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1 s2.0 S037026930201571X Main
1 s2.0 S037026930201571X Main
www.elsevier.com/locate/npe
Received 15 February 2002; received in revised form 10 March 2002; accepted 10 March 2002
Editor: P.V. Landshoff
Abstract
We discuss a Modified Field Theory (MOFT) in which the number of fields can vary. It is shown that when the number of
fields is conserved MOFT reduces to the standard field theory but interaction constants undergo an additional renormalization
and acquire a dependence on spatial scales. In particular, the renormalization of the gravitational constant leads to the deviation
of the law of gravity from the Newton’s law in some range of scales rmin < r < rmax , in which the gravitational potential shows
essentially logarithmic ∼ ln r (instead of 1/r) behavior. In this range, the renormalized value of the gravitational constant G
increases and at scales r > rmax acquires a new constant value G ∼ Grmax /rmin . From the dynamical standpoint this looks
as if every point source is surrounded with a halo of dark matter. It is also shown that if the maximal scale rmax is absent,
the homogeneity of the dark matter in the Universe is consistent with a fractal distribution of baryons in space, in which the
luminous matter is located on thin two-dimensional surfaces separated by empty regions of ever growing size.
2002 Elsevier Science B.V. Open access under CC BY license.
√
low accelerations the force F ∝ M, which causes of nontrivial properties of the vacuum state in MOFT.
serious conceptual difficulties (see [6] for more criti- In fact, analogous modifications hold for all fields and,
cism). in particular, for the Coulomb potential. In this sense
A more conservative model was suggested in at large scales we should observe not only dark matter,
Ref. [7] which presumes the existence of an additional but dark charges of all sorts as well.
attraction between baryons with logarithmic potential We show that in the case when the number of
fields is conserved MOFT reduces to the standard
U ∝ Λb1 b2 ln(r), (1) field theory in which interaction constants (e.g., the
where b is the baryon number and Λ defines a charac- gravitational and the fine structure constants) undergo
teristic scale r0 ∼ 1/Λ ∼ 5 kpc on which this potential an additional renormalization and, as a consequence,
starts to dominate over gravity. This model contains may acquire a dependence on spatial scales (observa-
basic features of MOND (at least roughly) but fails tional limits on the scale-dependence of the gravita-
when confronting with gravitational lensing by clus- tional constant have been already considered, e.g., in
ters. To explain lensing this extra force must act like Ref. [9]). From the formal standpoint such a renormal-
gravity and, in fact, be gravity. We note that if this ad- ization looks as if particles lose their point-like charac-
ditional potential cuts off at very large distances, the ter and acquire an additional distribution in space, i.e.,
effects of the extra potential will not, in fact, be distin- each particle turns out to be surrounded with a “dark
guishable from that of dark matter. halo”.
It appears that the standard particle physics does The density distribution of the halo follows prop-
not possess fields able to produce interactions which erties of the vacuum state which formed during the
has a range of scales with logarithmic behavior. In the quantum period in the evolution of the Universe. At
present Letter we, however, show that the logarithmic the moment, we do not have an exact model describing
potentials appear naturally in the so-called Modified the formation of properties of the vacuum and, there-
Field Theory (MOFT) suggested in Ref. [8] to account fore, our consideration of the vacuum structure has a
for the spacetime foam effects. phenomenological character. Namely, we assume that
It was suggested in Ref. [8] that nontrivial topology upon the quantum period of the Universe the matter
of space should display itself in the multivalued nature was thermalized with a very high temperature. Then,
of all observable fields, i.e., the number of fields as the temperature dropped during the early stage of
should be a dynamical variable. The argument is that the evolution of the Universe, the topological structure
in the case of general position an arbitrary quantum of the space has tempered and the subsequent evo-
state mixes different topologies of space. From the lution resulted only in the cosmological shift of the
other side, any measurement of such a state should be physical scales. We show that in MOFT such kind of
carried out by a detector which obeys classical laws assumptions leads almost immediately to the logarith-
and, therefore, the detector introduces a background mic growth of the gravitational potential in some range
space of a particular topology (of course, on the of scales.
classical level the topology is always defined and does
not change). This means that the topology of space
must not be a direct observable, and the only chance 2. Modified field theory
to keep the information on the topology is to allow
all the fields (which are specified on the background
Let M be a background basic space. Let us specify
space) to be multivalued.
The corresponding extension of the standard quan- an arbitrary field ϕ on it. We suppose that the action
for the field can be presented in the form (for the sake
tum field theory was developed in Ref. [8] and it was
proposed there that effects related to the multivalued of simplicity we consider the case of linear perturba-
nature of the physical fields could reveal themselves tions only)
at large spatial scales. In the present Letter we show
that the logarithmic behavior of the gravitational po- S= d 4 x − 12 ϕ L̂ϕ + αJ ϕ , (2)
tential at large distances may indeed appear as a result
M
A.A. Kirillov, D. Turaev / Physics Letters B 532 (2002) 185–192 187
where L̂ = L̂(∂) is a differential operator (e.g., in the Then the action splits into two parts
case of a massive scalar field L̂(∂) = ∂ 2 + m2 ), J is an
external current,
which is produced by a set of point S= d 4 x − 12 δϕ a L̂δϕ a
sources (J = Jk δ(x − xk (s)), where xk (s) is a tra- a
M
jectory of a source), and α is the value of the elemen-
tary charge for sources. Thus, the field ϕ obeys the + d 4 x − 12 ϕ̃ L̂ϕ̃ + α̃J ϕ̃ . (7)
equation of motion
M
In this section we describe the structure of the Nn,k = θ (µk − nωk ), (15)
vacuum state for effective fields. For simplicity, we where θ (x) is the Heaviside step function and µk is the
consider a real scalar field, while generalization to the chemical potential. For the spectral number of fields
case of spin one and spin two particles is obvious. we get
Consider the expansion of the field operator ϕ in plane
waves, ∞
µk
Nk = θ (µk − nωk ) = 1 + , (16)
ωk
3 −1/2
ϕ(x) = 2ωk L ck e ikx
+ ck+ e −ikx , (11) n=0
4. Origin of the spectral number of fields Consider now properties of the function Nk . There
is a finite interval of wave numbers k ∈ [kmin(t),
As it was already mentioned above, the function Nk kmax (t)] on which the number of fields Nk changes
forms during the quantum stage of the evolution of the its value from Nk = 1 (at the point kmax ) to the
Universe, when processes involving topology changes maximal value Nmax = 1 + [k̃1 /k̃2 ] (at the point kmin ).
took place. It is well known that near the singularity This causes the variation √ of the charge values from
the evolution of the Universe is governed by a scalar αmin = α, to αmax = Nmax α. The boundary points
field (responsible for a subsequent inflationary phase). of the interval of k depend on time and are expressed
For the sake of simplicity we neglect the presence of via the free phenomenological parameters k̃1 and k̃2 as
all other sorts of particles during the quantum stage follows
and suppose that the Universe was filled with massive 1
kmax = k̃ 2 − k̃22 ,
scalar particles only. a(t) 1
Upon the quantum period the Universe is supposed
1
to be described by the homogeneous metric of the form kmin = k̃ 2 /(Nmax − 1)2 − k̃22 .
a(t) 1
And in the wave number range k kmin (t) the number
ds 2 = dt 2 − a 2(t) dl 2 , (19)
of fields remains constant Nk = Nmax .
where a(t) is the scale factor, and dl 2 is the spa- During the later stages of the evolution of the Uni-
tial interval. It is natural to expect (at least it is the verse (t t∗ ) the contribution from all other fields be-
simplest possibility) that the state of the scalar field comes essential. However processes involving topol-
was thermalized with a very high temperature T > Tpl ogy transformations are suppressed and the structure
where Tpl is the Planck temperature. The state of the of the momentum space is described by the distrib-
field was characterized by the thermal density ma- ution (20). We note that the real distribution can be
trix with µ = 0 (for the number of fields varies) and different from (20), which depends on the specific pic-
with mean values for occupation numbers
Nk,n = ture of topology transformations in the early Universe
(exp(nωk /T ) + 1)−1 . On the early stage m T , and and requires the construction of the exact theory (in
the temperature and the energy of particles depend particular, thermal corrections smoothen the step-like
on time as T = T/a(t), k = k̃/a(t). When the tem- distribution (20)). However we believe that the general
perature drops below a critical value T∗ , which cor- features of Nk will remain the same.
responds to the moment t∗ ∼ tpl , topological struc-
ture (and the number of fields) tempers. This generates
the value of the chemical potential for scalar particles 5. The law of gravity
µ ∼ T∗ .
Let us neglect the temperature corrections, which The dependence of charge values upon wave num-
are essential only at t ∼ t∗ and whose role is in bers leads to the fact that the standard expressions for
smoothing the real distribution Nk . Then at the mo- the Newton’s and Coulomb’s energy of interaction be-
ment t ∼ t∗ the ground state of the field will be de- tween point particles break down. In this section we
scribed by (15) with µk = µ = const ∼ T∗ . During the consider corrections to the Newton’s law of gravity
subsequent evolution the physical scales are subjected (corrections to the Coulomb’s √ law are identical). The
to the cosmological shift, however the form of this dis- interaction constant α ∼ m G (where m is the mass
tribution in the comoving frame must remain the same. of a particle), and MOFT gives G → G(k) = Nk G.
Thus, on the later stages t t∗ , we find To make estimates, we note that at the moment t ∼ t∗
the mass of scalar particles should be small as com-
pared with the chemical potential (which has the order
k̃1
Nk = 1 + , (20) of the Planck energy), which gives k̃1 k̃2 . Then in
Ωk (t)
the range kmax (t) k kmin (t) the function Nk can
where Ωk (t) = a 2 (t)k 2 + k̃22 , k̃1 ∼ a0 µ, and k̃2 ∼ be approximated by
a0 m (a0 = a(t∗ )). Nk ∼ 1 + [kmax (t)/k].
190 A.A. Kirillov, D. Turaev / Physics Letters B 532 (2002) 185–192
Consider two point particles at rest with masses m1 We note, that from the dynamical point of view
and m2 . Then the Fourier transform for the energy of the modification of the Newton’s law of gravity can
the gravitational interaction between particles is given be interpreted as if point sources lose their point-
by the expression like character and acquire an additional distribution in
space. Indeed, let m1 be a test particle which moves
4πGm1m2
V (k) = − Nk , (21) in the gravitational field created by a point source m2 .
|k|2 Then, assuming the Newton’s law is unchanged, from
which in the coordinate representation is given by the (23) we conclude that the source m2 is distributed in
integral space with the density
∞ ∞
1 sin(ωr) dω m2 sin(kr) dk
V (r) = V (ω)ω3 . (22) ρ(r) = Nk k 3
2π 2 ωr ω 2π 2 kr k
0 0
N −1
From (16) and (20) we find that this integral can be 1 max sin(kn r) − kn r cos(kn r)
presented in the form = m2 δ(r ) + .
2π 2 r3
n=1
−1
Nmax kn (26)
2Gm1 m2 sin(ωr)
V (r) = − dω The total mass contained within a radius r is
π ωr r
n=0 0
M(r) = 4π s 2 ρ(s) ds
Gm1 m2 −1
Nmax
2 Si(kn r)
=− 1+ , (23) 0
r π N −1
2 max
n=1
= m2 1+ Si(kn r) − sin(kn r) .
where kn = a(t1)n k̃12 − n2 k̃22 . The first term n = 0 of π
n=1
the sum in (23) gives the standard expression for the (27)
Newton’s law of gravity, while the terms with n > 1 Thus, in the range r 1/kmax we find M(r) ∼
describe corrections. From (23) we find that in the m2 , i.e., one may conclude that the gravitational
range k1 r = kmax r 1, Si(kn r) ∼ kn r and corrections field is created by a point source with the mass m2 .
to the Newton’s potential give the constant However in the range 1/kmin > r > 1/kmax the mass
N −1
increases M(r) ∼ m2 kmax r, and for r 1/kmin the
2Gm1 m2 max mass reaches the value M(r) ∼ m2 kmax /kmin .
δV ∼ − kn . (24)
π We see that in MOFT the distributions of the dark
n=1
matter and the actual matter are strongly correlated (by
Thus, in this range we have the standard Newton’s the rule (26)), and the resulting behavior of the dynam-
force. In the range kmin r 1, we get π2 Si(kn r) ∼ 1 ically determined mass M(r) seems to agree with the
and for the energy (23) we find observations. We stress that the theoretical scheme of
G m1 m2 MOFT was not invented to fit the dark matter distrib-
V (r) ∼ − , ution. On the contrary, the logarithmic behavior of the
r
effective field potentials simply appears in the thermo-
where G = GNmax . Thus, on scales r 1/kmin the dynamically equilibrium state at the low temperature,
Newton’s law is restored, however the gravitational as a by-product of a non-trivial structure of MOFT
constant increases in Nmax times. In the intermediate vacuum.
range 1/kmin r 1/kmax the corrections can be
approximated as
6. Conclusions
2Gm1 m2 k̃1 k̃2
δV (r) ∼ ln r , (25)
π a(t) a(t) In this manner we have shown that in the case
i.e., they have a logarithmic behavior. when the number of fields is conserved MOFT reduces
A.A. Kirillov, D. Turaev / Physics Letters B 532 (2002) 185–192 191
to the standard field theory in which interaction con- where RH is the Hubble radius). In this case a uniform
stants undergo a renormalization and, in general, ac- distribution of baryons in space is consistent with
quire a dependence on spatial scales. From the dynam- closed cosmological models only. Indeed, the number
ical standpoint such a renormalization looks as if par- of baryons contained within a radius r in the case of
ticles lose their point-like character and acquire an ad- a uniform distribution with a density nb is given by
ditional distribution in space, i.e., each point source is Nb (r) ∼ nb r 3 and the mass of every baryon increases
surrounded with a halo of dark matter. This halo car- according to (27) as mb (r) ∼ mp r/rmin (mp is the
ries charges of all sorts and its distribution around a proton mass). Thus, for the total mass (baryons plus
point source follows properties of the vacuum. The lat- dark matter) contained within the radius r we get
ter forms during the quantum period in the evolution Mtot (r) = mb (r)Nb (r) + δM(r) ρb r 4 /rmin (where
of the Universe, and the rigorous consideration of vac- ρb = mp nb and δM(r) accounts for the contribution
uum properties requires constructing an exact theory. of baryons from the outer region which does exist
In applying to cosmological problems it is conve- according to (26)). This means that the lower limit
nient to suppose that the Newton’s law of gravity re- for the total density increases with the radius ρtot ∼
mains intact, while the variation of the gravitational Mtot /r 3 ρb r/rmin and for sufficiently large r ∼
constant is phenomenologically described by the pres- rcr it will reach the value ρb rcr /rmin = ρcr , i.e.,
ence of a dark matter. In the simplest case proper- Ωtot > 1 and such a Universe must correspond to
ties of the vacuum and that of dark matter can be de- a closed cosmological model. Then rmax coincides
scribed by two phenomenological parameters which with the radius of the Universe rmax = R and for the
represent the two characteristic scales. They are the mean value of the matter density we will find Ωtot =
minimal scale rmin = 2π/kmax on which the dark mat- Ωb R/rmin .
ter starts to show up (and on which the law of gravity We note that this does not mean that open cos-
(23) starts to deviate from the Newton’s law) and the mological models are forbidden at all. This, however,
maximal scale rmax = 2π/kmin which defines the frac- means that in open models luminous matter has a spe-
tion of the dark matter or the total increase of inter- cific nonuniform distribution in space ρ(x) (the to-
action constants Gmax ≈ Grmax /rmin (and after which tal density nevertheless is uniformly distributed, i.e.,
the Newton’s law restores). The minimal scale rmin can the dark matter compensates exactly the inhomogene-
be easily estimated (e.g., see Ref. [7]) and constitutes ity of the luminous matter). Indeed, let Ωtot be a con-
a few kpc. To get analogous estimate for the maximal stant in space and let it be of order 1. Then the to-
scale rmax is not so easy. This requires the exact knowl- tal mass Mtot (r) = mb (r)Nb (r) + δM(r) contained
edge of the total matter density Ωtot for the homoge- within a radius r behaves as ∼ r 3 ρtot and, therefore,
neous background and the knowledge of the baryon the number of baryons should follow the law Nb (r)
fraction Ωb which gives rmax /rmin ∼ Ωtot/Ωb (where r 2 rmin ρtot /mp . Such a law for the number of baryons
Ω = ρ/ρcr and ρcr is the critical density). can be achieved when the luminous matter is located
If we accept the value Ωtot ∼ 1 (which is predicted on thin two-dimensional surfaces separated by empty
by inflationary scenarios) and take the upper value for regions of ever growing size (i.e., baryons have a kind
baryons Ωb 0.03 (which comes from the primor- of a fractal distribution in space). This, in fact, is con-
dial nuclearsynthesis), we find rmax /rmin 30. An- sistent with the observed picture of the Universe at
other estimate can be found from restrictions on para- large scales r 100 Mpc.
meters of inflationary scenarios. Indeed, in inflationary In this manner in open models the mean density
models correct values for density perturbations give of baryons depends on the scale of averaging out
the upper boundary for the mass of the scalar field ρb (r) = ρtot rmin /r and at the Hubble scale r ∼ RH we
m 10−5 mpl which gives rmax /rmin 105 T∗ /mpl , find Ωb /Ωtot ∼ rmin /RH . If we consider larger scales
where T∗ is the critical temperature at which topology we find ρb → 0 as r → ∞, i.e., the expansion of the
has been tempered. Universe is governed by dark matter alone.
From our point of view, the most interesting picture In conclusion we point out that all the interaction
of the Universe appears in the case when the maximal constants (the gravitational constant G the electron
scale is absent (rmax → ∞, or at least rmax RH , charge e, gauge charges) depend on time via the
192 A.A. Kirillov, D. Turaev / Physics Letters B 532 (2002) 185–192
cosmological shift of scales rmin (t) and rmax (t) which S.S. McGaugh, astro-ph/9812328;
may give rise to a number of interesting processes D. Muller, R. Opher, Astrophys. J. 540 (2000) 57, astro-
in the early Universe. We do not discuss here all ph/0004150.
[5] A. Aguirre, J. Schaye, E. Quataert, astro-ph/0105184;
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the theory suggested. D.F. Roscoe, astro-ph/0107397;
M. Milgrom, astro-ph/0110362;
S. Stachniewicz, M. Kutschera, astro-ph/0110484, to appear in
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