ETHICS LESSON 2
Psychological and Philosophical Issues in
Metaethics
A second area of metaethics involves the psychological
basis of our moral judgments and conduct,
particularly understanding what motivates us to be
moral.
We might explore this subject by asking the simple
question, “Why be moral?”
I. Egoism and Altruism
1.Egoism
- One important area of moral psychology
- Concerns the inherent selfishness of humans
- 17th century British philosopher Thomas Hobbes
held that many, if not all, of our actions are
prompted by selfish desires.
- ( Even if an action seems selfless, such as
donating to charity, there are still selfish causes for
this, such as experiencing power over other
people. )
- This view is called psychological egoism and
maintains that self-oriented interests ultimately
motivate all human actions.
“I do good because I benefit from it”
“ I do good for it is good for me”
Hedonism
- Closely related to psychological egoism
- Called psychological hedonism which is the view
that pleasure is the specific driving force behind all
of our actions.
“I do good because I derive pleasure from it”
2.Altruism
- 18th century British philosopher Joseph Butler
agreed that instinctive selfishness and pleasure
prompt much of our conduct.
- ( However, Butler argued that we also have an
inherent psychological capacity to show
benevolence to others. )
- Called psychological altruism and maintains that at
least some of our actions are motivated by
instinctive benevolence.
EX: Dr. Florentino Hornedo’s previous lecture on
charity, it is not.
- Instead, a moral utterance like this involves two
human nature and values emphasized that man seeks
for three kinds of goods or values: monastic,
economic, and political values.
Monastic values
- From Latin “mono”, one
- Refers to goods that when satisfied, would benefit the
individual.
Economic values
- From Greek “oikos”, home
- Refers to goods that when satisfied, would benefit the
family.
Political values
- From Greek “polis”, city
- Refers to goods that when satisfied, would benefit the
entire community.
“I do good for the benefit of others”
“To die that others may live”
II. Emotion and Reason
- Second area of moral psychology
- Involves a dispute concerning the role of reason in
motivating moral actions.
EX: I make the statement “abortion is morally
wrong,” am I making a rational assessment or only
expressing my feelings?
1. Emotivism
- 18th century British philosopher David Hume argued
that moral assessments involve our emotions, and not
our reason.
- We can amass all the reasons we want, but that alone
will not constitute a moral assessment. We need a
distinctly emotional reaction in order to make a moral
pronouncement.
“Reason is, and ought to be, the slave of the passions.”
- David Hume
- A prescriptive element
- Inspired by Hume’s anti-rationalist views, some 20th
century philosophers, most notably A.J. Ayer,
similarly denied that moral assessments are factual
descriptions.
EX: Although the statement “it is good to donate to
charity” may on the surface look as though it is a
factual description about
things. First, I (the speaker) I am expressing my
personal feelings of approval about charitable
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donations and I am in essence saying “Hooray for

charity!”

2. Rationalist approach
- From Hume’s day forward, more rationally-minded
philosophers have opposed these emotive theories of
ethics and instead argued that moral assessments are
indeed acts of reason.
- 18th century German philosopher Immanuel Kant
- Although emotional factors often do influence our
conduct, he argued, we should nevertheless resist that
kind of sway. Instead, true moral action is motivated
only by reason when it is free from emotions and
desires.
- I did something good because I regarded it as my
DUTY to do good. In other words, reason impels me to
do good always - Immanuel Kant

Why is Ethics leading you to meaningful life? What

is a meaningful life?
- “Following God.”
THE ESSENCE OF HUMAN FREEDOM
- “Being happy.”
- When we ask the essence of Human Freedom, the
- Making other people happy ( What people say on
problem is not limited to man and freedom. Instead,
their deathbeds:
we find that we cannot avoid asking about the essence
• “I should have spent more time with my friends and
of man, the essence of the world, and the essence of
family.” )
God.
Three visions of the good life
▪ A Happy Life ▪ A Successful Life ▪ A Meaningful
Life Quest for meaning is the most promising pathway
to achieving the good life.

