Network Topologies ​s

​LAN (Local Area Network)

It’s a transmission system for personal computers due to their low cost for the
speed and security they provide. They have a short span.

There are better alternative solutions to a single LAN strategy.

❏ Reliability​: With a single LAN, service interruption could have a major
disruption for all the users.
❏ Capacity​: A single LAN can get oversaturated the more devices are added to
the system.
❏ Cost​: A single LAN technology may not be optimized for diverse requirements
of interconnection and communication. Thus, a large number of low-cost
attachments that LANs can have may not face all the requirements alone.
A good solution would be to have lower capacities LANs within buildings and
interconnect them with a higher capacity LAN. Therefore, ​backbone LANs​ are used
to interconnect all data processing equipment of a premise.

Topologies​ (characteristics, advantages, disadvantages)

A topology refers to the way in which endpoints are connected in a network.
 ● Bus (453)
All stations are attached to each other
through a tap, directly to a linear
transmission medium, namely the bus.
There is a full duplex orientation between
the stations because the taps allow data to
be transmitted onto the bus and be received
from the bus. At the end of the bus there is a
terminator that absorbs any signal and
removes it from the bus.
A ​network tap​ is a system that monitors events on a local network in
order to aid administrators (or attackers) in analyzing the network. The tap
itself is typically a dedicated hardware device, which provides a way to access
the data flowing across a computer network. The tap includes a transceiver
for signaling, and it’s attached to the PC by an AUI ( Attachment Unit
Interface) cable.
The transmission is propagating through the entire medium and it’s
heard by all stations. A target station (that has a unique address) needs to be
identified in order to allow a maximum transmission time.
○ Advantage:
- Full duplex connection between stations and an AUI that allow
both a transmission and a reception.
- If a station is not available, it will not affect the rest of the
stations and adding new stations is relatively easy.
- No special action is needed to remove the data from the
medium. When the signal reaches the terminating resistance
(end of the medium) it is absorbed.
○ Disadvantage:
- We need to regulate the transmission because it’s being
propagated through the entire medium. Avoiding collisions is
crucial for this topology because if we transmit data at the same
time the signals will overlap and they become distorted.
Therefore we transmit the data through small blocks (frames)
and use a control system. For this, the frames contain control
information so that it can be scheduled by the control system.
Besides that, we have to add the destination address in the
frame header in order to determine which station this package is
directed to.
- The broadcast type of medium may prove a security
concern, because if the bus is being tapped by an
outside source, the data transmitted is vulnerable.
Alternate topology: ​tree topology​ (453).
 ● Ring
All stations are attached to each
other through repeaters and can transmit
data through them. The repeaters are
joined by point-to-point links in a closed
loop and they are able to receive data on
one link and further transmit them on the
other link. The direction of the transmission is unidirectional. Just like the bus,
the data is transmitted in small packages (frames). Since the network is a
closed loop, the frame has to circulate through all the stations until it reaches
the source again, where it is removed. The destination station only recognizes
the address and copies the data in a local buffer.
○ Advantage:
- If a station is down, the transmission is not affected.
○ Disadvantage:
- We need to regulate the transmission because it’s being
propagated through the entire medium. Avoiding collisions is
crucial for this topology because if we transmit data at the same
time the signals will overlap and they become distorted.
Therefore we transmit the data through small blocks (frames)
and use a control system ​(Media access control)​. For this, the
frames contain control information so that it can be scheduled by
the control system. Besides that, we have to add the destination
address in the frame header in order to determine which station
this package is directed to.
- The number of sources/ rings is limited and if a repeater is
down, the whole transmission would collapse. Adding a new
source is a complex operation and the whole network is harder
to manage.

Alternate topology: ​Dual Ring​ – allows for a second (reserve) ring;

data flow has here an opposite direction; not all stations linked to
both rings.
 ● Star
All stations are directly connected to a common
central node (switch) which can operate in ​two modes​.
Each station is attached to the central node via two
point-to-point links: one for transmission and one for
reception.
1) The central node operates in a broadcast
fashion: a transmission of a frame from one station to the node
is being re-broadcasted on all the outgoing links. In this case,
the networks acts a lot like a bus, and the central element is
referred to as a ​hub​.
2) The central node acts as a frame-switching device. In this case,
an incoming frame is buffered in the node and then
re-transmitted on an outgoing link to the destination station.
○ Advantage:
- Since the common central node can operate in two modes, it is
very versatile and can adapt to the requirements of a client.
- If a station is not available, it will not affect the rest of the
stations and adding new stations is relatively easy.
○ Disadvantage:
- If the central node collapses, the entire topology collapses with
it.
- The cabling is more complex and thus, it isn’t cheap.

Alternate topology: ​Extended Star​ - links individual stars together, by linking the
centers (hubs/switches); also known as snowflake topology.
○ Advantage:
- Very scalable, easy to add another node.
○ Disadvantage:
- Single point failure due to the usage of a hub/switch
///////457

​MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

M

​WAN (Wide Area Network)

M
 ​Token Ring
​ tates
S
Acts at 4Mbps, 16Mbps and (will) 100Mbps, using UTP, STP and FO. Differential
Manchester encoding. Each station connected using a repeater, which introduces a delay
when active! Each repeater connects to two others via unidirectional transmission links.
Single closed path.
Data transferred bit by bit, from one repeater to the next. Each repeater introduces one bit
delay. Repeater regenerates and retransmits each bit. Repeater performs data insertion, data
reception, data removal. Packet removed by transmitter after one trip round ring. Repeater is
in one of the following states:
Listen State Functions : Scan passing bit stream for pertinent patterns (Address of attached
station; if station is destination of the passing frame; Token permission to transmit); Copy
incoming bit and send to attached station Whilst forwarding each bit; Modify bit as it passes,
e.g. the C bit, to indicate a packet has been copied (acts as ACK). ​Transmit State Functions :
Station has data to put on ring. Repeater has permission to send. Repeater receives bits from
station and puts them on ring. May receive incoming bits, from the ring, on incoming line. If
ring bit length is shorter then transmitted packet length, pass back to station for checking
(ACK, by example). May be more than one packet on ring (some control strategies allow).
Buffer bits for retransmission later. ​Bypass State : Signals propagate past repeater with no
delay (other than propagation delay). Partial solution to reliability problem (station not in
use).

​Collision in a LAN
O coliziune are loc atunci cand 2 statii incearca sa transmita in acelasi timp. Relevant pentru
retele CSMA/CD. Collision detected if cable signal greater than single station signal; station
detecting collision will generate a burst jam signal (jabber control).
Se produce un overlap al frame-urilor; problema ce se poate rezolva prin FDM (Frequency
Domain Multiplexing); transmisiile pot fi corupte.
Collision domain – given by the set of stations sensing collision when simultaneous
transmissions; for 10Mbps standard it is allowed a number of 516 bits onto the shared
medium. For higher speeds (i.e. Ethernet at 100Mbps) is kept the same minimum length,
obtained by splitting the collision domain; use of hubs or switches instead of repeaters.

