validity and internal consistence of model are acceptable since the composite reliabilities (CR) are
between .72 and .92, which correlate with the value of .6 suggested by Bagozzi and Yi (1988). In
conducting reliability analysis.
In the discriminant validity test, this study selected the square root of the AVE of each
construct that were greater than the numbers of the correlation coefficients of paired variables
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2009). This study conducted a
correlation analysis to prove any significant correlation between constructs in the measurement
models. Next, this study conducted a discriminant validity test. The results indicate that the square
root of AVE of each construct is greater than the correlation coefficients of paired variables, the
construct is acceptable.
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Table 4- 7 Goodness of Fit Statistics
Index Standard Parameter
Degrees of Freedom (df) 754
Chi-Square (χ2) 2644.068
χ2 / df <5 3.5
RMSEA >0.05 0.076
Incremental Fit Index(IFI) >0.9 0.982
Comparative Fit Index (CFI) >0.9 0.982
Normed Fit Index (NFI) >0.9 0.968
Relative Fit Index(RFI) >0.9 0.964
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Table 4-8 Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Code Items SFL SE t-value SMC AVE CR

Fear of Covid-19 (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.91) 0.51 0.91
I am scare of
FC1 0.85 -- -- 0.61
coronavirus-19.
I feel distress when I think about
FC2 0.75 0.05 15.81 0.58
coronavirus-19
I concern a lot about
FC3 0.78 0.06 16.03 0.61
coronavirus-19.
Coronavirus-19 is an
FC4 0.80 0.07 18.70 0.70
unusual disease
My mind is irritated when I think

FC5 0.66 0.05 13.32 0.45
about coronavirus-19
I am afraid to die because of

FC6 Coronavirus-19 0.80 0.07 19.80 0.68
I feel nervous when I saw news about

Coronavirus-19 on television or
FC7 Social media 0.55 0.05 12.78 0.39
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I can’t fall asleep if I think
FC8 0.40 0.05 8.82 0.31
about getting coronavirus-19
My heart become abnormal or fast when

FC9 0.60 0.06 14.11 0.45
I think about getting coronavirus-19
I don’t want to travel during

FC10 0.80 0.07 17.88 0.58
Coronavirus-19
Table 4-8 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (continued)
Code Items SFL SE t-value SMC
Hygiene safety perception (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.85) 0.65 0.85
Travel hygiene requirements have changed

HP11 0.88 0.07 19.25 0.75
since Covid-19
In the post Covid-19, I am focusing on the

HP12 0.85 0.06 16.23 0.58
cleanliness and safety of public transport
In the post Covid-19, I am concerned about

HP13 cleanliness and safety of public recreation 0.83 0.06 14.47 0.52
areas
In the post Covid-19, I am very concerned

HP14 about the cleanliness and safety of hotels. 0.80 0.06 13.65 0.51
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Travel Anxiety (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.80) 0.71 0.80
I don’t want to plan a trip or tour

TA15 in the post Covid-19 pandemic period 0.65 0.06 9.14 0.18
I feel that my body is bulk after planning

TA16 0.45 0.05 8.25 0.14
trip in the post Covid-19 pandemic
TA17 I don’t want to go on a trip in the post 0.41 0.05 8.64 0.16
Covid-19
I will discomfort when I travel in the

TA18 0.54 0.06 11.70 0.45
post Covid-19 pandemic
I feel anxious after deciding to travel

TA19 0.61 0.06 13.06 0.58
in the post Covid-19
My heartbeat is so fast when I think of

TA20 Going on a tour in the post Covid-19 0.54 0.05 10.23 0.41
pandemic
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Travel Intention (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.92) 0.55 0.92
If given chance to travel, I will always

TI21 take it. 0.89 0.07 20.06 0.78
I will try my best to improve my capability

TI22 0.85 0.07 18.22 0.68
to travel.
TI23 I will collect travel-related information 0.81 0.06 16.64 0.61

in the future

Travel Involvement (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.83) 0.45 0.83
Travelling is an important part of

TV24 my life 0.66 0.06 11.10 0.48
It gives me pleasure
TV25 0.75 0.07 16.55 0.54
to travel
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TV26 I love spending my money on travel 0.70 0.06 13.85 0.51
I attach great importance to a

TV27 Vacation 0.75 0.06 12.52 0.44
TV28 I frequently travel 0.83 0.07 14.58 0.58
I am so pleaseful to spend
TV29 Time travelling 0.78 0.07 10.23 0.52
4.3 Reliability and validity analysis

This work used Cronbach’s α to access the reliability of the measures. Cronbach’s α from
0.00 (no reliability) to 1.0 (perfect reliability), so that Cronbach’s α is higher means the
measurement of internal reliability is consistency and trusty (Vogt, 1999). Hair, Anderson, Tatham
and Balck (1998) indicated Cronbach’s α at least higher than 0.7 is acceptable. This study
Cronbach’s α > 0.7 and Corrected item-total correlation > 0.45. The standards described above
were used to delete items. No other item was deleted from all scales. The reliabilities and
correlations of the variables are presented in Table 4-9. The Cronbach’s alpha value for each of
our constructs exceeds 0.7 (0.91 for fear of Covid-19; 0.85 for hygiene safety perception; 0.80 for
travel anxiety; 0.92 for travel intention; 0.83 for travel involvement), indicating reliability of the
measurement scale.
In the discriminant validity test, the root mean squares of the AVE of each construct were
greater than the numbers of the correlation coefficients of paired variables. This study conducted
a correlation analysis to prove any significant correlation between constructs in the measurement
models. The results indicate that the square root of AVE of each construct is acceptable.
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Table 4-9 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for Variables
Variables M SD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Fear of Covid-19 4.11 0.73 (0.70)
Hygiene safety
3.85 0.58 0.64 (0.73)
perception
Travel anxiety 3.75 0.55 0.40 0.43 (0.71)
Travel intention 3.88 0.83 0.65 0.63 0.58 (0.81)
Travel involvement 3.75 0.50 0.44 0.53 0.51 0.45 (0.68)
Note: ( ) Root mean square of AVE are in parentheses along the diagonal. (n=359). ***p < .01.
4.4 Hypothesis testing

Hypothesis 1 concerns the relationship between fear of covid-19 and travel anxiety;
Hypothesis 2 concerns the relationship between hygiene safety perception and travel anxiety,
Hypothesis 3 concerns the relationship between travel anxiety and travel intention; Hypothesis 4
concerns the travel involvement moderate the relationship between fear of covid-19 and travel
anxiety; Hypothesis 5 concerns the travel involvement moderate the relationship between hygiene
safety perception and travel anxiety.
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Table 4- 10 Multiple Regression results for moderating role of travel involvement in therelationship
between fear of Covid-19 and travel anxiety
Dependent variable (β)
Independent variable Travel anxiety
Gender .045
Age .058
Fear of Covid-19 .775***
Travel involvement .358***
Fear of Covid-19 x Travel involvement .061
R2 0.451
Adj-R2 0.458
Note: * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001, n=420
Table 4-10 shows that the interaction between fear of covid-19 has positive and significant
effects on travel anxiety (β=.779, p<.001) and tourists with high level fear of Covid-19 can
affectively enhance their travel anxiety. As such, Hypothesis 1 is supported.
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Table 4- 11 Multiple Regression results for moderating role of travel involvement in therelationship
between hygiene safety perception and travel anxiety
Independent variable Travel anxiety
Gender -.047
Age .021
Hygiene safety perception -.682***
Travel involvement .320***
Hygiene safety perception x Travel involvement -.138**
R2 0.368
Adj-R2 0.373
Note: * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001, n=420
Table 4-11 shows that hygiene safety perception has negative and significant effects on
travel anxiety (β=-.682, p< .001) and travel involvement significantly predicted the relationship
between hygiene safety perception and travel anxiety (β=-.138, p<0.01). As shown in Figure 4-1,
tourists with high travel involvement, their hygiene safety perception can reduce their travel
anxiety. Similarly, tourists with low travel involvement, their hygiene safety perception can
enhance their travel anxiety. As such, Hypothesis 2 and Hypothesis 5 are supported.
36
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Table 4- 12 Multiple Regression results between travel anxiety and travel intention
Independent variable Travel Intention
Gender .02
Age .016
Travel anxiety -.451***
R2 0.215
Adj-R2 0.221
Note: * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001, n=420
Table 4-12 shows that the interaction between travel anxiety has negative and significant
effects on travel intention (β=.451, p<.001) and tourists with high level travel anxiety can
affectively reduce their travel intention. As such, Hypothesis 3 is supported.
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5.
4.
Travel anxiety
Low Travel involvement

3.
High Travel involvement
2.
1.
Low hygiene perception High hygiene perception
5.
Figure 4- 1 Moderating effect of travel involvement on the relationship between hygienesafety perception and
travel anxiety
Table 4- 13 Summary of test results
Hypothesis Result
H1 Fear of Covid-19 positively affect travel anxiety Supported
H2 Hygiene safety perception negatively affect travel anxiety Supported
H3 Travel anxiety negatively affect travel intention Supported
Travel involvement will moderate the relationship between fear

H4 Unsupported
of Covid-19 and travel anxiety
Travel involvement will moderate the relationship between

H5 Supported
hygiene safety perception and travel anxiety
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Chapter 5 Conclusion and suggestion
5.1 Conclusion
The results of this study fill the research gap in travelers’ anxiety levels and their intention
to travel in Post Covid-19 pandemic as the moderating effect of travel involvement on the
relationship between fear of Covid-19, hygiene safety perception, and travel anxiety. Based on the
literature review, five hypotheses were developed for the study, and four of them are supported
with only H4 not supported. Particularly, fear of Covid-19 has a positive effect on travel anxiety
(H1). However, the results showed that travel involvement has no moderate effect on the
relationship between fear of Covid-19 and travel anxiety (H4), suggesting that the relationship
between fear of Covid-19 and travel anxiety will not be influenced by travel involvement. The
result showed that hygiene safety perception has a negative effect on travel anxiety (H2). Also,
travel involvement negatively moderates the relationship between hygiene safety perception and
travel anxiety (H5). Moreover, the study found that travel anxiety has a negative effect on travel
intention (H3).
5.2 Discussion
This research is considered important in terms of illuminating the psychological processes
underlying tourist behavior in the post Covid-19 pandemic, and a better understanding of tourists.
The expectations have been presented around the world for restarting tourism despite the
uncertainty of specific times of travel resuming for tourism. With the roll-out of vaccination, there
is hope for a quick recovery of tourism. For economic concerns, some countries like Taiwan still
have strict travel measures including negative PCRs before travel and upon arrival, social
distancing and face mask instructions, and other safety measures. According to the findings of this
research, individuals are afraid of travel because of COVID-19 infections and health concerns.
This fear of Covid-19 increases their anxiety to take the risk of travel Post Covid-19 pandemic.
These findings explain that people from different countries, cultures, gender, and educational
qualification are afraid to travel and take health risks while the pandemic continues and how health
concerns hurt travel for tourism. This finding is in line with literature research (Turnšek et al.,
39
doi:10.6837/ncnu202300027
2020; Zheng et al., 2021). Respondents are also anxious about travel in the post COVID-19. Add
to this, that anxiety increases as fear increases, and respondents and immigrants from Taiwan have
expressed this relationship statistically and there is a positive causal association between fear of
COVID-19 and travel anxiety. This finding is concurrent with previous research (i.e., Luo and
Lam, 2020; Rodríguez-Hidalgo et al., 2020). With the strict precautions and protection measures
taken by tourist destinations, individuals are carefully showing their intent to travel. In the context
of planned behavior theory, it has been determined that as tourists' hygiene-safety perceptions
increase, their travel anxiety increases. Also, as the travel anxiety caused by the pandemic
increases, it is seen that there is a decrease in the intention to travel. Accordingly, we can say that
tourists act in a planned manner while making their travel decision. As Nazneen et al. (2020) stated,
hygiene-safety perception is an important factor in travel decisions. For this reason, in order to
increase tourism demand again, the government and businesses in the tourism sector should ensure
the safety and hygiene of tourist accommodations, food and beverage, and public transportation
vehicles. It is thought that this research will contribute to the current tourism literature, as it is one
