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BritishCivilization 9 MM
BritishCivilization 9 MM
BritishCivilization 9 MM
~~
Ni11th ed ition published 2020
by Routledge
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© 2020 .lohn Oakland
Th e right of.lohn Oakland to be identified as author of this work has be~n
asserted by hirn in accorda11ce with s 'ctions 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
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first ed ition puhlished by Routledgc 1089
Eighth edition published by Routl edgc 2016
British Libra,y Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
J\ catalogue r cord for this book is ava ilabl e from thc British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publica.tion Data
Nam e.s: Oakland, John, author.
Title: British civilization : an introduction / .lohn Oakland .
Description : Ninth cdition. 1London; Ncw York, NY : Routledge/
Taylor & francis Group: 2020. 1 Indndes indcx .
Identificrs : LCCN 201902001 O (print) 1 LCCN 20 190224 17 (ebook) 1
ISBN 9781138318137 (lwdback: alk. papcr) 1 ISBN 9781138318144
(pbk.: alk. paper) 1ISBN 9780429454 790 (ebk)
Subjc ·ts: LCSH: Great Britain- Civilization-Tcxtbooks.
Classifi. ·ation: LCC DA 11 O .025 2020 (print) 1 LCC DA 110 (t'hook) 1
D DC 94 l -dc23
LC record available at http ://lccn .loc.gov/2019020010
LC ebook record availabl e at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019022417
List of plates ix
List of figures XIII
List of tables XV
2 The country 27
Ccographical idcntitics 28
Physical foaturcs and dimatc 30
Agriculturc, tishcrics anJ forcstry 40
l~ncrgy rcsourccs 44
Transport and communications 48
Attitudcs to th 'cnvironment 54
[xeráses 59
further rearl-i-ng 59
Websites fü)
3 The people 61
Early scttlcmcnt to AD 1066 63
Growth and immigration to the tw 'ntieth century G7
Conten t s
4 Religion 89
Rcligious history ~)]
Th c Christian tra<lition ~)5
Thc non-Christian tradition 104
Coop -' ration among the faiths 108
Rcligion in schools 1()~)
Rcligious identincation 110
Attitudes to r ,]i gion and morality 11 l
Exerci,·es l 14
r:urther reading 114
Websites 11 5
1 O Education 287
School h istory 289
Thc 1~)44 Edu cation /\et 2~) 1
Thc contcmporary statc' school sector 2~)3
Thc contcmporary indcpcndcnt (fe '-paying) school sector 298
C o ntents
lndex 385
Plates
Early history
l>rchi story : British lsk s :rnd Ircland originally part o f Eurnrcan land mass; warrncr
co nditions altcrnatcd with long lcl' /\ges
c. 850,000 I\C:: human footprints founJ on thl· bcach at Happishurgh, Norfolk , are thc:
oldcst JiscovcreJ outsick /\frica
c. 800,000 1\( :: +lint tools, found on the Nort<.lk roast, indiu1k ht'.nnan occupatiun
r. 700,000 1\( :: hutch e rcd animal hrnws anJ storw tools lóund in soulhnn England
suggcst human hunting a ·tivity
C. 520,()()() IH :: ea rli est human bon es found, in southcrn England (13nxgro e Man)
. 250,()()Q IH :: nomadic Old Stonl' /\ge ( Palacolithic) pcnplcs arriVl'J
50,000 I\C:: warm t~ r climat ' e ncourageJ arrival of anccstors of rnod c rn populations
C. 10,Q()() BC: cn<l of kc /\ges; porulatinn consi~ted of Middlc Stnnc /\ge (Mcsolithic)
h untc rs anJ nsh c rs
5, ()()() IIC: today's ílritish islanJs gradually separntcJ from continenta l l~uropc
c. 3,000 1\( :: Nc w Stonl~/\ge (Neolithir) pcopl l"s pt)pulatcd thc western pJrts nf th
islands; farming introdu ccd ; sto ne a nd ca rth mnnum c nts huilt
c. 1,800 I\C: Bronze Age settlers (Ikakc r folkJ in south-east ami l'astl'rn En gland;
tradcd in gold, coppe r and tin
GOO 11< :: sdtkmcnt nf Cclts (Irnn /\ge ) from western and central Europc hl ga n
c. 200 nt :: invasions by Bclgic (alkgcdly Ccltic) tribcs; mainly jn castcrn Englantl
55-54 I\C: Julius Caesa r's ex rloratory cxpeditions
1\I) 43 : Roman conq uest of England, Wales and (tcmporarily) lowl anJ Scutlan<l
by EmpenJr Claudius and latcr governors such as Agrícola ; C hdstian
intlue nces
122-38: Hadrian's Wall built be twee n Scotland and England
c. 400 : Cclti c/G aelic groups from lrcland colonized western Scotland
c. 4m): Roman army withdrew from Britain; wars b ·twccn th c Cclts
Chro nology of significa nt dul1",
1801: Act of Union join ed Gr at ílritain and Irdand (UnitcJ Kin gdom)
1805: Battl e of Trafa lgar; N elson <lefeated th e Frcnch n avy
1807: abolition of the slavc trad c in thc British Empire; e nJing of slavery in
1833
1815 : Napol eon defeat eJ hy Wt:llington and Prussian alli cs (Blüch er) at
W aterloo
1825: opcn ing of th e Stock ton and 1)arlington Railway, th c wo rld's füst pub-
lic passenger railway
1829: Cathohc ema ncipatiun ( l"rt-nlurn of religious worship)
1832: f-irst Reform /\et cx tc nd n l t lw 1mh.· fra nchise ( vote) hy 50 pcr cent
1837-1901: reigo of Qu een Vi ctoria
1838: People's Chartc r ami th t· hq.',innin g ni" tradc unions
1839: thc Durharn Rqwrt t111 d1l111inil111 .-.tat us for sorn e coloni cs, such as
Canada
1845: disastrous harwst l:1il111 ,· i,, l1 (·b,1 tl
1851: first organizcd tradt · 1111 i,111.-, ;11'1 ,, ·; 11 n l
1853-6: thc Crimean War
Chrono lo gy o f signifi cant dates xxiii
.,
"°~
;T
1 ~(:i/: Trade Union Congress (TUC) stablishcd
1~70: compulsory dcmcntary state school education introduced in England;
Canada beca me first <lominion state
1N7 l: legal rerngnition of tradc unions
¡~q9: thc 13oc r War (South /\fri ca)
1987: Conservativc Prinll' M111i:, t1·1 M;1rgarl't Thatch er won third general dection
1988: SDP mergeJ wit h l .ilii-d l1:111 y l \) hu :ome the Liberal De mocrats
1989: Tim Bern ers- l .1·l' i1n·,·11t.-, I 1111· Wnrld Wide W b
Chronology o f sign i ficant dates XXV
.,
A~
;.T
introduction of 'poll tax' provoked riots in London; Thatcher rcsigned;
rcplaced hy .John Major
1~) ~) 1 : libera tion of Kuwait by coaütion forces; Operation D esert Storm
1q~)2: Conservatives won gt.ne ral election with John Major as prime minister;
withdrawal of pound sterlin g from ERM on 'Black Wedn esday '
Channd rail tunn el b etween Franc:e and Britain open ed; füst wom ' 11 pri sts
ordain ed in Church of England
rcfcrcn dums o n d ' volution for Scotland and Walcs; sov1.: re ignty of Hong
Kong transferred to China; Labour won general clcction with Tony Blair as
prim e minist 'r
1!)98: BclFast ( Good f-riJay) J\grt:em c.: nt; e ndo rseJ by referenJum s in both parts
of lrcland; lecti o n of devolved Northcrn lrclanJ J\ ssc mhly
1~)99: Jcvolution ·tructurcs in Scotland (a Parliam c nt) ami Walcs (an J\ssc mhl y )
2000: numher of hcrcditary rx-crs in thc House of Lords rcJuccJ from 750 to ~)2
(now 88); stock markc ts tell as 'dntcorn buhhlc ' hurst
2001: Labour won general e le ·tion with Tony Rlair as prinw ministcr; l<.)()t anJ
mnuth discasc in rural 13ritain; North crn lrvland J\ssc' mhly susrc' nckd
until 2007; Britain cngaged in NJ\TO and lJN pt·arr h -c·ping ~H:tion in
J\tghani stan
2003: gains For Dcmocratic Unionist Party and Sinn h ':in in Northcrn lrcland
J\sse mbly l'l ectio ns; cualition forces (incluJing Britain) invadcd Iraq
2004: ten n c-w statcs join cd EU
2005: Lahour Party ac hi cvcd thirJ succcssivc victory in gcnnal clcction (Tony
Blair as PM); JRJ\ ord crcd mcmlwrs to c~:asc 'mi li tary opcrations'; intcr-
national dccommissioning hody r ·ported that IR/\ wc apons had hcc n ' pul
hcyond use'; sume lJniunisl rar,imil itaries mnvcd to disarm ; Kyoto Prntrn:n l
on clirnatc changc ca rne into forc e; suicide homhcrs kilkJ 52 pcopk' on
London's transport system
2006: Northi..·rn Ircl and J\ssc mhly m ct hctwcc n May an<l No v ' mh1::r for lirst tim e
sin ce suspcnsion in 2001
2007 : North e rn Ircland J\sse mbly rcs lorcJ anJ lan Paislcy lcJ powcr-sharing
gov c rnm c nt as first minister, with Sinn frin's Martin McC, uinncss as
his d cputy; Gordon 13rown bccam e PM and Lahour Party le adcr f'ollow-
ing rcsignation of Tony Blair: scvere fl oods in central EnglancJ causcJ
great damage; Romania ami Bulgaria joincd EU; Al ex Salmond, lcad 'r
of thc Scottish NationaLParty (SNP), h t'c:a m e first ministcr of ScotlanJ
following thc Scottish Parliam c nt election and led a minority Scottish
governm1:.' nt
2007- 10: credit c runch; finan cia) anJ hanking probl ems; intemational recession
2008 : Lahour Party suffcred worst local election results in 40 ycars finishing
bchind th e Conservativcs and Liberal Democrats with 24 p er cent of thc
national vote
2009: in European elections, on a lo w turnout of 33 per ce nt, Labour p oll ed 15. 7
pe r v nt of th e vote an<l finish ecl third b ehind the Cnnscrv·itives (27. 7 per
ce nt) and the United Kingdom Indc penden ce Party ( 16.5 r 1.'. r cent)
.,
A~ xxvi Chro no l ogy of si gn i ficant d ci l<: :.
;T
2010: British general clection rl·s1ilt1 ·d i,1 l111n g Parliament ancl coalition gov-
c rnm e nt b etwee n Consnv:1tivvs :1nd l ,ihc ral Dcrnocrats, David Cam ero n
(Con) bccoming prime mi11i sll' 1 ;1 11d Nick C legg (Lib Dcm) as dcputy prim e
ministcr
2011: Jan Paisley resign ed and was n·rlaced as first minister in Northcrn lreland by
Pctcr Robinson ; thc SNP gaincJ an overa ll majority in tbc Scottish Parliamcnt
with J\l ex Salmond as first ministcr
2012: Olyrnpi c Gam csJ London
2013 : dcspitc austcrity measures, d eficit crisis continue<l ; sorne imrrovcm ent in eco-
nomic growth, manufacturing outputJ un rnploymcnt and huilding works; for-
m cr PM Margaret Thatch er died on 8 April ; Croatia join cd ElJ
2014: widcspread scverc tloods and prnperty damage; substantial victory for thc
Unitc<l Kingdom lndc pcnde nce Party (UKI P) winning 24 scats in thc Euro-
pean Union Parliam ent dcction, with Labour on 20 seats and th c Conservativcs
on 19; th c Lih ·ral D c mncrats lost ali hut one of their sea ts; Commonwcalth
Games hc ld in Glasgow, 23 July-3 J\ugust; Britain bcgan withdrawal of troo r s
frnm Afghanistan; British econo rnic growth co ntinu cd , but budgt.' t dchcit still a
maj or probl c m rcsultin g in austcrity cuts; in th c rcfe re ndum on 1~) S -'ptember
for Srnttish ind cp endence from th e UK, 2)001,926 (55 .30 r c r cent) votcd 'No '
and I JG 17/)89 l44. 70) voted 'Yes'; J\l ex SalmonJ, First Ministcr in Scottish
Parljamc nt rcsigncd ancl was replacecl by Nicola Sturgcon (SNP); f-irst wom an
bishnp of th c Church of England consecrated
2015 : intlation c.Jropped bdow O per cent in Fcbruary, th e low est sincc rernrJs bega n;
surport for d -> ath pe nalty droppcd (March) to hclow 50 p 'r ce nt ( 48 pcr
cent) for th c f.irst tim e since 1983; immigration heaLkd list of main con ccrns
of clcctorat (March) , replacing the NHS; general election (May) rcturncd th c
Conservatives to power with an overa!] majorit.y and D av id Camcron as prim e
mini ste r.
2016: refere ndum on UK's m embership of t.hL' l~U, 23 .Jun e 2016; on a turnout nf
72.2 per cent, 51.9 per cent ( 17,4 1O, 742 voters) votcd to lea ve the EU (Hrexit)
and 48.1 per cent ( 16, 14 l J 241 J voted to rcmain ; r eo pk's helicf in God frll to
hclow 50 p er cent; collapse of NHS forccast with incrcascs in waiting times;
risc in pollution caused by commuters and vchi ·les; ncw forests proposeJ to
restore t.h e co untryside.
2017: gen 'ral election, Thursday 8 .Tun e, rcsultcd in a l1un g Parliam e ntJ whcre no
party haJ an overall majority of st.·ats in the House of Commons (ConscrvativL~
42.4 pcr cent, Labour 40.0 pcr CL' ntJ; Thcrcsa May (Cnnscrvative) continued
as PMJ supported by North ern lrcl and 's DlJP; Articlc 50 triggcrcd British ex it
from the ElJ; crirne statistics and rrison population incrcas ' ; grow th in popu-
larity of wom en 's sport; in crcasl' uF hatc spccch on th e Intern et; net immigra-
tion fa.lis; we ak pound, dl'clinl' in wagcs, drop in hnuschold spc nding and weak
productivityJ but. low u11t·mpluynll'nt; cin ema attcnclan cc grcw; slow progress
in Brexit negotiations lwtw~·vn l JK anJ ElJ· brcakdown of uevolved govern-
rncnt in Northern I rcland ; lsL1111 ist tnrorist attacks in Man chester and central
London, with h eav y l1lss ()1 · lil ~·
2018 : lJK and ElJ nego liatnrs :1gr1'l' :1 tinw lin c on 'i mplcm entation' of 13rex it talks;
Brexit bill passcs tlrniu gh l\11 li :11rn· nt , with promisc of 'mcanjngful say for
MPs' on any <l eal a g 1\ ·nl; ( :l11 ·q111-rs c1hinct surnmit agreernent on plan for
Brex.it; resignation ni" 1 ;1lii11\·t 111 i11i stns; l 4 Novcmbcr UK cabinct approveJ
<lraft Brexit o utli,w d1·;.I 1111 1·11111r1' rL·lations and sc nt to EU for approval;
Chronolo g y o f si g n if i ca nt dates xxvii
.,
--~
JT
D ccc rnbcr, UK Parliament vot es on e.leal and El J m c mbers ratify withdrawal
agree nwnt
-~ º 19: UK is schcdul d to c nd its m crnhership of EU at 1 1 pm on 2~) March ; th en
cn tc rs a transiti on pcriod dcsigned to avoid a 'cliff-edge ' Hrexit. On 14 March
afte r mo nths of in conclu. ivc debates, MPs vote to delay the Rrexit process fo r
3 m o nths o r mo re. 8 April 201 9, th c Brcxit path for th c UK to lea v<.· thc ElJ is
deadl ocked .
l
The British context
Structural change
Contemporary conditions
Exercises
Further reading
Websítes
The Br it ish context
, in citi zcnship have also been introduced in the hope that pupils will lcarn what
, () 11Stitutes British civic culture. T hese efforts at consciou, ness raising may not
.tl ways be successful 1 but politicians arguc that such reforms of th e school cur-
1 i,·ulum do valuably promote debate on national idcntity, and impro ve pupils'
knowlcdgc.
Historical growth
( ;reat Britain, is <livided into England Scotland anJ Walcs an d North crn lrc-
1 1
Lind , harcs thc sccon<l-largcst island with the Rcpublic of Irc land, with which
it has a land bordcr. T his bord ·' r remains a c rucial and divisivc clc mrnt in thc
l JK's att ' rnpt to !cave thc Eurnpean Un ion ( EU).
In prchistory, thcsc areas wc1-c visitnl hy Ol<l, Middlc and N cw Stone Agc
nomads (Palacolithict sorne of whorn sL1ycd pcrrnancntly. From about 600
l3C- AD ] OG6, th c islands expericnccd scttk mcnt and invasion movements from
pcoplc who originated in mainlan<l Europe, such as Celtic groups, Bclgic tribcs,
Romans, Germani · tribes (Anglo-Saxons ), Scandinavians (Vikings) and Nor-
mans. Thc Norman Conquest by Wilham thc Conqucror was a dcfining cvcnt,
which spread Norman control over much of th e islands and fundam entally
influenced the country's ·ocial and political structures.
Convcntional accounts of British history suggcst that dcsccndants of th csc
early immi gra nts over time coll ectively created th e foundations for a multi-
cthnic UK with mixcd idcntities and cultures. Various dcgrccs of interbrccding
bctwccn newcom ers and nativcs produccd furthcr, and oftcn contcstcd, idcnti-
ties. Research publishc<l in Nature in 2015 (see Furth er reading) indi ·ate<l for
examplc that assumc<l majority Celtic areas were more genetically diverse th,m
has been thought, while other groups (sucl1 as Picts and Scots) are thought to
havc bccn isolatcd for ccnturics.
Thc scttlcrs and invaders contributcd bctwccn th c ninth ami twelfth centu-
rics Al to th c building-blocks which gradually establish ed th e scparate nations
of Enghm<l, Waks, Scotland and Ircland ( with England and Scotland gaining
strongcr individual identities by the tenth e -ntury ). Thc countrics cxpcrienceJ
ditfcrent interna] devclopmcnts and political changcs, as wcll as conf-licts with
cach othcr and other countrics, in thcir growth to nationhood. Thcrc are still
diff-c:.~rcnces between th ese peoples and competing allegiances within and among
the four nations.
Th e later developrnent of the islands was grcatly influcnccd first by thc
expansionist, military aims of English monarchs and second by political unions.
Ireland and Walcs had b ccn cffectively under English control since the twelft:h
and thirtcenth centuries respectively. In ] 603, .James VI of ScotlanJ, whosc
mothcr was Mary, Que ' n of Scots, inh erited th e English thron e a · James [ after
th e dcath of Elizabcth I, which dynastically joined Scotland and England.
Movcm ent towards a British state [with its parliamcntary power bas , at West-
minster in London) was ad1i cvcd by political unions bctwccn England, Walcs
and Scotland (Great Brit,iin) in 1707 and b ctwecn Grcat Britain and Ireland
(United Kingdom) in 1HO 1. l 11 1921 , Southern Ireland left the union to become
th e independent Rcpuhli c o l' lrcLrnd while Northcrn lrcland rcmaincd part of
th e United Kingdom .
These historical Jcvclop11H·11ts i11 volwd political deals, manipulation, wars,
constitutional struggks ,1ml n-ligious co n llicts, and resultc<l in th e gradual cre-
ation of a British stalt' ( tlw l ll<). wli ich owcd much to English modcls and
dominance. State struct11n·s, :,-111 ·li ;1-" tlw monarchy, government, the Church,
Parliament and th e law, <ii'll'II d1 ·w l11¡wd slowly and uneve nly, rathcr than by
long-tcrm planne<l cha11g1· :111d tl11·n · v n(' also periods of uph eaval and ideolog-
ical conflict (such as ro v: tli -., t ;11ttl trild h,1ttks, civil wars, nationalist rcvolts by
Th e Br i ti sh c ontext
the Scots, Wclsh an<l lrish against thc English, struggks with Eurnpean pnwcrs,
religious fermcnt, th e Protcstant Rcformation and so ·ial disscnt).
lt might sccm that this British story involvcs a confuscd an<l haphazard
history of oftcn unforescen cvcnts, rathcr than purposcful action. Yt't sorn e
historians havc argucd that Britain has dcvclupcd in a gradualist, cvolutionary
and pragmati c manncr, whcrc co mmon-scnsc changc was accc ptcd if it workc<l.
T his proccss has bee n attributcd to thc suppose<l in sular and co nscrvativc rn cn-
ta liti cs of island peoples, with th c ir preforcnce for traditional habits and institu-
tio ns, ordc rly progrcss and distrust of suelden changc. J\.lthough sorne intlucnccs
have come from abroad during th e long histori ca l process, thc abscncc of any
successful rnilitary invasion of th t' islan<ls since th e Norman Conquest of l 06G
h as allowed England, Scotland, Wales an<l Ireland to develop internally in dis-
tincttve ways, despite freque nt and violent struggles b etween and within thcm.
The social organizations an<l constitutional principles of the British state,
. uch as parliamcntary democracy, govcrnmcnt, the rule of law, economic sys-
tcms, a wdfarc state and varied rcligious faiths, have bccn slowly an<l variously
fo rgcd by disputes, conflict, conqucst, self..interest, consc nsus and compromise.
The Br i tish c o ntext
The structures and philosophies of British l·ivi c statehood have oh:en been imi-
tated by other countries, or exportcd ahroad through the creation of a global
empire from th e sixte nth century and a commercial need to build world mar-
kets for British goods.
The developed British Empire was an cxtension of earlicr English mon-
archs' internal military expansionism within th e islands and in mainland Europe.
rollowing la ter Europcan reversals, they sought raw materials, possessions, tradc
and powcr abroa<l. This colonialism was aidcd by incrcasing military strenhrth
( achieved by successive victories) into the twentieth century. In Britain today,
th ere i: a vigorous debate about colonialism. Sorne critics scc it as a ncgativc,
regrettable stain on B1itish and world history, while others controversially feel
that it may have sorne positive features.
Intcrnally, agricultural and farming rcvolutions in Britain from thc Ncw
Stonc Agc and Anglo-Saxon periods added apprcciably to the country's wealth,
exports, prestige and international trade. It also developed a manufacturing and
financia] bas<\ with connections to Europe and bcyond . It beca me an industrial
and increasingly urbanized ountry from th e late eighteenth century because of
hy a p ' rvasive sensc of Jcclinc. Th esc continu ,J as thc country ente red thc
lwcnty-first century.
Sino.:'. thc Second World War ( l ~)39-45), Britain has had to adjust with dif-
li culty to a withdrawal from cmpi rc, which was inc vitahl e in th c facc of rising
nati onalism and s ,]f-<lctcrm ination in th c colonics; a rcdu ction in world polit-
ical status; global eco nomic rccessions; a rclativc decline in cconomi c powcr;
incrcascd fóre ign compctition; inte rna! social changc; a geopolitical world ordcr
of sup erpowe rs (thc Unitcd Statcs an<l th e Sovi 't Un ion); ncw tcnsion s after
the break-up of th e Soviet Union in th e 1990s, w ith th c USA bccoming thc
dominant force; thc cmcrgcnce of Far Lastnn powcrs such as .lapan, China an<l
India; growing South American cco nomics; a hanging Europe following thc
J ' struction wrought by two world wars; continuing unrest in Eastern Europe,
thc Mi<ldlc an<l Far Last and Africa; and a grudging acknowledgemcnt by th e
British pcople an<l their politicians that thc world had inevitably changed.
Th e nation ha. bcen force<l into a rductant search for a ncw ide ntity and
direction, both internationally and nationally, which, arguably, it has not yet
achieved. While maintaining many of its traditional worldwidc commc rcial,
The Brili sh c ontext
cultural and political links, such as thc inLTl ·asingly criticized 'special re]ation-
ship' with the United States of Amcri ca, il moved from empire and the succcs-
sor Commonwcalth of Nations towards an eco nomic and political commitmcnt
to Europe, mainly through m embership of what is now th e European Union
(EU). But this r lation. hip, in its turn, is also now changing.
In reccnt ccnturi <:s, Britain had rarely seen itse]f as an integral part of
mainland Europc. It has instead sheltered behind th c sea barrier of the English
Channcl and its outlook was wcstwards and wor1dwidc. Th e psychological and
physical isolation from Europc had slowly begun to change, as illustrated by
in crcasc<l cooperation between Britain and other Europcan countrics and by
th c opening (1994) of a Chanm.1 rail tunnel b etwccn England and Fran cc. How-
cvcr, th e rclationship betwccn Britain and Europc ·ontinu \ to be probl ' matic
and ncw associations have been forced by cvcnts and circumstan ccs, rath r than
whol ehcartcdly sought. Scepticism about Europe and th e historical impulses
to national indc pcndence and isolationism still condition m any British pcoplc
in th eir <lcalings with and attitudcs to the outside world, d spite thcir relian c,
on global tra<lc and international relationships. Proposals to lcave thc EU had
in crcased in re c nt years and Prime Minist -'r David Cameron promised a refer-
cndum (vote ) on EU membcrship if the Co nscrvatives won th ' 2015 General
Elcction, which they did. Ncgotiations continuc<l b ctwee n Britain and thc EU
PLATE 1.6 Edward Heath ( 191 6-2005 ) wh o, a s Rri tis h Conservative Prime Minister ( 1970- 7 4)
led Brita in into the then European Eco no rni c; Cornrnunity (now European Unio n) by signing the
EEC Agreement in 1972 . © Publ i P, c:;'.;/S li ull0.1slock
íhe Br i tish context
lt) llowing the 2016 Referendum in which Britain votcd to leave the EU in 2019
;111d th e 2017 triggering of the Lisbon Tre aty'sArticlc 50 to formalize d eparture.
the global debate of the twenty-first ccn tury, from which it cannot iso1ate itse1t~
as it <lid at sorne periods in its earl icr history.
It is 1ike1y that an cxit from thc EU wi1] oblige Britain to increase its global
'free tradc' connections, while prescrving sorne kind of Europcan relationship,
in a<l<lition to defensive and diplomatic alliance ·. Mcanwhile, thc British are still
fundam ··ntally dividcJ over I~uropc and th country's futurc. Rcmainers votcd
in the 2016 rcfer -n<lum to stay within thc EU and most of thcm regard thl
poli result as the most disastrous British politi ·al rnistakc of the past 70 years.
The Lcavcrs ( Br ·xitccrs) scc a futurc of econornic and politi ·al opportunity for
Britain to 'tak' back control' of its own <lcstiny, economicall y an<l politically.
Structural change
It has been traditionally argucd that British historical growth has bccn guidc<l
by pragmatisrn, grad ualisrn, flcxibility, cornrnon sl'nse and cxpcricn ·e of what
works in practicc. Thc cr ation of a way of lif , governrncnt, so ·ial structur s,
cconornic rclationships and law supposedly dcpcnds upon evolution ary adapta-
tion to changing, ofrcn unforeseen, circurnstanc · s.
This gradualist modcl of changc is ofte:.n contrasted to forrnally <levcloped
constitutionali ·m and nation building, by which British historica l growth has
be ·n implementcd by laws passed through statc institutions. In 13ritain, thesc
are not contain~d in any one written constitution with chccks and balances, but
derive frorn many separat sources.
The resulting strncturcs an<l institutions from both rno<lcls have becn con -
ditioned by struggles between social, ·conomic, kgal, religious, constitutional
an<l political argumcnts. Sorne changes wcre abrupt, whilc othcrs occurre<l in
a slower, more pragmatic fas hion. Th ~y have takcn different institutional forms
and izes; operate on national and local lcvels; and shape cultural i<lentitics,
values and attitu<les. Thl' social organization and constitutiona1 principlcs of thc
statc, such as parlianwnt<1ry <lcmocracy, government, the rule of law, economic
systems, a welfare statc and rcligious faiths, havc mostly bcen slowly forgcd
by disputes, conflicts, scll'-intnl'st, conscnsus and compromisc, which continue
today. Sometimcs, howcwr, th c proccss has becn abrupt and accomplished
more quickly.
The major formal institutions, sud1 as Parliamcnt, law and governmcnt, are
concerned with stat<: or puhlil · husi1wss. Thcy initiatc policies in 'top-down' form
so that decisions are 01'tt·11 dl Tidn I hy n ' ntralizcd and multi-lcvcl bodics (whethcr
electcd or appointnl) ;111d tlwn ;1ppl ivd nn low r lcvcls. Sorne of these proccsses
are criticized in Britai11 h<-1 ;1t1...,1 · tlw allcgcdly distancc dccision-makers from the
general public, undl ·1\ 111 ;1l I l 11 111t ;il)ilit y ;rnd rcsult in a '<lcmo ·ratic dcficit'.
British pcopk 1"1l ·q11l ·111l 1011q)L1in that they should be consu1ted more
about institution,il l 11 :111¡•,1·.. , i11 ... lH i<"l y and have a greater voice in local an<l
Th e Brit i sh con text
with and withdrawal from politi cal proccsscs by man y pcopl ~; a distrust of poli-
ticians; and demands that public officials should b e more accountablc. Poll s sug-
gcst that individual citizcns are now unwilling to engage in local and national
;1ffairs, often partly Juc to a fecling that thcir opinions would not be -onsi<lcrcd .
However, J cs pitc an apparcnt withdrawal from politics, thcr ' are still
lcvcls of social activity, such as sports act ivitics, familics, 1 isurc evrn ts, ncigh-
hourhoods, youth culture, faith an<l spccial intcrc st groups, local communifa~s1
cthnic fcllowships an<l habitual ways oF lifr which havc lhcir own particular
val u systcms and organizations. Thcy oh.e n hav' a 'bo ttom-up' form in which
policit's and bchaviour are sai<l to be linkcd closcly to the conccrns of socicty 's
grassroots. Th<.: y may illustratc more lrn:alizcd , informal and Jcmocratic ch ar-
a ·teristics than thc top-<lown mod cl. But th cse communitics, includi ng loca l
gov rnm1..' nt 1 ca n also he Jominat<..'d by group\ which may be in conflict wilh
oth er in<lividuals who obj1..·ct to hcing controllcd by the lcadcrship. This sit-
uatio n may prnvokc disputes, alicnation and a sens1..· of pm crlcssness in th<..'
r xcl u<lcJ groups.
Th · 'British way oF lifc' an<l British i<lcntiti cs are <lctcrmi1wd hy how peo-
ple function within and rcact1 whcthcr positiv ,]y, ncgatiwl y or apathcti ·ally,
to thc two local anJ natinnal structun:s. Thesc are not remole ahslractions1 hut
affcct individuals Jircctly an<l immc<liatcly in thcir Jaily livcs. For cxamplc1 gov-
crnment poli cics impingc upon citii'.cns and lhcir familics; co mmcrci:.il organi-
zatio ns influcn ce choi c ' · in food, musi c1 dothcs and fashion; lhc media may try
to shap c 1wws valucs anJ agendas, or scck more profüs; spnnsorship and advcr-
tising may dete rmine thc naturc of sports, comm 'rct' and lhc media; devolved
govc rnmcnt hodi cs in Scotland, Waks and Northc rn Ircland initiatc polici cs for
thcir own regions; loca l governmcnt throughout th · lJK attcmpts to organizc
and condition communal aclivitics; and community lifr is suhjcct to small-scalc
( and som ' tim es <..'CC<.: ntri -) influcn ccs.
Th<.:sc structural fcatures r ,flecl a range of cultural practiccs on hoth high
and popular c ultural levds in Britain. High cultural forms may often appcal to a
mi nority an<l b e -onncctcd to wealth an<l social rnnccrns, although thc gradual
b lurring of dass barricrs1 ex pandcJ cducation an<l a decline in de fi._~rcncc havc now
op e ncJ thcsc up to widcr participation. Yct popular cultural activities havc always
been prcscnt in British socicty. Th ey havc becom , more numerous and Jiversc
sincc thc l ~)GOs be -ausc of grcater aHlucn -e1 more varied lite opportunities and
new acc ·s. iblc formS¡ su -h as social mc<lia. /\ mass popular culture (reflccted 1 fór
exampk, in sport, tdcvision music and fashion) now influences social patterns
1 1
The numbcr an<l varicty of top-down and bottom-up structures mean that
there are many difte rent and often contlicting 'ways of life ' in rnntl'mporary
The Br i ti sh context
Britain, which contribute to thc pluralistic nature of thc society. Sorne crit-
ics argu e that the main definin g Fcaturcs of British life are a healthy diversity
and ch angc at all levcls. Oth ers m aintain th at these phcnome na, p articularl y
from th e 1960s, have lcd to social fragm entation and anti-soci al b ehaviour; a
w akcned sensc of co mmunity and civic resp onsibility; a d 'cline in nationa11 y
ac epteJ values and idcntities; confusion and un certainty; a trivializcd societ y;
andan in crcascd sens " of person al entitlcm ent and rights. Y t oth ers suggcst that
this cmph asis upon 'pluralism' and 'Jivcrsity' is in accurate. Thcy stress in, tead
no rmativc and traditi onal behaviour patterns or val u s which th ey maintain still
exi t for most pco ple in Britain.
But it is also argued th at nati on al and local b(: haviour in Britain has oftcn
refl ectcd a strong individualistic streak in the British m entality, whi ch vicws
'auth ority' with suspi ·ion and has oftcn led to non confórmity in man y areas
of society. D ebates frequcntly focus on whcthcr th e co untry is an cntreprc-
ncurial, cooperativc or centralizcd state. Thc discussion al so qu cstion s whethe r
traditional notions of community, ngagem e nt and ·ommitmc nt are failin g in
Britain and th c co untry has he ·orne a 'broken socicty' without fi xt d civic or
so ·ial guidelines.
Such argumcnts occurrcd in th e run-up to rccent ge neral elcctions ami
were reflected in th e fi erce carnpaigning of th e 2016 Refcrcndum . Political
commentators argued that key institutions in British society wc rc weakening in
an atmos phere of national in security. The publi c distrustcd hankcrs and finan-
cia] organizations, journalist s and politician. were criticizcd, and cven iconic
f .. atures of modern Bri ta in such as th e BB C an<l thc N ation al Hcalth Serv icc
(NHS) were allegedly in declin e. It was al o argued that thc poor and less afflu-
cnt hav ~ long lived with out hope and the p oliti cal system had not deliver .,. ¿ fór
th em.
Traditionally, it ha. b een assumed that cstablish c<l o rgani za tional and
in stitutional stru cturcs sho uld address su ·h probl ' ms and must adapt to nc w
situations if th e y are to surviv c, and th eir futurc roles may th crcfore b e very
diffe rcnt from th c ir ori gin al fun cti ons. Press ures are consequ ently placed on
th cm to more adc<..juakl y r ·lkct and resp ond to current public worri c, and
concern s. Thc pcrforn1 ,111 ccs oF British nati onal and local in stitutions are vig-
orously debatcd a mi 111 ;111 _ ;m • found wa nting. It is qucstion ed wh cthc r they
are able to cope w itli ;111d n ·lll·l'l tlw nccds of a compl ex contemporary lif ;
whether ( and ho w ) thl · 111 igh L lw rc fn rmed in order t o operat more effi-
cie ntly and respon siw l ; nr wlll'tlwr tlwy are in fact in capable of operating in
today's Britain arnl o!" c lo:-- i11 g tlw g;1p lwtween th c govcrn cd an<l those who
attempt to govc rn .
Such questio11i11 g i:-- li11knl l<1 v,1rin l and gradu alist argume nts about how
thc country should lw t11 ~;; 111i "ll"l l .\ <H·i,tll y, politically and cconomically. It is
oftcn debated wlwth, ·r tlti , .-..t 11il ., 1·: 1H ltin g actua ll y rcsults in appropriate actio n
or merely promok:-- tl i,·i, i\'< ·. l:,, l1i1111 :1hll· and te mporary programmes, whi ch
Th e Bri tis h co n t ext
quickly fail. The inconclusive results of the 201 O anJ 2017 general "lections,
which 1,J to coalition and no-majority gov rnment rcspectively, reflectcd thcse
(loubts and concerns.
Contemporary conditions
Debates about thc statc of conte mporary British so 'iPty an<l its institutions
(ontinue, such as th e propo ' d cxit from the EU (Brexit). Britain today is a
,-o mplcx socicty in which divcrsity and change havc crcated problems as wcll
as a<lvantages. Whilc thc country rnay gív ' a surfacc impression of homoge-
ncous bchaviour, th e rc are <livisions causcd by Factors such as thc dominant
influcncc of London on thc r 'St of th ·' country ( as wdl as its scparatcncss);
the cultural an<l c thnic Jistinctiveness of Walcs, ScotlanJ, Northcrn lrcland
and England; tlt'mands for grcatcr <:1utonomy, Jcmoc racy and ac ·ountahility
in. devolved an<l local govcrnmcnt arcas and lcss ccntralizcd control From
London; disparitics b 'tw ' en afflucnt an<l cconorni cally deprcsscd rcgions
throughout thc country (including thc crimc, dccay an<l social dcprivation
in many inn ' r-city ami rural locations); cultural and cconomic gaps hdwccn
north ami south; política! vari e ty ( rcflcctcd in support for ditlcrcnt política!
parti -'s in dillercnt parts of th e country); continuing Jl,hatcs on thc positions
of womcn, special-intcrcst groups, such as LGBT, rnigrants and minority eth-
ni c communitics; tcnsions hetween national idcntity and cthnicity; dcmands
for individual and collcctivc rights ( with argumcnts about thc m cd for re cip-
roc a! rcsponsibility ); inct¡uality bctvvCl'l1 rich anJ poorJ with a growing undcr-
d ass of disa<lvantagcJ, alicnatcd or rootlc. s pcopk; tl'nsions bl t wccn citics
and countrysidc; and growing gcncrational <liffcrcnccs hctwccn young and old
in ali ethnic groups (associatcJ with thc inncasing longcvity an<l numbcrs of
thc cid 'rly in an agcing soci cty and thc incrcase of mental illncss among tlw
yo ung). Critics arguc that th e traditional gradualist and cvolutionary solutions
to problcms and conccrns do not appcar to b' working. But thcre also sccm to
be no ncw, availablc answcrs.
Such foaturcs illustratc sorne, if not ali, of th " divisions in British socit'ty.
Th ey also suggest a decline in thc traditional defrrcncc to authority, conscnsus
views and support for national institutions such as the monarchy, the profr,s-
sions, schools, churches and Parliamcnt. Britons are now more nonconformist,
multi-ethnic, secular an<l individualisti c than in the past. Opinion polls suggcst
that they havc bccome more aggrcssive, more rebelliousJ more selfish or indi-
vidualistic, lcss tol 'rant, lcss kind, lcss moral, less honest and lcss polite. Their
soci ty is incrcasingly portraycd a. aff-ccte<l by mistrust, coarscne s and cynicism
in which matcrialism, egotism, rclativistic values, cclcbrity worship, pe rsonal
cntitle mcnt, vulgarity, public é'motionalism and sensationalism constilutc ncw
pattcrns of behaviour.
The Brit i sh context
reaction, a. we11 as being a ah:ty v;-tlw aga inst more serious social and politi-
cal disruption . Yet dissension rnay he neutrali zed by th e promise of rcfom1, or
si mply ignored by gov -rnment, politicians and burea ucrats. Adequatc responses
may not com e from th e authorities and th ere is always th e dangcr of more
serú)us confli t, apathy and public alienation as thc gap between the votcrs and
ele -teJ politicians grows.
The British today are confronting diffe rent cultural and ccono mi rcalities
to those in thc past when thcy haJ a defin ed worlJ role a11 d a greater scns<:.· of
national idcntity. Th ey do not have the b enetits of carli er industrial re volutions,
su ch as chcap raw mate rials, chcap labour andan uncompetitivc world mark ' t,
but have moved to a post-industrial cco nom y in which th c servi cc sector anJ
job fl exibility domínate. The society has se e n a declin e in traditional cert ain-
tics and bccom c more mobilc, str 'ssfol and co ntlict-riddc n. Critics argue that
th c olJ, supposedly pragmatic and gradualist mc th ods of innovation , which
arguahly illustratc thc British te n<lency to muddk through <lifliculties with-
out cffective long-term plannin g or fundamental rdt, rm, ar' no longc r suffi-
cicnt for an era in which speciali zcd edu ca tion and training, high-technology
compct 'nce and a nced to respond to intcrnational compctition are thc main
detnrninants.
Critics spec ulated that the years 2010- 17 coulJ b ' diflicult for Britain . 1t
was argued that the co untry's position was un certain b eca use of global ·ompcti-
tion and dom estic p olitical issues. Howcvcr, whil =- th e Eu rozone stagnated, Brit-
ain e me rged relatively strongly from its 2007- 1O recess ion an<l was th e world's
fastcst-growing economy in 2013-14. But thc dfects of thc global c redit crisis
and pcession 011 p eople, business and politics co ntinued into 2018. In Septcm-
bu 2014, Scotland vot d in a referendum against indcpcnJe ncc fro m th c UK .
In 2015 thcre was a general clection in Britain, which was won by thc Conscrva-
tivcs with a small overall majority. In 2017 a rcfcrcn<lum on Britain'. mc rnhcr-
ship of thc EU was he!J, and th e Lcav ~ (Brcxit) side won with a small majority,
as a result of whi ch thc Conse rva ti ve leade r (Davi<l Cameron) re. igned to he
replaccd by Th eresa Ma y. Sh c wrnt for a quick election, lost h er overall majority
and rdied on th e support of the Northcrn Ireland Dcmocratic Unionist Party
(DUP) for political survival.
The terms of exit in 201 ~) frnm the EU are currently b eing debated
between Britain anJ tlw U J. If Brit.1in dncs eventually leavc th e EU, it would
lose its power to shapL' a hlnc th.1t takcs 45 p er cent of its exports and coukl
becom e an isolatcd, sndln, insuLir, ill\ ard-looking country with lcss influenct'
in thc world. Howcwr, it rni ght lln11ri sh .is an indepcndcnt, open, liberal, tra<l-
ing nation 011 glohal 111 ;1rkds, w hil ·li , nu ld boost business, rcstorc <.:.conomi ·
stability and re<lun· tlw 1(lst 1,!' tlw st;1l\'. But therc is mu h ·ce pti cism about
Britain's ability to 01wr;11<- ;1,-, ; 1 .,i 11 ¡J1 · r,l1 ih,d rlaye1~ ablc to main tain its 2017
position as thc world 's lil'tl1 Lir¡•,1 ·., 11 ·11111u111 .
Th e Br iti sh cont e x t
British attitudes towards their lcadcrs and institutions have often bee n ·trnngly
sceptical. For -xample, BritishSucialAtt-itudes: 1988-9 (pp. 121-2) suggcstc<l that:
T his obscrvation ha · lwcom ' more rclcvant in rcccnt ycars as opinion polis
indicatcd increa ing popular Jissatisfaction with politicians anJ authority 1-ig-
ures; sccpti<:ism at thc pcrfúrmanc ·' of institutions and thcir burcaucracics;
and di:engagcml' I1t from politi ·al e ngagcmcnt rdkctcd in low clcction turn-
out and 1-luctuating mcmhtrship of political partics. Thcrc has instcad hlTn a
trenJ towards onlim· política! commcnt, strect protesL anJ dcrnonstrations,
hlogging sites, pctitions, media ·ampaigns and mcmbcrship of singlc-issul' or
spccial-intcrest grnups. Thcsc attitudcs r ,flcct an individualistit·, indcpcndcnl
and disscnting British traJition that has hl'l'll cynical, irrcvcrcnt, critica) and
apathtti c about statc structurcs and powcrful individuals. lnstitutions such as
the monarchy, Parliamcnt, law, th e Church, hanks and l-inancia1 markcts havc
had to carn th ' approval ami support ol' thl· pcoplc, whi -h can also he quickly
taken back. Britain has historically cxpl·rirnced many popular rcvolts and upris-
in gs against thc powcr of thc statc. Most have hcrn short-1ivt'd, hut thc spirit
of rcbclliousncss rcmains. Yl't, central institutions in rcccnt ycars havt intruJcd
Furthcr into pcoplc's livcs, mi cro-managing and ovcrsccing more of thcir livcs,
rccords, work anJ lcisurc.
Opinion polls and n:scarch survcys frcqucntly rcport on aspccts of Brit-
ish lifc which a:ltcct pcoplc on a personal lcvcl an<l are of rnnccrn to thl."m.
T hcy may oftcn givc accuratc pictun-s of what is happcning at tlw grassroots,
although thcy Jo hav , to b ' tr ·atcJ with caution. Public responses may lack
adcquatc anJ accuratc facts, tcnd to <leal with topical rathcr than long-tcrm
·onccrns and can vary within a short pcrioJ of time. In spitc of thcir dcnials,
politicians Jo takc thc rcsults of polls, survcys and tócus groups . criously and
oft '11 rcact to thcm in thcir policymaking.
Sorne carly twcnty-first-century polis rcvcal interesting perspectives ovcr
time. For cxamplc, a YouGov poll in Deccmhcr 2009 (see Table 1.1) reportcd
respondcnts' opinions about many of thc issues discussed in this chaptcr. It
show ·<l how Britons had responded to ~vcnts in the f-irst decade of the
twcnty-tirst ccntury in cultural, cconomic and política] terms. This p eriod saw
Britain movc cconomically from bust to boom befare again suffc ring in the
The Brit i sh con te xt
TABLE 1.1 British attitudes in the first decade of the twenty-first century, 2009
Source: adapted from YouGov for The Sunday Times, london, 27 December 2009
global r cession of 2007- 1 O. Thc dccadc had lcft thc British kcling lcss scrnrc
and lcss trustful of their ka<lers, but also k ss outspokcn bce:1 usc of p )litical
correctncss, p eer pressure, an<l lcgislation on abus ', hatc -rime and 'frccdom o l'
cxpress ion' in contcmporary Britain.
Latcr polls rated othcr common topics ol" concern. For cxamp le, an lpsos
MORI poll covering the pcriod 30 Junc- 1O .July 2()1 7 and including thl' 8
July General Election askcd respondcnts what thcy saw as thc most important
issues/problcms facing Britain (see Tabl e 1.2).
The statc of the National Health Servicc had ovcrtakcn th e EU/Brcxit, imrn i-
gration and the economy a the main cause of pcoplc's conccm. Thcsc ilcms havc
tended to move within small margins of changc in rcccnt polis, with thc top spot
usually going to a ncwly personalized and economic issuc. Thcsc may includc
uncmployment, povcrty and in quality, low pay anJ mínimum wagcs, pc nsions,
social sccurity anJ b t:·1wtits.Tlwy Jcmonstratcd that, although thc UK cconomy was
grnwing in 2014 and 20 15, rnany pc_•opk on low wagcs were not bcnditing from
the national cconorn ic irnprownwnl. Thc issues of pcnsions and social se -urity
()r
h ave advanccJ bl-Cé-1t1st· tlH · diHirnltics facing pcnsion provision in 13ritain, pco-
ple 's fears aboul tlwir li11;111n ·s i11 old ;1gt' and conc rn about an ageing population.
These polls alsu rn 11ti1111 n l ;1 tn ·ml in which th ' National Hcalth S -' rvicc,
cducation (schoo ls) ;11111 1 ri1111' 1l:tw ;111d (1rdcr) have consistently b ccn promincnt
Th e Br i t i sh context 23
.,
A~
;T
. , TABLE 1.2 Most important issues facing Britain today (%), 2017
NHS/Hospitals/Health care 50
Common Market/Brexit/EU/Europe 41
lmmigration/lmmigrants 28
Economy 25
Education 25
Defence/Foreign affairs/Terrorism 19
Housing 19
Poverty /1 nequa lity 17
Crime/Law and order / Anti-social behaviour 14
Ageing population/Social care 14
· Source: odopted from lpsos MORI, 30 June-1 OJuly 2017
',-
·onn rns i.n rcccnt ycars ,rnd rdkct a wi<lcr social pcrspcctivc. 1mmigration has
varil'd in importancc as hav c dcfcncc, forcign affairs and tcrrnrism. Thc in c:rcc1sc
in immi gration in to Britain has hlcomc a vny signiVicant concnn, as has thc tl'r-
rorist thrcat from British Islamists in Britain itsclf Thcsc \Vl'll-puhlicizc<l issucs
incrcasingly rdlcct British socil'ly and are prl'SSurc points whi ch influcncc polit-
i ·al policics c1nJ g(:ncra l clcctions.
Howcvn, thc ahovl poli rcsults suggcst that prcvious primary conccrns
such as dcvolution , tradc unions and strikcs, J\IDS, nuclear wca pons and
<lisarmamcnt, constitution al rcfonn, privatization, puhlic transport, nation-
aliza tion , pctrnl pric<'s an d Fud, local gowrnmcnt, thc cxchangc ratc of thc
pounJ, thc countrysidc, rural li k· anc.l Northnn lrcl ancl had lost soml' immcdi-
acy, although thc EU and thl statc of thc UK currcntly pro vokc ticrcc debate.
Many worrics are 'bread and butter' cconomic issucs, such as housing, wagcs
and prin.'s, whik othcr issucs suc h as morality and individual bchaviour, Jrug
abuse, l'nvironmcntal conccrns an<l pollutinn rdkct soc ial valu<:'s. lmrnigration
an<l tlll' NHS arl' multifacl'tcd co n<-erns, may inclulk personal an<l economic
factors, and are importa nt electoral issucs.
Thc ra nkin gs in o pinion polis do not imply that othcr issucs are unimport-
ant. Sorne polis sh ow a widcr rangc of concerns from thc econorny to nuclear
wcapons and includ' many structural f(.'aturcs or institutions which are of
irnml'<liatc daily conccrn to thc l3ritish public and condition their attitudcs to
thcir soc idy. T'h cy co lk ctivcly sugg 'st a picture of conternporary Britain and
its worri<'S. They also allow commcntato rs to ran ge widely in their opinions of
Britain from thosc w hi ch indicate a cou ntry in terminal decline to others that
suggcst more positiw outrnrnes, ckspi tc the problems of a society which is
attcmpting to cor ' with pr ' ·sures.
Thc British Social Attitudes Survey (BSA), 2017 examincd scvna l diffcrcnt
pcrspcctivcs on contemporary British society. These opinions trnd to :illl'r ll1l'ir
The British contex t
emphasis over time, but the protagoni sls rcrnain constant. Leftist responde nts
(48 pcr cent) wcre willing to pay highn tax<.:'S for increased public spcnding on
hcalth (83 per cent), education (71 pcr ce nt), wclfar~ benefüs anJ the policc
(57 pcr cent), anJ supported govcrnmcnt plan s to crcat new job.. Forty-two
p "r ·cnt supportc<l an increased r distribution of wcalth from th e rich to the
poor (28 p r cent disagre d) .
However~ 53 per cent of conservativc-inclin cJ rcspondents said that th 'Y
favoured holding terror suspccts ind ·nnitcly without trial and 70 per cent sup-
portcd stronge r . top an<l search powers for thc polin. But attitu<lcs towarJs
same-scx rclation ships wcrc more liberal and rclaxc<l with 64 pcr ce nt of
respondents b licving that th csc are acccptabl ". Scventy-sevcn per C' nt of
rcspondents fc lt that a pcrso n with a painful incurable disease should b legally
entitled to ask that a doctor cn<l th eir life (rathc r than fa cing thc threat of crim-
inal ·hargcs) and attitudes towar<ls disabled claimants had also bcco mc more
liberal. Th ese vi ws \vcrc taken against thc background of a country wh ich was
dividcd socially anJ politically following thc 2016 refcrc ndum vote, th c 2017
genera l election and thc Brexit ncgotiations.
Exercises
Briefly define and examine the following terms, commenting on their
significance in British life :
What are your opinion s about British society? Support your views with
examples .
T h e Br i t is h co ntext
Further reading
Addi son, P. (201 O) No Turning Back: The Peacetime Revolutions of Post-War Britain,
Oxford : Oxford University Press
2 Annual Abstractof Statistics, London : Office for National Stati stics and Palgrave Macmillan
3 Bernstein, G.L. (2004) The Myth of Decline: The Rise of Britain since 1945, London :
Pimlico
4 Block, J. (2004) Britain since the Seventies: Politics and Society in the Consumer Age,
London : Reaktion Books
5 Burk, K. (ed .) (2009) The British Is/es since 1945, O xford : Oxford University Press
6 Clarke, P. (2004) Hope and Glory: Britain 1900-2000, London : Penguin Books
7 Colley, L. (2014) Acts of Un ion and Disunion : What has Held the UK Together - and What
is Dividing lt?, London : Profile Books
8 Curtice, J. , Bryson, C. and Park, A. (annual) British Social Attitudes, London : NATCEN
Social Research
9 English, R. and Kenny, M . (eds) ( 1999) Rethinking British Decline, London : Macmillan
1O Ferguson, N . (2004) Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World, London : Penguin
Books
11 Goodhart, D. (2017) The Road to Somewhere : The Populist Revolt and the Future of Poli-
tics, London: C. Hurst and Co . Publishers
12 Halsey, A.H . and Webb, J. (2000) Twentieth-Century British Social Trends, London :
Palgrave/Macmillan
13 Jones, O . (2012) Chavs : The Demonization of the Working Class, London : Verso
14 Leslie, S. (lead author) 'The fine-sea le genetic structure of the British population' , Nature,
19 March 2015, vol. 519, 309-314
15 Lynch , M . (2008) Britain 1945- 2007, London : Hodder Education
16 Marwick, A. (2003) British Society since 1945, London : Pelican Books
17 Office for National Statistics, ONS (annual) Social Trends , London : Polgrave M acmi llan
The Brit i s h context
Websites
Central Office of lnformation : www.coi .gov.uk
Prime Minister's Office : www.number-1O.gov.uk
British Tourist Authority : www.visitbritain .com
British Council : www.mori .com/polls/l 999 /britcoun .shtml
The MORI Organization: www.mori .com
Office for National Statistics: www.ons.gov.uk
The National Archives : www.nationalarchives .gov.uk
Website of UK Government: www.direct.gov.uk
lpsos MORI polis : www.ipsos-mori .com
Guardian newspaper: www.guardian .co .uk
State of the Union, 2013 : www.britishfuture .org
YouGov poli surveys : https://yougov.co .uk
Populus polling organization : www.populus .co .uk
2
The country
■ G cographical idcntiti cs
■ Energy resources
■ Attitu<les to th c cnvironment
■ Exercises
■ Further reading
■ Websites
The country
This chaptcr cxamin ·s th' physical fcaturc. ol' th c UK; gcographical iJcntiti cs;
thc products that are dcrivcd from th e land and th c seas through agri cultur ',
f-ishcrics and forests; and encrgy rcsourccs. Such activitics havc involvcd thc
inte nsivc use of thc lan<l an<l th ' dcvclopmcnt of transport, industry, commu-
nications an<l cornmern.' over th ' e nturi s, with signiticantly ncgativc rcsult.s
for the cnvironmcnt.
Thc Oepartment for th c Environmcnt, Foo<l an<l Rural J\ffoirs (Dcfra)
is responsibl e for agriculture, fish e ri es, cnvironmcntal protcction and rural
communiti s in thc UK. It <l vdops land policy and rcgulations, although its
performanc ' <loes attract criticism. [t coopcratcs with thc Scottish Govcrn-
mcnt an<l the National Ass -mblics of Walcs and Northcrn ln: land, which havc
sorne devolved cnvironmental r 'Sponsibilitics for their own countric.. Euro-
pean Union (EU) and UN polici es have also inHu 'nccd British rural an<l urban
lan<lsca pes.
Geographical identities
Thc country's titlc for constitutional and politi cal purposc.s is thc Unitcd King-
<lom of Grcat Britain anJ North rn Ireland (the UK or Hritain lt)r short). Britain
rnmprises a numhcr of islands lying off thc north-wcst coast of co ntinental
Europc, which are often known geographically (if inaccuratcly For sorne pcopk
on politi ·al grounds) as th e British Islcs. The mainlan<l of EnglanJ, Srntland and
Wal es fom1s the largest island with th e political titl ' of C,rcat Britain. North e rn
lreland sharcs thc second-largest island with thc Rcpublic of IrclanJ, whi ch
has b -en politically indep ende nt sincc 1921. Small ·r islands, such as J\nglcscy,
thc Islc ofWight1 Orkneys, Shctlands, H ebrides an<l Scillics, a1T also part of thc
British political un ion .
However, thc Islc of Man in thc lrish Sea and thc Channcl IslanJs off thc
north coast of Francc are not part of tlw UK. They ach have th c ir own idcntitics,
legal systems, legi.slatun·s ,11H.I :1dministrativc structurcs and are sclf-govcrning
Crown DcpcnJcncics which havc ;1 historical rclationship with thc British
Crown. But thc British guwrn nwnt is rcsponsible f<Jr thcir dcfcn cc anJ forcign
relations and ca n int1 ·rw1w il' good ;1drninistration is not maintain cd.
Many p eoplc in Brit.;1i11 111;1y id1 ·11til"y thcmselves at onc leve! with th 'civic
national unit and rcspu11d l11 ;1s1· 11s1· ni' Britishness1 although this fccling appcar.s
to be weakening. ( )11 ; 1 .,111;ill1·1 11· 1·1 111' gcographical i<lentification, thc pcopks
The country
() FScotlan<l, Wales, England and Northern lreland havc historically been con-
scious of thcir separa te ethnic i<lentiti<:.s. Such awarcness has increased in Scot-
land, Walcs an<l ( arguably) Northcrn lreland since the transfer of sorne política]
powcr from thc London Parliam e nt ( 1998-9) by the establishment oF a Par-
liam cnt in E<linburgh an<l J\ssemblics in Cardiff and Bclfast. England was not
in duc.kd in this J ' volution proccss, savc for London, although thc r +orm see ms
lo havc provokcd a grcatcr awarcness among sorne English pcoplc of thcir scp-
~1rat i<lcntity.
Britain has somctimcs bccn divi<lcd into gcographic 'regions'. Th ese are a ·
11 ay rdkct a srccitic idcntity, although opinions diffcr on how strong this is.
I{ gions are not thc samc as mo<lern local govcrnmcnt structurcs (s '<.:' Chap-
k r 5) and are largcr. Thcy havc snved as assi.stancc and dcvclopmt nt ureas;
~n vicc locations for gas, water and l'kctricity supplic. ; oras cconomic rlanning
rcgions. Following dcvolution 1 Scotlan<l, Walcs ami Northcrn lrcland bccamc
-.;c ]f-governing 'national' units rathcr than 'rcgion.s' and ninc rcgions Wl'rt creatcd
in E ngland whü:h took thc form of Regional Dl'vclopmcnt J\grncics ( RDJ\s).
1
less mobile. Although new local govnnrncnt authoriti es (such as unitary struc-
tures) have replaced sorne old city anJ co unty labels, these former geographica l
identities oftcn pcrsist for people living in th eir areas, and may gain strcngth in
th e futurc.
Physical features
Historically, Britain's physical Fcaturcs havc intlucnccJ human scttlcm c nt,
p opul ation rno ve rn e nts, rnilitary conqucst and rolitical union . Th cy havc also
condition ed th e lo -ation and cx ploitation of industry, transport systc rn s, agri-
culturc, füherics, ·[órcstry and c nergy suppli cs. ToJ ay thcy are ticd to conccrns
about th e e nvironm e nt, pollution, climatc changc and food products. Sorne
havc bccn affccted by UK gove rnm e nt and l~U poli -ics on agricultun.', lishcrics
and ca rbon cmissi ons. Sincc m any Britons li vc in c.knscly populatcJ arcas, thcy
are intlue nced by thesc issues and th e activiti cs of publi c and privatc bodi cs in
rclation to th c cnvironmcnt.
In rcccnt ycars, thc countrysidc has bccornc a fi l' tTC rolitical iss uc. Rural
rcsidc nts, campaign groups such as thc Countrysidc /\lli ancc, con sl'rvationists
an J farmcrs feel ncglcctcd by the UK gov ·rnmrnt and loca l politicians. Thcy
obj ect to th c destruction an<l pollution of thc physical cnvironmcnt; thc co n-
crcting of rural land for house building, airports and roads; th c dcncase in rural
scrviccs such as public transport, shops, p ost ofliccs, loca l hospitals an<l pubs;
and thc poli cies of central and local govcrn m cnt planncr , and propcrty spcc u-
lators. Historicall y, there has b ee n a tension b ctwccn urhan and rural culturcs.
Sorne peopl e are averse to rural lifc, w hilc many fccl a traditiona l (if roman-
ticize<l) nostalgia and identity for it, and sorne ten million pcoplc live in rural
arcas.
Britain's geographical position is markcd by latitu<lc 49º N in southcrn
England, latitude 61 ºN across th e Sh etlands and longitudc ~) º W to 2º E. lt lics
within 12º of latitudc and has a small an d co mpact sizc whcn comparcd with
oth er major European countrics. Yct it also possesses a grcat divcrsity of physi-
cal features, which m ay surprisc thos(' visitors who ex pc -t a mainly urban éln<l
industrialized co untry. Thc rnany hc:a uty spots and rccrc:ation arcas, such as
th c 15 National Parks in En gland (lik(' th c Lake Distri ct) , Walcs (Snnwdonia)
and Scotland (th c Ca irn gnrrns), ~ind nthn areas of natural bcauty ar<: rclativcly
acccssible.
Britain's ph ys it ·al ;in ·; 1 rn ns q4,c;z.~ sq uare miles (244,820 se.¡ km) . Most
is land, with tht· rcst tº<l111pri si11 g inLind water such as lakcs and rivers. England
has 50,337 squarT 111ih ( l:W) 7l ~q km), Wales h as 8,018 (20J67), Scotl and
has 30,415 (78, 77c; ) ;111d N() 1t li1 ·111 1i-1 ·Lrnd has 5,45 2 (14,120). Accordin g to
thc 2011 C ensus, 1:.n1•,l:t 11d 11 :H I tlw hi ggt·st popul ation (53 .0 million or 84 .1
T he co untry
pn cent), with Scotland 5.3 m (8.3 pcr cent), Waks 3.1 m (4.8 per cent) and
Northcrn lreland ] .8 m (2.8 per cent) in a UK total of 63 m. The. e figures
pa rtly -=-xplain the English dominance in British history and the various altitudes
o!" Scotland, lrcland and Walcs towards thcir neighbour.
Thc distancc from thc south coast of England to th e most northcrly tip of
tlw Scottish mainland is 600 miles U)SS km), and th e English cast coast and
t he Wclsh west coast are 300 miles (483 km) apart. Thcsc rclativcly small dis-
lél nccs havc aidcJ thc dcvelopment of politic:al un ion anJ communications and
1 ontributcd to largcly standardizcd social, cc:onomic and institutional norms
throughout Britain. ílut, prior to tht cightccnth c:cntury, thnc wcrc considcr-
;1hlc ohstacks to this progrcss, such as Jift-icult terrain, inadcquatc transporta-
tion , local customs anJ political contlict.
Britain 's physical charac:tcristics, such as thc Giant's Causcway and J\ntrim
rnasl of Northcrn f rcland, thc CliHs of Dovcr in southcrn EnglanJ, thc Highlands
of Scotland and thl' Wclsh valkys and mountains, are a sourcc of idcntilication
lt)f many pcopk. Thcsc result From a long gcological ami dimatic history. Earth
mowmcnts forccd mountains to risc from thc scabcd to i-,xm thc oldest parts
nf Britain. Warmer, suh-tropical pcrinds rcsultcd in largc swamp forcsts which
1:ovcrcd lowland i'.rnws. Tlwse wcr ' thcn burieJ by sanJ, soil and mud, and tlw
lc)r 'sts' fossil rcmains hccamc coal dcposits. L:itcr, tlw di mate altl'rnatcd bctwccn
wa rmth and J\rctic tcm¡x raturcs. During th e lattcr kc Agcs, glacicrs moved
southwards ovcr thc islands, kaving only southcrn England frcl' from tlwir cfkcts.
Highland arl·as wcrc slowly worn away by w 'atlwring agcnts such as wind,
ice and water. This proccss roundcd off thc mountain pcaks and moved wastc
rn atcrials into lowland z01ws, whnc thcy wc1-c prcsscJ into ncw rocks and
whc rc tlw sccncry lwcarrn: softcr anJ lcss foldcd. Thc gcological anJ Wt'athcr-
in g changcs shapcd vallcys anJ plains anJ diclalcJ thc siting of Britain's major
riv r., such as thc Clydc in Scotland; the Tyne, Trcnt, Scvcrn an<l Thamcs in
England and Walcs; and thc Bann and Lagan in Nortlwrn IrclanJ.
Natural lt)rccs havc also affcctcd thc coastlíncs as seas havc moved back-
wards and forwards OVl r timl'. Parts of thc (oastal ar ' ª havc cithcr sunk unJcr
the sea or riscn abovc il. Thcs' proccsst.'S continul' today and are now also intlu-
cnced by climatc changc, particularly on the English cast and south coasts. Cco-
logi -al tilting from north to south, rising sea lcvcls and crosion hav ' rcsultcd
in thc loss of land, houscs an<l farms, while th ' sca's retrcat has crcatcd ' ither
-halk anJ limcstone uplands or sand and pebblc b 'achcs along sorne coasts.
Britain was originally part of thc European mainland. But thc mclting of
th' glacicrs in thc last Ice J\g ' raiscJ se a levels. Th e country was scparated
from thc contincnt by th ' North Sea at its widcst, and by the English Chan-
ncl at its narrowcst, points. Thc shortcst stretch of water betwcen the two
land masscs is the Strait of Dovcr bctween Dover in southern England and
C ala is in Francc (21 miles, 34 km). Thc north-cast coast of North e rn Ireland
is sc paratcJ from Scotland by thc North Channel, which is 13 miles /21 km
wiJc at its narrowest point.
The country
Shetland
lslands
o 100 km
o 100 miles
Do
0 o
~ º Orkney
\:5 ° lslands
Hebrides c:¡j
V
G
o
Aberdeen
NORTH
Dundee
SEA
• Edinburgh
Glasgow (
,,,, ... '
,
• Newcastle
York
Bradford •
lsle of Man • • Leeds
IRISH Liverp ol M~nchester
SEA • Sheffiel
{l Dublin Anglese \, Nottingham
.
.
\
I h Olsle of
p ymout Wight
000
lsles ENGLISH CHANNEL
of Scilly
Channel {J 0
lslands
FRANCE
ATLANTIC OCEAN
There are many bays, inl -ts, peninsulas and estuarics a1ong the coasts, and
most places in Britain are less than 75 miles (120 km) from sorne kind of tidal
water. Tidal surges on th e coasts and in inland rivers (in addition to hcavy rain-
Fall) can ca use scrious flooding in man y parts of th e country, as in South-West
England in 2013- 14. Local and national authoriti s, such as the Environment
Agcncy, must choosc betwcen losing lanJ to the sea through managed r ·tr -at
plans or provi<ling substantial financc to construct dcfcnccs against this threat.
For exa mplc, a London flood barrier was complet -d in 1984 across thc river
Thamcs an<l th c r are proposals for more protcction of thc capital, including a
new barrier. rlooding has b ecom e more fn.::qu cnt sine" 2007 and affccts many
low-lying inland arcas throughout thc co untry, with peoplc suffcring propcrty
and financia] los,, such as th e English south anJ cast coasts anJ inland a reas of
south-west and south-east England. Cribes arguc that govl. rnm c nt authorities
havc not providcd adequatc national flood plans, adaptcJ to climatc changc, or
reactc<l quickly cnough to frcqucnt tlooding cvcnts.
PLATE 2.1The White Cliffs of Dover, southern England, coastal cliff erosion . © David
Lomax/Shutterstock
The countr y
The coastal seas are not deep and are often less than 300 feet (90 metres)
beca use they lie on the Continental Shel~ or raised seabed adjacent to the main-
land. The warm North Atlantic C urrent (Gulf Stream) hea ts the sea and airas it
travels from the Atlantic Ocean across the Shelf This gives the country a more
temperate climate than would otherwise be the case, given its northerly posi-
tion, although t here are fears that a m elting of the Arctic ice packs may upset
this balance and result in raised sea levels. The Gulf Stream also influences the
coastal fish breeding grounds, on which the national Gshing industry is co nsid-
erably dependent.
Britain's physical relief is divided into highland and lowland Brilain (see
Figure 2.2). The hi ghesl grou nd lies in the north an<l west. Most of the lowland
zones, cxcept for the Scotlish Lowlands and central Northern lreland, are in the
south and east of the co untry, wh ere only a few points rea ch 1,000 feet (305 m)
above sea level.
~ e, 0100km
r;;¿b L__J
~Q O lOOmiles
)}
, vl
Q Be
D ~S
2
~
I
londs
\.\
Cheviot Hills
~ North Yorkshire
8 Mo
R. TR The
Broods
·, R. SEVERN
Cotswolds
r Chiltern
\,____/ HiII s
R. THAMES North ?,owns
/ p , ! ~ ~ : : ~ o u t h Downs
~ Q
FIGURE 2.2
Highland and
1 North-West Highlonds 4 Sperrin Mountoins 8 Pennines
lowland Britain 2 Central Highlonds 5 Antrim Mountoins 9 Peak District
(with ma in (Grampions) 6 M ourne Mountoins 1O Welsh Mossif (Combrions)
rivers) 3 Southern Uplonds 7 Cumbrion Mountoins
The countr y
Thc north and west consist of older, harder rocks cr<::.ated by ancicnt
carth movern ents, whi h are g n e rally unsuitable for cultivation. The south
and cast comprise younger, softcr matcrials forrned by wcathering processcs1
whi h have producc<l f rtik soils and good agricultural conditions. Much of
t h e lowland an. a, cxccpt for urban an<l industrial regions1 is cultivatcd an<l
farm c<l. It consists larg<. ly of ticl<ls which ar dividcd by fcnc.Ts or hcdgcs.
1
England
England covcrs two-thirds of Grcat Britain. lt consists mainly of undulating
or tlat lowland countrysidc, with high land arcas in thc north anJ south-wcst.
Eastcrn England has thc low-lying tlat lancL· of thc Norfólk Broads, thc Cam-
hridgcshirc and Linrnlnshir' Fcns and thl' Sull<.)lk Marshes. Low hill rangcs
strt'tch ovcr much of thc country, such as th<.· North Yorkshi,-c Moors, tht Cots-
wolds, thc Kcnt .md Susscx Downs ami thc Chiltcrn Hills.
Highland zoncs are mark ·d by tht· Cheviot l lills (hctween England and
S ·otland) ; thl· north-wcstern mountain rcgion of the Lakc District and th<.'
C umhrian Mountains, whcre thc highcst peak in England is Scah.'11 Pikc (3,20~)
PLATE 2.2 Scafell Pike, highest mountain in Eng land at 978 m/ 3,209 ft, National
Park, Cumbria , Eng land . Courtesy of Headley Thorne
The c ountry
feet, 978 m etres); the north 'rn pL1tt-au hdt of th e Pennines forming a back-
bone acro s north-west England; tlw l\·ak District of D rbyshire at thc southcrn
n ~ach es of th e Pennin es; and thc south-wcstern plat au of D<:> von and Cornwall.
Th · hc aviest population concrntrations centre on thc largest (historically
industrial and manufacturing) towns and cities, such as Lon<lon and in south-
east En gland generally; th e West Midlands rcgion aroun<l Birmingham; th c
Yorkshir ' citics of Lccds, Bradford and Sh effi "ld; thc north-wcstcrn arca around
Livcrpool anJ Man chcster; and thc north-east region ·omprising Ncwcastlc and
Sund ·rlanJ.
Wales
Waks is a highlanJ ·ountry, with moorland platcau, hills anJ rnountains, which
are oftcn intcrsp -rs -d hy d ' cp river valkys. This upland mass contains tlw Cam-
hrian Mountains ami Jcscc nJs castwards into Englan<l . Thc higlwst mountains
are in thc National Park ar'ª of Snowdonia in th ' north-wcst, whcrc thc domi-
nant peak is that of Snowdon (3,5(,0 fcct, ·1,085 m etn.'s ).
Lowland í',oncs are rcstri ctcd to thc narrow coastal bclts anJ lowcr parts ol'
thc rivcr valkys in south Walcs, whcrc two-thirds of thc Wclsh population liw.
Thc chicf urban conn-ntrations of pcopk anJ industry are around th e biggc r
southcrn citics, such as th c capital CardiH; Swansca and Ncwrorl. In th ' past,
th c highland naturc of Waks hindcrc<l conqucst, agriculturc anJ thc sc ttkmcnt
of r corlc.
of Glasgow; and the regional e<..'n tres of Aherdccn ( an oíl industry city') and
Dundcc. Thc climate, isolation and harsh physical conditi ons in much of Scot-
land havc madc conquest, settlement and agriculture diHicult.
Northern lreland
North ern Irdand sharcs an i. land with the Rcpublic of lrcland an<l since 1~2 1
has had a 303-mile (488-km) hor<ler in th e south an<l wcst with th e Rep uhli c,
which h a. fcature<l stro ngly in recc nt Brcx it ncgotiations. lt has a north- 'astern
tip which is only 13 mil es (21 km) from tlw Scottish coast, a fact that has
cncouragcd hoth lrish and Scottish migration ovcr thc ccnturics.
North crn Ircland has a rocky north 'rn coastlinc , a so uth-ccntral f ,rtik
plain ancl mountainous arcas in the west, north-cast and south-cast. Th c south-
eastern Mourn c Mountains in clude the high cst peak, Slicvc Donard, which is
2,7% frct high (853 mctrcs). Lough Neagh (153 se¡ mil es, 396 sq km) is Brit-
ain's largcst frcshwatcr lakc and líes at th t· centre of thc co untry.
Most of th e largc town s, like th e capital Bclhist, are situatcd in vallcys
which lead from the lough. Bdfast lies at the mouth of the rivcr Lagan and
PLATE 2.5 The Giant's Causeway in Antrim on the northern coast of Northern lreland was
created 60 million years ago when a field of volcanic lava cooled and formed hexagona l
b locks of basa lt. © Eye Ubiqu ito us/Shutterstock
The cou ntry
Climate
The influential Mct ·-orological (Mct) Ofti . _, is th e wcathcr and climatc ~hange
fo recast 'r fór thc UK anJ surrounding arcas. Thc rc1ative small1wss of th e coun-
t ry an<l thc influenc ' S of a warm sea (fr<l hy thc Gulf Stream which originates
in th e Gulf of Mcxico) an<l wcstcrly winds mean that thcrc are no frcqu ~nt
extrem e contrasts in tcmpcraturc throughout Britain. The dimate is tc mper-
atc, with gcncrally warm summcrs and cool, somc-timcs col<l wintcrs. J\ltitudc
modihcs tcmpcratures, so that much of Scotland and hi ghlan<l arcas of Walcs
and Englan<l arl' cool in summ -r and colc..l in wintcr. Tcmpe raturcs are lowcr in
th e north than th , south an<l national avt ragc tcmpcraturcs rarcly rcac h 35º C
(9 5º F) in thc summcr or fall bclow - 1 1ºC ( 12º F) in thc winlcr. Nationall y, thc
col<lL'St months are Dcccmbcr, .lanuary and Fcbruary and thc warmcst are .luly
and J\ugust. Rain gl'llcrally falls throughout th ' y -ar with varying fon.T, and thc
wcathcr can changc vcry quickly.
J\crnr<ling to thc Mct O -Hice, the warmcst ycars in thc lJK sincc l HGl havc
ali occ urre<l alter 2002 and most nF thc wcttest ycars havc hccn in thc pcrioJ
fro m 2000. Thcsc hgures suggcst h)r , oml' critics thc dh.cts of human-madc
global warming from ca rbon cmissions ratbcr than natural changc. Sorne rcccnt
·ummcrs havc h aJ rccorJ high tcmpcraturcs and n.'<.T nl wintns havl' also had
col<l rwrio<ls with vcry low tL·mpcraturcs, togcthcr with vcry stormy wcathcr.
201 O was thc warmL'St ycar sin cc ofl-ici al rccor<ls bcga n anJ 1.1º C ( 1.98º F)
ahow tlw long-tcrm avcragL'. On thc othcr hand, 200~)- l O was thc cokk st win-
tcr in 30 ycars in many arcas with tl'mp ' ralur<.'S continuously bclow Oº C and
th c hcav icst snow falls in a ge ncration. lt was also th c fourth W('ttcst sincc thc
, ta rt of the twe nticth ccntury. What sccms to b ' happ c ning is that Britain now
cxpcricnn.'s hi ghcr tl'mperaturc avcragcs with occasional hcat wavcs ami vcry
cold pcriods (201 H). Anothcr variable fca lurc in rcccnt ycars has hccn the Jet
Strcam which has oh:en moved south in its passage from thc J\tl antic ovcr th c
British ]sic, in summcr months, rcsulting in cold, wct an<l stormy wcathcr. lf it
passl's to thc north 1 it oftcn brings Jry and warm co nditions, but occasionally,
hot, humiJ air anJ thun<lcrstorms.
Thc main factors afkcting rainfall in Britain are J cprcssion s (low prcs-
·u1-c arcas ) which trav --1 castwards acrnss the Atlantic Occan; prcvailing south-
wcsterly winds throughout much of thc ycar; exposur ~ of western coa, ts to th e
Atlantic Occan; anJ th c fact that most high ground lies in thc west. The h caviest
annual rainfalls are in th e wcst and north (a 60 inchcs, 11 600 millimetres aver-
age), with an autumn or wintcr maxirnum . Th western high ground prot cts the
lowlands of thc south and east, so that annual rainfall herc is mo<lerate (30 inchcs,
800 mm\ although h eavy rain can now appear anywhere in thc country
The country
Agriculture
Soils vary in quality frnrn tht' thin , ponr on s of highlanJ Britain to the rich,
fcrtilc land of low-1 in g ;in•as in l\ tstnn and outhcrn England. Th c climate
usually allows a long, prndul"t iw grow ing sea. on without extremes of weath c r.
The country
But farm ·rs can som times havc probkms be au e of droughts or too much
rain an<l too Httl sunshine at ripcning and harv st times.
Britain's long agricultura! history indudes a series of farming r volutions
from Ncolithic times. Today, thcrc are sorne 212,000 farrn holdings, ranging
fro m small units to hugc husin css conccrn, and two-third, an.: own T-oc -upied .
They use ahout 6~) pcr cent of th c total land area to produc ' sorne GO per cent
of the country's foo<l r ·quir ·mcnts, which mcans that Britain is vcry depen-
J nt on imports. Thcrc is conccrn that farmland is h eing incr ' asingly used for
building and rccreational purposcs, rathn than d v loping more farms. Sorne
476, 000 pcopk ( l .5 pcr cent of the tot·1I workforc·) are cngagc<l in Farming as
full-time, part-timc and casual workcrs. lts shan.· of the Cross Domestic Product
(G DP) is an cstimatc<l 0.62 pn cent. Although cxports are important, Britain
imports sorne 40 pcr n nt of its food re4uin:' IT1l nts, largcly lx-causc of scasonal
de mand for food unohtainahk in Hritain.
Many farrns in S(:otland, Northcrn lrcland, Waks anJ northcrn an<l
south-wcstcrn Englan<l specializc in dairy larming, lwcf cattlc and slwep. Sorne
farms in castl'rn and northnn England and Northcrn Irdand corH:cntratc on pig
proJuction. Poultry rncat and egg inJustri cs are wiJcsprcad with int( nsivc 'fac-
tory farming' (c.g. cwwdcd indoor raising of chickcns for cggs and mcat) . Most
of thc othcr forrns in southl.·rn and castnn l~nglanJ é.lnd in castcrn Scotland grow
arah k nops StKh as whcat, harley, oats, potatrn s, oilsccd rape and sugar hect.
Horticultura] produ cts such as applcs, hcrrics and tlowcrs are also widcly grown.
Agriculturc is still a signilicant inJustry anJ intncst group. It is prnductivc,
intensiw, mccl1anii'.cd ami spccialized. But, alter a prolitahl<' pcriod in thc carly
1990s, forming has cxpl."ricnccd a diffirnlt p<.'riod dm' to the h igh val uc of the
poun<l, a dcneasc in cxports, a Fall in form produn.' priccs an<l a scril.'.· of discascs
sm·h as BSE (bovine spongiform l.'nccphalopathy) in cows ( 1~)~)(.,), its link to C.JD
(Crl.·utzkldt-.lakob discasc) in humans, swim· fr,vcr an<l foot and mouth Ji scasc
(_2001 ). Animals wctT lost, inrnme was rcduccd, ,rnd many farmcrs ldt thc in<lus-
try or turncd their land to non-farming activities. Sorne agriculture is prolitablc
but small farmcrs have diflicultit·s in making a living, Jcspit<.' govcrnmcnt an<l
Fonner ElJ subsidies. It is 'Stimall.'d that British farrncrs will suffcr as a rt'sult ol"
Brcxil, although tlw govcrnmrnt is iinancially rnmmittcd to support Farming.
Th Common Agricultura! Policy ( AP) of thl. Europcan lJnion ( ElJ),
whi ·h accounts for 43 pcr cent of thc EU's hudgct, had bcn c- lit ,d British farm-
"rs Jespitc much criticism. íts original protcctionist aims w re to incrcast' pro-
dudivity anJ cffic.:i 'ncy; stabilizc thc markct; cnsurc regular supplics of food;
givc farmcrs reasonabk rcwards for thcir lahour and produce by providing thcm
w ith subsidies; set mínimum gu·U"antccd pric ' · for food product through price
su.pport; and standardizc th · quality and sizc of produce.
Britain will kavc thc CAP when il l. xits th EU. As yet, there is no fully
functional rcplaccm ·nt heyond general govcrnment statements and promises.
ShoulJ thcre be no rcplace m e nt for CAP, British farmers fcar that they could
Th e c ountry
go out of business. This woulJ cn:atc prohl ' ffi. for Br itish consumcrs of agri-
cultura] products and thc cxp o rt mark l't of British goods abroad may also be
affect c<l. It rcm ains to be seen wh eth cr farmers are able to grow pro<lu cc al a
pri ce th e consume r is prcparcd to pay, and still m ak ' a protit. /\ltcrnativc form s
of food su ch as ge neti call y m odificd lGM) crops and orga nic farmin g h avc not
hee n cmbraccJ by fa rmcrs or the m arket .
l3ritish governme nts and farmcrs argued that th c ori gin al C /\P was
unwicld y, costly for consum 'rs, burcaucrati c, restri cti vc fo r proJu cers, opl'n to
fraud and kd to surplus food . They m aintain that British fa rming aftc r Brcx it
should rdl ect th e n ·'cds of th c m arkct; mcet consumcr.' dc mands; safcgua rd
divl'fsity; guara ntcc suppl y o f food products; and c mph asizc bcttcr land m an-
age mcnt . Th re is a nccd fo r halanced rural dcvclopm c nt, more targ ' tc<l aid For
yo ung fa rm crs, and e nvironmc ntall y fri -ndl y fa rmin g p racti c 'S. /\ssistin g vul1wr-
abl c fa rm husin esscs is important an<l parti cul arl y sin cc incomc lcvcls in much
of British farmin g ar lowcr than in oth n Sl:'Ctors of thc e ·on orn y. Environmc n-
tal protl' ·tion, compctition , a market-o ri c ntation, <.: uts in ovcr-production , f'ood
saf<'ty a nd animal h calth are strcssed .
Th crc has bccn puhlic dis4ui et about th c us' of gc neti ca ll y modil1cd
(GM) crops to incrcasc yiclds. MORI F·sca n: h in Fcbru ary 2003 fo unJ th at
56 p ' r cent of rcspo ndc nts w ' H .' opposed and onl y 14 ¡wr ce nt surrortcJ C.M )
although in 201 O th e Labour government dccidcd to cx r ,rn<l th c ex p crim c nt.
Dcspitc puhli c sccpti ·ism, sorne British far mns and roliti ·ians aJvocat d th c
use of GM ·rops as animal h:cd . It is gcncrall y agrc ,d th at GM reduces pcsti-
cidc u.· ·, incrcases cro p yicl<ls and profits, anc.1 such GM use has ri scn outsidc
Europc. In tcrms of othn foodstufts, th c succcss oF orga ni c: fa rmin g in Britain
has be ' 11 small , largely 6 "ca u, e of the cost of such goods anJ confusio n ahout
th ir qu ality and b e nd it.
Th e r ' i.· continuing fri ction in Britain betwccn fa rmcrs) supc rm ark ·ts a nJ
tó oJ p roJuccrs. An NOP pol1 in 2001 rcp ortcd th at 82 p c r cent of rcspon<lcnts
favour -'d a rcturn to traditional farmin g m cthods, cvc n if thi s mcant paying
more for fo od. A Good l lousekeeping m agazin e poli in /\ugust 2001 also ·f ound
th at onl y one in six p eopl e trust sup crmarkct food; an<l although ~)7 pcr crnt
of resp ondents purch ased m ost of th eir food from supcrm arkcts, co nn<lcncc in
thcm h as decreased . Concern is also raised ahout tl aws in thc rcgulati o n and
safc ty chccks of Britain's cornplicatc<l food industry and produ ction c:h ain. Th c
supcrmarkets do provid a scrvic for h.)od consum crs, but it is alkgcd th at th ·y
takc advantage of th eir buying powns over farm ers, which ca n cause disputes
b ctwccn retail ers and supplic rs, as wdl as higher pri ccs for consumcrs.
Fisheries
Britain ranks · 'wnth :1n10ng h1rort·'s k adin g fishing nations anJ opera tes in
th c North Sea, thc lrish St·:1 :llld tlw /\tl antic. The tishing industry is signiilc:ant
The c ountry
l'or th ' national cconomy and is centre<l on ports aroun<l the coasts. Thc most
impo rtant tish catch cs ar cod 1 ha<ldock 1 whiting1 h e rrin g1 m ack 'r -11 plaice and
so k which are caught by th c G, 191 (2016) registered vess<.'ls of thc fishing
flcct, which h as b cc n rc<lucc<l in size in recent years. Sorne fish, such as cod an<l
ha ddock, h avc bcc n <lc pktc<l b ecausc of overfishing1 thc thrcat from climate
l·hangc anJ a risc in sea tcmpcraturcs. But th e tish-farming industry (salmon.1
trout and shclH-ish) is a largc and cxpandin g busincss1 particularly in Srntl and .
Employmcnt in an<l in comc from fishing h avc bccn dcclining for sorne
yeaL. This has bcc n du c to changcs in fish brcc<ling pattcrn, , a rcd uction in fish
stocks1 co mpctition and thc polici cs of thc British govcrnmcnt ami European
Union . Fishcrs h aw lost thcir johs and tishing town s on tlw English anJ Sco ttish
coasts havc sulh. ·rc<\ but thc industry still accounts for 6 () p<::r cent of 13ritain 's
1-ish rnnsumption. Th c1T are ahout I I , 757 ·fishcrm cn (201 G), with sorne two
jobs in assoc iatcd on: upations (sud1 as lish proccssing) for cv ·ry o ne -fi ·h erm an.
Thc industry h aJ hccn afh.·ctcd by th c ElJ 's Co mmon Fishcrics Poli cy (C FP)
and British govcrnmc11t rulcs1 which limitcd fi shcrmt·n 's frccdom of" opcration.
The rn.·cd to conserve lish rc·sourccs ami pr 'Vt' llt overfi shing was strcsscd . Zoncs
we n.' created in which -fishcrmcn ma y opl:' ratc and quot;-1 systl'ms orcratcd
insi<lc· a11d l1l'yond thc· zoncs to rl'strict lish catchcs. Mcasurc·s to limit thc tinw
lishing Vl'ssds srcnd at sea and to dccom mi ss ion ( takc out ol' opcration) iishing
boa ts havc furthn rl'strictl'd c·mplo ynwnt an<l tlw hshing lll'ct. Fislwrnwn Wl'JT
critica! ahout Britis h gowrnmcnt a11d EU poli cic\ th c ir loss of liwlihood 1 and
what tlwy saw as ahusc·s of thc 4uota sysll'm by largL' fühing husin csscs own cd
by multinational rnnccrns which lanJ 1-ish, caught i11 British ZOIH.'\ outsi<lc Brit-
ai n. Yct without lish co nscrva tion and strictn rcgulation , th c rc w ill he rc<lucc·d
supp li cs in futurl' .
Thc· C FP has bcl'n criti c izc·d for poor mana gl' J11l'nt and la ilun· to rrcvcnt
dw indlin g fish stocks. lt was argul'd th at thc policy shoulJ crn ph as izc· cnviron-
m ' ntal sustainahility of thl' sl'as; movc thl' man ,1gcnwnt of fi slwri cs from an EU
levcl ton gional and local arcas; and cnsurc that the sizl' of thc ElJ lll'ct matchl's
t hc ava ilahk t-ish stocks. It was argucd that signilicant changcs wcn' nccdcd to
av oid thl' furthcr declin e of thc British fishing in<lustry.
In thc cvc nt, thc C FP was rartially rcformcJ in 2014 with a ban on tlw
disca r<ls poli cy (throwing h ca lthy tish h ack into thc sea to comply with quo-
tas ). Thcn.' was a commitml'nt to fishing at sustainabk kwls and dcccntralizcd
dcc ision-making. lJK fishcrm c n argucd that thl' rcforms n cc<lcJ to be put into
pral'ticc 4uickly, togcthl'r with a ban on <.kstructivc mcthods of-fishing by large
trawkrs.
Britain will k avc the ElJ and thc C FP aft -r Brcxit, although there have
bcc n fcw govcrnm e nt deta ils abo ut what will rcplace the CFP. Sorne 13ritish
f-ish crs arg uc th at cx it will rcstorc Britain 's fishing grounds1 give them m ore
frecdom of opcration and inc rcase thcir protits. But others foresec a return to
ovcrfishing and tishing wars between British and EU fi sh e rs. Such wars may
The co un t ry
negatively affect l3ritish catches and linanccs as EU fishers protect th eir own
fishing righ ts.
Forestry
Woodlands cover ,c.J 3.17 million hectares (roughly 8,900 quatT miles or 23,000
sq uare kilomctres ) of Britain in 2018 and comprise l O pcr cent of England, 1~)
pcr cent of S ·otland, 15 per cent of Wales and 8 per ce nt of Northern lreland.
Thcse figures rep r "scnt 13 pcr cent of thc total UK lan 1 area anJ amount to
a doubling of trees sin -e 194 7, yct Britain is still th e lcast forcsted country
in Europe, whcrc th c average is 35 pcr cent. Som ' 40 pcr cent of pro<luc-
tivc national for<:'sts are managcJ hy statc Forcstry Commissions or govern-
mcnt J cpartmc nts anJ GO per cent by prívate owncrs. J\hout 40,000 pcopk are
c mployc<l in tht' ·tat' and privatc forcstry inJustri cs and l 0,000 are cngagcd in
timbcr proccss ing.
Howcver, thcsc activitics contribute only 1O p ' r cent to the nation al nrn-
sumption of wood and asso ·iatcd timher matcrials, such as papcr prn<lu ction,
which mcans th at thc country is dcpc ndc nt upon wood imporls. Thc govern-
ment has e:> ncouragcd tnT planting prngrammcs in Scotland, Wak s, the English
Midlands and Northumbcrland, and allowed th " sale of statc woo<lLmJs to prí-
vate owncrs in ordcr to reduo. publi c expcnditure and to in creasc produ ·tivity.
Ncw plantings, ·c.mtrollcd fdling, expansion of timbn industries and a pro-fit-
ahlc priva te sector may re<luc' Britain 's dcpl n<lc ncc u pon imports and hL ndit
thc e nvironment. Th 'governmcnt wants to in cn:'.asc England's forcsts hy 15 pcr
cent of thc land area by 2000.
Forestry policy is supposcd to takc conscrvation Factors into account in
th c devdo pment of timber faciliti s. Such aims are nol always nwt and th crc
is disquiet about government programme ·. Environmcntalisls L·ampaign against
thc de. truction of woodlands for road building and airport ex pansion , advocatc
more fast-growth trcc planting to combat carhon c missions and try to prcsnvc
th e quality of the existing woodlands. Thcs<:' in r . . ce nt years have b e ' 11 badly
affected by disease from fungí, parasites an<l p ests, unrcasonablc klling anJ
storm damage in 1987, 1990 and the 2000s. Th crc was scrious storm <lamagc in
October 2013 which r sulted in fallen trees, pow r cuts, traftic e haos, destruc-
tion of property, dca ths and cco nomi c loss.
Energy resources
Primary en ergy sounTs in tlw l JK :1rv oil, gas, nuclear power, hy<lro-powcr, coal
and other rencw,1hlt-s. Tlw rnost important secondary source ge ne ratcd from
th cse is electricil . Ahll11I 2(Hl,(HHl ¡work work in cnergy production; thrcc of
Britain's largcst rn111p ;111i( ·s (Slwll, BP ami British Gas) are in this sector; and
The country 45
t.h nergy industries ac ountcd for 2.9 per cent of GDP in 2017 as part of th c
industry and manufacturing scctors. Most energy companies are privatized, but
th en: is criticism about th cir scrvices, regulation and prices, esp ' ·ially thosc
supplying gas and elcctri c ity for reside ntial heating. There are also problcms
with cncrgy sources and conccrns about pollution and environme ntal damage
arising from th cir cxploitation.
Elcctri c ity was produccd in 2016 by various powe r stations and hydro-
clectric locations from coa! (~) per cent), gas ( 42 pcr e ' nt), nuclear powcr (14
¡,er ce nt) anJ rrncwablc cncrgy 5.5 pcr ce nt. Most ckctricity dcmand comes
h·om c ncrgy in<lustry use (_8 ¡,cr Cl'nt), industry (2~) pcr ce nt), transport ( 1 pcr
cent), rcsidcntial (33 pcr cent) and othcr uscrs (29 pc r cent). This d c mand is
cstimat ,d to in crc ase hy 50 pc r cent ovc r thc nl'x t 20-40 ycars.
Sincc 1 ~)80, Britain haJ produccd most of its own c nngy nccds. This was
<lue to thc growth in off-shor · oil an<l gas supplics, which madc a crucial contri-
bution to thc c·conomy and to thc balan ce of paymc nts through thc cx port of
crudc oil , oil products and gas. Multinalion al companies opcratcd undc r gov-
ernmcnt !icen T and cxlractcd th cse (now dcdining) Fucls from th c North Sea
and Atlantic ticlds.
Howev<. r, hccausc of high extra clion ratl's, su¡,plics oF tril and gas will
dccrease in thc twc nty-tirst c:c ntury ami th 'fC' is alrcady a J cpcndcncc on
impo rtl'd gas and oil from Europe and globally. Tlw dcVl'lo¡,m c nl of' cx isting
rcso urces and th c scarch for altcrnative forrns oF cncrgy are nucial for Britain
and its l conomy. More dchate is nccdL·d é-lbout thc roles of' coal and nuclear
powc r and rcscarch is rcquircd 1nto re,wwahlc c nc rgy such as biomass, sola,~
wi nd, wavc and tidal pown.
Coa! has dcclinLd as an c nergy rc·sourct·, and thcre ar<' ohjcction s to its
use on pollution grounds. Aft.cr a rcduction in tlw workforcc and tlw closurc
of uncconomi c pits in tlw 1980s, thc rnal induslry vvas privatizcd. But mal is
cxpcnsivc and thcr ' is a la ·k ol" dcmand From hig consumcrs, such as powl'r
stations, whi c:h use gas, oil and chea p coa! imports. Thcrc havc heen more pit
closurcs and the futurc of" coa! is un -crtain . Ck·ancr coal-hurning power stations
might be altcrnativcs, but ca pturing thcir carhon ·missions is cx pcnsivc. Yct
mon:· fossil-hurning power stations may have to he built in thc n ' xt 15 ycars to
rnct t Britain 's · lcctri city nccds.
Thc latt:st sourcc of potcntial energy in th c UK has hecn thc discovcry of
gas and oil shak r ·serves within un<l crground formations in th c north crn, ce n-
tral and southcrn arcas of th country. Oil and gas is rccovcrcd through a 'frack-
ing' process, which blasts th c shalc dc posits and allows them to b e hrought to
thc surfocc. It is cstimatcd th at shalc resources co ul<l be consid rabie, profit-
abk and contributc to Britain's ncc<l for more cncrgy. But protesters campaign
against such mining on hcalth , safc ty and c nvironmental grounds. Comparcd
w ith North Amcrica, thc shal e geology of thc UK is more complex and rccovcry
more Jifticult. Thc government has concludcd that the environme ntal ri. ks of
The coun t ry
ATLANTIC
OIL
FIELDS
NORTH SEA
OILAND
GAS FIELDS
100 km
100 miles
FIGURE 2 .3 English regions (4-12), devolved oreas ( 1-3) and energy sources
shale exploration are sm all and m anagea ble, and allowed controlled drilling in
December 2012 . But th e r we re latc r underground earthqu akes in sorne ar as
and frackin g has heen suspl nclecl.
The exp ansio n of nud e,ir powe r (partially privatized in 1996) to sa tisíy
energy needs h as bce n un ccrLii n ,rnd suhject to conflicting plans and opinions,
although the Lahou r govt•rnnwnt in 2005 indicated that it wanted to replace
The country
agcing reactors and bujld more nuclear stations to cope with global warming,
a decr ' ase in oil and gas supplics and obligabons to reduce carbon emissions.
1-lowevcr, expansion was halt ~d beca use of government un ccrtainty about
nuclear <:.nergy and publi - oppo. ition to nucl ear facilities; thc dang r of radio-
~ictive leaks; th e r 'proccs. ing of nuclear waste at the Thorp and Sellatiel<l p]ants
in north-wcst England; and the dumping of radioactive waste at sea.
According to thc UK Encrgy Rcs -' arch C ntre (UKERC) in 2013, attitudes
in Britain to nu ·kar powcr ha<l b ccome more positivc in rect.nt ycars with
32 p cr cent supporting it an<l 29 pcr cent opposing, with fcwc r pcoplc want-
in g to scc nuclear powcr phascd out or shut down (40 pcr cent). Tlwrc is a
sub ·tantia] leve] of public concern ovcr thc storag ~ of ra<lioactive wastc an<l
nuclear accidcnts, but worrics over nuckar powcr in Britain havc droppc<l to
4 7 pc r cent and th e numhcr of pcoplc who agrcc that thc be n +its of nuclear
rowcr outwcigh thc risks has incrcascd to 37 pc r cent. Howcvcr, although thc
la test nuclear powc r station at Hinklcy Point, in Somcrsct, is bcing built, tht'lT
ar ' saft.'ty and hnancia] Ji·Hicultics assoc:iatcd with its rnnstruction. Mcanwhik
rlans for a ncw nuclear powcr station in Cumbria havc hccn scrappcJ aftcr thc
.lapan <: sc Toshiba company wound up thc UK unit hchind thc prnjcct. This was
a blow to thc British govcrnmcnt's plans for a lll'w nudl'ar and cncrgy poli cy,
which woukl havc gcncratcd sorne 7 pcr cent of UK ckctricity
PLATE 2.6 Nuclear fue! and waste from Britain and other countries are controversially repro-
cessed at Sellafield, Cumbria, England , so that they can be used again or safely stored .
© Graham Barclay /BWP Med ia/Getty lmages
The country
Transport an<l communications are dividcd between thc public and private
scctors of the economy, and most formcr state busin esses havc bccn privat-
ized. Railways, roads, shipping and civil aviation providc thc country's transport
systcm. British Telecom, tdecommunications companies, thc privatizc<l Royal
Mail (2014), prívate postal dclivcry firms and thc publi c Post Off-ice supply
most communications nccds.
Transport
Central state agencies and local government are rcsponsible for diHerent types
of road in the road network. Motorways and trunk roads are th e large: st ele-
ments, carry most of the passenger traffic and hcavy goo<ls vchiclcs and are con-
troll ed by the Highways Agency, and smaller roads are the responsihility of local
government. Yet many roads are in poor condition (potholes may frcquently
develop following bad wintc r weather, for examplc_), do not mect the top safety
ratings and are unablc lo handk thc number of vehicles on thcm, resulting in
The country 49
.,
A~
_:T
.
1;rilain having th e h eaviest road traffic co ngestion in Europe. Expansion 1 mod-
, ·rn ization and repair of roads are environmentally damaging1 expensive1 often
, , ,ntroversial and usually inadequate to m eet th e estimated future number of
\"\' hieles. Whil e govcrnments have atte mpted to cut th e de mand for road space
.,mi to p ersuade drive rs to adopt alte rnative m cthods of transport1 more road
1111i lding is h eing ca rri cd out to sati sfy infrastructurc nee<ls and traflic flows .
1 ll)Wever1 tinan cial aid f'ór roads may be nefit from a major upgra<ling of thc
1.1ilway nctwork to supply raíl conn ections for north ' rn English citic5i following
, 1,11troversial proposals for a High Speed 2 ( HS2) routc from Lon<lon to the
111, rth via Birmingh am and th c construction of Crossrail in Lon<lon.
According to th c O 'partment forTransport thnc w ' IT 3~).4 million liu' nscd
,·, ·hieles on th c road in Great Britain in 2018 1 of whi ch th ' largc majority wcrc
¡1riva te ca rs. N cw registrations by vchicle typc werc cars (32.5 m), light vans
(·l.1 m) 1 motorcyclt's (l.4 m), h eavy goo<ls vchi c ks (HGVs) (525,000), busl's
.111d coa h es (164,000) ami oth er vchicks (776,000) . Car transport is most pop-
1d ;1r and acco unts for sorne 85 pcr ce nt of passL'nge r mikagl', whik husL'S ami
, 1 ,;ichcs only take about 0.4 pcr cent an<l thcir numhcr has falkn sinn· 200S.
D es pite Britain 's ve ry high roa<l <ll'nsity, it <loes haw a 1Tlativl'ly good sali..- ty
1n ·ord in which road acci<lcnts an<l cas ualtics havc dt-c1-casL·d ovt·r tinll', hut
.11l ' now in nl'asing qui ckly again. J\ttl'mpts to c urh acc iLknts, nrngcslion and
·.¡wcding by introJudng more road taxcs, sati..'ty modiii c 1tions cm H( ;v.., ami
·.¡w ,J camnas to control aggrl'ssivl' drive rs arl' co ntrovnsial and ar(' opposl.'d
li\' rnotorists. Dcspitc thc intro<luction ol" more cyc k lc11ws, road nrnditions l<.>r
, yl: lists are inadt·quatc, are hl'low comparahk EurnpL',111 slandards, ami l~1tal
.1, t ide nts hctwccn drive rs anJ cycli sts havc hcnrn1 c morL' frL·quvnt. MorL' polín·
.1, t ion is hL·ing ta kt·n against drivers who tcx t a nd phon · ,1l th L' wlll'v l a mi who
, 111 not use scat hdts, and hight' r iincs arl' lwing imposl'd for dangcrous molor-
,,-;1y driv ing.
Prívate road haulage h as a domin ,111l position in thc movt·rr1t·nl ol' inland
l1c·ight . HGVs have hccomc mu c h largL·r ami an-ounl for tlw grl'atc'r part of
1 l1is m arkct. Campaigncrs havl' long argucd li.)r th c transkr ol" road hatdagL' lo
1 lw railwa ys anJ thc inland watcrways ( ca nals). But thl' walcrways, organií'.l'd
l,y t hc puhl icl y owneJ ílritish Watnways in Scotland and tlw charitahll' Ca 1d
.111d RiverTrust in England anJ Waks are USL'd only for a small amounl of Fn ·ight
l 1:rnsportation beca use of cost, although th L'Y are popular li.lr rcncational pur-
l'llSCS. Thc use of rail fn·ight, howcvcr, is innl'asing l<.>r hulk comrnoditit·s.
Puh li c bus serv iccs have <lcclincd, particularly in rural arcas, lwc,1t1sc.- ol"
1 lw increascd cost of providing th c scrv icL·s anJ passc ngc r uptakc, whi ch has
,·-" press ·oach se rvi ccs, such as National Express, which are ch eaper than the
The coun t ry
PLATE 2.7 An updated model (2012) of the popu lar Rou temaster double-decker bus, travels
along Piccadilly post Green Park, London . © A lan Moore/ A lamy Stock Photo
railways, hut bus servi< es gcncrally in Britain ar<.' undcrFumkd and inadcquatc
for potential d c mand . Thcrc is a lac:k of cornpl'tition and insuHicicnt rcgulation
of th e bus industry and its suhsidy structurl.
The world 's first puhlic passcngcr stcam railway opcncd in I H25 lwtwcrn
Stockton an<l Darlington in north-cast England. /\ft.cr ·100 ycélrs ol" privall' opn-
ation, th e railways beca mc statc-owncd in 1947, hcror ' bcing privati:t.cd ag~lin in
] 997. One company (Nctwork Rail) now owns th c railway lincs ami sonw st,1tinns
while th e trains are owned hy 27 privatc regional companil'S (such as Virgin East
Coast, Virgin West Coast, Stagecoach, National Express, Arriva and East Midlands
Trains), which fr qucntly changc naml'S or c.:casc opcration. Thc gowmnwnt suh-
sidizes anJ ultimately co ntrols thc railways. Thc.rc are frcqucnt ca lls for tl1l' railway
system to be renationali zed an<l constant criticism of its privatizt·d performance.
Rail scrvices acco unt for so rne 5 pc r ce nt of all passcngcr mikagc ami nn1-
sist of a fast intercity nctwork, linking all th c main British crntrcs; local trnins
which supply regional n eeds; and commutl r scrviccs in an<l around tlw largl'
areas of population, particularly London an<l south-cast England. lncrcascd
clcctrification oflincs an<l th e introduction of <licsc l trains such as thl' 1ntl' r-C ity
125s trave1ling ata maximum spe d of 125 mph (201 km/h), have improvcd
rail journcys. Howcvcr, such speeds and facilities are still inkrior to thosc in
othe r countri cs and currcnt railway tracks in Britain do not pcrmit th c grcatcr
sp eeds available to n ew er trains.
T he country 51
.,
A~
;.T
Many railway lin es and trains are ol<l and need replacing, and privatization
has not sol ved prohlcms of tinancing and lac k of adequate servi c s. A number
1l fatal -rash es in rcc ~nt ycars and th e resulting rcpair oflargc s ~ction s of track
·aused chaos in th e railway nctwork and drew attention to th e shortcomings
()f the syst e m. Th e situation has slowly rcturncd to normal; passe nge r totals are
rap idly incrcasing; ncwcr trains are bcing introdu cc<l on W cst and East Coast
scrvi ·es; and therl' are controvcrsial plans ( HS2) fnr thl' construction of fast-
train railways on routl's from London via Birmingham to thc north. But thcn' is
still much criticism about thl' pcrformann.> s of thl' raíl compani cs, farc incrl'ascs,
nvercrowding, train conditions, dclays, unpunctuality, inadcquatc staffing kvds
;md poor scrvin~s.
Similar complaints are maLk about tlw Londnn lJndcrground sys tc m ( thc
Tuh e ), which cowrs 2S4 miks ( 40H km) ol' railw;1y linc in thL' ca pital, ami has
he .n partly rrivatizl'd . lt is argucd that tlw inadcquatt· statt· of Britain 's railways
is duc to unckrl'unding, at a tim e ol' ilH.TL'asing dcrn ;111d, with cx pc nditurc· a nd
statc suhsidi cs hc ing hc low Europcan é1vnagL'S, dcspilc prolits for thc railway
1:ompanil's. But a largL' projc..-ct, