Experimental Gerontology 112 (2018) 68–75

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Experimental Gerontology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/expgero

Associations of physical activity and depression: Results from the Irish T

Longitudinal Study on Ageing
⁎
C.P. McDowella, , R.K. Dishmanb, M. Hallgrenc, C. MacDonnchaa,d, M.P. Herringa,d
a
Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
b
Department of Kinesiology, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
c
Department of Public Health Sciences, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
d
Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Physical activity (PA) can protect against depression, but few studies have assessed whether meeting PA
Prospective guidelines is sufficient, or if benefits can be derived from greater volumes of PA. The present study examines
Cross-sectional cross-sectional and prospective associations between different volumes of moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) and
Elderly walking, and depressive symptoms and status. Participants (n = 4556; 56.7% female) aged ≥ 50 years com-
Depression
pleted the International PA Questionnaire (IPAQ) at baseline and the Center for Epidemiological Studies
Physical activity
Depression Scale at baseline and two years later. Prevalence and incidence of depression were 9.0% (n = 410)
and 5.0% (n = 207), respectively. After full adjustment, odds of prevalent depression were: 40% (OR = 0.60,
95%CI: 0.48–0.76) lower among those meeting PA guidelines; 23% (OR = 0.77, 0.49–1.21) and 43%
(OR = 0.57, 0.45–0.73) lower among those in moderate and high categories, respectively; and, 22% (OR = 0.78,
0.61–1.01) and 44.0% (OR = 0.56, 0.42–0.74) lower among those in moderate and high walking tertiles, re-
spectively. Odds of incident depression were: 23% (OR = 0.77, 0.58–1.04) lower among those meeting PA
guidelines; 37% (OR = 0.63, 0.32–1.22) and 20.0% (OR = 0.80, 0.59–1.09) lower among those in moderate and
high categories, respectively; and, 21% (OR = 0.79, 0.56–1.12) and 25% (OR = 0.75, 0.52–1.07) lower among
those in moderate and high walking tertiles, respectively. Moderate and high volumes of MVPA were sig-
nificantly associated with lower odds of concurrent depression, and significantly and non-significantly associated
with reduced odds of incident depression, respectively. Meeting recommended levels of MVPA and walking were
associated with significantly lower odds of concurrent depression, and non-significantly reduced odds of the
development of depression over two years.

1. Introduction
Depression and depressive symptoms are recognized by the World
Health Organization (WHO) as one of the greatest contributors to
overall global disease burden, affecting over an estimated 300 million
people worldwide (WHO, 2017). The 12-month prevalence of major
depressive disorder (MDD) is highest among those aged 18–64 years,
but approximately 2.3% of people aged ≥ 65 years experience MDD in
a 12-month period (Kessler et al., 2012). Among older adults depression
is associated with increased risk of frailty (Soysal et al., 2017), mor-
bidity, and suicide (Chapman and Perry, 2008), and decreased physical,
social, and cognitive functioning (Blazer, 2003). Moreover, the fi-
nancial burden associated with depression continues to grow, ac-
counting for at least 1% of the total European economy (Sobocki et al.,
2006). As health services continue to adapt and respond to the im-
plications of an ageing population within the European Union, research
into health promotion and disease prevention in older populations is
required (Rechel et al., 2013).
Despite this, evidence has shown that many people with mood
disorders do not seek treatment (Wang et al., 2005b). Studies show that
among those that do, delays can range from six to eight years (Wang
et al., 2005a), many do not have their needs met by evidence-based
treatment (Forsell, 2006), and depression can persist in approximately
67% after first-line treatment (Trivedi et al., 2006) and at least 30% can
remain depressed even after four rounds of distinct treatments (Rush
et al., 2006). A recent umbrella review examined potential environ-
mental risk factors for depression, finding that, despite the large
number of putative risk factors investigated in the literature, few

⁎
Corresponding author at: PESS 1039, Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland.
E-mail addresses: cillian.mcdowell@ul.ie (C.P. McDowell), rdishman@uga.edu (R.K. Dishman), mats.hallgren@ki.se (M. Hallgren),
Ciaran.MacDonncha@ul.ie (C. MacDonncha), Matthew.Herring@ul.ie (M.P. Herring).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exger.2018.09.004
Received 2 April 2018; Received in revised form 13 August 2018; Accepted 10 September 2018
Available online 12 September 2018
0531-5565/ © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
C.P. McDowell et al.
associations are supported by robust evidence (Köhler et al., 2018). The
factors with the most convincing evidence were largely stressors, such
as children exposed to physical abuse, military personnel exposed to
combat, recently widowed adults, obese individuals, and people with
4–5 five metabolic risk factors. Thus, there is a critical need to identify
both risk factors for depression and the healthful behaviours that may
attenuate those risk factors to better inform interventions for preven-
tion and treatment.
A recent meta-analysis reviewed twenty-two prospective cohort
studies in older adults that largely support the protective effects of PA
on depression, with all except for one (García-Peña et al., 2013) re-
porting reductions in incident depression (Schuch et al., 2018). How-
ever, just six studies used validated instruments to measure PA dose
(i.e., a product of PA duration and intensity; Groffen et al., 2013; Joshi
et al., 2016; Park et al., 2015; Pasco et al., 2011; Rius-Ottenheim et al.,
2013; Tsutsumimoto et al., 2017). Available evidence suggests that
meeting WHO recommended PA levels (WHO, 2010) may protect
against other mental health outcomes such as generalized anxiety dis-
order which is highly comorbid with depression (McDowell et al.,
2018b) and convey additional benefit for depressive symptoms. For
example, depressive symptom reductions following exercise training
were significantly larger among chronically-ill patients who were
meeting recommended PA levels (Herring et al., 2012) and recent
evidence showed significantly larger improvements in depressive
symptoms following internet-based cognitive behavioural therapy and
usual care among depressed patients engaging in PA levels that corre-
sponded to consensus recommendations for maximizing general health
(Hallgren et al., 2016; Herring et al., 2012). Further, people with major
depression are less likely to meet recommended levels of PA
(Vancampfort et al., 2017) which is a particular worry given that de-
pression is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease
(CVD) and death from CVD (Correll et al., 2017) and the well-estab-
lished role of PA in protecting against CVD. Despite this, of the six
prospective-cohort studies that measured PA dose, none examined the
benefits of meeting WHO guidelines. This information is important for
clinical practice and public health recommendations.
Therefore, the present study used data from two waves of The Irish
Longitudinal Study of Ageing (TILDA) to examine associations between:
1) meeting PA guidelines, 2) different volumes of MVPA, and 3) weekly
minutes spent walking, and prevalent and incident depressive symp-
toms and status, both within age and sex categories, and across the total
population.
2. Methods
This study used STROBE recommendations to guide reporting (Von
Elm et al., 2008).
2.1. Study population
TILDA is an ongoing cohort study that contains a nationally re-
presentative sample of community dwelling adults aged ≥ 50 years,
and their partners of any age, resident in the Republic of Ireland. An
initial multi-stage probability sample of addresses was chosen by means
of the RANSAM sampling procedure (Whelan, 1979), with District
Electoral Divisions selected at the first stage and household addresses
selected at the second stage. The response rate was 62.0%. Participants
gave full informed consent to participate in the study and ethical ap-
proval was obtained from the Trinity College Dublin Faculty of Health
Sciences Research Ethics Committee. For the present analyses we report
data from Wave 1 (2009–2010) (Barrett et al., 2011) and Wave 2
(2012−2013) (Nolan et al., 2014). PA and depression data at Waves 1
and 2 were available for 6977 respondents. Following exclusion of
participants with incomplete covariate data (n = 2416), the final
sample size for the current study consisted of 4556 individuals (56.7%
female). Respondents who reported depression at baseline (n = 415)
69
Experimental Gerontology 112 (2018) 68–75
were excluded from longitudinal analyses, leaving a sample of 4146.
2.2. Study measures
2.2.1. Physical activity
PA was measured using the short-form International Physical
Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ-SF) (Craig et al., 2003). Respondents who
reported walking or MVPA greater than a combined 16 h/day were
excluded (n = 11). The remaining respondents were classified as
meeting PA guidelines (i.e., reporting ≥150 min weekly of MVPA,
≥75 min weekly of vigorous PA, ≥600 MET.minutes weekly). Three
dose categories, Low (0 to < 600 MET.minutes weekly), Moderate (600
to < 1200 MET.minutes weekly), or High (≥1200 MET.minutes
weekly) (WHO, 2010). Weekly minutes of walking were divided into
tertiles (i.e., 0–110 min, 120–400 min, 420+ minutes).
2.2.2. Depression
At Waves 1 and 2, depression symptoms were assessed using the
Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) (Radloff,
1977). Reliability coefficients of the CES-D are high (0.85–0.91) among
older adults (Radloff and Teri, 1986). We used a score of ≥16 to define
caseness of depression (Radloff, 1977). Respondents above this cut-off
score are referred to as depressed throughout the current manuscript;
however, they are at increased risk of depression but do not have
clinically diagnosed depression. This cut-score demonstrates 100%
sensitivity and 87.6% specificity in older populations (Beekman et al.,
1997). Positive predictive values can be low (13.2%) and negative
predictive values can be high (99–100%) (Beekman et al., 1997).
2.2.3. Covariates
Age was divided into four categories (i.e., 50–59 years.,
60–69 years., 70–79 years., and 80+ years). Waist circumference was
classified as low- or increased-risk according to WHO guidelines (i.e.,
Males: > 94 cm; Females: > 80 cm) (WHO, 2000; Grundy et al., 2005).
Social class was defined according to the European Socioeconomic
Classification (ESeC) scheme (Rose and Harrison, 2007). The ESeC
classifies people into seven categories according to their positions
within labour markets and with special attention to their employment
relations. In order to improve sample coverage, those who were not in
paid employment were allocated to a “Not Working” group (n = 1254).
Smoking status was assessed by self-reported current or never/previous
smoker. Participants reported whether a doctor had ever told them that
they have angina, asthma, cancer/a malignant tumour, diabetes/high
blood sugar, hypertension, osteoporosis, or a stroke. The number of
these comorbidities was summed.
2.3. Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS Version 22.0
(Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.). Chi-square tests examined differences in
meeting PA guidelines, depression, sex, age, waist circumference, social
class, and smoking categories between those included and excluded
from analyses (i.e., those with complete IPAQ-SF (Wave 1) and CES-D
(Waves 1 and 2) data but missing covariate data). Chi-square tests ex-
amined differences in sex, age, waist circumference, social class, and
smoking categories between those with and without depression. For
significant Chi-square tests, Z tests were calculated for column pro-
portions for each row in the Chi-square contingency table and adjusted
using a Bonferroni correction (Sharpe, 2015).
2.3.1. Cross-sectional and longitudinal walking, PA guidelines, and dose
categories analyses
One-way ANOVAs and Fisher's LSD planned contrasts quantified
differences in Waves 1 and 2 depressive symptoms between those
meeting and not meeting PA guidelines, dose categories, and walking
tertiles. Hedges' g effect sizes and associated 95% confidence intervals
C.P. McDowell et al. Experimental Gerontology 112 (2018) 68–75

(95%CI) were calculated to quantify the magnitude of differences in
depressive scores (Cumming, 2014).
Binomial logistic regression quantified associations (i.e., odds ratios
(ORs)) between meeting PA guidelines, dose categories, and walking
tertiles, and depression status at Waves 1 and 2 within age and sex
categories, and the total population. Covariates in adjusted models
were age and sex (Model 1) and age, sex, waist circumference, social
class, and smoking status (Model 2). The Hosmer-Lemeshow test was
performed and Nagelkerke R2 calculated to assess the goodness-of-fit of
the model. Likelihood ratio tests examined covariate significance.
Supplementary tables 1 and 2 provide the proportion of people with
depression by levels of PA and walking and significant covariates at
Waves 1 and 2 respectively.
was 9.0% (n = 410), and the incidence rate was 5.0% (n = 207).
3.2. Cross-sectional associations between meeting PA guidelines and
depression
Depressive symptoms were significantly higher among people not
meeting PA guidelines than those meeting PA guidelines
(F(1,4554) = 74.83, p < 0.001; g = 0.26; 95%CI: 0.20 to 0.31).
In Model 2, meeting PA guidelines was significantly associated with
39.7% (95%CI: 24.3 to 52.1; p < 0.001) reduced odds of depression
(Table 2). The model fit the data well (χ2(8) = 11.78, p = 0.16;
R2 = 0.16). Age, sex, social class, smoking status, and number of co-
morbidities were significant covariates (all p < 0.03).

3.3. Cross-sectional associations between dose categories and depression

3. Results
Planned contrasts showed significantly lower depressive symptoms
3.1. Participant characteristics
for the High category compared to Low (p < 0.001; g = 0.27: 0.21 to
0.33) and Moderate (p = 0.042; g = 0.14: 0.02 to 0.26), and sig-
Compared to the analytic sample, a significantly greater proportion
nificantly lower depressive symptoms for the Moderate category com-
of excluded respondents were aged 80+ years (7.5% vs 5.6%), male
pared to Low (p = 0.013; g = 0.14: 0.12 to 0.26).
(46.9% vs 43.3%), and current smokers (20.7% vs 15.3%; all
In Model 2, the Moderate category was non-significantly, and High
p < 0.05). There were no significant differences in waist cir-
category significantly, associated with 33.1% (−20.7% to 51.0%;
cumference, depression, or PA. Wave 1 participant characteristics are
p = 0.25) and 42.6% (26.7% to 45.0%; p < 0.001) lower odds of de-
presented in Table 1. Sex (p < 0.01), age (p < 0.001), social class
pression, respectively (Table 2). The model fit the data well
(p < 0.001), and smoking status (p < 0.001) significantly differed
(χ2(8) = 11.12, p = 0.20; R2 = 0.16). Age, sex, social class, smoking
according to depression, and waist circumference did not (p > 0.64).
status, and number of comorbidities were significant covariates (all
Briefly, a greater proportion of respondents with depression were aged
p < 0.02).
80+ years (5.9% vs 2.9%), female (70.2% vs 55.4%) and current
smokers (27.8% vs 14.1%; all p < 0.05). The prevalence of depression
3.4. Cross-sectional associations between walking and depression
Table 1
Planned contrasts showed significantly lower depression for the
Baseline participant characteristics.
high tertile compared to the low (p < 0.001; g = 0.24: 0.17 to 0.32)
No Depression Probable Depression and moderate (p = 0.01; g = 0.10: 0.03 to 0.16) tertiles, and sig-
(n = 4146) (n = 410)
nificantly lower depressive symptoms for the moderate compared to the
(n (%) or mean ± SD) (n (%) or mean ± SD)
low (p < 0.001; g = 0.15: 0.08 to 0.22) tertile.
CES-D score 3.97 ± 3.96 23.23 ± 7.29 In Model 2, moderate walking was non-significantly, and high
Walking (hrs wk−1) 6.32 ± 7.48 4.78 ± 6.93 walking significantly, associated with 21.8% (−0.6% to 39.2%;
MVPA (hrs wk−1) 8.13 ± 13.20 9.52 ± 4.44
p = 0.056) and 44.0% (26.1% to 57.6%; p < 0.001) lower odds of
Meeting PA guidelines
Yes 2063b (50.2) 134a (32.7) depression, respectively (Table 2). The model fit the data well
No 2083b (49.8) 276a (67.3) (χ2(8) = 11.30, p = 0.19; R2 = 0.15). Age, sex, social class, smoking
Sex status, and number of comorbidities were significant covariates (all
Female 1851b (44.6) 288a (70.2) p < 0.03).
Male 2295b (55.4) 122a (29.8)
Age category (yrs)
50–59 1640b (39.6) 194a (47.3) 3.5. Longitudinal associations between meeting PA guidelines and
60–69 1438a (34.7) 133a (32.4) depression
70–79 825a (19.9) 71a (17.3)
80+ 243b (5.9) 12a (2.9)
Depressive symptoms were significantly higher among people not
Waist circumference
Normal 1993 (48.1) 202 (49.3) meeting PA guidelines than those meeting PA guidelines
At risk 2153 (51.9) 208 (50.7) (F(1,4144) = 17.46, p < 0.001; g = 0.13: 0.07 to 0.19).
Social class In Model 2, meeting PA guidelines was non-significantly associated
Professional workers 176b (4.2) 6a (4.0) with 22.6% (−3.9% to 42.4%; p = 0.09) reduced odds of depression
Managerial and 1079b (26.0) 55a (13.4)
technical
(Table 3). The model fit the data well (χ2(8) = 2.31, p = 0.97;
Non-manual 629b (15.2) 43a (14.7) R2 = 0.06). Sex, social class, smoking, and number of comorbidities
Skilled manual 412a (9.9) 33a (9.8) were significant covariates (all p < 0.03).
Semi-skilled 409a (9.9) 44a (9.9)
Unskilled 116a (2.8) 18a (2.9)
3.6. Longitudinal associations between dose categories and depression
Farmers 278b (6.7) 8a (6.3)
Not working 1047b (25.3) 203a (27.4)
Smoking status Planned contrasts showed significantly lower depressive symptoms
Current 585b (14.1) 296a (72.2) for the High category compared to Low (p < 0.001; g = 0.13: 0.07 to
Past/never 3561b (85.9) 114a (27.8) 0.19) but not Moderate (p = 0.85; g = 0.12: −0.01 to 0.24), and non-
Number of comorbidities 0.47 ± 0.73 1.06 ± 1.07
significantly lower depressive symptoms for Moderate compared to Low
Different subscript letters indicate a subset of each category whose column (p = 0.058; g = 0.01: −0.11 to 0.14).
proportions differ statistically significantly at the 0.05 level. In Model 2, the Moderate and High categories were non-sig-
Abbreviations: hrs: hours; mins: minutes; MVPA: moderate-to-vigorous physical nificantly associated with 37.3% (−21.8% to 67.7%; p = 0.17) and
activity; wk: week; yrs: years. 20.0% (−8.8% to 41.2%; p = 0.16) reduced odds of depression,

70
 C.P. McDowell et al.

Table 2
Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) derived from binominal logistic regression analyses as indicators of cross-sectional associations between physical activity (PA) and depression within age and sex
categories and the total population.
Model 1 Model 2

Age Sex Total population Age Sex Total population

50–59 60–69 70–79 80+ Male Female 50–59 60–69 70–79 80+ Male Female
Meeting PA
Guidelines
No REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF
Yes 0.68 (0.50 0.37 (0.25 0.34 (0.18 to 0.22 (0.03 0.31 (0.21 0.63 (0.48 to 0.50 (0.40 to 0.86 (0.63 0.45 (0.30 0.35 (0.18 0.27 (0.03 0.39 (0.26 0.75 (0.57 to 0.60 (0.48 to
to 0.93)a to 0.55)c 0.673)c to 1.70) to 0.46)c 0.81)c 0.62)c to 1.19) to 0.68)c to 0.68)b to 2.18) to 0.59)c 0.98)a 0.76)c
Dose Categories
Low REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF
Moderate 0.77 (0.42 0.48 (0.22 0.66 (0.23 to – 0.46 (0.19 0.69 (0.41 to 0.61 (0.40 to 0.95 (0.50 0.57 (0.25 0.84 (0.28 – 0.55 (0.23 0.87 (0.51 to 0.77 (0.49 to

71
to 1.42) to 1.06) 1.89) to 1.07) 1.15)c 0.95)a to 1.81) to 1.30) to 2.51) to 1.34) 1.47) 1.21)
High 0.67 (0.49 0.36 (0.23 0.28 (0.14 to 0.29 (0.04 0.29 (0.19 0.61 (0.46 to 0.48 (0.38 to 0.85 (0.60 0.43 (0.28 0.28 (0.13 0.36 (0.04 0.37 (0.24 0.72 (0.54 to 0.57 (0.45 to
to 0.92)a to 0.54)c 0.57)c to 2.28) to 0.45)c 0.81)c 0.61)c to 1.19) to 0.67)c to 0.59)c to 3.00) to 0.57)c 0.97)a 0.73)c
Walking
Low REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF
Moderate 0.75 (0.53 0.65 (0.43 0.57 (0.32 to 0.52 (0.13 0.71 (0.46 0.66 (0.50 to 0.68 (0.53 to 0.83 (0.57 0.78 (0.50 0.64 (0.35 0.60 (0.14 0.80 (0.51 0.75 (0.56 to 0.78 (0.61 to
to 1.08) to 0.98)a 1.04) to 2.02) to 1.09) 0.88)b 0.86)b to 1.21) to 1.20) to 1.21) to 2.56) to 1.27) 1.02) 1.01)
High 0.57 (0.39 0.41 (0.26 0.59 (0.32 to 0.27 (0.03 0.42 (0.26 0.55 (0.40 to 0.50 (0.39 to 0.62 (0.41 0.46 (0.28 0.60 (0.32 0.31 (0.04 0.47 (0.29 0.60 (0.43 to 0.56 (0.42 to
to 0.84)b to 0.66)c 1.07) to 2.19) to 0.67)c 0.76)c 0.66)c to 0.93)a to 0.76)b to 1.14) to 2.69) to 0.78)b 0.84)b 0.74)c

Model 1 adjusted for age and/or sex.

Model 2 adjusted for Model 1 and waist circumference, social class, smoking status, and number of comorbidities.
Abbreviations: REF: reference category.
a
p < 0.05.
b
p < 0.01.
c
p < 0.001.
Experimental Gerontology 112 (2018) 68–75
 C.P. McDowell et al.

Table 3
Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) derived from binominal logistic regression analyses as indicators of prospective associations between physical activity (PA) and depression within age and sex
categories and the total population.
Model 1 Model 2

Age (years) Sex Total population Age (years) Sex Total population

50–59 60–69 70–79 80+ Male Female 50–59 60–69 70–79 80+ Male Female
Meeting PA
Guidelines
No REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF
Yes 0.80 (0.53 0.55 (0.32 0.83 (0.40 0.56 (0.12 0.61 (0.38 0.78 (0.54 to 0.71 (0.53 to 0.90 (0.59 0.61 (0.35 0.79 (0.38 0.45 (0.09 0.67 (0.41 0.84 (0.58 to 0.77 (0.58 to
to 1.21) to 0.95)a to 1.70) to 2.72) to 0.98)a 1.12) 0.95)a to 1.37) to 1.05) to 1.65) to 2.26) to 1.10) 1.22) 1.04)
Dose Categories
Low REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF
Moderate 0.60 (0.23 0.53 (0.16 0.85 (0.19 0.51 (0.15 0.62 (0.28 to 0.57 (0.30 to 0.68 (0.26 0.56 (0.17 0.93 (0.21 0.53 (0.16 0.69 (0.31 to 0.63 (0.32 to

72
– –
to 1.52) to 1.77) to 3.72) to 1.67) 1.37) 1.10) to 1.76) to 1.89) to 4.15) to 1.79) 1.54) 1.22)
High 0.84 (0.55 0.55 (0.31 0.82 (0.38 0.73 (0.15 0.62 (0.38 0.81 (0.56 to 0.73 (0.54 to 0.94 (0.61 0.61 (0.34 0.77 (0.35 0.55 (0.11 0.69 (0.42 0.87 (0.59 to 0.80 (0.59 to
to 1.27) to 0.98)a to 1.77) to 3.56) to 1.02) 1.19) 0.99)a to 1.44) to 1.09) to 1.68) to 2.88) to 1.79) 1.28) 1.09)
Walking
Low REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF REF
Moderate 0.92 (0.55 0.64 (0.35 0.59 (0.26 0.40 (0.08 0.80 (0.45 0.68 (0.45 to 0.72 (0.51 to 0.96 (0.57 0.72 (0.39 0.63 (0.27 0.33 (0.06 0.88 (0.49 0.74 (0.48 to 0.79 (0.56 to
to 1.54) to 1.15) to 1.35) to 2.02) to 1.41) 1.04) 1.01) to 1.63) to 1.34) to 1.47) to 1.79) to 1.59) 1.14) 1.12)
High 1.05 (0.63 0.38 (0.19 0.71 (0.32 0.66 (0.13 0.57 (0.31 0.81 (0.53 to 0.70 (0.50 to 1.10 (0.65 0.41 (0.20 0.75 (0.32 0.50 (0.09 0.63 (0.34 0.84 (0.54 to 0.75 (0.52 to
to 1.76) to 0.76)b to 1.60) to 3.40) to 1.03) 1.25) 1.00)a to 1.86) to 0.84)a to 1.73) to 2.84) to 1.16) 1.30) 1.07)

Model 1 adjusted for age and/or sex.

Model 2 adjusted for Model 1 and waist circumference, social class, smoking status, and number of comorbidities.
Abbreviations: REF: reference category.
a
p < 0.05.
b
p < 0.01.
Experimental Gerontology 112 (2018) 68–75
C.P. McDowell et al.
respectively (Table 3). The model fit the data well (χ2(8) = 3.46,
p = 0.90; R2 = 0.06). Sex, social class, smoking, and number of co-
morbidities were significant covariates (all p < 0.02).
3.7. Longitudinal associations between walking and depression
Planned contrasts showed significantly lower depressive symptoms
for the high (p < 0.001; g = 0.15: 0.07 to 0.23) and moderate
(p = 0.03; g = 0.08: 0.01 to 0.16) tertiles compared to the low, and
non-significantly lower depressive symptoms for the high compared to
the moderate (p = 0.08; g = 0.06: −0.01 to 0.14) tertile.
In Model 2, moderate and high walking were non-significantly as-
sociated with 20.7% (−12.2% to 43.9%; p = 0.19) and 25.1% (−7.0%
to 47.6%; p = 0.11) lower odds of depression, respectively (Table 3).
The model fit the data well (χ2(8) = 6.25, p = 0.62; R2 = 0.06). Sex,
social class, smoking status, and number of comorbidities were sig-
nificant covariates (all p < 0.02).
4. Discussion
In the current large, nationally-representative cohort of older adults,
meeting PA guidelines was significantly associated with 40% lower
odds of prevalent depression, and non-significantly associated with
approximately 23% reduced odds of incident depression. Results did
not support a dose-response for MVPA and depression. Rather, a 37%
reduction in odds of incident depression was observed for moderate
volumes of MVPA, and a reduction of 20% was observed for high vo-
lumes of MVPA. Furthermore, walking was significantly associated with
lower odds of prevalent depression, with a larger effect observed with
more time spent walking. Associations of walking with prevalent de-
pression were non-significant but indicate a potential 25% reduced
odds of incident depression across both levels of walking. To the au-
thors' knowledge, this is the first prospective cohort study to examine
the protective effect of meeting MVPA guidelines, and different vo-
lumes of walking, on depression among a sample of older adults.
The present findings demonstrate the potential benefits of meeting
PA guidelines for reduced risk of depression in addition to previously
established reduced risk of mortality (Hupin et al., 2015) and increased
healthy ageing (Daskalopoulou et al., 2017). Older adults who met PA
guidelines were 40% less likely to report concurrent depression and
23% less likely to develop depression two years later. However. despite
these known benefits, approximately 50% of older adults in Europe do
not meet PA guidelines (Hallal et al., 2012). This is particularly con-
cerning given the ageing population within Europe, and the consider-
able burden of depressive illness. The present findings reiterate the
necessity to promote meeting, and where appropriate exceeding, re-
commended PA levels at the population-level.
A dose-response between MVPA and prevalent depression was ob-
served, but not between MVPA and incident depression. Compared to
inactive older adults, those who engaged in Moderate and High activity
were 23% and 43% less likely to report concurrent depression, re-
spectively, and 37% and 20% less likely to develop new depression two
years later, respectively. This difference in prospective associations may
be driven by sex-related differences as, among females, Moderate vo-
lumes of MVPA exhibited greater protective effects than High (31% vs
13%), while there was a relatively smaller difference between volumes
among males (47% vs 31%). This supports previous findings in a
smaller sample of elderly Koreans, which found larger effects for mild
PA than above-moderate, in addition to larger effects overall (Park
et al., 2015). Similarly, exercise performed at either light, moderate, or
vigorous intensities have been shown to be equally effective at reducing
depressive symptoms among people with mild-to-moderate depression
(Helgadóttir et al., 2016). Dose-responses have previously been ob-
served among older females from the Nurses' Health Study (Chang
et al., 2016), and adolescents from The Youth and Mental Health Study
(Sund et al., 2011), although these analyses were based on weekly
73
Experimental Gerontology 112 (2018) 68–75
hours of MVPA rather than MVPA volume. Collectively, these findings
appear to support a potential lower threshold volume for similar ben-
efits among males, and a larger protective effect for moderate volumes
of MVPA among females.
A non-significant protective effect of walking on the development of
subsequent depression was observed in the present study. Among the
total population there appeared to be a threshold effect, with similar
effects for those in the moderate (21%) and high (25%) tertiles com-
pared to the low tertile. However, when examined within sexes, the
high tertile (37%) exhibited greater effects than the moderate (12%)
among males, while the opposite was observed among females (16% vs
26%). Similarly, those in the oldest age category appear to derive the
greatest benefits from moderate amounts of walking. The protective
effect of walking on the development of incident depression has pre-
viously been reported in The Honolulu-Asia Aging Study (Smith et al.,
2010). However, in this all-male sample, a threshold effect was ob-
served, with only slight differences between those in intermediate- and
high-walking-distance groups. Harvey et al. (2017) also reported that
any level of PA, even low levels, can be protective against depression,
and light PA has been shown to be associated with lower depression
levels (Loprinzi, 2013) and protective of future cognitive ability in older
adults, irrespective of MVPA levels (Stubbs et al., 2017). If future
prospective cohort studies or randomized controlled trials corroborate
these and the current findings, then promotion of lighter-intensity and
lower volumes of PA among older adults may be more practical, as their
ability and desire to engage in higher intensity PA can be limited by the
ageing process.
Although the examination of plausible mechanisms of the associa-
tion between PA and depression was not the purpose of the current
investigation, the available evidence has provided some support for
several psychological and biological mechanisms that may underlie
these associations. Briefly, exercise training has brain monoaminergic
(Dishman, 1997; Greenwood and Fleshner, 2011) and neurotrophic
(Dishman et al., 2006a; Firth et al., 2018) effects, and may reduce in-
flammatory and oxidant markers (Schuch et al., 2016). Further, phy-
sical activity may be associated with depression through psychological
factors such as self-esteem (Dishman et al., 2006b; Motl et al., 2005).
4.1. Limitations
The main limitation of the current study is the use of self-reported
PA and depressive symptoms, predisposing the results to over-reporting
or under-reporting. Future studies would benefit from objective PA
measurement which can indicate both activity duration and intensity,
such as GPS or accelerometery-based measurements, and more direct
measures of depression, such as physician diagnosis. Secondly, despite
the prospective design, causality cannot be inferred from these results.
Undoubtedly, depression can lead to less PA and vice versa.
Nonetheless, the present study included a large sample size, a PA
measure that measured important components of PA, and direct ex-
amination of the protective effect of meeting MVPA guidelines, dif-
fering volumes of MVPA, and walking on depression.
4.2. Future recommendations
Given the potential increased practicality of walking among older
adults, future prospective cohort studies or randomized controlled trials
should corroborate the present findings on the protective effect of
walking. Secondly, recent evidence has shown that people with MDD
engage in higher levels of sedentary behaviour (Schuch et al., 2017)
and that cross-sectionally sedentary behaviour is positively associated
with depression (Stubbs et al., 2018). The influence of sedentary be-
haviour on mental health remains relatively understudied, and research
to further explore these associations is warranted. Finally, as older
adults with pain are less physically active than asymptomatic controls
(Stubbs et al., 2013), and pain is associated with poorer mental health
C.P. McDowell et al.
(McDowell et al., 2018a; Tian et al., 2018), the potential moderating/
mediating role of pain in the PA-depression relationship warrants ex-
ploration.
4.3. Conclusion
The present study supports previous research on the protective
benefits of PA for depression among older adults, and suggests that
meeting WHO recommended PA levels is could be recommended in
order to prevent the onset of depression. Although there is no apparent
additional benefit for depression to exceeding this dose in the present
study, additional health benefits to exceeding this dose have previously
been identified. Future research should focus on associations of de-
pression and volumes of PA less than PA guidelines, light intensity PA,
and sedentary behaviour.
Acknowledgements
The authors have no financial disclosures. The authors disclose no
conflicts of interest.
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency,
commercial or not-for-profit sectors. The TILDA study was supported by
the Irish Government, the Atlantic Philanthropies, and Irish Life PLC.
This work was also supported by the Health Research Board of Ireland
(Grant reference: HRA_PHS/2012/30). The sponsors played no role in
study design, methods, subject recruitment, data collection, analysis or
preparation of the paper.
Availability of data and materials
Dataset files are publicly accessible and provided by The Irish
Longitudinal Study on Ageing. Information on how to access these is
available at www.tilda.tcd.ie.
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