of the few studies examining the effect of tourists on travel intentions in the post Covid-19 process.
5.3 Implication
The findings of the present study provide exploratory insights into travel intention in Post
Covid-19 pandemic. Theoretically, it tested the research model across all over the respondents who
are interested to travel. Countries like Taiwan has taken serious measures to protect tourists and
has a remarkable effort in vaccinating its citizens and residents. Respondents are still afraid and
anxious about travel despite their positive intention to travel if they have a safe opportunity to do
so. This study has a significant theoretical contribution. Our results confirm that the fear of Covid-
19 and the hygiene safety perception of Covid 19 have greatly influenced the level of tourist travel
anxiety and their intention to travel. Furthermore, travel involvement is a moderating variable
between the fear of Covid-19, the hygiene safety perception, and travel anxiety. This will also
affect their intention to travel in Post Covid-19 pandemic. When tourists have low-level anxiety,
their intention to travel will increase and vice versa. Furthermore, tourism industry players are very
important to consider panic, fear, anxiety, and other risks that tourists may feel caused by Covid
19. Therefore, it is important to develop or adopt a strategy to eliminate negative tourist
perceptions and restore tourists' intentions to visit tourist destinations in the Post Covid-19
40
doi:10.6837/ncnu202300027
pandemic. Tourism actors can also apply adaptive tourism and can adapt to the needs of tourists
to improve tourism recovery. Airlines, hotels, restaurants, and tourism facilities (museums, parks,
resorts, heritage sites, beaches, and other facilities) must provide strict preventive measures to their
visitors to support their activities resume and decrease the risk of infection, fear, and anxiety. In
addition, destinations need to take strict, adequate, effective, and efficient procedures and
measures to support the recovery of their tourism activities.
5.4 Limitation and Future Research
The present research contributes to the emerging stream of literature on the effects of the
COVID-19 pandemic on tourists' intentions by investigating how travelers’ fear of Covid, hygiene
safety perception, and travel anxiety impact their intention to travel in a post-pandemic period,
however, it has some limitations. In questionnaire design and collecting process of the study,
respondents limit the extent to which cause effect relations can be inferred from the findings of the
study. Most of the respondents are from Taiwan and Myanmar. Furthermore, Although Taiwan
and Myanmar constitute’ relevant market in the global tourism industry, this study’s results are
not directly generalizable to other countries or populations. Future studies could apply the
conceptual model proposed in the present work in other countries to check whether the results
presented in this article hold across distinct geographical and cultural contexts. Despite this study
is not meant to be conclusive, the present study’s results may contribute to advancing knowledge
in a sector that is facing an unprecedented challenge. Although the final effects of the pandemic
are far from being predictable, scholars are starting to highlight that this crisis could represent an
opportunity for tourism evolution (Brouder, 2020) and that the challenge is to learn from this global
tragedy to enhance tourism industry (Gössling et al., 2020). In this study, enlarging the body of
research on tourists’ behaviors in the context of the pandemic will help tourism companies obtain
useful insights on how tourists will respond to the next phases of the post pandemic and assist such
companies in the development of marketing strategies designed to speed up the recovery from this
crisis.
41
doi:10.6837/ncnu202300027
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Appendix
Appendix 1 – English Version
Dear respondents,
This academic questionnaire is to find out travel intention in Post- Covid-19 pandemic.
The survey result will be used for academic research purpose only and no personal information
will be revealed. Sincerely invite you to spend a few minutes to complete the questionnaire.
Thank you and deeply appreciate your kind cooperation.
Best regards,
National Chi Nan University

