General Biology 2 Reviewer
sexual reproduction, as two gametes are involved.
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction requires two parents. Each
parent contributes a gamete – a sex cell that has
half of the normal DNA of a regular body cell. In
males, the gametes are sperm and in females, the
gametes are eggs. When these two gamete
combine during fertilization, the result is a zygote,
which then continues to develop into an embryo.
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction requires only one parent.
There are many types of asexual reproduction.
Four major types are:
1) Binary fission: Single parent cell doubles
its DNA, then divides into two cells.
Usually occurs in bacteria
2) Budding: Small growth on surface of
parent breaks off, resulting in the
formation of two individuals. Occurs in
yeast and some animals (like the hydra
below).
3) Fragmentation: Organisms break into two
or more fragments that develop into a new
individual. Occurs in many plants, as well
as some animals (like coral, sponges, and
starfish)
4) Parthenogenesis: An embryo develops
from an unfertilized cell. Occurs in
invertebrates, as well as in some fish,
amphibians, and reptiles
Some organisms are able to do both sexual and
asexual reproduction. This is particularly true for
fungi and plants (and rarely, animals – as in
parthenogenesis). Often, the type of reproduction
that they undergo depends on their environmental
conditions or the point in their growth cycles.
Although sexual reproduction requires two
parents, they do not always have to be two
separate individuals. This may sound confusing,
but some organisms are hermaphroditic, meaning
they contain both male and female gametes. In
this instance, those organisms are able to self-
fertilize. Despite the fact that these gametes come
from the same individual, we still consider thisU
Offspring
New organism that results from reproduction
Gamete
Sex cell (in males: sperm; in females: eggs)
Fertilization
The joining of gametes to form a new organism
Zygote
Cell formed during the fusion of two gametes
PLANT REPRODUCTION
The plant reproductive cycle switches between
haploid and diploid generations, allowing for both
asexual and sexual reproduction. The generalized
life cycle for land plants is thus said to undergo
"alternation of generations", as the sporophyte
and gametophyte generations alternate with one
another to complete the entire process of sexual
reproduction.
Plant Reproduction Sequence and Structures
Each plant has different structures that serve
different functions in growth, survival, and
reproduction. The sequence of reproductive
processes in plants form structures such as:
Gamete Formation: Ovule and pollen
Pollination: Pollen reaches the stigma of a flower
Germination: Pollen germinates and forms a
pollen tube that reaches the ovary, and the male
gamete is released.
Fusion: Male gamete fuses with female gamete
and forms zygote.
Embryo Formation: The zygote divides numerous
times to form an embryo
Seed Development: Seeds germinate under
favorable conditions to produce a seedling.
Flowering Plant Seeds: The embryo is formed
from the zygote, the endosperm is formed by
double fertilization, and the seed coat is formed by
maternal tissue of the ovule.
How do plants reproduce sexually and asexually?
The plant reproductive system uses different PARTS AND FUNCTION OF THE PLANTS
strategies for species continuation. Some plants
reproduce sexually (sexual reproduction) while
others reproduce asexually (vegetative
reproduction).
Sexual Reproduction in plants usually depends on
pollinating agents, while asexual reproduction is
independent of these agents. The flower is the
basic reproductive organ of plants that produces
seeds through sexual reproduction. In most plants,
seeds serve as the primary method by which
individuals of the species are dispersed across the
landscape to facilitate reproduction.
Vegetative Reproduction, on the other hand, is a
natural process of asexual reproduction that does Vegetative Parts of a Flower
not entail the union of sex cells or gametes and
results in new plant “individuals” without the The vegetative part of a flower consists of the
production of seeds or spores. following:

Plant Sexual Life Cycle Petals

The plant life cycle involves two distinct stages:
the Gametophyte Stage and the Sporophyte Stage.
During the Gametophyte Stage, the haploid
Gametophyte produces distinct multicellular
structures called the male and female Gametes.
This is a bright-coloured part that attracts bees,
insects, and birds. The colour of petals varies from
plant to plant; some are bright while some are pale
coloured. Thus, petals help us to differentiate one
flower from another.