Asynchronous Control Approach:

● many stations that are interconnected, one of them transmits data

● reservation:​ each station has a specific time frame to transmit data
● contention:​ the stations compete for access to the transmission medium
○ ALOHA protocol
○ Slotted ALOHA
○ CSMA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access
○ CSMA/CD
○ - ​collision detected -> send jamming signal

Fiber Distributed Data Interface - FDDI​ token topology :uses optical fibers/UTP cable for
short distance
 Communication Protocols ​s
Addressing modes
● Unicast address: data sent to one machine or person (usually an address
refers to a single system)
● Broadcast address: sent to all machines or users (may address all entities
within a domain)
● Multicast: sent to some machines or a group of users (may address a subset
of entities within a domain

​OSI (ISO Open System Interconnection Reference Model)

The designers of OSI assumed that this model and the protocols developed
within would dominate computer communications, replacing rival models such as
TCP/IP. In the end, this didn’t happen. Despite this fact, many protocols have been
inspired by OSI but the overall seven-layer model was not a success. Instead, the
TCP/IP architecture has come to the top. The failure of OSI becoming the dominant
communication model is perhaps due to the fact that the TCP/IP protocol was way
more developed than OSI at the time businesses needed such a protocol. One other
reason for this is because TCP/IP has way fewer layers than OSI does - making OSI
seem unnecessarily complex.
 ​TCP/IP Protocol
It’s a reference model that supports the exchange of data between systems.
There must be a high degree of cooperation between the two computers in order to
exchange data. In order to make the implementation easier, the task is broken up
into subtasks, each of which is implemented separately. In a protocol architecture,
the modules are arranged in a vertical stack.These layers send the physical
information from top to bottom. Each layer in the stack performs a subset of the
functions required to communicate with another system. The current layer relies on
their lower layer to perform more primitive functions and it provides services to the
next higher layer. Ideally, layers should be defined so that changes in one layer do
not require changes in other layers.
The same set of layered functions must exist in two systems in order to
communicate. The layers communicate by means of formatted blocks of data that
obey a set of rules known as a protocol. The key features of a protocol are:
• Syntax: Concerns the format of the data blocks
• Semantics: Includes control information for coordination and error handling
• Timing: Includes speed matching and sequencing

● Physical layer (BOTTOM)

The physical layer covers the physical interface between the computer
and the network. This layer is specifying the characteristics of the
transmission medium, nature of the signals, data rate and all the related
matters.
 ● Network access layer
The network access layer is concerned with the exchange of data
between a server and the network to which it is attached. The sending
computer must provide the network with the address of the destination to
make sure that the package is being transmitted to the correct location.

● Internet layer (IP)

The Internet Protocol (IP) is used at this layer to provide the routing
function across multiple networks. It acts as a relay to move a block of data
from one host, through one or more routers, to another host (It contains the
mechanism needed for contacting hosts). This protocol is implemented in both
the end systems and in the routers.
A ​router ​is a processor that connects two networks and whose primary
function is to relay data from one network to the other on its route from the
source to the destination end system.

● End-to-end, or transport layer (Host-to-host)

The transport layer often uses TCP (the alternative would be UDP) and
it’s implemented only in the endpoint systems. It keeps track of the blocks of
data to make sure that all of them are delivered to the appropriate application.
TCP can also break down the block of data to make it more manageable.

● Application layer (TOP)

The application layer contains the logic
needed to support various applications. For each
different type of application, such as file transfer, a
separate module is needed that is specific to that
application.

​ MTP and FTP, TELENET

S
(TCP/IP Applications)
 ​DNS (Domain Name System)
Provides a mapping between the name of a host on the Internet and
its numerical address. DNS is composed of 4 elements:
- Domain Name Space​: a tree-structured namespace to identify resources
- DNS database​: Each node and leaf in the namespace names a set of
information (like IP address, type of resource) that is contained in the
resource record (RR). The collection of all RRs is organized into a database.
The DNS database is distributed hierarchically, residing in DNS name
servers scattered throughout the Internet. Name servers can be operated by
any organization that owns a domain; that is, any organization that has
responsibility for a subtree of the hierarchical domain name space.
- Name servers​: These are server programs that hold information about a
portion of the domain name tree structure and the associated RRs.
- Resolvers​: These are programs that extract information from name servers in
response to client requests. A typical client request is for an IP address
corresponding to a given domain name.
The application layer protocol usually calls a resolver in order to resolve a
name.

- Domain name: In essence, the domain name in a RR must correspond to the

human readable form, which consists of a series of labels of alphanumeric
characters or hyphens, with each pair of labels separated by a period.
- Type: Identifies the type of resource in this RR.
- Class: Identifies the protocol family. The commonly used value is IN, for the
Internet.
- Time to live: Typically, when a RR is retrieved from a name server, the
retriever will cache the RR so that it need not query the name server
repeatedly. This field specifies the time interval that the resource record may
be cached before the source of the information should again be consulted.A
zero value is interpreted to mean that the RR can only be used for the
transaction in progress and should not be cached.
- Rdata Field Length: Length of the Rdata field in octets
 - Rdata: A variable-length string of octets that describes the resource. The
format of this information varies according to the type of the RR. For example,
for the A type, the Rdata is a 32-bit IP address, and for the CNAME type, the
Rdata is a domain name.

Possible implementations/ functioning:

- At the application layer level to resolve a name.
- A client-server interaction: the clients may query the server for solving a name
e.h. nslookup function. The server runs daemon servers to respond to queries
related to names.
- gethostbyname: can be invoked at an application layer level and it’s a resolver
library
- Centralized DNS: A single point of failure, distant centralized database,
doesn’t scale

Structure of the domain names:

In essence, the domain name in a Resource Record must correspond to the
human readable form, which consists of a series of case insensitive labels of
alphanumeric characters or hyphens, with each pair of labels separated by a period.
Each component name is up to 63 characters long, while the entire path can
be 255 characters long.
Names are placed in a hierarchy, where the most significant component is
placed on the right. On the left the computer name is placed.
 Transport Level Protocols
s
​TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
TCP provides a reliable connection for the transfer of data between
applications over an unreliable IP. Each end of the connection has a socket
(which is a pair of IP address + port number, allows multiple connections).

For two computers in order to communicate they must agree on a port

number. Afterwards, the “source” opens the selected port and awaits
messages. The “client” only selects the port and send messages to it. During
the connection, each entity keeps track of TCP segments coming and going to
the other entity, in order to regulate the flow of segments and to recover from
lost or damaged segments.
TCP doesn’t support multicasting or broadcasting.

The connection features​:

- Reliability​: reliable transport between the two sides
- flow control to make sure the sender won’t overwhelm the receiver
- Congestion control​ to pause the sender when the network is
overloaded. It has a timer whose value is determined by observing a
delay pattern in recent segments
- Window management:​ In TCP this may affect the transmission
parameters. In order to manage the size, we have a technique: if the
window size is used as provided by the past connection, it may cause
excessive flow. This may be different for internet connections.
Solution: The sender should start with a smaller window size.
TCP header​: is a minimum of 20 octets,or 160 bits.
- The Source Port and Destination Port fields identify the applications at
the source and destination systems that are using this connection.
- The Sequence Number, Acknowledgment Number, and Window fields
provide flow control and error control.
- The checksum is a 16-bit frame check sequence used to detect errors
in the TCP segment.
- It has a PUSH flag that can request the buffered data to be sent. TCP
may buffer information to increase the amount sent.
​UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
UDP is unreliable: it does not guarantee delivery, preservation of
sequence, or protection against duplication. It doesn’t even provide a
connection​. UDP enables a procedure to send independent messages
(datagrams) to other procedures with a minimum of protocol mechanism. It’s
mainly used for real-time applications with no need for retransmissions and no
critical functions (only inward data collections like monitoring and outward
data connection like broadcasted announcements).​ One example is SNMP
(Simple Network Management Protocol), the standard network management
protocol for TCP/IP networks.

Essentially, it adds a port addressing capability to IP.

It has a static size therefore messages must fit in one UDP datagram.

For generality, endpoints of UDP are called protocol ports or just ports.
Each UDP data transmission identifies the internet address and port number
of the destination and the source of the message.

UDP header​ is very simple: Port numbers, Message length, and it also
includes a checksum to verify that no error occurs in the data (otional).
​ Internetworking ​s
​IPv4

IP header format is a minimum of 20 octets.

The header includes 32-bit source and destination addresses.
The Header Checksum field is used to detect errors in the header to avoid
misdelivery.
The Protocol field indicates which higher-layer protocol is using IP.
The ID, Flags, and Fragment Offset fields are used in the fragmentation and
reassembly process.

IP services: (primitive)
- Send: Transmits the data unit
- Deliver: notifies the destination about the upcoming data unit.

Parameters: (used for the transmission and control of info)

- Source address, destination address, protocol, type of service​(Specify
treatment of data unit during transmission through networks).

Structura pachetului IP: ​de jos în sus –Options+Padding(0-31) / Destination

Address(0-31) / Source Address(0-31) / Time to Live (0-8) + Protocol (8-16) +
Header Checksum (16-31) / Identification(0-16) + Flags (16-19) + Fragment Offset
(19-31) / Version (0-4) + IHL (4-8) + Type of Service (8-16) + Total Length(16-31)

Adresses
Class A : 1.x.x.x - 126.x.x.x
Class B : 128.x.x.x - 191.x.x.x
Class C : 192.x.x.x - 223.x.x.x
Class D: Contain multicast addresses for group users.
First decimal field is between 224 and 239;
Class E: Reserved for research and future developments.
First decimal field between 240 and 255.

ICMP role: ​ICMP provides a means for transferring messages from routers and other
hosts to a host. In essence, ICMP provides feedback about problems in the
communication environment.

Time to live field: ​Its purpose is to stop a packet from being sent for an endless
amount of time. This would happen if the network is a closed circle.

Campul TTL este decrementat la fiecare trecere printr-un router. Intrucat nu putem
cunoaste exact traseul pe care un pachet il va avea, putem folosi campul TTL cu o
anumita valoare pentru a impiedica pachetul sa ramane “blocat” intr-un loop
nesfarsit.

​IP
ADRESA DE IPV4, IN IPV6. ​O adr IPv6 cu 96 de leading zero la inceput este interpretata
ca o adr IPv4.

IP: Header Fields:

Version ​Currently 4; ​Internet header length: ​In 32 bit words, Including options; ​Type of
service; Total length: O ​ f datagram, in octets; ​Identification: ​Sequence number, Used with
addresses and user protocol to identify datagram uniquely; ​Flags: ​More bit, Don’t fragment;
Fragmentation offset; Time to live; Protocol: N ​ ext higher layer to receive data field at
destination; ​Header checksum: R ​ everified and recomputed at each router, 16 bit ones
complement sum of all 16 bit words in header, Set to zero during calculation; ​Source
address; Destination address; Options; Padding: T ​ o fill to multiple of 32 bits long ; ​Data
​ arries user data from next layer up, Integer multiple of 8 bits long (octet), Max length
Field: C
of datagram (header plus data) 65,535 octets.
A: 0-126 0 networkID (7) HostID
B: 128 – 191 (10) 10 network ID HostID
C: 192 – 223 (110) 110 network host
D: 224 – 239 1110 host group
E: 240 – 255

Transition from IPv4 to IPv6

● tunneling: from IPv4 to IPv4, the router encapsulates the IPv4 into an IPv6 by
adding a header, then a second router converts it from IPv6 to IPv4
 ● NAT (Network Address Translation) protocol translation: IPv6 packet, the device
changes it into IPv4 and vice-versa

I​ Pv6
Necessity : ​IPv6 provides a number of functional enhancements over the existing
IP, designed to accommodate the higher speeds of today’s networks and the mix of
data streams, including graphic and video, that are becoming more prevalent. But
the driving force behind the development of the new protocol was the need for more
addresses. The current IP uses a 32-bit address to specify a source or destination.
With the explosive growth of the Internet and of private networks attached to the
Internet, this address length became insufficient to accommodate all systems
needing addresses.

IPv6 Header ​has a fixed length of 40 octets, consisting of the following fields:
• Version (4 bits): Internet protocol version number; the value is 6.
• DS/ECN (8 bits): Available for use by originating nodes and/or forwarding
routers for differentiated services and congestion functions, as described for
the IPv4 DS/ECN field.
• Flow Label (20 bits): May be used by a host to label those packets for which it is
requesting special handling by routers within a network; discussed subsequently.
• Payload Length (16 bits): Length of the remainder of the IPv6 packet following
the header, in octets. In other words, this is the total length of all of the
extension headers plus the transport-level PDU.
• Next Header (8 bits): Identifies the type of header immediately following the
IPv6 header; this will either be an IPv6 extension header or a higher-layer
header, such as TCP or UDP.
• Hop Limit (8 bits): The remaining number of allowable hops for this packet.The
hop limit is set to some desired maximum value by the source and decremented
by 1 by each node that forwards the packet.The packet is discarded if Hop Limit
is decremented to zero. This is a simplification over the processing required for
the Time to Live field of IPv4.The consensus was that the extra effort in accounting
for time intervals in IPv4 added no significant value to the protocol. In fact,
IPv4 routers, as a general rule, treat the Time to Live field as a hop limit field.
• Source Address (128 bits): The address of the originator of the packet.

Address structure
IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length. Addresses are assigned to individual
interfaces on nodes, not to the nodes themselves.8 A single interface may have
multiple unique unicast addresses. Any of the unicast addresses associated with a
node’s interface may be used to uniquely identify that node.

Address types​ IPv6 allows three types of addresses:

• Unicast: An identifier for a single interface. A packet sent to a unicast address
is delivered to the interface identified by that address.
• Anycast: An identifier for a set of interfaces (typically belonging to different
nodes). A packet sent to an anycast address is delivered to one of the interfaces
identified by that address (the “nearest” one, according to the routing
protocols’ measure of distance).
• Multicast: An identifier for a set of interfaces (typically belonging to different
nodes). A packet sent to a multicast address is delivered to all interfaces identified
by that address.

Main option headers

• Hop-by-Hop Options header: Defines special options that require hop-by-hop
processing
• Routing header: Provides extended routing, similar to IPv4 source routing
• Fragment header: Contains fragmentation and reassembly information
• Authentication header: Provides packet integrity and authentication
• Encapsulating Security Payload header: Provides privacy
• Destination Options header: Contains optional information to be examined
by the destination node
In addition, the IPv6 header has a new field, named Flow Label, that can
identify packets belonging to the same flow.

Multicast allows bandwidth-intensive packet flows (like multimedia streams) to be sent to

multiple destinations simultaneously, saving network bandwidth.

​ Mail ​s
​MIME (​Multipart Internet Mail Extensions, 752​)
Role: ​MIME is an extension to the RFC 822 framework that is intended to address
some of the problems and limitations of the use of SMTP and RFC 822 for electronic
mail. The other major component of the MIME specification, in addition to content
type specification, is a definition of transfer encodings for message bodies. The
objective is to provide reliable delivery across the largest range of environments.

Header extensions
There are some additional lines in
the MIME message headers:
- MIME version: identifies the
version
- Content type: identifies what
the message contains
- Content transfer encoding: unique identifier
- Content description: how the content is packed for transmission
- Content ID: the type of the message
Extensions
It allows the inclusion of separate components (multimedia) in a single email
message. The sending program identifies the components so the receiving program
can automatically extract it.
Separator line gives information about the specific encoding.
For the text type of body, no special software is required to get the full meaning of
the text, aside from support of the indicated character set
The multipart type indicates that the body contains multiple, independent
parts.
- SMTP cannot transmit executable files or other binary objects
- SMTP cannot transmit text data that includes national language characters
because these are represented by 8-bit codes with values of 128 decimal or
higher, and SMTP is limited to 7-bit ASCII.
- SMTP servers may reject mail messages over a certain size.
- SMTP gateways do not use a consistent set of mappings-> translation
problems.
 - Some SMTP implementations do not adhere completely to the SMTP
standards. Common problems include: Deletion, addition, or reordering of
carriage return; Removal of trailing
whitespace (tab and space
characters); Conversion of tab
characters into multiple space
characters

​ WWW
& HTTP
s
​HTTP (Hypertext Transfer protocol)
- Underlying protocol of the World Wide Web.
- Not a protocol for transferring hypertext; rather it is a protocol for transmitting
information with the efficiency necessary for making hypertext jumps.
- HTTP specifies commands and client-server interaction.
- The data transferred by the protocol can be plaintext, hypertext, audio,
images, or any Internet-accessible information.
- Usually between Web browser (client) and Web server.
- To provide reliability, HTTP makes use of TCP. Nevertheless, HTTP is a
“stateless” protocol: Each transaction is treated independently. Accordingly, a
typical implementation will create a new TCP connection between client and
server for each transaction and then terminate the connection as soon as the
transaction completes
- Client/Server model: – client: browser that requests, receives, “displays”
WWW objects; – server: WWW server daemon, sends objects in response to
client requests.

Functionality:
– client initiates TCP connection (creates socket) to server, port 80;
– server accepts TCP connection from client;
– HTTP messages (application-layer protocol messages) exchanged between
browser (HTTP client) and WWW server (HTTP server);
– TCP connection closed. HTTP is “stateless”: server maintains no information about
past client requests.

The client opens a TCP connection that is end-to-end between the client
and the server. The client then issues an HTTP request. The request consists of a
specific command, referred to as a method, an address [referred to as a Uniform
Resource Locator (URL)], and a MIME-like message containing request parameters,
information about the client, and perhaps some additional content information. When
the server receives the request, it attempts to perform the requested action and then
returns an HTTP response. The response includes status information, a
success/error code, and a MIME-like message containing information about the
server, information about the response itself, and possible body content. The TCP
connection is then closed.

​HTML
- Evolved from Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), specialized
for hypertext and adapted to the Web.
- specifies how documents are to be formatted: Major structure of document,
Formatting instructions, Hypermedia links, Additional information about
document contents.
- Two parts to document: Head contains details about the document, Body
contains information/content.
- Page is represented in ASCII text with embedded HTML tags formatting
instructions. Tags have format <TAGNAME>. End of formatted section is
</TAGNAME>. Commands inside the tags: directives.
- Evolution​. HTML 1.0 – one way, e.g. users could only call up pages, hard to
send back information -> Inclusion of forms, containing boxes or buttons,
allowing users for info filling or make choices and sending info back to the
page’s owner. Form enclosed between <FORM> and </FORM> tags. One
standard to handle forms’ data: Common Gateway Interface (CGI). Example:
CGI programs (scripts) allow interface between a database and the Web.
​ Data Link Control ​s
Flow Control​: Flow control is a technique for assuring that a transmitting entity does not
overwhelm a receiving entity with data. The receiving entity typically allocates a databuffer of
some maximum length for a transfer.When data are received, the receiver must do a certain
amount of processing before passing the data to the higher-level software. In the absence of
flow control, the receiver’s buffer may fill up and overflow while it is processing old data.

● transmission time: time taken for a station to emit all bits into medium
● propagation time: time taken for a bit to traverse the link, from source to
destination stations

​Stop and wait (197)

● source transmits frame

● destination receives frame and returns ACK
● source waits for ACK
● dataflow stops when destination does not send ACK
● limited destination buffer size
● errors are detected sooner
● on error, transmits smaller frames
● prevents one station occupying medium for long periods
● cannot be used when multiple frames are sent for the same message

Propagation time >> transmission time (high data transmission speed or long distance) the
line is under-utilized
 ​Sliding Windows (199)
The essence of the problem described so far is that only one frame at a time
can be in transit. In situations where the bit length of the link is greater than the
frame length serious inefficiencies result. Efficiency can be greatly improved by
allowing multiple frames to be in transit at the same time.

Describe control technique

● multiple frames can be transmitted on the link

● receiver has a buffer of size W, transmitter sends W frames without ACK
● the receiver numbers the received frames
● the receiver sends the ACK and the next frame expected
● frames are numbered ​modulo 2^k
● window size is usually small
● sender: list of sequence number it can transmit
● receiver: list of sequence number it can receive

Error Detection

● parity check: odd parity - asynchronous; even parity - synchronous

● cyclic redundancy check:
○ for a block of k bits, the transmitter generates the frame check sequence of n
bits
○ the frame is extended to k + n
○ receiver divides the frame by that number -> if no remainder then no error

Error Control (203): ​error detection + correction. Two types of errors: lost frames +
damages frames
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ):
- Stop-and-wait ARQ

■ source transmits one single frame

■ stops and waits for ACK -> retransmits frame if no ACK/ damaged ACK
■ not very efficient

- Go-back-N ARQ

■ no error -> ACK used as usual

■ error -> reply with rejection RNRn/REJn; receiver discards frames and sender
retransmits them
■ cases:
a. damaged frame -> retransmit damaged frame and all subsequent frames
b. lost frame -> transmitter sends next frame, receiver gets it out of sequence and
rejects the previous frame
c. lost frame v2 -> no next frame, transmitter waits for ack and times out (then
sends a special acknowledgement frame with P bit set to 1 ); receiver tells the
next frame it expects
d. damaged acknowledge -> similar to prev
e. damaged rejection -> similar to c.

- Selective Reject ARQ

■ only rejected frames are retransmitted

■ subsequent frames are buffered until the valid frame is received
■ reordering

​HDLC (209 ​High-level Data Link Control​)

HDLC Protocol​: ​To satisfy a variety of applications, HDLC defines three types of
stations, two link configurations, and three data transfer modes of operation.

The three station types are

• Primary station: Responsible for controlling the operation of the link. Frames
issued by the primary are called commands.
• Secondary station: Operates under the control of the primary station. Frames
issued by a secondary are called responses. The primary maintains a separate
logical link with each secondary station on the line.
• Combined station: Combines the features of primary and secondary. A combined
station may issue both commands and responses.

The two link configurations are

• Unbalanced configuration: Consists of one primary and one or more secondary
stations and supports both full-duplex and half-duplex transmission.
• Balanced configuration: Consists of two combined stations and supports both
full-duplex and half-duplex transmission.
The three data transfer modes are
• Normal response mode (NRM): Used with an unbalanced configuration. The
primary may initiate data transfer to a secondary, but a secondary may only
transmit data in response to a command from the primary.
• Asynchronous balanced mode (ABM): Used with a balanced configuration.
Either combined station may initiate transmission without receiving permission
from the other combined station.
• Asynchronous response mode (ARM): Used with an unbalanced configuration.
The secondary may initiate transmission without explicit permission of
the primary. The primary still retains responsibility for the line, including initialization,
error recovery, and logical disconnection.

HDLC – ROL SI STRUCTURA

HDLC uses synchronous transmission => synchronization fields (it means that it
works with blocks of bits (characters).Inter-clock synchronization: auxiliary clock line
+ biphasic coding + Synchronization at the block level ​=> ​extra flag and control fields
=> ​data structure of frame. Frame contains a header and a trailer, information
embedded between them. Header = Flag + Address + Control fields; Trailer = FCS +
Flag fields. FCS (Frame Control Sequence), using CRC error control.

Flag Fields​ : Delimit frame at both ends, used for frame sequence synchronization;
receiver hunts for flag sequence to synchronize; Normal pattern: 01111110 (six ones
between zeros).

Address Field​ : Usually 8 bits long, indicating the secondary station having
transmission or to receive frame. Not useful for point-to-point links. Usually 8 bits
enough for addressing 255 secondary stations, even 127 when 7 bits used. Address
field may be extended to multiples of 7 bits, using an ‘a priori’ rule: LSB of each octet
indicates that it is the last octet (if 1) in the string, or not (if 0); Special address for all
stations: all ones (11111111) is broadcast address.

Control Field​ : HDLC defines three types of frames, with different control formats :
Information (I-frame): data to be transmitted to user (next layer up), Flow and error
control piggybacked on information frames; Supervisory (S-frame): control for ARQ
when piggyback not used; Unnumbered (U-frame): supplementary link control, if
needed.

Structura:​ Flag(8 biti) + Address (8 biti) + Control (8 sau 16) + Information (variabil) +
FCS (16 sau 32) + Flag (8).
​ Medium Access Control ​s
​CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Avoidance)
Used in wireless networks, where the device does not know when collision
happens. The method is similar to CSMA/CD; the device that wants to transmit data
listens to see if there are any current transmissions happening, if so, it will wait a
short period of time until it rechecks. If there is nothing sensed, the device waits for a
short amount of time before sending the data, there are two cases possible:

1. the receiver gets the data and sends an acknowledgement bit back to the
sender
2. the sender does not receive the acknowledgement, meaning that the
transmission was unsuccessful, so it retries.

​ SMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detect)

C
Access medium
With CSMA, collision occupies medium for the durations of implied
transmissions. When two frames collide, the medium remains unusable for the
duration of transmission of both damaged frames. For long frames, compared to
propagation time, the amount of wasted capacity can be considerable. ​This waste
can be reduced​ if a station continues to listen to the medium while transmitting.This
leads to the following rules for CSMA/CD:
1. If the medium is idle, transmit; otherwise, go to step 2.
2. If the medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel is idle, then transmit
immediately.
3. If a collision is detected during transmission, transmit a brief jamming signal to
assure that all stations know that there has been a collision and then cease
transmission.
4. After transmitting the jamming signal, wait a random amount of time, referred to as
the backoff, then attempt to transmit again (repeat from step 1).
Binary exponential back-off waiting algorithm​: The time to wait t, for the n-th attempt,
the value being randomly chosen in the interval 0< t < 2k, where k=min(n,10)). The
number of attempts is bounded (to 16).

This technique is mostly used in half-duplex systems, where the data can be sent in
both directions, but not at the same time.

​ DDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) MAC protocol

F
topology, station types, transmission medium
FDDI
100Mbps network, used for LAN & MAN applications; fiber optic based (may use short UTP
links); excellent for LAN backbones. Use of Token Ring MAC algorithm, with differences:
-Station seizes token by aborting token transmission; -Once token captured, one or more data
frames transmitted; -New token released as soon as transmission finished (early token release
in 802.5); -Allows for asynchronous & synchronous frame transmissions; -Data & control
coded as symbols, group of 4 bits carried as 5 bits by the medium (4B/5B).
Topology – two FO rings, with opposite flows: -Primary ring; -Back-up ring. When crash,
use of attach. unit bypass and ring merger => one flow. Three types of stations: -DAS (Dual
Attachment Station); -DAC (Dual Attachment Concentrator); -SAS (Single Attachment
Station). SAS connected only to the primary ring. TP used to connect SAS to DAC.
Architectural levels – one more level, Station Management, lowing complexity of MAC level
(station initialisation & management, ring management: fault detection & isolation)

FDDI – TOPOLOGIE, TIPURI DE STATII, MEDII DE TRANSMISIE

La baza FDDI care are ca topologie logica token ring, cu anumite diferente. Se folosesc 2
inele din fibra optica, unul primar si altul de backup. Tipurile de statii sunt DAS (Dual
Attachment Station), DAC (Dual Attachment Concentrator), si SAS (Single Attachment
Station). De regula se foloseste ca mediu de transmisie fibra optica FO dar si UTP, caz in
care este denumit CDDI (Copper Distributed Data Interface).

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a set of ISO standards for data transmission in
LANs (Local Area Network) using fiber optic cables as the physical medium. On shorter
distances, UTP cabling is used.

Token-type topology, which means that it uses the Token Ring MAC algorithm.

Each station acts as a repeater that sends the data further until it reaches the destination. The
topology consists of two rings with opposite flow direction, one of the rings is the main ring
and the other one is for backup.
There are three station types:

1. Dual Attachment Station, which is connected only to the two ring cables
2. Dual Attachment Concentrator, which is connected both to the rings and to the
twisted pair cable that links the Single Attachment Station
3. Single Attachment Station, which connects the end devices

The encoding of the data is done using 4B5B symbols (4B are encoded into 5B) for clock
synchronization between the source and the destination. This encoding ensures at least two
transitions per block of bits, avoiding a sequence of 00000 which would bring issues to the
clock synchronization. For twisted pair cables, the encoding is dome using MLT-3 encoding.

The frame format of the data that is transferred is the following:

● header
○ preamble, for synchronization
○ start delimiter, signals the beginning of the frame
○ frame control, whether we transmit a data/control frame
○ destination address
○ source address
● data
● trailer
○ frame check
○ end delimiter, signals the end of the frame
○ frame status
 Communication Channels ​s
Classification:

1. type of link
○ point-to-point
○ point-multipoint
○ broadcast
2. information transfer sense:
○ simplex
○ half-duplex
○ full-duplex
3. maximum channel transmission speed
4. type of transmission
○ baseband: one channel/bandwidth
○ broadband: independent channels/bandwidth

NYQUIST THEOREM​ The maximum channel speed of an ideal channel is

SHANNON'S THEOREM​ The maximum channel speed of a realistic channel is

 ​Multiplexing 226
TEHNICI DE MULTIPLEXARE
Used when the total medium transmission capacity exceeds the channel’s one => channels
multiplexing for a better use of medium. Useful for long-haul comms; trunks are fiber,
coaxial, microwave high capacity links. Higher data rate transmission => better cost-effective
transmissions for a given application over a given distance. Usually data-communicating
devices require modest data rate 64kbps.
Techniques: Time Division Multiplexing TDM – synchronous, statistical; Frequency
Division Multiplexing FDM; Wave length Division Multiplexing WDM– for optical
transmissions. ​FDM : Total allocated bandwidth >> that required by a single signal.A
number of signals carried simultaneously, each signal modulated onto a different carrier
frequency, which are separated for avoiding signals bandwidths to overlap (use of guard
bands). Input signals are analog or digital, converted to analog, multiplexed onto an analog
composite signal. (Cable Antenna TV).
Synchronous TDM : Total achievable data rate of the medium >> data rate of the signal (at
least equal with the sum of signals data rate). Method: multiple signals carried on a single
path by interleaving in time portions of each (slots). Interleaving may be at bit level or at
blocks. Time slots pre-assigned to sources and are fixed (some may be empty- slots are
wasted) i.e. is synchronous. Time slots do not have to be equally distributed among sources,
depending on their own data rate.

DE CE TRANSMISIA E LA 64 KBPS
Bandwith of the voice signal: 4kHz => Sample rate: 8kHz, or one sample every 125 μsec. Nr
of bits for quantification: 8=>Needed data rate: 8bits/sample*8000samples/sec=64kbps. T1
frame format: has a format of 193bits, transmitted at 125μsec each. 193=24*8 data bits+1
framing (control bit)=>gross data rate: 1.544Mbps.

​Multiplexing TDM vs FDM (Hypertext Transfer protocol)

when total medium transmission capacity exceeds the channel's

Time Division Multiplexing - TMD

● synchronous:

It can be used when the total achievable data rate of the medium is much larger than data
rate of signal. Multiple signals are carried on a single transmission path by interleaving in
time slots, which can happen at bit, byte or larger levels. This allows for multiple sources to
send their data without leading to interferences.

The process of time division multiplexing is the following: a set of signals arrive at the
multiplexer that must forward them onto the same transmission medium. The data coming is
briefly buffered with 1 bit or character, this transmission is done synchronously since the
buffers are fast enough to not add delays. The data is then organized into frames that
contain time slots (one or more slots are dedicated to each frame).

Each user has full bandwidth access for its allocated time slot.

Frequency Division Multiplexing - FDM

● total allocated bandwidth is much larger than the one required by a single signal
● more signals carried simultaneously
● analog/digital input -> analog conversion -> multiplexed into analog
● used in broadcast television
● Cross-talk possibility since all signals are transmitted simultaneously
 Switching Techniques
s
​Circuit Switching
Physical path between communicating parts, achieved using circuit switching
–switches (relays)-in the networks nodes. Three phase communication: -circuit
establishment (setup), establish a (optimum) path between parts; both parts agree
communication; -effective data transmission (signal transfer), on this route; -circuit
release (disconnection); initiative of one part. Drawbacks: -not efficient due to
existence of the first phase (it will exist even if there’s no data transfer); -need for
covering bandwidth allocation; -important amount of cabling; -no buffers in switches
for transmission equalization. Today use of digital PBX (Private Branch Exchange).

​Message Switching
Data transfer using messages (independent data units, with diff. lengths but
similar structures). Types: control and data (embedding control). Need for
addressing (source & destination of message). Communications nodes are not
physical switches, but computing systems (with memory and processing units).
Philosophy is: message store & forward. Not more dedicated communications path;
established in an optimum way (cost, network status) by nodes (using routing
tables). Advantages: -improvement in efficiency (path multiplexing); -introduces
message priority; -equilibrated transmissions. Drawbacks: -messages are too long,
memory waste and difficult error recovery.

​Packet Switching
Combines the advantages of previous methods. The packet has similar
message structure but a lower length, up to 1000 octets. Two methods: -use of
datagrams (close to message switching)-more speedy and flexible method; -use or
not of transmission acknowledgments (ACK); -use of virtual circuits (close to circuit
switching)-use of the three phases (connection request, data transfer, disconnect) for
a logical connection activation; use of special control packets for that. Also
embedding of control information (piggybacking). A logical connection may be
implemented with more different physical connections.

CIRCUIT SWITCHING VS PACKET SWITCHING

Circuit switching​ designed for voice. Resources dedicated to a particular call. Much
of the time a data connection is idle. Data rate is fixed. Both ends must operate at
the same rate. ​Packet switching​ - Basic Operation. Data transmitted in small
packets. Typically 1000 octets. Longer messages split into series of packets. Each
packet contains a portion of user data plus some control info.

AVANTAJELE COMUTARII PE PACHETE

Packet switching este mai eficient pentru ca o linie poate fi folosita pentru
transmiterea mai multor pachete in timp. Pachetele sunt puse intr-o coada si
transmise cat mai repede. Fiecare statie se conecteaza la nodul local la viteza
proprie. Nodurile fac buffer pentru pachetele de date, in cazul in care este necesar.
Pachetele sunt acceptate chiar daca reteaua este ocupata. Se pot utiliza prioritati.

Hardwire media ​s
MODALITATI DE CABLARE 
Twisted pair 
Consists of two metallic copper wires, twisted after a given step​. ​Twisted pairs are of the 
following kinds​: STP ​(​Shielded Twisted Pair​), presenting protective shield for each pair and 
a global shield (metal braid) for whole cable; reduces interference but increased 
Weight; ​FTP ​(​Foiled Twisted Pair​), or S
​ cTP ​(Screened TP), providing an unique 
global shield; ​UTP ​(​Unshielded Twisted Pair)​ , being the non-shielded variant, only the 
separate pair insulation 

CABLUL UTP
Most common medium; used in: -Telephone network (Between house and local exchange
(subscriber loop), Within a company’s buildings, To private branch exchange (PBX)); -For
local area networks (LAN) (Ethernet at 10Mbps or 100Mbps).
Advantages: cheap, easy to work with (to install on walls).
Problems: susceptible to EM interference and noise, need for amplification (order of
kilometers), near end crosstalk.
Categories: Cat 1 - Telecommunication, the cables for the analogue telephony; Cat 2 (Low
Speed Data), the cables for analogue and early digital telephony, offering data transmission
services at low speeds; Cat 3 (High Speed Data) defines cables used for LANs up to
10-16Mbps; the usual voice grade; Cat 4 (Low Loss, High Performance Data) defines cables
with higher performances, used at communication speeds of tens of Mbps (20Mbps); Cat 5
(Low Loss, Extended frequency, High Performance Data), are used in today’s networks
working at hundreds of Mbps; Commonly pre-installed in new office buildings. Future
cables, categories 6 and 7, will operate at speeds of 200, respectively 600Mbps; low
attenuation and higher noise immunity.

ELEMENTELE PRINCIPALE ALE SISTEMELOR DE CABLARE STRUCTURATA

The standard specifications concern: -the minimal requirements for cabling a building with a
given number of offices; -the cabling topology and the allowed distances; -the components of
the cabling system; -the transmission media and their characteristics; -the vertical cabling;
-the horizontal cabling; -the cable identification manner; -the necessary documentation of the
project. Are defined a number of subsystems: -building entrance facilities; -equipment room;
-backbone cabling (vertical cabling); -telecommunication closet; -horizontal cabling; -work
area’s components.
Constitutive Cabling Components : -main crossconnect (MC)-star center, a distribution center
of main cables for other buildings or other cabling levels; -intermediate crossconnect (IC)-
local to each building, a ‘one by floor’ distribution closet; -telecommunication closet (TC) –
cabling toward workstations, more on a floor; contains the patch panels; -intrabuilding
backbone – cabling between ICs and local TCs; -interbuilding backbone – cabling between
MC and other buildings; -equipment room, local to a cabling level; contains passive
equipments (switching panels, cable ducts, measurement equip.), or active equip. like
telephone central point, audio-video, LAN switches; - interbuilding entrance facility,
interface between outside cabling and inside backbone, especially grounding facilities; -work
area, identifies workstations, associated patch + drop cables, adapters; -patch panels,
switching panels for coax or UTP, or barrel panels for fiber optic; -telecommunication
outlets, connect workstations to the cabling system; -cabling adapters, both passive or active.
​Ray propagation methods through optical fiber
FIBRA OPTICA 
An inner glass core, covered by a glass cladding ​with different refractive and density 
proprieties;​ for protection and easier cabling – colored plastic coat.  
Advantages:​ low attenuation, fiber optic links with lengths in the order of ten of Kilometers; 
total immunity to electromagnetic field effects (carriers are the neutral photons); transmission 
data rates in the order of Giga bps; easy for cabling, presenting low weight, small diameter 
(125/250μm) and being; Flexible 

MODURI DE PROPAGARE A RAZEI LUMINOASE PRIN FIBRA OPTICA

Step-index multimode​, refraction index constant for the fibre core, doesn’t matter distance to
core’s centre; implies different path lengths for light rays, making reception difficult; present
a thicker core (hundreds of μm) => cheaper fiber.
Graded-index multimode​, refraction index decreasing from the core centre to edges; offer a
better focusing of the rays, so a lower attenuation and easier reception.
Single mode (mono-mode), the core diameter~light ray wavelength (5-8μm) =>direct path for
light ray, no loss, no attenuation, but more expensive.

-------------
Light propagation modes through the optical fiber are:

1. step-index multimode, which is best suited for short distances due to the
fact that the signal can spread out in time, limiting the rate at which the
data can be correctly transmitted. This spreading is caused by the
cylinder through which the light passes (it absorbs the rays that form
shallow angles with the sides of the tube)
2. graded-index multimode, where the refraction index decreases from the
core center to the edges; this does not allow the light to be absorbed by
the edges, but refracted back in a curved shape
3. single mode, where the diameter of the tube is considerably minimized,
providing a direct path for the ray of light to pass through. This method is
used for long distance transmissions since the information can be passed
through more reliably. Used in telephone and television.

The light sources can be LED (cheaper) or ILD (more efficient).

 Uncategorized ​s
​Local wireless networks
Characteristics
Mobility, Flexibility, Hard to wire areas, Reduced cost of wireless systems, Improved
performance of wireless systems.
Wireless LAN Applications : LAN Extension, Cross building interconnection,
Nomadic access, Ad hoc networks.
Wireless LAN Technology : Infrared (IR) LANs, Spread spectrum Radio LANs,
Narrow band microwave.
Wireless LANs – standard IEEE 802.​11 : A family of wireless LAN (WLAN)
specifications developed by a working group at the Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE). Defines standard for WLANs using the following four
technologies: Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum (DSSS), Infrared (IR), Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM).
OFDM: transmiterea unei cantitati mari de date in format digital pe o unda radio.
OFDM imparte semnalul radio in sub-semnale mai mici similare care sunt transmise
simultan la diferite frecvente la receiver. Reduce crosstalk (interferentele) in
transmisiile wireless.
Cerinte generale: numar noduri, conexiunea la un backbone, service area, consumul
bateriei, securitatea si robustetea transmisiei, configurare dinamica.

Types, transfer rates

A family of wireless LAN (WLAN) specifications developed by a working group at the
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). Defines standard for WLANs
using the following four technologies: Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS);
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS); Infrared (IR); Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing (OFDM).
Versions: 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11e, 802.11f, 802.11i. 802.11a offers
speeds with a theoretically maximum rate of 54Mbps in the 5 GHz band; implements
OFDM. 802.11b offers speeds with a theoretically maximum rate of 11Mbps at in the
2.4 GHz spectrum band; implements DSSS, less power, but more noise-dependent.
802.11g is a new standard for data rates of up to a theoretical maximum of 54 Mbps
at 2.4 GHz. 802.11g is a high-speed extension to 802.11b (Compatible with 802.11b,
High speed up to 54 Mbps, 2.4 GHz (vs. 802.11a, 5 GHz), Using ODFM for
backward compatibility, Adaptive Rate Shifting). Current work on: 802.11e
Introduces Quality of Service, 802.11f – Inter Access Point Protocol).

Specific problems
WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network - a LAN without the cables.

The applications include LAN extension, cross building interconnection (connecting LANs
from different buildings without the need for cabling), nomadic access (between a LAN and a
mobile device that has an antenna) and ad-hoc networks (peer-to-peer networks).

The requirements for a Wireless LAN contain the following:

1. throughput: the wireless medium should be used at full capacity

2. node number: wireless LANs may have to support large numbers of devices
3. service area, typically of 100-300 m
4. connection to backbone LAN
5. transmission robustness and security: WLANs may be susceptible to
interferences and outside users
6. battery power consumption: some WLAN implementations have methods for
reducing power consumption when not in use
7. dynamic configuration: addition/deletion of end systems without disrupting other
users
8. handoff/ roaming: the MAC protocol should provide mobile stations from one
device to another
9. license free operation

Spread Spectrum is a type of transmission technology used by WLANs . The main principle
behind it is that closely-placed cells will use different center frequencies within the same
band in order to avoid interferences.

The sender sends the data on a set of carrier frequencies, while the receiver checks all of
these frequencies. There are two methods for doing so:

1. Frequency Hopping (FHSS): the signal is sent over a set of random carrier
frequencies, hoping from one frequency to another at split-second intervals. The
receiver picks up the data signal by hopping along. This method is easy to
implement and provides a good resistance to noise due to the fact that only the
receiver and sender know the order in which the hops take place. The only
downside is the limited throughput, of 2.4GHz.
2. Direct Sequence (DSSS): this method uses chipping encoding (each data bit is
encoded into multiple bits by applying the XOR function over the original
information and a random set of bits. ). The signal carrier remains the same ,
while the data signal is spread over a wider range of frequencies, providing a
larger throughput of up to 3 times higher than FHSS. This method is however less
resistant to noise.
 ​Sketch (low) 110010101 Manchester differential

MANCHESTER TX(+), TX(-), DIFF

Differential - ​compares  polarities  of  successive  signals,  not  their  absolute  values  =>  better 
noise immunity 
Manchester – always a transition at the middle of the bit period (used as clock signal): data
coding by the transition sense (‘0’: Low to High, ‘1’: High to Low for Tx-, and reverse for
Tx+).
Differential Manchester – middle transition as clock signal, data coding by a transition at
the beginning of bit period (‘0’: transition, ‘1’: no transition). Most used for twisted pair
based networks. ​DESEN : la + : 1 este jos-sus, 0 este sus-jos; la - : 1 este sus-jos, 0 este
jos-sus; la diff : pe 1 se incepe jos, pe 0 se incepe sus, daca urmeaza 0 ramane la fel, daca
urmeaza 1 se schimba directia.

BIT STUFFING
Se da sirul de biti 0010 1111 1011 1111 0; folosind tehnica bit stuffing sa se determine
fluxul de biti de iesire.
0010111110011111010; ( pentru fiecare 5 biti consecutivi de 1, se adauga un 0)

Comparatie star si tree topologies

Tree: root – levels – leaves; leaf – leaf communication: through the root; leaves are the
workstations
Star: peripheral – central node; p – p communication through the central node; no levels

ADSL
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line. Link between subscriber and network (local loop); tens
of millions installed. -> need for exploiting the existing base of TP wired structure; initially
designed for voice-grade analog transmissions with 4kHz bandwidth, TP may carry data
using signals over a spectrum of more than 1MHz => use of modems for digital high rate data
transmissions, using currently installed twisted pair cable. ADSL initially designed for
video-on-demand, now appropriate for high-speed Internet access. Asymmetric because, from
the user point, there is greater capacity downstream (from service provider to customer) than
upstream. ADSL uses FDM for managing the 1MHz bandwidth: -Lowest 25kHz for voice
(Plain Old Telephone Service): 4kHz for voice, rest for guard, avoiding interference with
other channels; -Use echo cancellation or FDM to give (to allocate) two bands: one for
upstream , one for downstream; -Use FDM within each of two bands. Supports loop length in
the range of 5.5km.

ECHO CANCELLATION
Signal processing technique, allowing digital transmissions in both directions on a single line
simultaneously. The transmitter must subtract the echo of its own transmission from the
incoming signal, to recover the signal sent by the other side. Advantages: -more flexibility for
upstream bandwidth changes, simply extending the area of overlap -downstream bandwidth
in the good part of the spectrum => a lower attenuation.

DMT (Discrete Multitone)

DMT modem allows multiple carrier signals at different frequencies; upstream and
downstream bandwidths are split in a number of 4kHz subchannels, transmitting a number of
bits on each channel. Initially modem send test signal on each subchannel, and then use those
subchannels with better signal to noise ratio. If used 256 downstream subchannels at 4kHz,
carring data at 60kbps, will result a data rate of 15.36Mbps. Transmission impairments bring
this down to 1.5Mbps to 9Mbps.

AVANTAJELE COMUTARII PE PACHETE

Packet switching este mai eficient pentru ca o linie poate fi folosita pentru transmiterea mai
multor pachete in timp. Pachetele sunt puse intr-o coada si transmise cat mai repede. Fiecare
statie se conecteaza la nodul local la viteza proprie. Nod-urile fac buffer pentru pachetele de
date, in cazul in care este necesar. Pachetele sunt acceptate chiard aca reteaua este ocupata.
Se pot utiliza prioritati.

RS-232 – SEMNALE SI SPECIFICATIE PROCEDURALA

Este o conexiune seriala, realizeaza interfata dintre un Data Terminal Equipment (computer)
si Data Circuit Equipment(modem)
Semnale: Data Terminal Ready, Data Set Ready, Carrier Detect, Request to Send, Clear to
Send, Transmit, Receive. Specificatie: Linie de modem privata asincrona : cand e pornit,
modemul (DCE) trimite Data Set Ready. Cand DTE este pregatit sa trimita data trimite
Request to Send. Modemul raspunde cand e gata prin Clear to Send. DTE trimite data. Cand
data ajunge, modemul local trimite Receive.
 IEEE 802.3g
10Mbps CSMA/CD based LANs – IEEE 802.3 standard . MAC frame long enough to detect
collision prior to transmission end. Standard 802.3 establish minimum length for the frame
of 512bits, or 64bytes. Frame also upper bounded for transmission reasons. Minimum size for
the Data field, if not allowed use padding (filling with pad char). 6 bytes for each address
field: MAC address (physical address, burnt on each station network interface). ​10Mbps
Specification (Ethernet based LANs – IEEE 802.3 standard). Specification: <data rate>
<Signaling method><Max segment length>. Example: 10Base2, 10Broad36. ​Collision
domain – given by the set of stations sensing collision when simultaneous transmissions; for
10Mbps standard it is allowed a number of 516 bits onto the shared medium. For higher
speeds (i.e. Ethernet at 100Mbps) is kept the same minimum length, obtained by splitting the
collision domain; use of hubs or switches instead of repeaters.

LUNGIMEA MINIMA DE CADRU LA GIGABIT ETHERNET

Carrier extension, so the frame length of a transmission being longer than the propagation
time at 1Gbps. Now transmission at least 4096 bit-times long (512 bit-times for 10/100, min.
Frame length of 64octets).

BRIDGE TRANSPARENT – CARACTERISTICI SI OPERATII

Citeste toate frame-urile si le retransmite folosind protocolul MAC; nu modifica continutul
sau formatul frame-urilor; buffer minimal; transparent pentru statii (se comporta pentru statii
din LAN-uri multiple ca si cand ele ar fi intr-un singur lan). Operatii : ​Frame forwarding :
pentru un frame care vine pe portul X, cauta in baza de date daca stie adresa MAC
destinatara. Daca nu o gaseste, face broadcast pe toate porturile in afara de X; Daca gaseste
adresa destinatara (ex. Port Y), se uita daca portul Y este blocat sau fordardeaza. Daca nu este
blocat, transmite frame-ul prin portul Y. ​Address Learning : Invata adresele MAC. Ex daca
primeste prin portul X un frame, va adauga o inregistare pentru portul respectiv cu adresa
MAC sursa. Exista si un timer pentru fiecare inregistrare, adica dupa un timp inregistrarea se
sterge daca nu este folosita. ​Loop resolution : Se refera la folosirea Spanning Tree Algorithm
pentru a realiza o retea logica fara bucle.

Metode de rutare​: ​Routing : c​omplex, crucial aspect of packet switched networks

Characteristics required: Correctness, Simplicity, Robustness, Stability, Fairness, Optimality,
Efficiency; ​Fixed Routing: ​Single permanent route for each source to destination
pair.Determine routes using a ​least cost algorithm. ​Route fixed, at least until a change in
network topology

Flooding
No network info required. Packet sent by node to every neighbour. Incoming packets
retransmitted on every link except incoming link. Eventually a number of copies will arrive at
destination. Each packet is uniquely numbered so duplicates can be discarded
Nodes can remember packets already forwarded to keep network load in bounds; Can include
a hop count in packets. ​Properties of Flooding: ​All possible routes are tried, Very robust, At
least one packet will have taken minimum hop count route, Can be used to set up virtual
circuit, All nodes are visited, Useful to distribute information (e.g. routing)
Random Routing
Node selects one outgoing path for retransmission of incoming packet; Selection can be
random; Can select outgoing path based on probability calculation; No network info needed;
Route is typically not least cost nor minimum hop
Adaptive Routing
Used by almost all packet switching networks; Routing decisions change as conditions on the
network change (Failure, Congestion), Requires info about network, Decisions more
complex, Tradeoff between quality of network info and overhead. ​Advantages: ​Improved
performance, Aid congestion control, Complex system, May not realize theoretical benefits

SUBNETMASK
Allow arbitrary complexity of internetworked LANs within organization. Insulate overall
internet from growth of network numbers and routing complexity. Site looks to rest of
internet like single network. Each LAN assigned subnet nr. Host portion of address
partitioned into subnet nr and host nr. Local routers route within subnetted network. Subnet
mask indicates which bits are subnet number (1s) and which are host number (0s)

Options Headers 
Carry optional information, not necessary examined by all routers or hosts 
Hop-by-Hop  Options  ​Header->  Consists  of  the  following:  ​Next  header,  Header  extension 
length, Options(type, length, data) 
Fragmentation  ​Header  ->  Fragmentation  only  allowed  at  source  node,  no  fragmentation  at 
intermediate  routers;  Node  must  perform  path  discovery  operation, to find the smallest MTU 
(Maximum  Transmission  Unit)  of  intermediate  networks,  Source  fragments  IPv6  packets  to 
match MTU, Otherwise limits to 1280 octets, that must be supported by any network 
Fragmentation ​Header Fields: ​Next Header ​– type of following header, ​Reserved,  
Fragmentation  offset  ​–  any  fragment  data  is  multiple  of  64bits;  this  field  indicates  where  in 
the  original  packet  this  fragment’s  payload  belongs​,Identification  ​–  identify  the  original 
packet (now fragmented) 
Routing  Header->  ​List  of one or more intermediate nodes to be visited :​Next Header, Header 
extension  length  –​   length  of  this  header,  ​Routing  type  ​–  identifies  a  routing  protocol  header 
variant, ​Segments left -​ number of nodes still to be visited, ​Destination Options H ​ eader 
−%1

H.323 is a standard for real-time audio and video conferencing among end systems on the
Internet; also covers how end systems on the Internet communicate with ordinary
circuit-switched telephone networks. It means: The products of Internet telephony and
videoconferencing that use H.323 should be able to interoperate and should be able to
communicate with ordinary telephones H.323 is an umbrella specification that includes: -A
specification for how endpoints negotiate audio/video encodings. -A specification for how
audio and video chunks are encapsulated and sent over the network; this is done by means of
RTP; -A specification for how endpoints communicate with their respective gatekeepers; - A
specification for how Internet phones communicate with ordinary phones. ​Components​: End
points can be standalone devices or computer applications; Gateways permit communication
among H.323 endpoints and ordinary telephones; Gatekeepers provide address translation,
authorization, bandwidth management, and accounting for LAN terminals.
Difference between Stop and wait and Sliding Window