Advisor: Prof You-De Dai
Student: Poe Pwint Phyu
s110212503@mail1.ncnu.edu.tw
Part 1: The items in this section are designed to know about the travel intention in the Post-
Covid-19 pandemic. Please mark your personal opinion on the following questions. Please
select only one answer corresponding to the question.
(Section one)
The items are designed to know about
Strongly Disagree Netural Agree Strongly
the fear of Covid-19 in the Post-
disagree agree
Covid-19 pandemic. Please select the 2 3 4
only one answer corresponding to the 1 5
question
I am scare of Covid-19 □ □ □ □ □
I feel distress when I think □ □ □ □ □

about Covid-19
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I concern a lot about Covid- □ □ □ □ □
19
Covid-19 is an unusual □ □ □ □ □
disease
My mind is irritate when I □ □ □ □ □

think about Covid-19
I am afraid to die because □ □ □ □ □

of Covid-19
I feel nervous when I saw □ □ □ □ □

news about Covid-19 on
Television or social media
I can’t fall asleep if I think □ □ □ □ □

about getting Covid-19
My heart become abnormal □ □ □ □ □

or fast when I think about
getting Covid-19
I don’t want to travel during □ □ □ □ □

Covid-19
(Section two)
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
the hygiene safety perception in the Post-
disagree agree
Covid-19 pandemic. Please select the
1 2 3 4 5
only one answer corresponding to the
question
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Travel Hygiene □ □ □ □ □
requirements have changed
since Covid-19
In the Post- Covid-19, I am □ □ □ □ □

focusing on the cleanliness
and safety of public
transport
In the Post-Covid-19, I am □ □ □ □ □
concerned about
cleanliness and safety of
public recreation areas
In the Post-Covid-19, I am □ □ □ □ □
very concerned about the
cleanliness and safety of
hotels
(Section three)
the travel anxiety in the Post-Covid-19
disagree agree
pandemic. Please select the only one
1 2 3 4 5
answer corresponding to the question
I don’t want to plan a trip or □ □ □ □ □

tour in the Post-Covid19
pandemic period
I feel that my body is not fit □ □ □ □ □

after planning trip in the
Post-Covid-19 pandemic
I don’t want to go on a trip □ □ □ □ □

in the Post-Covid-19
pandemic period
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I will discomfort when I □ □ □ □ □
travel in the Post-Covid-19
pandemic
I feel anxious after deciding □ □ □ □ □

to travel in the Post-Covid-
19 period
My heartbeat is so fast □ □ □ □ □
when I think of going on a
tour in the Post-Covid-19
pandemic
(Section four)
the travel intention in the Post-Covid-19
disagree agree
pandemic. Please select the only one
1 2 3 4 5
answer corresponding to the question
If given the chance to □ □ □ □ □

travel, I will always take it
I will try my best to improve □ □ □ □ □

my capability to travel
I will collect travel-related □ □ □ □ □

information in the future
(Section five)
the travel involvement in the Post-
disagree agree
Covid-19 pandemic. Please select the
1 2 3 4 5
only one answer corresponding to the
question
Traveling is an important □ □ □ □ □
part of my life
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It gives me great pleasure to □ □ □ □ □
travel
I love spending money on □ □ □ □ □

travel
I take vacation very □ □ □ □ □

seriously
I frequently travel □ □ □ □ □
I am so pleaseful to spend □ □ □ □ □
time travelling.
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Part 2: Background Information
Gender: □ Male □ Female □ Other
Age: □ Under 20 □ 21~30 □ 31~40 □ 41~50 □ 51~60 □ Over 60
Education: □ High School □ College/ University □ Graduate School & above

□ Other
Occupation: □ Student □ Government employees □ Office workers □ Retired

□ Other
What is your travel purpose in last time?:

□ Holiday □ Business □ Never Travel During Pandemic □ Other _
How many times did you travel in Post-Covid-19 pandemic ?:

□ 0 time □ 1~2 times □ 3~4 times □ 5~6 times □ More than 6 times
When was the last time you went abroad ? :

□ This year □ One year ago □ Two years ago □ Three years ago
Which country did you travel last time? :

□ Japan □ Korean □ Thailand □ Malaysia □ Indonesia □ Singapore □ USA □ Australia □
New Zealand □ Other
Which airport did you take the last time you went abroad? :
□ Taoyuan International Airport □ Kaohsiung International Airport □ Taichung
International Airport □ Other
Nationality: □ Taiwan □ Myanmar □ Other
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Appendixes
Appendix 2 – Chinese Version
親愛的受訪者，
本學術調查問卷旨在研究 "Covid-19 “疫情發生後，遊客的旅遊意願因素。調查
結果將只用於學術研究，不會透露個人訊息。真誠地邀請您花幾分鐘的時間來填
寫這個問卷。謝謝您的合作！
感謝您！
國立暨南國際大學
指導教授: 戴有德博士
研究生：李尖尖
s110212503@mail1.ncnu.edu.tw
59
doi:10.6837/ncnu202300027
Part 1: 本部分的項目旨在了解於 Covid-19 疫情後，您對旅遊的意向。請在下列問題上
標出您的個人意見。
這些項目旨在了解在後疫情時
代對 Covid-19 的恐懼。請選
非常不同意不同意普通同意非常同意
擇與問題相對應的唯一個
1 2 3 4 5
答案
我對 Covid-19 感到恐懼 □ □ □ □ □
想到 Covid-19，我就感到 □ □ □ □ □
憂慮
我對 Covid-19 非常關注 □ □ □ □ □
Covid-19 是一種不尋常 □ □ □ □ □
的疾病
當我想到 Covid-19 時，我 □ □ □ □ □

的心情很煩躁
我害怕因爲 Covid-19 而 □ □ □ □ □
死亡
當我在電視或社會媒體上 □ □ □ □ □
看到關於 Covid-19 的新聞
時，我感到緊張
如果我想到會感染 Covid- □ □ □ □ □
19，我就無法入睡
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當我想到要感染 Covid-19 □ □ □ □ □
時，我的心臟會變得不正
常或快速
我不想在 Covid-19 流行期 □ □ □ □ □

間旅行
1 2 3 4 5
自 Covid-19 以來，旅行 □ □ □ □ □
衛生規定已發生變化
在 Covid-19 之後，我會 □ □ □ □ □
注意於公共交通的清潔和
安全
在 Covid-19 之後，我關 □ □ □ □ □
注公共娛樂場所的清潔和
安全問題
在 Covid-19 之後，我非 □ □ □ □ □
常關注酒店的清潔和安全
問題
1 2 3 4 5
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我不想在後疫情時代計劃 □ □ □ □ □
旅行或旅遊
在後疫情時代計劃旅行或 □ □ □ □ □
旅遊後，我會感覺身體不
適
我不想在後疫情時代去旅 □ □ □ □ □
行
當我在後疫情時代中旅行 □ □ □ □ □
時，我會感到不安
決定在後疫情時代旅行 □ □ □ □ □
後，我感到很焦慮
當我想到要在後疫情時代 □ □ □ □ □
去旅遊時，我感到心跳異
常快速
1 2 3 4 5
如果有機會旅行，我一定 □ □ □ □ □
會抓住
我將盡力提高我的旅行能 □ □ □ □ □
力
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我將在未來收集與旅行有 □ □ □ □ □
關的訊息
1 2 3 4 5
旅行是我生活中一個重要 □ □ □ □ □
的部分
旅行給了我很大的樂趣 □ □ □ □ □
我喜歡花錢去旅遊 □ □ □ □ □
我非常認真地對待假期 □ □ □ □ □
我經常旅行 □ □ □ □ □
我很高興能花時間旅行 □ □ □ □ □
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Part 2: 背景資料
性別: □ 男性 □ 女性 □ 其他
年齡: □ 20 以下 □ 21~30 □ 31~40 □ 41~50 □ 51~60 □ 60 以上
教育程度: □ 高中 □ 大學 □ 碩士或更高 □ 其他
職業: □ 學生 □ 公務員 □ 上班族 □ 退休 □ 其他
上次您旅行的目的是什麽 ? : □ 度假 □ 公司旅遊 □ 未曾在疫情期間旅行