The male and female gametes fuse during Sepals

fertilization to create a diploid Zygote.
The zygote develops into a still-diploid
Sporophyte, thus marking the entry into the
sporophyte stage of the plant life cycle.
The diploid sporophyte produce Spores through
meiosis.
These spores divide through mitosis to once again
produce haploid gametophytes, which will once
again produce gametes, and the cycle repeats.
Sepal is the green-coloured part beneath the petals
to protect rising buds. Some flowers have fused
petals-sepals while a few have separated petals-
sepals.
Reproductive Parts of a Flower
Flowers contain the plant’s reproductive
structures. In different plants, the number of
petals, sepals, stamens and pistils can vary. The
presence of these parts differentiates the flower
into complete or incomplete. Apart from these
parts, a flower includes reproductive parts – the
stamen and pistil. A flower may have only female
parts, only male parts, or both.
The reproductive parts of a flower consist of the
following:
Stamen
This is the male reproductive organ and is also
known as Androecium. It consists of two parts
namely: anther and filaments.
The anther is a yellowish, sac-like structure,
involved in producing and storing the pollens.
The filament is a slender, threadlike object, which
functions by supporting the anther.
Pistil
This is the innermost part and the female
reproductive organ of a flower which comprises
three parts -stigma, style and ovary. This is
collectively known as the pistil.
Stigma
It is the topmost part or receptive tip of carpels in
the gynoecium of a flower.
Style
It is the long tube-like slender stalk that connects
the stigma and the ovary.
Ovary
It is the ductless reproductive gland that holds a
lot of ovules. It is the part of the plant where the
seed formation takes place.
Whorls
Along with the vegetative and reproductive parts,
a flower is also composed of four whorls, which
are largely responsible for the radial arrangement
of a flower. A typical flower has a circular section
with a common centre, which can be clearly
observed and distinguished from the top of the
flower. There four whorls are:
Whorls
Along with the vegetative and reproductive parts,
a flower is also composed of four whorls, which
are largely responsible for the radial arrangement
of a flower. A typical flower has a circular section
with a common centre, which can be clearly
observed and distinguished from the top of the
flower. There four whorls are:
Calyx
The calyx is the outermost whorl of a flower. It
comprises sepals, and tiny leaves present at the
base of a flower. These protect the flower whorls
against mechanical injuries and desiccation. Some
plants have coloured sepals the calyx and are
called petaloid.
If the sepals are free the calyx is called
polysepalous, and if they are united it is called
gamosepalous. In many flowers, the sepals fall off
before the flower even opens fully. Such sepals
are known as caducous. In some, the sepals fall
off after fertilization. Such sepals are known as
deciduous. The persistent sepals remain up to the
fruiting stage.
Corolla
This is the second whorl of a flower. It contains
petals which serve two main functions:
To attract pollinators.
To protect the reproductive parts of a flower
Petals are brightly coloured and scented to attract
animals and insects for pollination. The calyx and
corolla are collectively called the perianth.
Different forms of the corolla are found in the
flowers.
Polypetalous Regular
Polypetalous Irregular
Gamopetalous Regular
Gamopetalous Irregular
Stamens
Stamen is also known as the third whorl of the
flower and is the male reproductive part. It
consists of a filament which is a thread-like Tissues are groups of cells which work together to
structure with a circular structure anther on the carry out a specific function. A collection of
top. Pollen is produced by the anther which tissues which work together to carry out a function
contributes to the male reproductive process of the is called an organ. You need to know about the
plant. All the stamens do not bear fertile anthers. following tissues in plants and what they do:
Carpels
The carpel is the fourth whorl of the flower Epidermal tissues – the epidermis is the upper
present in the centre. The carpels contain the tissue layer of a leaf. It is thin and transparent
pistil, the female reproductive part of the flower. It which allows light to reach the photosynthesising
comprises the ovary, style, and stigma. The egg or cells in the palisade mesophyll layer below.
the ovule is present in the ovary. After Together with the waxy cuticle, it also protects the
fertilization, sometimes the ovary turns into the leaf from damage.
fruit to keep the seed. At the top of the ovary is a
Palisade mesophyll – this is a tissue layer found
vertical structure called style that supports the
towards the top of leaves where most of the
stigma. The dispersed pollens stick to the stigma
photosynthesis takes place. Cells in the palisade
and travel down to the ovary through the style.
mesophyll layer are found close together and are
packed full of chloroplasts to absorb the light
energy needed for photosynthesis. Their position
Functions of a Flower
towards the top of the leaf also means that they
The important functions of flowers are mentioned can absorb as much light energy as possible.
below:
Spongy mesophyll – this is a tissue layer in the
• Gametophytes develop in the flowers. leaves which contains air spaces to allow gas
exchange to take place. The carbon dioxide
The flowers can produce diaspores without
needed for photosynthesis can circulate and
fertilization.
diffuse into cells while the oxygen produced from
After fertilization, the ovary of the flower photosynthesis can diffuse out of the cells and into
develops into a fruit containing a seed.
The most important function of flowers is
reproduction. They help in the union of male and
female gametes.
Flowers provide nectar to certain birds and
insects, which in turn help in the transfer of pollen
from one flower to the other.
Flowers may promote selfing, i.e., the union of
sperms and eggs from the same flower, or cross-
fertilization, i.e., the union of sperms and eggs
from different flowers. the air spaces and will eventually diffuse out of
the leaf through the stomata.

TISSUES AND ORGANS

Xylem and phloem – these are vessels which
PLANTS
transport water and sugars around the plant.
Plant Tissues Xylem carries water (and dissolved mineral ions)
from the roots to the rest of the plant. Phloem
vessels transport sugars from photosynthetic
regions of the plant (e.g. the leaves) to other parts
of the plant.
Meristem tissue – this is found at the growing tips
of roots and shoots and contains stem cells. Stem
cells are unspecialised cells which are able to
divide into any type of cell to form the various
parts of a plant (e.g. some stem cells will become
root cells, others will become pollen grains). The
meristems also contain cells which are actively
dividing which allows the plant to grow.
The leaf is an example of a plant organ. It includes
all of the tissues listed above, except for meristem
tissue which is only found in the tips of roots and
shoots. The leaf also contains stomata which are
gaps in the leaf which control gas exchange. They
allow carbon dioxide to move into the leaf for
photosynthesis and oxygen to leave the leaf.
Guard cells are found at either side of stomata and
are responsible for opening and closing the
stomata depending on whether it is daytime or
night-time. During the night, the guard cells close
the stomata to prevent too much water vapour
escaping from the leaf (transpiration) when the
plant is not photosynthesising. Guard cells open
and close due to the movement of water into and
out of the cells by osmosis.
Plant Organisation
Plants have two transport systems – the xylem and
the phloem – which are adapted for transporting
water and sugars. You need to know how these
two transport vessels, along with root hair cells,
are specialised for carrying out their function.
How it is adapted for its function
Root hair cells have a large surface area to volume
ratio, which increase their uptake of water by
osmosis. Their cell membranes have lots of carrier
proteins for the active transport of mineral ions.
Xylem vessels transport water and mineral ions
from the roots to the stem and leaves. They are
composed of hollow tubes strengthened by lignin.
Water moves through the plant due to
transpiration.
Phloem vessels transport dissolved sugars from
the leaves to the rest of the plant for immediate
use or storage. They are composed of elongated
cells which contain pores in their end walls to
allow cell sap to move from one phloem cell to the
next. The movement of sugars around the plant is
known as translocation.
Plant cell / tissue
Root hair cell
Xylem tissue
Phloem tissue
Transpiration
Water moves into root hair cells by osmosis down
a water potential gradient and is transported to
different parts of the plants in the xylem. Water
near the surface of the leaf evaporates, becoming
water vapour and exiting the leaf through the
stomata. When this happens water is drawn up
from the xylem to replace the water lost from the
leaves. This is known as a ‘‘transpiration stream’
or ‘transpiration pull’.
Factors which affect the rate of transpiration:
Humidity: humid conditions means the air is full
of water vapour, which reduces the concentration
gradient of water vapour between the inside and
the outside of the leaf. This reduces the rate of
transpiration as water vapour diffuses out of
stomata more slowly.
Wind speed: the faster the wind speed, the faster
the rate of transpiration since windy conditions
will move any water molecules hanging around
outside of the leaf. This increases the
concentration gradient so increases the rate of
transpiration.
Temperature: higher temperature increases the
rate of transpiration as the water molecules have
more kinetic energy so move faster out of the
stomata. Higher temperatures also increase
evaporation of water from a liquid to gaseous
state.
Light intensity: higher light intensity causes the
stomata to be open for longer time periods,
therefore the amount of transpiration will increase.
ANIMAL TISSUE
Animal Tissue
The animal body is made of four different types of
tissues.
Epithelial Tissue
All organs in the body are lined with a group of
tissues called epithelial tissues. They cover the
surface of all internal as well as external organs.
There are four types of epithelial tissues:
Squamous epithelium, Stratified epithelium,
Cuboidal epithelium and Columnar epithelium.
They are cuboidal, columnar or flat shaped cells.
The main functions of these tissues involve
protection, secretion, absorption, sensation etc..
Muscle Tissue
This type of tissue forms three types of muscles,
namely skeletal (striated and voluntary) muscle,
smooth (non-striated and involuntary) muscle and
cardiac (striated and involuntary) muscle. They
help in movement by contraction and relaxation of
muscles.
Connective Tissue
As the name suggests, they connect the different
tissues, organs, and parts of the body. Different
types of connective tissues are Areolar tissue,
Adipose tissue (fat), Blood, Lymph, Bone, and
Cartilage. They connect and support organs and
also transport substances between organs.
Nerve Tissue
These tissues are made up of specialized cells
called nerve cells (neurons). They conduct and
transmit electrochemical impulses between
neurons.
ANIMAL ORGANS
The major organs in higher animals include
the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, liver,
stomach, intestines, and skin, as well as the
reproductive organs.
brain is the control center of the body,
directly and indirectly regulating all vital
functions, including breathing and the beating
of the heart.
heart serves as a pump that circulates blood
throughout the body.
lungs function in gas exchange; they are
responsible for adding oxygen to and
removing carbon dioxide from the blood.
kidneys maintain water balance and help rid
the body of metabolic wastes.
 stomach and the intestines are the primary
sites for the digestion of food and the
absorption of nutrients.
One of the most important organs is the liver.
Among its many functions are removing
wastes and toxic materials from the
blood,clotting.
skin has a variety of important functions. It is
the main barrier between the inner body and
the environment and is the body’s first line of
defense against “foreign” invaders, such as
allergens and infectious organisms. Skin also
functions to some extent in gas exchange,
especially in amphibians.
All animals have reproductive organs, though
these vary in complexity depending upon the
animal. In humans and other mammals, the
female reproductive organs include the uterus
and ovaries; the primary reproductive organs
in males are the testes and the penis.
EMBRYOGENESIS
Embryogenesis, the first eight weeks of
development after fertilization, is an incredibly
complicated process. It’s amazing that in eight
weeks we’re transforming from a single cell to an
organism with a multi-level body plan. The
circulatory, excretory, and neurologic systems all
begin to develop during this stage. Luckily, like
with many complex biological concepts,
fertilization can be broken down into smaller,
simpler ideas. The big idea of embryogenesis is
going from a single cell to a ball of cells to a set of
tubes.
Stage 1: The process of embryogenesis
begins with an egg or ovum being fertilized by
a sperm cell to form a zygote. The zygote is
surrounded by a strong membrane made up
of glycoproteins, which the sperm has
managed to penetrate. The zygote is formed
24 hours after the egg and sperm nuclei fuse.
The zygote is a single diploid cell.
Stage 2: Over the next three days, the zygote
undergoes a number of cell divisions, a
process referred to as cleavage. Once the
embryo has reached the 8-cell stage, it
undergoes another process called
compactation, which involves the tight binding
of the cells to create a compact sphere. After
compactation, the embryo is made up of 16
cells, which is referred to as the morula.
Stage 3: After one more day, a cavity
referred to as the blastocele develops in the
morula. Cells inside the blastocele compact
and flatten to form a structure referred to as
the blastocyst.
Stage 4: Around 24 hours later, the
blastocyst moves towards the womb, where it
implants itself in the lining.
Stage 5: Over the next week, the mass of
cells rapidly divides, giving rise to a disc-
shaped structure that has two layers. One of
the layers goes on to become the embryo
and the amniotic cavity, while the other layer
develops into the yolk sac.
Stage 6: A process called gastrulation also
occurs, where the blood system starts to
appear in the placenta and blood cells are
produced by the yolk sac. A streak of cells
becomes apparent on the embryonic disc.
Stage 7: Three weeks after ovulation, two
types of cells arise from the streak which
changes the two-layered disc into a three-
layered one. These layers are referred to as
the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
The endoderm eventually gives rise to the
tissue that forms a lining in the tonsils, lungs,
bladder, digestive system, tongue, and
urethra. The mesoderm develops into the
bones, lymph, heart, lungs, muscles, blood
cells, spleen, and genital organs. The
ectoderm gives rise to the nails, skin, tooth
enamel, mammary glands, pituitary gland,
anus, mouth, sinuses, eye lens, the lining of
the external and internal ear, and the entire
nervous system.
Stage 8: Twenty-three days after ovulation,
the embryo is pear-shaped with a broader
head area. At the same time, embryonic
blood cells start to form blood vessels. The
ectoderm develops into the neural plate and
neural curve that eventually becomes the
nervous system.
Stage 9: Twenty-five days after ovulation, the
mesoderm condenses into somites that form
on either side of the neural groove. Three
pairs of somites are visible at this stage.
Stage 10: Four weeks after ovulation, the
heart fold fuses with the neural folds and up
to twelve pairs of somites develop. The
precursor cells for both the ear and eye cells
appear and the neural tube starts to close.
One S-shaped endocardial tube forms and
the cardiac muscle starts to contract.
Stage 11: Thirty days after ovulation, up to
20 pairs of somites have formed and the
central nervous system is developed. If there
are 20 pairs of somites, the forebrain is now
closed. At this point, the heart begins to beat
and peristalsis starts to move fluids through
the body. Optical vesicles and two
pharyngeal arches also appear.
Stage 12: Thirty-two days after ovulation, up
to 29 pairs of somites have formed and the
upper limb buds have developed. The brain
and spinal cord are large and compact and
the arches for the neck and face have
become evident. Differentiation of the
digestive layer also gives rise to buds for the
lung, stomach, liver, and pancreas.
Stage 13: Thirty-four days after ovulation, up
to 40 somites are visible and the brain
differentiates into the forebrain, midbrain, and
hindbrain. Whereas the forebrain is
associated with thinking and memory, the
midbrain is associated with message relay.
Thirdly the hindbrain is associated with
control of the heart, breathing, and muscles.
It is now possible to identify the retina, optic
stalk, mouth, and tongue of the fetus. The
thyroid gland also develops by this stage and
the lymphatic system starts to form. The
chambers of the heart are now filled with
blood and the lungs continue to form.
Structures in the abdomen such as the
gallbladder and stomach also continue to
develop.
Stage 14: Five weeks after ovulation, the lens
pit and optic cup are visible and the head and
brain rapidly grow. The esophagus starts to
form and the four chambers of the heart are
visible. Lung sacs can be seen on either side
of the esophagus. The kidneys and ureter
bud can also be seen and nerves start to
form in the upper limbs.
Stage 15: Thirty-eight days after ovulation,
the jaw begins to form and the beginning of
the mouth and oral cavity are visible. The
body of the eye lens also starts to take
shape. By this stage, blood begins to flow
through the heart. Additionally, the forearm,
hand plate, and shoulder can begin to be
visualized. The lower limb bud also becomes
more rounded at the top where the foot will
start to form.
Stage 16: Six weeks after ovulation, the
hemispheres of the brain are well
differentiated and the lower and upper jaws
are visible. The skull and face continue to
form and mammary gland tissue starts to
mature. The ureter lengthens and the lower
limb buds start to form the leg, foot, and
thigh.
females, the clitoris starts to develop and in
males, this tissue becomes the penis. The
cartilage is gradually replaced with bone and
the finger digits start to separate fully. The
feet also become more defined.