HAPPINESS
- Should we be concerned with OUR OWN happiness
or should we also care about OTHER PEOPLE's
happiness?
◦Justice and fairness should be a constraint on our
pursuit of happiness. KNOW THYSELF
◦ We should also actively make other people happy.
When we ask philosophically about freedom then, we
Function (TELOS) venture into an inquiry about the whole. It is no longer
- Aristotle claimed that every particular substance in a particular problem, but a universal problem
the world has an end, or telos in Greek, which
translates into “purpose.” Wisdom and Ethics
- This telos, according to Aristotle, is intricately linked For Aristotle, there are two kinds of Wisdom:
with function. ( For a thing to reach its purpose, it also 1.) THEORETICAL (Sophia) - the wisdom within;
has to fulfill its function.) our assumptions within that leads us to know necessary
truths and their logical consequences
EUDAIMONIA 2.) PRACTICAL (Phronesis) - the wisdom that deals

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with knowledge in the realm of action.
Theoretical wisdom is wisdom that is concerned with
unchanging truth. It is not concerned with things that
we can change. Practical wisdom is about the things
that we can change.
Theoretical Wisdom
- The word “theory” comes from the Greek theoros,
meaning a spectator at the theater (the word “theater”
has the same root!).
- So, theoretical knowledge is the kind of knowledge
that comes from standing back and looking on.
Practical Wisdom
Aristotle says that when choosing how to act wisely,
the particular circumstances are always more
important than general theories. Aristotle says that
practical wisdom is like the art of navigation: You
need to get to know the winds and the tides, you need
to know where you want to go, and you need to be
responsive to the changing circumstances in which you
find yourself.
Using Wisdom in Ethics
- Of course, to be an experienced navigator, theory
may help: you can study meteorology or the
movements of the tides. But theory—the business of
standing back, being a spectator—is no substitute for
experience. What makes the idea of phronesis
interesting is it clarifies that a large part of acting
wisely is becoming experienced in how to act. There is
no substitute for experience.
Emulating the Virtuous
- One way you can know what it means to be wise is to
study those who are wise and to act in the way that
they would act. For Aristotle, it is not a matter of,
“What ought I do in this situation?”, and looking
around for a theoretical answer. Instead, it is a matter
of asking, “What would a wise (or good) person do
in this situation?” This is sometimes called virtue
ethics, and it is still an important area of philosophy
today.
ETHICS LESSON 2
PLATO’S TRIPARTITE THEORY THE SOUL
and ETHICS
PLATO’S THEORY OF THE SOUL
- In the Republic, and his dialogues with Phaedrus,
Plato discusses his understanding of rationality and the
soul. The soul, according to Plato, can be broken down
into three parts: reason, spirit, and appetite.
Reason (Logistikon)
❑ This is the part of the soul that loves logic, thought,
and rational learning. Plato equated this part of the
soul with the temperament associated with Athenians.
❑ When the logical part of the soul is dominant, the
person is able to distinguish well between fantasy and
reality. The logical part of the soul is also wise and
able to make decisions that are just; in fact, much of
Plato's understanding of justice comes from valorizing
the logical part of the soul
Spirit (Thymoeides)
❑ This is usually thought of as the most spirited of the
three parts. It is this part of the soul that causes people
to experience strong emotions, particularly anger and
temper. ❑ Plato associated thymoeides with the desire
to do good and to be good, because in his view, it was
spirit that enabled courage and passionate principle. He
considered this part of the soul to be partnered with the
logical part, since both of them ultimately work in
favor of righteousness and justice
Apetite (Epithymetikon)
❑ This is the part of the soul where very basic
cravings and desires come from. ❑ Plato associated
epithymetikon with the desire to do to be pleasured
with something good. It may be plausible like hunger
and thirst yet it can also be excessive and unnecessary
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like overeating and sexual excess

To explain the different parts of the soul, Plato first

looked at the three different classes in a just society.
Guardian, Auxiliary, and Laborers.
❑ According to Plato, reason should rule an
individual’s decisions, spirit must be able to aid
reason, and appetite should be able to obey.
❑ By maintaining the relationship among these three
parts in the correct way, and individual will achieve
individual justice