□ 其他
你在後疫情時段旅行了多少次？: □ 0 次 □ 1-2 次 □ 3-4 次 □ 5-6 次 □ 6

次以上
上次您出國是在什麽時候？: □ 今年 □ 一年前 □ 兩年前 □ 三年前
上次您出國到什麽國家？： □ 日本 □ 韓國 □ 泰國 □ 馬來西亞 □ 印度尼

西亞 □ 新加坡 □ 美國 □ 澳大利亞 □ 新西蘭 □ 其他
上次您出國是乘搭哪一個機場的飛機？
□ 臺灣桃園國際機場 □ 高雄國際航空站 □ 臺中國際航空站 □ 其他
國籍: □ 臺灣 □ 緬甸 □ 其他
64
doi:10.6837/ncnu202300027

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國立暨南國際大學國際企業學系

自 2019 年 12 月傳染性極高的流行病 COVID-19 開始以來，旅遊業和酒店業備受影

關鍵詞:對 Covid-19 的恐懼，遊客的衛生安全感，旅遊焦慮，旅遊意向，以及旅遊參與度

Name of Institute: Department of International Business Studies, College of Management,

Table 3.1. Research variable summary ....................................................................................... 15

1.3 Definition of term

2.1 Fear of COVID-19

2.2 Hygiene Safety Perception

2.3 Travel Anxiety

2.4 Travel Intention

2.5 The Relationship between Fear of Covid-19 and Travel Anxiety

H1: Fear of Covid-19 has a positive effect on travel anxiety.

H2: Tourists' hygiene-safety perceptions have a negatively significant on travel anxiety

2.7 The Relationship between Travel Anxiety and Travel Intention

H3: Travel anxiety is negatively related to travel intention.

2.8 The moderating role of Travel Involvement

3.1 Conceptual Framework

Figure 3- 1 Conceptual Framework

3.2.2 Sampling method

3.2.3 Calculation of sample site

Table 3.1. Research variable summary

Variables Scale of measure Ranging of scales

Gender Nominal 3 categories

Age Ordinal 6 categories

Education Ordinal 4 categories

Occupation Nominal 5 categories

Nationality Nominal 3 categories

Fear of Covid 19 All measurements are based on

Table 3-2. Fear of Covid-19

Source:Environ et al. (2022) and Ahorsu et al. ( 2020 )

Table 3- 3 Hygiene Safety Perception

1. Travel hygiene requirements have changed since Covid-19

Source: Kandemir Altuner, G. (2020).

Table 3- 4 Travel Anxiety

1. I don’t want to plan a trip or tour in the post-Covid-19pandemic

Source: Int. J. Environ. (2020).

Table 3- 5 Travel Intention

1. If given the chance to travel, I will always take it

Source: Int. J. Environ. (2020).

Table 3- 6 Travel Involvement

1. Traveling is an important part of my life

Travel 3. I love spending money on travel.

Source: Zaichkowsky (1994), Kim, Woo, & Uysal, (2015).

3.4.1 Descriptive statistical analysis

3.4.2 Confirmatory factor analysis

3.4.3 Reliability analysis

3.4.4 Regression Analysis

Variable Item Frequency Percent Rank

Male 180 42.9 2

Gender Female 240 57.1 1

Age 41~50 33 7.9 4

High School 40 9.5 3

College/ University 177 42.1 2

Student 213 50.7 1

Government employees 59 14.0 3

Occupation Office workers 100 23.8 2

Measurement Items Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis