Chapter- three: Angle Modulation

Outlines
▪ Introduction

▪ Instantaneous frequency

▪ Phase Modulation(PM)

▪ Frequency Modulation(FM)

▪ Relations of PM and FM

▪ Modulation and Demodulation Techniques

▪ Comparisons of Commercial FM and AM

▪ Components of FM Tx and Rx

▪ Generations of WBFM

Prepared by Getahun G.(MSc. in Communication System Engineering)

Introductions
2

❖ Angle modulation is a non linear modulation in which the total

phase angle of the high frequency signal is varied in proportion with
the instantaneous value of the modulating signal keeping the
amplitude of the carrier constant.
❖ Thus, We can encode information as either:
✓ Time varying phase Results in Angle Modulation
✓ Time varying frequency including FM & PM
❖ Both are very closely related.
❖ It allows the trade-off between bandwidth and noise performance.
❖ It provides better discrimination to noise and interference with a cost
of system complexity than amplitude modulation techniques.
Intro…
3

For angle modulation, the modulated signal is represented by:

S(t)= 𝐴𝑐 cos(𝜔ct +∅(t)) = 𝐴𝑐 cos𝜃(t) …….(1)
Where, 𝐴𝑐 : Amplitude of the carrier
𝜔c: frequency of the carrier
∅(t) : phase of the modulated signal
𝜃(t): total phase angle
Then θ(t) is the generalized angle. For a true sinusoid,
θ 𝑡 = 𝜔ct +∅(t)………….(2)
Let us assume the average frequency of over the interval t to t + ∆t is given by:
𝑓∆𝑡 =𝜃 𝑡+∆𝑡 −𝜃(𝑡)
2𝜋∆𝑡
……….(3)
Then the instantaneous frequency of the angle modulated wave s(t) is as follows:
1 𝑑𝜃𝑖(𝑡)
𝑓𝑖 (t)= lim 𝑓∆𝑡 = 2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
………(4)
∆𝑡→0
Where, 𝑓𝑖 (t) is instantaneous frequency
Intro…
4

❖ Hence Instantaneous frequency is derivative of generalized angle

𝜃 𝑡
❖ The instantaneous phase of s(t) is given by:

….(5)
❖ The term 2πfct is the angle of the unmodulated carrier and ϕ(t) is
phase drift due to modulation or phase of modulated wave.
❖ We have two basic types of angle modulation of which are phase
modulation (PM) and frequency modulation (FM)
1.Phase Modulation(PM)
5

❖PM is a form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous phase of

the carrier is varied proportionally with the modulating signal.
𝑠(𝑡)𝑃𝑀 =𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t+𝑘𝑃 m(t))……..(6)
Where 𝑘𝑃 is phase sensitivity of the modulator in rad/V or rad/A.
❖ The maximum phase deviation in PM is called the modulation index
𝛽𝑝 of PM. i.e 𝛽𝑝 = 𝑘𝑃∗ max [ 𝑚(𝑡) ]
 2.Frequency Modulation (FM)

❖ FM is an other form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous frequency is varied

proportional with the modulating signal m(t).
❖ In FM, frequency is varied linear in m(t):

𝜔𝑖 (t) = 2πfc + 𝑘𝑓 m(t) which produces the FM modulated signal 𝑠(𝑡)𝐹𝑀

becomes:

….(7)
Where, kf is the frequency sensitivity of the frequency modulator in Hz/V or Hz/A

Now consider a single tone sinusoidal modulating signal m(t)=𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 t)

Cont…
7

❖ The resulting instantaneous of frequency FM wave is given by:

….(8)

❖ ∆𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 is the frequency deviation between the frequency of the

modulated wave and unmodulated carrier.
❖ The amount of frequency deviation depends upon the amplitude of
the modulating signal.
❖ This means that higher the amplitude of the modulating signal,
greater the frequency deviation and vice versa.
Cont…

❖ We can rewrite Eq(5) 𝜃𝑖 (t) as follows:

….(9)

❖ Thus s(t) can also represented as:

….(10)
❖ Note that 𝛽𝑓 =𝑓𝑚
∆𝑓
is the modulation index of the FM wave.
Cont…
9

❖ The ratio of the actual frequency deviation to the standard frequency

deviation is Percentage of modulation.
That is Percentage of modulation =∆𝑓∆𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑
❖ FM signal is meaningful only if the frequency deviation is large
enough
❖ The FM broadcast stations use large frequency deviation.
❖ Hence the audio quality of a FM signal increases as the frequency
deviation increases.
Relation Between FM and PM
10

❖ Consider s(t) be angle modulated wave ,then

…(11)

❖ The modulation index of both PM and FM has direct relationship

with the amplitude of modulating signal m(t)
❖ Phase modulation of m(t) = frequency modulation of 𝑚(t).
ሶ
❖ Frequency modulation of m(t) = phase modulation of ‫(𝑚׬‬u)du.
Cont…

11

Fig a:FM modulator using Phase Modulator Fig b:PM modulator using frequency Modulator

❖ Note that we can produce both types of modulation with either

modulator
Bandwidth of FM Signals

12

❖ The angle modulated wave is classified as narrow band (NBFM)

if βf ≪ 1 and wideband (WBFM) if βf ≫ 1 depending on 𝛽𝑓 .
❖ The bandwidth of narrowband FM is given by: 𝐵𝑊𝑁𝐵𝐹𝑀 =2*fm
❖ The bandwidth of wideband FM (WBFM) signal can be
calculated using Carson's rule as: 𝐵𝑊𝑊𝐵𝐹𝑀 =2(𝛽 + 1) *fm
❖ Narrow-Band FM means that the FM modulated wave has
narrow bandwidth.
❖ Note that Narrow band FM has linear property as AM due to lower
modulation index and it has similar property as standard AM.
Comparison of Commercial AM and FM Systems

13

❖ FM radio has significantly larger bandwidth than AM radio.

❖ The combination keeps the number of available channels the same.
❖ AM broadcast: 540 to 1650kHz (MW).
❖ FM broadcast: 88 to 108MHz (VHF) .
❖ AM total bandwidth=1110kHz (10kHz/channel or Station).
❖ FM total bandwidth=20MHz (180kHz/channel).
❖ Improved signal to noise ratio (about 25dB) w.r.t. to man made
interference.
❖ Smaller geographical interference between neighboring stations.
❖ Less radiated power.
❖ Well defined service areas for given transmitter power.
Advantages of FM over AM
14

❖ FM has the following advantages compared to AM.

i .Larger bandwidth
ii. High efficiency- the carrier does not require much power.
iii. Better interference rejection
iv. High fidelity- high quality reproduction of sound.
 Examples

15

#1. What is the bandwidth required for an FM signal in which the

modulating frequency is 2kHz and the deviation is 10kHz?
#2. In an FM system, when the audio frequency is 500Hz and the audio
voltage is 2.4V, the deviation is 4.8kHz.
A) If the audio voltage is now increased to 7.2V, what is the new
deviation?
B) If the audio voltage is increased to 10V while the frequency is
dropped to 200Hz, what is the deviation?
C) Find the modulation index in each case.
Solutions:
H.A #1
16

#1. An FM signal is given as s(t)=12cos[(6*106 π t) + 5sin(2500 π t)].

Determine the followings.
a. frequency of the carrier signal
b. frequency of the modulating signal
c. modulation index
d. frequency deviation
e. power dissipated in 10 ohm resistor
Generation of Narrow Band Angle modulation

17

Fig a) Generations of Narrow Band FM modulator

Cont…
18

Fig b) Generations of Narrow Band PM modulator

Wideband FM (βf≫1)

19

❖ For 𝛽𝑓 ≫1 , the frequency modulated wave is considered as wideband

FM.
❖ The standard FM modulated wave s(t) is expressed as in equ(11);
❖ Spectral analysis of the wide-band FM wave

❖ Or, we can represent this equation as:

Where,
Cont…
20

❖ Note that the complex envelope is a periodic function of time with a

fundamental frequency which means that

❖ Then we can rewrite

Cont…

21

❖ In complex Fourier series form expressed as:

Cont…

22
Cont…

23

❖ Then the complex envelope in terms of Bessel function is given by :

Cont…

24

❖ The frequency domain representation of the FM signal s(t) is S(f) is

therefore:
…(12)

❖ For βf , the FM signal is composed of a carrier with amplitude 𝐽0 , and

a single pair of sidebands with frequencies (fc ± fm) of significant
amplitude 𝐽1 , and is called a narrowband FM signal.
❖ As βf increases slightly, the amplitude J1 of the first sideband pair
also increases and the amplitude of J2 of the second sideband pair (fc
± 2fm) also becomes significant.
❖ As βf continues to increase further, J3, J4, . . . also acquires
significant amplitude at corresponding higher sideband pairs of
(fc ±3fm), (fc ± 4fm), . . . , etc.
Cont…

25

❖ The FM signal produces an infinite number of sidebands, each one is

separated in frequency from the carrier by multiples of modulating
frequency. This means that the bandwidth required to transmit FM
signal is theoretically infinite.
❖ As the value of modulation index increases, the number of sidebands
tends to increase significantly and hence the bandwidth of FM signal
also increases.
❖ But actually the amplitude levels of higher and higher sidebands tend
to decrease as these are away from the carrier frequency.
❖ In practice, frequency-modulated signal can be considered to be band
limited because sidebands with amplitude levels less than about 1%
of the total power can usually be ignored.
Cont…
26

❖ The amplitude of the carrier component of an FM wave is dependent

on the modulation index . The average power of such as signal
developed across a 1- ohm resistor is also constant: 𝑃𝑎𝑣 =12𝐴𝑐 2
❖ The average power of an FM wave may also be determined from:

…(13)

❖ As seen from equation(12), S(f) has infinite number of sidebands with

amplitude of 𝐴2𝑐𝐽𝑛 (𝛽𝑓 ).
❖ But in practice all these side band are not significant , only some
finite side bands whose Bessel coefficient 𝐽𝑛 (𝛽𝑓 )> 0.01 are
considered as significant side bands.
Transmission Bandwidth of wide band FM
27

❖ Transmission bandwidth of FM signal can be defined as the spacing

between the frequency beyond which none of the side bands has an
amplitude level of greater than 1% of the unmodulated carrier level.
❖ Based on this definition , the transmission bandwidth using the Bessel

function can be computed as :

𝐵𝑇 =2𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑚 ….(14)
Where 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 is number of sidebands that satisfy Jn(βf ) > 0.01 and its
value is taken from Bessel function table.
. Bessel Function Table

28
Carson’s Approximation For Bandwidth of FM Signal
29

❖ Using Carson's approximate the bandwidth necessary to transmit FM wave

as:
𝐵𝑇 =2(∆𝑓+𝑓𝑚 )=2(𝛽𝑓 +1)𝑓𝑚
….(15)
Generation of WBFM
❖ The two method of generation techniques are direct and Indirect techniques.
i) Direct Method:
❖ One method for directly generating an FM signal is to design an
oscillator whose frequency changes with the input voltage.
❖ When the input voltage is zero, the oscillator generates a sinusoid
with frequency fc; when the input voltage changes, this frequency
changes accordingly.
Cont…

30

(a)

(b)

Fig b) Varactor-diode implementation of an angle modulator

❖ The running frequency of the Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) is
proportional to incoming signal m(t).
❖ VCO can be realized by using Hartley oscillator, Colpitts oscillator,
Schmitt trigger circuit, Varactor diode.
Cont…
31

❖ A varactor diode is a capacitor whose capacitance changes with the

applied voltage.
❖ Let us assume that the inductance of the inductor in the tuned circuit
of in figure (b) above is Lo and the capacitance of the varactor diode
is given by
c 𝑡 =𝐶0 +𝑘0 m(t) ….(16)
❖ When m(t) = 0, the frequency of the tuned circuit is given by
𝑓0 =𝑓𝑐 = 2𝜋 1𝐿 𝐶
0 0

❖ In general, for nonzero m(t), the instantaneous frequency fi(t);

Cont…
32

ii) Indirect Method

❖Another approach for generating an angle-modulated signal is to
generate a narrowband angle-modulated signal and then change it to a
wideband signal.
❖This method is usually known as the indirect method for the
generation of FM and PM signals.
Cont…
33

❖ We use the narrowband angle-modulated signal to generate a

wideband angle-modulated signal.
❖ The narrowband angle-modulated signal enters a frequency multiplier
which multiplies the instantaneous frequency of the input by some
constant n.
❖ This is done by applying the input signal to a nonlinear element and
then passing its output through a bandpass filter tuned to the desired
central frequency

Fig a) Indirect method for generating WBFM with desired frequency of nfc
Cont…
34

Fig b) Indirect method for generating WBFM with desired frequency is

different from nfc
 Demodulation Of Angle-Modulated Signals

35

❖The frequency demodulator must satisfy the following conditions.

✓ It must convert frequency variation into amplitude variation.
✓ Conversion must be linear and efficient.
✓ The circuit should respond only for frequency variation
❖ There are two broad categories of FM demodulators.

• Direct type and

• Indirect type demodulator
❖ Among direct type of FM demodulator slope detector (both simple
slope and balanced slope detector) and zero crossing are the common
where as phase locked loop (PLL) is the indirect type of
demodulator.
Cont…
36

Fig a) Block diagram of general FM demodulator

Fig b) Diagram of Single Slope Detector

Cont…
37

𝑡
❖ The input in figure b) is 𝑠(𝑡)𝐹𝑀 = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2π𝑓𝑐 t + 2π𝑘𝑓 ‫׬‬0 𝑚(𝑡)dt) as
given in equation 7. The x(t) at the differentiator is

…(17)

❖ As indicated in equation(17), x(t) is a hybrid of both AM and FM.

❖ It is possible to extract the message signal m(t) from the envelope of
x(t).
❖ For the envelope detector to follow the envelope of the x(t), the
following condition must be satisfied.
 Cont…
38

1) fc ≫ |𝑘𝑓 m(t)| and 2) (fc + 𝑘𝑓 m(t)) > 0 and other requirement.

❖ The input to the DC blocking circuit y(t):
…(18)

…(19)
 ii) Using Indirect Method
39

Phase Locked Loop(PLL): PLL is a negative feedback system that

includes the following components:
✓ VCO
✓ phase comparator with in its loop
✓and loop filter
❖ Its purpose is force VCO to replicate and track the phase and
frequency of the input when in lock condition
❖ Campture range: is the range of input frequency around the VCO
center frequency on which the loop will lock when starting from
unlocked condition.
Cont…
40

Fig a) Block diagram of a PLL-FM demodulator

❖ Now suppose that the control voltage at the output of the loop filter
denoted by v(t) .
❖ The instantaneous frequency of VCO is 𝑓𝑣 (t) = fc + 𝑘𝑣 v(t).
Consequently, the VCO output can be
Cont…
41

❖ The phase comparator is basically the combinations of multiplier and

a filter that rejects the signal component at 2𝑓𝑐 .
❖ Then the phase error is the phase difference s(t) and y(t) ∅𝑒 (t) is
∅𝑒 (t)=∅(𝑡) −∅𝑒 (t)
❖ Then the error signal e(t) is given by:
e 𝑡 =𝐴𝑣2𝐴𝑐 sin( ∅𝑒 (t))
Let us assume that the PLL is in locked condition, so that the phase
error ϕe(t is very small.
Cont…
42

Fig b) Linearized PLL

Application of FM and PM

43

❖ FM is widely used for radio broadcasting, sound signal transmission

in TV broadcast, two-way fixed and mobile radio systems, analog
cellular communications systems, and satellite communications.
❖ Phase modulation is mostly used in data communications, and
generating FM in FM transmitters.
❖ Television broadcast transmissions actually employ all three forms of
analog modulation – AM (vestigial sideband VSB-AM) for
transmission of a TV video signal, FM for the sound signal
associated with video signals, and PM for the transmission of color
information along with video and sound signals.
Components of FM Receiver
44

❖ FM receiver consists of several components as shown below

45