Stage 17: Forty-five days after ovulation, a
sense of smell starts to develop and the jaw
and facial muscles grow. The diaphragm,
teeth buds, trachea, bronchi, and larynx all
start to develop and the trunk becomes
straighter.
Stage 23: Nine weeks after ovulation, the
head is rounded, the ears are fully formed,
taste buds develop, the upper and lower
limbs are well-formed and all toe and finger
digits are separated.

Stage 18: Seven weeks after ovulation, eyes

become pigmented, the eyelids start to form
and nerves develop in the scalp. The body is
more cube-shaped at this stage, and both the
nipples and wrist become recognizable. The
kidneys also start to produce urine.

Stage 19: Fifty-two days after ovulation, the

brain waves can be detected in the brain, and
the gonads begin to form. The limbs have
developed indentations in the knee and ankle
areas, and the toenails start to grow. The
trunk lengthens and becomes straighter,
muscles get stronger and the bone cartilage
becomes solid.

Stage 20: Eight weeks after ovulation, the

brain is connected to nerves and muscles
and movement is possible. The upper limbs
bend at the elbows and skin folds between
what will be the toes are recognizable. The
nasal openings and the nasal tip are also fully
developed. The testes and ovaries can now
be seen.

Stage 21: Fifty-eight days after ovulation, the

eyes are well developed and the tongue will
be fully formed in the following few days. The
feet are still fan-shaped and the toes are
webbed.

Stage 22: Sixty days after ovulation, the heart

is fully formed, the eyelids and ears are more
developed and the upper lip is formed. In