PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

Learning Outcomes in New TOS for LEPT

• Use the English language with ease in effective communication
o To use English with ease, one must have grammatical skills, sufficient vocabulary and the ability
to use of non-verbal language
o Grammatical knowhow, vocabulary and an understanding of the importance of non-verbal
language cannot be separated from communication
o To be able to appropriately communicate with purpose,
• Use the English language confidently for special occasion
o One acquires confidence in using the English language with the acquisition of appropriate skills
as mentioned above.

Let’s define the variables:

➢ with ease – without difficulty <https://bit.ly/3UlVN95>
➢ communication
> process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of
symbols, signs, or behavior <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/communication>
> May be oral/verbal, nonverbal or written
➢ Effective communication
➢ Occurs when the message is received and understood with clarity and purpose. When communication
is effective, both the sender and receiver feel satisfied. <https://www.coursera.org/articles/communication-
effectiveness>
➢ Oral communication – it involves the elements of listening, understanding and taking action
<https://lauriebrown.com/guides/communication-skills/what-is-effective-communication/>
➢ Effective written communication must have these attributes: clarity, conciseness, concreteness,
correctness, coherence & completeness <https://www.revolutionlearning.co.uk/article/the-7-cs-of-
communication/>

How to speak English fluently

Ruden, Annie (2018) https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/learn-how-speak-english-fluently-ease-annie-ruden

• Write and read

• Listen and speak
• Think in English
• Focus on communicating, not on perfection
• Watch TV or videos
• Use it

7 Ways to Quickly Improve Your English Language Skills

Kabelka, Laura (2022) https://www.topuniversities.com/student-info/studying-abroad/7-ways-quickly-improve-your-english-
language-skills

• Watch movies in English

• Immerse in English language news
• Start vocabulary of useful words
• Converse in English
• Practice, practice, practice
• Ask questions about the rules, the language
• Have fun while you learn

How to Improve English Writing and Speaking Skills

<https://www.getlitt.co/blog/how-to-improve-english-writing-and-speaking-skills/>

• Think in English
• Talk to yourself
• Read
• Write
• Learn a new word every day
• Be conscious of grammar and spelling
• Play games
• Watch movies and plays

What is language? Language can be called a language if it has a system of rules (grammar), sound
(phonology) and vocabulary (lexicon).

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Concepts to think about…
✓ People understand each other because they belong to the same speech community.
• They understand each other because they share the same set of rules.
• Growing up, people acquire the language used by those in the community
✓ This process of acquiring is called language acquisition.
• The first language acquired is called mother tongue.
• Other languages learned are called second languages.
• This refers to language learning.

Varieties of Spoken and Written Language in Multicultural Settings

Language variety is a specific set of linguistic items or human speech patterns (sounds, words, grammatical
features) which can be associated with some external factor (geographical area or a social group)
(Wardhaugh, 1986)
1. Pidgin – a new language which develops in situations where speakers of different languages need to
communicate but do not share a common language. Ex: bueno, señor, leche
2. Creole – when children start learning a pidgin as their first language and it becomes the mother tongue
of a community.
1. Like pidgin, it is a distinct language which has taken most of its vocabulary from another
language, but with own grammatical rules; Ex: Bikol Naga or Bikol Legazpi or Bikol Tiwi
3. Regional Dialect – is not a distinct language but a variety of a language spoken in a particular area of a
country. In the Philippines, there are 700 dialects.
4. Minority dialect – a variety of dialect used as a marker of identity, alongside a standard variety
Ex: 32 Negrito groups speak endangered languages; each speaks own Austronesian language
which they call Agta
4. Indigenized variety – spoken mainly as second languages in ex-colonies with multilingual populations.
Ex: the case of English in the Philippines; deteriorating due to indigenization.

Varieties of English

World Englishes (WE) or varieties of English refers to the localized

varieties of English as they are used or spoken in certain areas.

Inner circle – ENL

Outer circle – ESL

Expanding circle - EFL

With respect to lexicon, vocabulary peculiar only to some English varieties in Southeast Asia can be noted as
shown below:
➢ Singapore English: actsy (show off), missy (nurse), chop (stamp)
➢ Philippine English: deep (hard to understand), stick (cigarette), high blood (tense or upset), blow out
(treat someone with snack or meal)
➢ Malaysian English: antilog (a male hated by a girl), popcorn (loquacious person), kachang (peanuts,
easy), slambar (relax)

Registers in Spoken and Written Language

Register is a set of vocabulary items associated with distinct occupational or social groups. Registers vary
depending on the situational characteristics.
In linguistics, register or stylistic variation is a style or variety of language determined by such factors as social
occasion, context, purpose and audience.

Varieties of Written Registers

1. News reports – narrative of newsworthy events and emphasis is on simple reporting; more adverbials are
used (in early August, off the highway)
2. News editorials – state opinions that evaluate what happened and recommending what should
happen

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 3. Research articles – written by professionals who are experts in certain field
4. textbooks – written by experts for the novices of the field. They seek to inform students of knowledge
that is already established

Comparing Non-Standard & Standard English

Informal/Non-Standard Usages Formal/Standard Usages
alright, alot, result to, discuss about, cope up
with (non-standard, informal, or unique to all right, a lot, result in, discuss, cope with
certain varieties of English) (Merriam-Webster, (acceptable usages in Standard written English)
2020)
can’t, won’t, I’ll, she’s, didn’t (conversational, cannot, will not, I will, she is, did not (spelled
speech-based contractions) out as two words)
anyway, boring or uninteresting, extremely
anyways, boring as hell, bored to death, major
bored, depressing (more formal, precise,
downer (conversational, informal)
uncluttered)
I arrived here late; she left the office; he
I got here late; she got out of the office; he got
received a call; they loaded gas or they refueled
a call; they got gas (overused, imprecise verb)
(more specific alternatives)
hit the sack, loo, and comfort room
sleep, toilet or bathroom, and toilet or
(expressions from American English, British
bathroom (more widely understood usages)
English, and Philippine English)
laugh out loud, away from keyboard, no reply
lol, afk, nrn, #feels (informal internet or text
necessary, a wave of emotions (spelled out or
messaging language) (Sambit, 2019)
explained)

Major Components/Elements of Communication

• Source (sender)
• Sender (speaker)
• Message
• Receiver (listener)
• Channel
• Message
• Receiver
• Channel
• Feedback
• Noise (barrier)
• Environment
• Situation (context)
• Situation (context)
• Feedback
• Interference <Dapat, Rizal O. et al, 2018>
<Wakat, Geraldine S. et al, 2018>

Source (sender) - where message begins

Message - reason for interaction; meaning shared by sender and receiver
Channel - means by which message is conveyed (ex. phone; letter)
Receiver - The person who receives the message
Feedback - The response of the receiver; confirms understanding
Environment - Comprise the place, the feeling, the mood, the mindset and the condition of both sender and
receiver
Situation (context) - Expectations of the sender and the receiver and the common or shared understanding
through the environmental signals
Interference (barrier) - Prevents effective communication

Types of Communication
Verbal / Non-verbal - effective oral communication requires blending of these two.
✓ but verbal communication includes written communication.
✓ both use of symbols (words) to express thoughts, feelings and ideas
visual - use visuals or images to convey information
✓ signs, symbols, images, maps, graphs, charts and the like

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Types of Communication according to Context

Intrapersonal – this is talking to oneself; also called introspection, self-verbalization or self-statement.

✓ used to boost self confidence; reflect on one’s performance; console self when no one is around;
allows one to motivate self
interpersonal – means interaction with others;
✓ when used to establish or deepen one’s relationship with others;
✓ transactional when used to achieve something at the end of conversation
Extended or expanded involves use of electronic media;
✓ it now encompasses tele, audio, or phone conferencing, video-conferencing, Skype calls, and other
technological means
✓ allows speakers to reach wider groups of listeners
Organizational is communication within the work place;
✓ organizational communication becomes successful through a set of rules or standards for
communication protocol that are made clear
✓ 2 types: formal and informal
4 Approaches to formal organizational communication:
o Downward – from top management to middle management to ordinary staff
o Upward – from staff to middle management to the top management
o Horizontal – staff to staff or middle manager to another middle manager
o Crosswise – communication between and among departments
Intercultural – communication between and among people having different linguistic, religious, ethnic, social,
and professional backgrounds. These aspects can affect communication.
✓ gender difference may also be considered here.
✓ it is important to find out cultural norms
Ex: eye contact
for Australians: important in assessing sincerity
for Indians: inappropriate
✓ linguistic differences are also essential considerations
✓ World Englishes have allowed different cultures to develop different lexicon peculiar to the speech
community.

Process of Communication

Three Categories of Models of Communication

1) Linear Communication: according to Dapat, Sadorra and Lumabi (2016) this is characterized by:
a. Unidirectional – sending of message without expecting effect
b. Simple communication act – simple transition of cause and effect
c. Involves persuasion, not mutual understanding – promotes influence or advice
d. Values psychological effect over social effects – focuses on psychological effects (individual
understanding of the message) of the communicators rather than the social effects (creating
relationships between communicators)

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 2) Interactive Communication – involves more than one participant at the same time using two-directional
communication known as “feedback loop”
• Creates a continuous loop (Schramm, 1954) with communicators simultaneously sending and
receiving messages.
• Has feedback loop (Westley and MacLean, 1957)
• Communication is a dynamic interactive process; communication cannot be isolated or
separated from other events (Berlo, 1967)

3) Transactional Communication - generates social expectations in communal, relational, and ethnic

contexts among communicators.
• Exchange of messages creates relationships, form intercultural alliances, shapes concepts,
and engages with others in dialogue to create communities; roles of sender and receiver
differ greatly from other models

• The transactional model considers the following contexts that influence communication:
o Social – stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication (do not interrupt; say
thank you)
o Relational – involves social history & relationship between/among people;
communication rules and norms for father-daughter relationship do not apply to a boss-
secretary relationship or vice-versa
o Cultural – incorporates aspects of human identity, such as sexual characteristics, ethnic
group, way of life, sexual orientation, social class and skill.

Models of Communication under the Specific Categories

1) Linear Communication
a. Aristotle’s Model - began via classical rhetoric (art of effective or persuasive speaking) which
dates back to ancient Greece
• comprise only 3 variables: the speaker, the speech and the audience

Speaker Speech Audience

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 b. Laswell’s Model - introduced by Harold Dwight Laswell in 1948
• communication is focused on the W’s: Who says What in Which channel to Whom and with
What.

In which With what

Who Says what To whom
channel effect

Communicator Message Receiver

Medium Effect

c. Shannon-Weaver’s Model - introduced by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver’s in

1949
• first conceptualized for the functioning of radio and television serving as model for technical
communication
• Later adopted for the field of communication
• includes other components: noise, reception, destination

d. Berlo’s Model - introduced by David Berlo in 1960

• initially called SMCR: Sender, Message, Channel and Receiver, which are also the major
variables in the communication process
• includes other components: noise, reception, destination

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 2) Interactive Communication
a. Osgood-Schramm Model - useful in describing interpersonal, synchronous communication
• there are 3 steps in the process: encoding, decoding, interpreting

b. Westley and Maclean Model - primarily used for explaining mass communication
• includes: environmental and cultural factors
• Consists of 9 important components: environment, sensory experience, source/sender,
object of the orientation of the source (belief’s & experiences) receiver, object of the
orientation of the receiver, feedback, gatekeepers (editors), opinion leaders (political
leaders, celebrities, social media influencers)

3) Transactional Communication
a. Barnlund’s Model - a multi-layered feedback system;
Components of Barnlund’s Model:
• Cues refers to the signs for doing something. As per Barnlund there are: public cues, private
cues and behavioral cues. In the model diagram shown above, spiral lines gives graphic
representation to the assumptions like public cues and private cues.
• Public cues (Cpu) are physical, environmental or artificial and natural or man-made.
• Private cues (Cpr) are also known as private objects of orientation which include senses of a
person. Both these cues can be verbal as well as non-verbal. Another set of cues are behavioral
cues.
• Behavioral cues can be verbal (Cbehv) as well as non-verbal (Cbehnv).

✓ The jagged lines show that the availability of cues can be unlimited and are denoted as VVVV.
✓ The valence signs, +,0 and – are also attached to these types of cues which illustrates the
amount/degree/strength of attractiveness of the cues in the message.
✓ Speech act refers to particular instance of communication in the model.
✓ Filters are the realities of people engaged in communication. Here the senders’ and receivers’ personal
filters might differ according to cultures, traditions, content of the message, etc.
✓ Noise is the problem that arises in communication flow and disturbs the message flow.

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Advantages of Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication
▪ The model shows shared field experience of the sender and receiver.
▪ Transactional model talks about simultaneous message sending, noise and feedback.
▪ Barnlund’s model is taken by critics as the most systematic model of communication.
Disadvantages of Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication
▪ Barnlund’s model is very complex.
▪ Both the sender and receiver must understand the codes sent by the other. So they must each
possess a similar “code book”. (The concept of code book is not mentioned in the model but
understood.)
Businesstopia, “Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication.” In Businesstopia, January 6, 2018
<https://www.businesstopia.net/communication/barnlund-transactional-model-communication>

b. Dance’s Helical Model – proposed by Frank Dance in 1967 for

better communication process.
• Shows communication as a dynamic and non-linear
process
• Emphasized the difficulty in communication
• communication process starts very slowly and defined
small circle only
• communicators shared information only with a small
portion of themselves to their relationships
• gradually develops into next level but which will take
some time to reach and expanding its boundaries to the
next level.
• later the communicators commit more and shared more
portions by themselves

Example: When a child is born the only means of communication

for him is crying, he cries for everything like hunger, pain, cold etc.. As the child grows the means
of communication become wider and broader. He learns to make noises then he learns a
language to obtain attention and to fulfil his needs. As a Helix, the process of communication, in
this case, started as crying and later it developed into a complex and compound means.
<https://www.communicationtheory.org/helical-model-of-communication>

General Principles of Effective Communication

1) Communication involves symbols - (arbitrary representation of something else) verbal communication –
language; nonverbal communication – all other symbols.
2) Communication requires meaning - the symbols must convey meaning, but different meanings may be
tied to one symbol. (happiness)
3) Communication is culture related - – diversity of cultures established various assumptions and takes
different knowledge for granted

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 4) Communication is relational - – indicates how the sender and the receiver are socially and personally
related.
5) Communication involves frames - (basic forms of knowledge that provide a definition of a scenario);
Example: a student’s understanding of the classroom frame
6) Communication is both presentational & representational (displays the particular version of facts or
events) & representational (describes facts or conveys information); communications always conveys
the perspective or worldview of the person sending the message

7) Communication is a transaction – creates or brings into existence something that has not been there
before; relationships, culture, gender, ethnicity and sexuality are created; these may also be
maintained, negotiated, challenged or altered through communication

Principles of Effective Oral Communication

1) Clear – the message is clearly defined or conveyed; words are clearly enunciated and pronounced
2) Complete – at the end of the message, the receiver must not be left with more questions about the
message
3) Concise – message must be brief yet complete
4) Natural – unnatural voice may distort the message
5) Specific and timely – the message must revolve around a specified topic which is current

Principles of Effective Written Communication

1) Clear – purpose of message must be clear and unambiguous
2) Concise – the writer must stick to the point; must neither be wordy or lacking
3) Concrete – specific and logic must be kept in mind; messages that are used must fit together, built on
each other and support each other
4) Correct – factual information, grammar and vocabulary must be correct
5) Coherent –a logical flow and style, tone and language should be consistent throughout
6) Complete - all necessary information must be provided
7) Courteous - should be friendly, professional, considerate, respectful, open and honest in tone

Ethics of Communication
✓ Emphasizes that morals influence behavior, affecting communication
✓ behavior should be regulated by honesty, sincerity and moral uprightness

Guide to Ethical Communication

1. Establish an effective value system that will pave the way for the development of integrity
2. Provide complete and accurate information
3. Disclose vital information adequately and appropriately
4. Follow a code of ethics

Other Guides to Ethical Communication

1) Respect audience / receiver
2) Consider consequence of communication – without consideration there may be failure
3) Be truthful
4) Be efficient in using information – give accurate and informed information
5) Be watchful on falsified information – make sure the information shared is authentic and valid
6) Be respectful of the rights of others to information

Functions of Communication – people communicate for the following reasons; teachers do most of
these: inform, education, persuade, motivate, instruct, raise morale and advise.

Levels of Communication
• Phatic level – this level is the start of communication. This is where people simply nod head or smile to
acknowledge an acquaintance or say “Hi” or “Hello”
• Factual level - the level where facts are exchanged, such as name, place of residence, age.
• Evaluative level – this is where judgments for others are made or when the speaker forms opinion of the
receiver and vice versa. Ex: when a speaker thinks that the receiver is boastful or the receiver
immediately considers the speaker as timid.
• Gut level – the level where feelings, emotions and secrets are shared; this occurs between and among
friend or people in relationships
• Peak level - also called, "communal-level communication." It’s as if, for the moment, two souls merge
into one. Peak communication is rare, even among close friends and family members.

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Communication in Multicultural Setting
Culture and communication are inseparable; communication becomes successful when the people involved
are sensitive to the socio-cultural aspects of communication.
❑ Cultural identity – membership and acceptance into a larger cultural group sharing a system of
tradition, norms and values.
❑ Gender role – respect and acceptance of gender preference of each human being
❑ Age identity – how people feel and think about themselves as they age; can influence one’s self
image, personality, language use, attitudes and communication with others.
❑ Social class – the rank assigned by the society to its members according to income, titles,
possessions, etc; people’s perception of another social class affects communication
❑ Religious identity – the active or inactive membership of a person to a certain religious
organization; religious beliefs, values and worldviews are associated with their way of life.

Modes of Communication
The modes are the channels through which one expresses his/her thoughts.

 audio
 video
 text-based
 digital / electronic communication
 face-to-face
 multi-modal - occurs when there is use of 2 or more communication modes
1. A multimodal text can be paper – such as books, comics, and posters.
2. A multimodal text can be digital – from slide presentations, e-books, blogs, e-posters, web pages,
and social media, through to animation, film and video games.
3. A multimodal text can be live – a performance or an event.
4. And, a multimodal text can be transmedia– where the story is told using ‘multiple delivery channels’
through a combination of media platforms, for example, book, comic, magazine, film, web series,
and video game mediums all working as part of the same story (O’Brien, 2020)

Listening: An Important Aspect of Communication

Listening is “the active process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and
/or nonverbal messages. It involves the ability to retain information, as well as to react empathically and/or
appreciatively to spoken and/or nonverbal messages”

Originally, the process involved receiving, attending, understanding, responding and remembering.

receiving attending understanding responding remembering

Receiving simply refers to the part where one hears sounds without paying attention. Hearing is
involuntary. Even if one does not want to hear, if one is not deaf, he or she will hear sounds.
Attending involves focus in order to proceed to understanding. This also includes paying attention to
non-verbal cues.
Understanding happens when one can put meaning to the message that is received and it allows one
to respond or act appropriately to the message.
Responding occurs after understanding.
Remembering takes place when one is listening to a lecture that one considers relevant to one’s
education, work or for advancement; this is also important particularly when one wants to correctly imitate the
sounds of English.

Barriers/Interference to Listening
• Environmental / Physical / Physiological – the weather and climate, health, personal discomfort caused
by illness, ignorance of the receiver
• Psychological – thoughts that bother the receiver; may lead to misinterpretation of message
• Selective – when receivers selects / chooses what to hear or listen to
• Attitudinal – a highly educated persona may not want to listen to someone who has not reached his
level of education
• Nonverbal factor – unfamiliar gestures or movement or incongruous gesture or movement from speaker

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There are 3 Factors that determine ATTENTION
1. Selectivity of Attention – people direct attention to what they want to listen to in order to avoid
information overload. When one is not interested in the topic at hand, one does other things. On
the contrary, when one is fascinated by a topic, his or her attention will be fully on the discussion.
2. Strength of Attention - complete attention can be given to only one stimulus at a time. Experts
believe that one cannot really study while listening to music because the brain can only focus
one thing at a given time. Perhaps, some information may be retained in the mind but not
completely as compared to when one is simply studying and not listening to music at the same
time.
3. Sustainment of Attention - the mind can only pay attention for as long as the body is willing.
When the eyes begin to tear up after long periods of reading or when your back and butt begin
to hurt after sitting for a long time while studying, you’d believe your brain is tired. But it is the
body which gets tired and when it does, one will have difficulty focusing and thus learning will
lacking.

2 Barriers that obstruct VERBAL SYMBOLS

1. One word may mean different things to people. Example: ASAP means as soon as possible, but people
think it means “now”.
2. Different words mean one thing to people. Example: Soda, Pop, Softdrinks all mean carbonated drinks

3 Barriers to NON-VERBAL SYMBOLS

Remember: Non-verbal symbols TRANSMIT MANY TIMES MORE INFORMATION than our verbal symbols carry.
1. Misinterpretation of Actions – some people look stern and mean, but without really knowing them, they
could be good natured and kind.
2. Misinterpretation of Non-action symbols – people with tattoos are considered addict or wors ‘ex-
convicts. Women who wear clothes that are revealing are thought as prostitutes.
3. Misinterpretation of tone of voice – some people have unusually loud voices, that even when they are
in ordinary conversation, others could construe it as being aggressive or dominant

The listening process may END with understanding BUT effective communication and effective
listening may be defined as the accurate sharing or understanding of meaning – RESPONDING

4 TYPES OF RESPONSES
1. Direct verbal response: saying YES or NO or giving the appropriate information
2. Responses that seek clarification: “What do you mean?”
3. Responses that paraphrase: “Are you telling me to…?” / “You mean, I should…”
4. Non-verbal response: nodding, thumbs up
✓ Responding is feedback that completes the communication cycle

Written Communication

Different Text Types in Writing

Writing is necessary for the following reasons:

✓ developing social networks
✓ engaging in civic discourse
✓ supporting personal and spiritual growth
✓ Reflecting on experience
✓ Communicating professionally and academically
✓ Building relationships
✓ engaging in aesthetic experience

Writing is an important tool for thinking

Writing stimulates ideas and helps the author make mental connections.
Texts are written paragraphs published for readers’ interest and information.
Text Types are written forms for a variety of purposes including cultural purpose.

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 Different Text Types in Writing

Factual Text Types Purpose Features Example

-begins with introductory statement
-describes different aspects of the
Describes a place or Landscape
Factual Description subject
thing using facts description
-may end with a concluding
statement
Retells events which -begins with a background information
have already (who, when, and where)
Factual Recount Historical report
happened in time -describes series of events in time order
order -may end with personal comment
Classifies, describes, -begins with general classification or
and gives factual definition
information about -describes different aspects of the
Factual Report Facts about whales
people, animals, subject
things or -may end with a concluding
phenomena statement
-begins with a statement of goal
Gives instructions on Recipes
-list materials needed in order of use
Procedure how to make or do Instruction booklet
-gives a list of steps to follow in order
something Manuals
-written in present tense verbs
Documentaries
Tells how something -begins with a statement of what was
Retelling of a
was made or done made or done
Procedural recount science
in time order and -tells what was made in order
experiment and its
with accuracy -written in past tense
results
-begins by naming the topic; describes
items related to the topic in their right
order
-explains how the items relate to each Life cycle of a
Explains how or why other and to the topic butterfly
Explanation
something happens -may end with a concluding How gears work
statement flowcharts
-may include visual images which
supports what is written in words
-written in the present tense

Persuasive Text
Purpose Features Example
Types
-begins with a sentence that gives a
Gives reasons for a point of view on a topic
point of view to try -lists arguments giving reasons and Team’s argument
Exposition
and convince evidence for them for a debate
others of it -uses convincing language (use of will
and shall)
-begins with some background
Gives different information leading to the issue
Should cars be
points of view in -lists arguments for and against, giving
Discussion banned from the
order to make an evidence for different points of view
inner city?
informed decision -conclusion might sum up both sides
or recommend one point of view

Literary Text Types Function Description Example

Depicts the
characteristics of
-describes distinct features of the
people, characters
subject such as physical appearance,
in a story or
Literary Sketch behavior, etc. A character sketch
personalities,
-lists arguments for and against, giving
places, events and
evidence for different points of view
objects in a
creative way

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 -states background information
Narrates events that
(character, time, place) before the
happened in
recount of events
novels, stage plays, A recount of a
Literary recount -illustrates events chronologically
movies and short story
which may end with a personal
personal stories
feedback about main characters or
again
their actions

-describes how writer feels about a

States reader’s
novel, film, book or play
personal opinions
-lists what did and did not appeal to
Individual response on a novel, play or Critique of a novel
the writer
film by referring to
-may comment something on some
passages in the text
of the features of the writing
Summarizes,
analyzes and
-describes how features (character,
assesses the appeal Commentary on a
Review plot, language) may or may not have
of a novel, play or film, play, book
appeal
film to a broader
audience

Textual Literacy in Multicultural Literature

▪ Textual literacy is reading to understand and evaluate using a variety of sources, such as literature,
articles, historical documents as well as the ability to reflect knowledge through written means
▪ Textual literacy involves metacognition and comprehension skills – metacognition is an individual’s
awareness and knowledge of his/her mental processes. This requires metacognitive strategies.
✓ it is not about learning to read, but reading to learn and relate it to what one is trying to study or
accomplish

Textual literacy
▪ improves reading and metacognition
▪ helps activate schema
▪ Instructs the reader to construct meaning while reading by
✓ selective reading
✓ Identifying main ideas
✓ Predicting
✓ Making inferences
✓ Interpreting
✓ Evaluating
✓ Integrating ideas into coherent representation

Specific Ways to Fulfill Metacognitive Strategies

Metacognitive
Description
Strategies
-asking question before reading, about unfamiliar works, confusing
Ask questions
information, not answered in the text)

-evaluate the author’s purpose and point of view by using prior knowledge;
Determine text importance
determining what is important versus what is interesting

Fix-up strategies include: stopping and rereading to clarify meaning; read

Fix up monitoring
ahead, talk about what is confusing in the text

-linking what they are reading to something they already know (text to self;
Make connections
text to text; text to world)
-use clues and information in a text to figure something out that the author
Make inferences
isn’t directly expressing
-putting related text together to come up with new idea or perspective;
Summarize and synthesize
done by making generalizations, judgments and opinions
-forming pictures or images in the mind to help see and understand
characters, settings, objects and actions; done by taking not of vivid verbs
Visualizing
that describe actions, adjectives, graphic aids, similes, metaphors and
sensory language

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 Aside from metacognitive strategies, textual literacy requires use of comprehension skills. BUT what is
comprehension?
“capacity of the mind to perceive and understand” (Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary)
““The ability to understand or get meaning from text.”
“It is the thinking done before, during and after reading.”

Levels of Comprehension
Level 1. Literal Level – The level where one answers the questions Who, What, Where and When.
▪ This involves surface understanding or rote learning
Level 2. Interpretative Level – this is where the Why, What if and How questions are asked.
▪ It helps one find the implication
▪ This is where you make inferences
▪ Prior knowledge is used to make educated guesses
Level 3. Applied Level – the questions here are: “In what ways…” “If these are…” “If you were…”
▪ Thinking goes up one more “notch”
▪ Application of message to other situations

Communication for Various Purposes

Various Purposes of Communication
1. For public speaking
2. Academic writing
a. Contextualized writing
b. Essay writing
c. Concept / research writing
3. Work purposes
a. Incident report
b. Interoffice correspondence
c. Employment letter
d. Business proposal

Public Speaking and Types of Presentation

Elements of speech delivery
1. Voice and articulation – a speaker must learn how to vary voice modulation and intonation to make
delivery interesting; articulation refers to the speaker’s ability to clearly express and form statements
during delivery
2. Gestures – gestures must be in consonance with the speech. These should not be too few nor too
much.
3. Posture – a speaker must stand naturally and not stiffly; neither must he or she slouch when on stage
or in front of an audience
4. Body Movement – similar to the gesture, body movement must be spontaneous and natural
5. Facial Expression – a friendly facial expression and not an arrogant one must be maintained; still, it
should be in accordance with the speech. If the speech is somber in nature, one need not smile or
laugh often. If the audience comprise young people and one wants to establish an easy rapport
with them, then a friendly countenance must be maintained.
6. Eye Contact – this shows sincerity and confidence
7. Diction – this is related to voice and articulation as this comprise, delivery, pronunciation, and
accent.

Types of Presentation
1. Informative – a presentation is informative if it is about a current or general matter/information
2. Persuasive – this is used by politicians during campaigns; debaters also use persuasive presentations
3. Entertainment – as the word implies, this is used to pass the time or for fun

Presentation Techniques in Public Speaking

1. Frame story / talk – think about how you will compose your talk. What angle or slant will you be
following? What do you wish to include and not include?
2. Plan delivery – consider how you will present your talk? Should you use an informative tone? A
persuasive one?
3. Develop stage presence – one can develop stage presence when one has confidence that he/she has
read enough about his/her topic. Stage presence may vary from speaker to speaker. One may have
stage presence because of his/her humor; another one could have stage presence simply by the way
he/she carries himself/herself
4. Plan the multimedia – what multimedia are you familiar and comfortable with?
5. Put everything together – organize your talk; be sure to follow techniques in organizing your
presentation.

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USES OF NOUNS
☺ As subject: The really important issue of the conference, stripped of all other considerations, is
the morality of the nation.
☺ As subjective complement: Dr Couchworthy is acting president of the board.
☺ As direct object: The new addition to the faculty donated a new microscope to the university.
☺ As indirect object: Grandfather left Rosita and Raul all his money.
☺ As object of the preposition: The guests stayed in a five-star hotel.
☺ As objective complement: The convention named Mr. Dogbreath vice chairman to appease
him.
☺ As appositive: Kathleen, an Olympic swimmer, just received a scholarship from Harvard.
☺ As nominative of address: Shut up, Joe!

USES OF PRONOUNS
1. Personal pronouns – refer to persons or things (it)

NOMINATIVE
OBJECTIVE POSSESSIVE
Predicate (used as objects) (show possession)
(subject)
(complement)
I I me my, mine
you you your, yours
Singular

he he him his
she she her hers
it it it its
we we us our, ours
Plur
al

they they them their, theirs

Ex: (as subjects) Dan and I bought the used car.

My parents and they are going to Parish.
Sally and he went fishing.
Eve and she worked at the lodge.
The cat and he fell from the tree.
(as complement) It was I who refused.
Could it have been she who won?
It must have been they who gave the signal.
Are you implying that it was he?
(as objects) The Ford Foundation gave her a grant.
I invited Theresa and him to the party.
The workers rescued her and the other miners.
The orthodontist examined Margaret and him.
(showing possession) This transistor radio is mine.
I agree that his is better.
That mountain bike is hers.

2. Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a definite person or thing.

Singular:
Each Everything Nothing
Anybody Much Either
Anyone Somebody Neither
Anything Someone Other
Every Something Another
Everybody Nobody
Everyone No one

Ex: Each of you has award.

Someone is in the room.
Neither of the students was present.
(the word with a single underscore is the pronoun and the one with the double
underscore is the singular verb)

Plural: both few many several others

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 Ex: Several were killed in the car crash.
Many are expecting salary increase.
Few have voted for the crooked candidate.

Singular or plural: all any most none some

Ex: All of the research was complete. (singular)
All of the supplies were donated by a politician. (plural)
Some of the butter was rancid. (singular)
Some of the stories were published. (plural)
None of the corn has been harvested. (singular)
None of the officers have resigned. (plural)
Has any of the publicity helped? (singular)
Have any of the risks been considered? (plural)

The use of WHO and WHOM; WHOEVER and WHOMEVER:

CASE PRONOUNS USE IN SENTENCE

Nominative Who, whoever Subject of a verb
Predicate nominative
Objective Whom, whomever Direct object
Object of a preposition
Possessive Whose, whosever To shoe ownership

Ex: Who wrote the Decalogue? (subject)

Whoever would commit such a heinous act? (subject)
The news commentator was who? (predicate nominative)
Assign the task to whoever will accept it. (subject of the verb ‘will accept’ in the
subordinate clause)
Whom did you consult? (direct object)
Whom are you writing to? (object of the preposition ‘to’)
John charmed whomever he spoke with. (object of the preposition ‘with’)
Glenda cursed whoever allowed a dog in her pristine yard. (subject of ‘allowed’)

VERBS and THEIR USES

1. Regular verbs are verbs that add –d, or –ed to the base form to create the past form.
Ex: act – acted; walk – walked, create – created, walk – walked

2. Irregular verbs are verbs that change spelling to create their past and past participle forms

PAST PARTICIPLE PAST PARTICIPLE

BASE FORM PAST FORM BASE FORM PAST FORM
FORM FORM
Come came came bring brought brought
PAST PARTICIPLE PAST PARTICIPLE
BASE FORM PAST FORM BASE FORM PAST FORM
FORM FORM
Cling clung clung buy bought bought
Drink drank drunk catch caught caught
Fight fought fought do did done
Find found found go went gone
Run ran run lie lay lain
Sing sang sung stand stood stood
Sit sat sat think thought thought
Shoot shot shot wind wound wound
Break broke broken build built built
Drive drove driven have had had
Eat ate eaten make made made
Fall fell fallen rend rent rent
fly flew flown send sent sent
Freeze froze frozen spend spent spent
Grow grew grown seek sought sought
Ride rode ridden forget forgot forgotten
Write wrote written forgive forgave forgiven

Some irregular verbs have the same base, past and past participle forms:
Burst, cast, hurt, set, spread, split, sweat, thrust

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 3. The linking verbs are used to link or join the subject with its complement (a noun, a pronoun or an
adjective). These are be, am, is, was, were, been, being
Ex: I am exhausted. (adjective)
She is a geologist. (noun)
They are foreigners. (noun)
We are glad to hear that. (adjective)
It was her I saw. (pronoun)

4. Special linking verbs are verbs which may be used as linking verbs or action verbs, such as: seem, look,
appear, sound, feel, taste, stand, remain, grow, become, get, stay and loom.
Ex: You look pretty in that dress. (linking verb)
Do not look at him. (action)
The soup tastes sour. (linking verb)
He often tastes all the food on the table. (action)
The baby gets irritated when its warm. (linking verb)
The baby easily gets things that are within reach. (action)

5. Auxiliary verbs are used together with action verbs. These are also referred to as ‘helping verbs’. These
are: do, does, did, has, have, had, will, shall, could, may.
Auxiliary verbs may also be used as main verbs. The linking verbs may also function as auxiliary verbs.

AS MAIN VERB AS AUXILIARY VERB

Ex: I will do his duty. I do need a new dress.
Have they a reason for the rally? We have received your notice.
The hinges are rusty. Some researchers are conducting a study under water.
She has a meeting to attend. Our professor has already dismissed us.

THE VERB TENSES

The simple tenses

Shows present action
Ex: I hear a radio in the next room.
She looks at me with dejection.
Expresses present condition
Ex: Barbara is very ill.
I am excited at the idea.

1. Simple present Expresses regularly occurring action

Ex: Some animals hibernate during winter time.
Singular subj. + s-form of the verb We walk to school every day.

I + base form of the verb

Expresses regularly occurring condition
I + am Ex: He is often late for work.
I am rarely patient.
Singular subj. + is / has
Expresses constant action
Plural subj. + base form of the verb Ex: The earth revolves around the sun.
The sun sets in the west.
Plural subj. + are / have
Expresses constant condition
Ex: Some people are not infallible.
Winters are cold seasons.
Expresses completed action
2. Simple Past
Ex: The concert began at eight o’clock.
He closed the store early.
Singular subj. + was
States completed condition
Ex: There was drought in California.
Plural subj. + were
It was warm last night.
Gives a series of actions in the order that they happened
Subj. + past form of verb
Ex: The burglar came in the front door, picked up the woman’s
handbag, emptied it out and stole her purse.
Subj. + had
Talks about long term situations in the past

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3. Simple future
Subj. + will/shall + base form of
verb
The progressive tenses
1. Present progressive
Singular subj. + is + -ing form of a
verb
Plural subj. + are + -ing form of a
verb
2. Past Progressive
Singular subj. + was + -ing form of a
verb
Plural subj. + were + -ing form of a
verb
3. Future progressive
Subj. + will + be + -ing form of a
verb
The perfect tenses
1. Present perfect
Singular subj. + has + past part. of
the verb
Plural subj. + have + past participle
2. Past Perfect
Subj. + had + past participle form
of verb
3. Future perfect
Subj. + will/shall + have + past
participle of verb
Prepared by: Balleras, AA (rev. Nov. 2022)
Ex: My friend’s uncle served as mayor for two terms during the
Japanese occupation.
Denotes future action
Ex: Carmela will report about folk literature.
We shall surely attend your birthday party.
Expresses future condition
Ex: She will be worried about us.
They will be eager to see you.
Makes predictions, based on opinions or past experiences
Ex: It will rain again.
Long continuing action
Ex: She is writing a novel.
They are conducting a study of the marine biology in Sulu Sea.
Short continuing action
Ex: My brother is setting the table
She is cooking supper.
Continuing condition
Ex: The weather is being very unpredictable.
You are being obstinate again.
Talks about events one intends to do in the future with the use of going
to
Ex: We are going to hire a bus.
We are going to ride the ferry to the island.
Long continuing action in the past
Ex: We were visiting museums last December.
He was completing his thesis the other year.
Short continuing action in the past
Ex: I was helping my sisters this morning
We were watching a movie a while ago.
Continuing condition in the past
Ex: Elaine was being very irritable yesterday.
They were being very secretive about the changes during the
meeting.
Provides background scene when narrating a past event
Ex: He was doing his homework when the burglar came in.
Continuing future action
Ex: Gerard will be growing pineapple next summer.
They will be studying internal medicine for ten years.
Completed action (at an indefinite time)
Ex: I have eaten lunch already
Marissa has received a letter.
Completed condition (at an indefinite time)
Ex: I have also been happy.
They have been blessed many times.
Action continuing to the present
Ex: The baby has cried all evening.
She has talked all afternoon.
Condition continuing to the present
Ex: You have been very calm today.
The dog has been very docile lately.
Used together with words like since, for, never, so far, up to now
Ex: I have lived in this house since birth.
Karen has collected 20 cards so far.
They have never gotten over the loss of their dad.
Action completed before another past action
Ex: He had worked as a veterinarian before he began his book.
I had studied art until I started to teach.
Condition completed before another past condition
Ex: She had been an accomplished writer until she fell ill.
I had been very patient before we became friends.
Future action completed before another
Ex: I will have finished writing my book by 2013.
She shall have arrived by the time you finish cooking.
Future condition completed before another
18
 Ex: The survivors will have been without food for days by the time
help arrives.
The lion will have been tamed by the time it grows old.
The perfect progressive tenses

1. Present perfect progressive

Action continuing to the present
Singular subj. + has + been + -ing Ex: They have been listening to music all morning.
form of a verb The kid has been throwing tantrums.
Plural subj. + have + been + -ing
form of verb

2. Past perfect progressive

Continuing action interrupted by another
Ex: I had been taking a bath when the water ran out.
Subj. + had + been + -ing form of
We had been chatting boisterously until we heard the explosion.
verb

Continuing future action completed before another.

3. Future perfect progressive
Ex: He will have been driving for ten hours by the time he reaches
Legazpi City.
Subj. + will/shall + have + been + -
I will have been studying for eight years before I become a full-
ing form of a verb
fledged surgeon.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
1. A verb must agree with the subject in person and in number
Ex: Rita listens attentively. (Rita is a singular subject thus it takes the –s form of the verb listen in the
present tense)
They often explain the lessons clearly. (They is a plural subject so it takes the base form of the
verb explain in the present tense)
2. The pronouns, You and I, always take the base form of the verb in the present tense.
Ex: You wash the dishes after you eat.
I read books often.
3. The singular indefinite pronouns take the singular verbs.
Ex: Each of them is responsible.
Everyone is bothered about corrupt politicians.
No one has seen the thief come in.
4. The indefinite pronouns some, all, most, none and any may take either the singular or the plural verbs
depending on the noun after the ‘of phrase’.
Ex: Some of the money was stolen. (“money” is a non-count noun so it needs a singular verb)
Some of their answers were wrong. (“answers” is a count noun so it requires a plural verb)
5. Intervening phrases introduced by with, together with, in addition to, as well as and including do not affect
the verb.
Ex: The machine with all its parts sells for five hundred pesos.
His property, including two cars, is up for sale.
6. Collective nouns often require a singular verb unless it is thought of as individuals.
Ex: The choir sings well.
The choir do not agree on the songs for the program.
7. Subjects joined by and take plural verb except when they refer to only one and the same person or thing.
Ex: The engine and one car were derailed.
Pins and tacks were holding the pieces together.
The proprietor and manager has left for Canada. (the absence of a determiner before the noun
manager denotes that the two nouns refer to only one person.)
Macaroni and cheese is an easy dish to make.
8. Subjects joined by either-or, neither-nor, or, nor take the singular verb when both subjects have the same
number. When the subjects do not have the same number, the verb agrees with the nearer subject.
Ex: Neither the folk singers nor their agent likes the program.
The management or the unions are making concessions.
Either their team or our team has a chance to win.
9. Nouns plural in form and meaning always take the plural verb or the base form of the verb.
Ex: Where are the green scissors?
Your trousers have a torn crotch.

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10. Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning take the singular verb.
Ex: Mathematics is often considered a difficult subject.
Ethics was one of the subjects I disliked.
11. The phrase a number of takes the plural verb, while the phrase the number of takes the singular verb.
Ex: A number of students have been found to be under the influence of liquor during class hours.
The number of English plus enrollees has increased tremendously.
12. When the sentence is introduced by here or there the verb agrees with the subject.
Ex: Here is the ticket for the game.
There are only two possible answers.
13. In inverted order sentences, the verb still agrees with the subject.
Ex: Around the bend careens a speeding car.
Into the deep and murky well drops the dead bird.
14. A verb in the subordinate clause introduced by a relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent.
Ex: Those are the researchers who are observing the volcanoes eruption.
Kathleen is popular with those classmates who enjoy her vitality and exuberance.
Every book on these shelves that appears on your list should be catalogued.
15. Predicate nominatives do not affect the verb.
Ex: New theories are not the answer.
Joe’s first love is sailboats.
The fruit I like best is seedless grapes.
16. Subjects following expressions of amount or measurement require a singular verb.
Ex: Two meters of wire is enough for the fence.
Three dollars seems like a fortune to him.
17. The verb agrees with the noun following an expression of fraction or portion.
Ex: Half of the apple is rotten.
Three-fourths of the bananas were ripe.
18. Titles of books, songs, stories, plays or other works of art and names of countries require a singular verb.
Ex: The Netherlands has a colorful history.
The Potato-Eaters is a famous painting by Van Gogh.
19. Adjectives used as subjects take the plural form of the verb.
Ex: The rich often have the privilege to travel anywhere.
The rural poor have been ignored by the media.

ON MODALS
▪ Verbs used with another verb to express possibility, necessity or permission
▪ Used to describe verbs expressing grammatical mood

CAN expresses ability It is wrong to say:

Ex: You can buy a screwdriver at the hardware store. Can anyone read?
I can read Spanish. Instead, say “Could anyone read this?”
The baby can walk! Can I borrow your book?
Can you swim? Can you stand up?
Instead, say “Could you stand up?”
COULD
✓ expresses ability in the past.
✓ May also be used to make polite request.
Ex: She could perform on the trapeze.
We were so tired we couldn’t stay awake.
Could you close the window, please?

WILL / SHALL
✓ used to indicate future action
✓ used with promises or voluntary actions.
Ex: I shall never forget where I came from.
I will make dinner tonight.

WOULD
✓ commonly used in conditional sentences;
✓ past form of will;
✓ indicate repetition
Ex: If he were an actor, he would be in adventure movies.
When they first met, they would have picnics on the beach.

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 SHOULD
✓ expresses obligation or expectation;
✓ also used to give advice
Ex: He should be here by now.
You should return the book by 9:00am tomorrow.
Sarah should start eating right.

MAY
✓ indicates possibility, permission, right, requests or suggestion
Ex: I may not be able to come.
That may be the best action to be done.
May I leave the table?
May I help you?
You may withdraw money from this account anytime.

MUST
✓ indicates that somebody is compelled to do something, or it is necessary to do something;
✓ it is logically likely
Ex: Accidents causing injury must be reported immediately.
We must improve our school.
Those must be your footprints in the garden.
It must be 3:00am, dogs are howling.

OUGHT
✓ indicates what somebody should do; that something is morally right; that something is important
Ex: You ought to tell her how you feel.
You ought to be ashamed of what you have done.
You ought to see a doctor as soon as possible.

THE MOOD
▪ the form a verb takes to show how it is to be regarded (fact, command, wish, uncertainty)
o Indicative - states facts or asks questions
▪ She plays the piano
o Imperative - expresses a command or request
▪ Pls. play the piano for us.
o Subjunctive shows a wish, a doubt or expresses a suggestion
▪ I suggest that she play the piano.
▪ I propose that she be asked to play the piano

INDICATIVE EXAMPLE SUBJUNCTIVE EXAMPLE

Jason is our nominee for I suggest Jason be our

is be
president nominee for president.

I was rich, but now I am

was were I wish I were rich.
poor.

will It will rain tomorrow. would I wish it would rain tomorrow

He finds his socks already in I insist he find his socks in the

s-form of verb base form
the laundry. morning

• VERBS that attract the subjunctive mood: ask, command, insist, recommend, order, demand, suggest,
wish
• ADJECTIVES that attract the subjunctive mood: crucial, essential, imperative, important, necessary

ON IDENTIFYING SENTENCE ERRORS

Strategies:
▪ Read the sentence thoroughly.
▪ Go over each underlined word.
▪ Confirm your choice by explaining to yourself why you chose it.

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 • On Verbs:
– Is the verb in the correct form and tense?
– Does it agree with the subject?
Ex:
For several years now, Venice baked cakes for her very own bakery. (the verb “baked” is wrong
because the phrase “for several years now” is used in the sentence and it indicated present perfect
tense, which means the correct verb phrase should be “has baked”)
When we came, some of our friends has left the meeting. (“has” is wrong because there is another verb
“came” which is in the past tense, require past perfect in the next verb phrase: Had left)

That is the funniest joke I heard. (The verb “heard” requires an auxiliary verb “have” because the
adjective “funniest” is in the superlative degree, which means the verb should be in the present perfect
tense)

• On Pronouns:
– Does the pronoun agree with the antecedent?
– Is it in the correct case? (subjective, objective, possessive)
• On Gerunds:
– Is a gerund used as the only verb in the sentence?
– Is it part of a list that does not adhere to parallelism?
• On Prepositions:
– Is the preposition idiomatically correct?
– Does it correctly complete a word pair?
• On Adjectives and Adverbs:
– Is the modifier of the correct type?
– Are comparisons used appropriately?
• On vocabulary:
– Is the word appropriate?
– Is it correctly spelled?

THE PARAGRAPH

 A paragraph is a series of related sentences that represents a unit of thought.

 It explains one idea, usually presented in one sentence called the TOPIC SENTENCE.
 The rest of the sentences in the paragraph discuss the main idea, adding specific information.

THE TOPIC SENTENCE

▪ The topic sentence expresses the main idea of the paragraph and defines the scope of the paragraph.
▪ The topic sentence may be at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the paragraph.
▪ A topic sentence at the beginning of a paragraph prepares the reader for the information that follows
throughout the rest of the paragraph.

Ex:
One of the great seventeenth-century contributors to science and the use of the lens was Galileo
Galilei (1564-1642). While he was in Venice in 1609, Galileo heard about an instrument, rumored to have
been invented the year before, which made objects in the distance appear larger and nearer. The
principle of this new instrument interested him, so he immediately set to work making such a device
himself. The result was his telescope. Galileo fitted into one end of a metal pipe a convex lens, called
the objective, and at the other end of the tube he fixed a concave lens, called the eyepiece. The
eyepiece intercepted the converging light rays which proceeded from the objective, before they
reached the point of focus. As they passed through the concave eyepiece, the light rays again changed
direction. Hey no longer converged, but diverged, and passed on to the eye of the viewer. Galileo
improved the telescope until his third attempt magnified observed objects thirty-three times. Here was a
combination of lenses – mere bits of ground and polished glass – assembled in such a way that it was
possible for he human eye to see far beyond its natural limitations. The principle of Galileo’s telescope is
still used today in opera glasses. Anne Huether.

▪ In the following paragraph, the topic sentence is in the middle of the paragraph.
Ex:
Along island beaches, the water changes color as it becomes deeper. In the shallows it is a milky
green. In deeper waters over the coral heads and reefs, the color is clear greenish-blue. The color line
changes from green-blue to deep blue where the drop-off into the deep water begins. The drop-off
marked by this color change is the best place for a good swimmer to see Hawaii’s underwater scenery.
Here are deep lava-rimmed valleys paved with white sand. Here are lava rock arches and tunnels and
caves where big fish, lobsters, and big eels live. Looking through a face mask into water sixty feet deep,

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 a diver can see that the coral and sand bottom appears a pale, bleached blue. In the deep water, big
fish hover in schools like herds of cattle browsing by. A great sea turtle paddles along. A manta ray swims
below with the same graceful swoops as a bird in flight. Its big side flaps move like wings. Its pop eyes
watch the diver watching it. – adapted from Ruth M. Tabrah

▪ In the next, the topic sentence is at the end.

Ex:
The word toy may come from the Dutch tuig – tools, things, or stuff – or, as once suggested, from
the Danish toeve meaning to stay, to tarry. The variety of toys is almost limitless. They may be large or
miniature, lifelike creatures. Some are static, such as dolls’ houses and furniture, to be admired and
cherished rather than used; others are dynamic, mechanical toys that you can put into action. From
autos to dolls, diamonds to games, toys are anything that enables us to tarry during the last whip of
ordinary life. – Athelstan Spilhaus

READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES

 Skimming is used to quickly identify main ideas of a text; to find dates, names of persons or places and
to review graphs and tables
 Scanning is used to find specific details, like the age of the character or a word used to describe a
character or a place
 Extensive reading is used to get general understanding of a subject matter or it is reading longer text for
pleasure
 Intensive reading used to understand theme, tone and mood
 Visualizing is creating visual images in the mind of the text being read
 Synthesizing Involves evaluating, sorting, and sifting through information that is known and new and
reorganizing it into a larger idea or concept
 Inferring is drawing upon a reader’s background knowledge and connecting this with new information
 Questioning is generating questions that demonstrate that students are synthesizing, evaluating, and
attempting to get a clearer picture of what is being read.

VOCABULARY BUILDING

7 Ways to Improve Vocabulary

1. Develop a reading habit
2. Use the dictionary and thesaurus
3. Play word games
4. Use flashcards
5. Subscribe to “Word of the Day” feeds
6. Use mnemonics
7. Practice using new words in conversation
<https://www.masterclass.com/articles/how-to-improve-your-vocabulary>

10 Easy Ways to Improve Vocabulary

1. Learn the roots of words
2. Be familiar with practical terms and words
3. Create word associations
4. Complete regular vocabulary tests
5. Take a writing class
6. Create groups of words
7. Identify word nuances
8. Identify words that share meanings
9. Diversify what you read
10. Edit what you write
<https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/improve-vocabulary-skills>

COMMONLY CONFUSED EXPRESSIONS

Accept, Except
Accept is a verb that means “to agree to receive something”.
Ex: I could not pay for my purchases with a credit card because the store would only accept cash.
Except is either a preposition that means “other than, or but,” or a verb meaning “to omit or leave out.”
Ex: Except for a B+ in history, Kate received all As on her report card.
Accuse, Allege
Accuse is to blame or to bring a charge against Ex: The state has accused Juan of robbery.
Allege is to assert something without proof. Ex: The prosecutor alleged that Juan knew about
the robbery.

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Adapt, Adopt
Adapt is to change to meet something or to adjust to something. Ex: She easily adapted to college
life.
Adopt is to take as one’s own. Ex: We adopted the puppy which our
neighbor left.
Advice, Advise
Advice is a noun meaning an opinion Ex: Our guidance counselor gives sound advice to
delinquent students.
Advise is a verb meaning to counsel or to give advice. Ex: My teacher advised me to continue my studies.
Affect, Effect
Affect is usually a verb meaning “to influence.”
Ex: Fortunately, Kylie’s sore ankle did not affect her performance in the game.
Effect is usually a noun that “indicates or achieves a result.” Effect is also sometimes used as a transitive verb
meaning “to bring into existence,” but it is generally not used in this way on the GMAT.
Ex: Studies have shown that too much exercise can have a negative effect on a person’s
health.
All ready, already
All ready completely prepared; all are ready
Already means previously or before Ex: The cast of the film was all ready to pack up since the rain had
already begun to fall.
Amount, number
Amount is used for things involving a unified mass
Ex: The lady cannot contain the amount of happiness she felt upon seeing a long lost friend.
Number is used for things that can be counted in individual units.
Ex: The number of out-of-school youths is ever increasing.
Among, Between
Among is used with more than two items.
Ex: Jackie’s performance last night was the best among all the actors in the play.
Between is usually used with two items.
Ex: Simon could not decide between the two puppies at the pound, so he adopted them both.
Assure, Insure, Ensure
Assure means “to convince” or “to guarantee” and usually takes a direct object.
Ex: If we leave two hours early, I assure you that we will arrive at the concert on time.
Insure means “to guard against loss.”
Ex: Before he could leave for his trip, Steve had to insure his car against theft.
Ensure means “to make certain.”
Ex: Our company goes to great lengths to ensure that every product that leaves the warehouse is of the
highest quality.
Because, Since
Because means “for the reason that.”
Ex: My sister was late for school because she missed the bus.
Since implies “time,” either continuous or not, in addition to “reason.”
Ex: Since he lost the election, he has remained sequestered in his home.
It is important to note that in your writing, you should be aware of the subtle difference in
meaning. However, in some Critical Reasoning passages and question stems, the GMAT often
uses “since” as a conjunction to mean “in as much as” or “because.”
Compare to, Compare with
Compare to means “assert a likeness.”
Ex: The only way to describe her eyes is to compare them to the color of the sky.
Compare with means “analyze for similarities and differences.”
Ex: For her final project, Susan had to compare bike riding with other aerobic activities and report her
findings.
Complement, Compliment
Complement implies “something that completes or adds to” something else.
Ex: My favorite place to dine is on the terrace; the breathtaking views are the ideal complement to a
romantic dinner.
A compliment is “flattery or praise.”
Ex: Larry was thrilled when the award-winning author complimented him on his writing style.

Coping with and not coping up with

Ex: Transferring to a new place require coping with the demands of the place.

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Despite, In spite of
Despite is a preposition and so it needs a noun after it; never use “despite of” because these are two
prepositions put together; “of” may be used with “in spite” – in spite of

Discreet, Discrete
Discreet – tactful; Discrete – separate or distinct
Ex: Confidants are trustworthy because they are discreet.

Emigrate, immigrate, migrate

Emigrate means to move out of a country. Ex: Ivan emigrated from Canada to London last year.
Immigrate means to move into a country Ex: He immigrated to the Philippines early this month.
Migrate means to move from place to place. Ex: We migrated all over Europe the other year.

Farther, Further
Farther refers to distance.
Ex: At baseball camp, Jack learned that with the correct stance and technique, he could throw the
ball farther this year than he could last year.
Further indicates “additional degree, time, or quantity.” It can also be used as a verb.
Ex: I enjoyed the book to a certain degree, but I felt that the author should have provided further details
about the characters.
Ex: Kim furthered her education by taking summer classes.
Fewer, Less
Fewer refers to units or individuals that can be counted.
Ex: Trish received all the credit, even though she worked fewer hours on the project than did the other
members of the group.
Less refers to mass or bulk that can’t be counted.
Ex: When it comes to reading, Mike is less inclined to read for pleasure than is Stephanie.
Founder, Flounder
Founder – sink or plunge
Flounder – struggle or flail Ex: The huge tree, uprooted by the strong wind, eventually foundered into
the churning waters of the deep ravine.

Full-fledged and not “full-pledged”. Full-fledged means mature, complete or seasoned.

Imply, Infer
Imply means “to suggest.” Ex: His sister did not mean to imply that he was incorrect.
Infer means “to deduce,” “to guess,” or “to conclude.” Ex: The professor’s inference was correct
concerning the identity of the student.
Incredulous, Incredible
Incredulous means unwilling to believe
Incredible means difficult to believe Ex: When I told the pupils about aswangs, kapres and the like, they were
incredulous for the tales were incredible.

Its, It’s
Its is the possessive form of “it.” Ex: In the summer, my family enjoys drinking white tea for its
refreshing, light flavor.
It’s is the contraction of “it is.” Ex: Fortunately for the runners, it’s a sunny day.

Historic, Historical
Historic – momentous or significant
Historical – of the past or something that existed in the past; ancient
Ex: Having the first president from Davao is quite historic for the people of Davao.
Geologists from Peru found some historical artifacts in the underground river basin.

Human, humane
Human refers to a person
Humane means tender, merciful or considerate of other humans
Ex: Many philanthropists are known for being humane towards underprivileged humans.
Lay, Lie
Lay means “to put” or “to place,” and requires a direct object to complete its meaning.
Ex: To protect your floor or carpet, you should always lay newspaper or a sheet on the ground before you
begin to paint a room.
Lie means “to recline, rest, or stay” or “to take a position of rest.” This verb cannot take a direct object. The
past tense of lie is lay, so use extra caution if you see these words on the GMAT.
Ex: On sunny days, our lazy cat will lie on the porch and bask in the warmth of the sunlight.
Ex: Yesterday, our lazy cat lay in the sun for most of the afternoon.

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Like, Such as
Like indicates similarity. Ex: Kate and Allie were very close, like two peas in a pod.
Such as indicates an example or examples. Ex: Composers such as Mozart and Bach are among my
favorites.
Loose, lose
Loose means not tight. Ex: The oil spilled because the lids were loose.
Lose is to misplace or fail to win. Ex: Wise persons are always careful not to lose their earnings.
Number, Amount
Number is used when the items can be counted.
Ex: The number of students enrolled at Valley College has increased during the last five years.
Amount denotes quantity.
Ex: A small amount of rain has fallen so far this year.
Past time, Pastime
Past time a time that has passed
Pastime a hobby Ex: His favorite pastime is reading.

Past, Passed
Past may be an adjective or an adverb
Passed is the past form of pass Ex: The dean just walked past (adverb). It is not acceptable to say “The
dean just walked passed” as these are two verbs put side by side.
Principal, Principle
Principal is a noun meaning “the head of a school or an organization.”
Ex: A high school principal is responsible not only for the educational progress of his students, but also for
their emotional well-being.
Principal can also mean “a sum of money.”
Ex: I hope to see a 30 percent return on my principal investment within the first two years.
Principal can also be used as an adjective to mean “first” or “leading.”
Ex: Our principal concern is the welfare of our customers, not the generation of profits.
Principle is a noun meaning “a basic truth or law.”
Ex: A study of basic physics includes Newton’s principle that every action has an opposite and reaction.

Than, Then
Than is a conjunction used in comparison. Ex: Rana made fewer mistakes during her presentation than
she thought she would make.
Then is an adverb denoting time. Ex: Mandy updated her resume and then applied for the job.

That, Which
That introduces an essential clause in a sentence. Commas are not required before the word that.
Ex: I usually take the long route because the main highway that runs through town is always so busy.

Which is best used to introduce a clause containing nonessential and descriptive information. Commas are
required before the word. Which can also be used to introduce an essential clause to avoid repeating the
word that in the sentence.
Ex: The purpose of the Civil Rights Act of 1991, which amended the original Civil Rights Act of 1964, was
to strengthen and improve federal civil rights laws.
Ex: I gave Mandy that book which I thought she might like.

There, Their, They’re

There is an adverb specifying location. Ex: Many people love to visit a big city, but few of them could ever
live there.
Their is a possessive pronoun. Ex: More employers are offering new benefits to their employees,
such as day-care services and flexible scheduling.
They’re is a contraction of “they are.” Ex: They’re hoping to reach a decision by the end of the day.
Whether, If
Whether should be used when listing alternatives. Ex: Traci could not decide whether to order the fish
or the chicken.
If should be used when referring to a future possibility. Ex: If Traci orders the fish, she will be served more
quickly.
Your, You’re
Your is a possessive pronoun. Ex: Sunscreen protects your skin from sun damage.
You’re is a contraction of “you are.” Ex: When you’re at the beach, always remember to wear
sunscreen.

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VOCABULARY BUILDING SKILLS

A. Using CONTEXT clues

Context means the words, phrases, or passages that come before and after a particular word or
passage in a speech or piece of writing and help to explain its full meaning.
How context reveals meaning:
 Definition – the most obvious and straightforward method.
Ex: The sycophant can be formed wherever there is power; he is the person who works his
way into favor with flattery.
 Restatement – an explanation of a term usually done by restating. This is usually signaled by
words like, in other words, that is, to put it another way, or and this means.
Ex: One astronomer claims there is total absence of plasma, or gaseous matter, in certain
parts of the corona.
Commas, parentheses, or dashes may also signal an appositive, which is another kind of
restatement.
Ex: A doctor will usually check the functioning of the thyroid, the gland that regulates
body growth and metabolism, if the patient has a weight problem.

 Example – examples are given in order to show the meaning of a word. Words that signal
example are: such, such as, like, other, especially, particularly, for example, for instance
Ex: Like Manhattan, each of the other boroughs is an administrative unit of New York City.
 Synonyms – the use of more familiar word or words having the same meaning as the unfamiliar
word.
Ex: The staff unanimously agreed that their boss is so gelid, a person so cold and frigid,
you seldom see him smile.
 Comparison – the unfamiliar word is compared with a more familiar idea
Ex: Like a modern-day Judas, the actor betrayed his benefactor.
 Contrast – the use of dissimilarity between two things
Ex: The actor emerged from the stage with mirth, in contrast to the grim-faced person he
was after he slipped in a dance number.
 Explanation – a difficult word is explained, usually in simpler words, but longer sentences
Ex: Plants like cactus are succulent. They have tissues that conserve moisture. This
enables them to survive the dry and hot atmosphere of deserts.
 Cause and effect – involves cause-and-effect relationship between ideas.
Ex: Because of the dearth of jobs in the Philippines, many people immigrated to Europe
and the USA.

References:
• Purposive Communication: Using English in Multilingual Context, Marilu Rañosa Madrunio & Isabel
Pefianco Martin. (C & E Publishing, Inc. 2018)
• Purposive Communication. OBE & PPST-Based. Geraldine S. Wakat, et al. (Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
2018)
• Essence and Essentials of Purposive Communication in the 21st Century. Rizal O. Dapat & Liza L.
Chang. (Books Atbp. Publishing Corp., 2018)
• A Course Module for Purposive Communication. Jonna Marie A. Lim, Irene Blanco-Hamada and
Elen Joy P. Alata (Rex Book Store, 2020)
• Building English Skills Purple Level, Revised Edition Joy Litell (McDougal Litell & Company, Illinois, Ca.)
• College English for Today, Book I, Revised Edition, Jovita N. Fernando, Pacita L. Habana, and Alicia
L. Cinco
• Developmental Reading 1, Alejandro S. Bernardo
• Grammar in Context 3, Sandra N. Elbaum
• Grammar Practice (for Upper Intermediate Students), New Edition, Elaine Walker and Steve
Elseworth
• Introduction to Literature, 4th Edition, Arsenia B. Tan
• Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of Literature, (Springfield, Massachusetts)
• New Webster’s Dictionary and Roget’s Thesaurus, (Book Essentials, Inc., New York,1992),

Prepared by: Balleras, AA (rev. Nov. 2022) 27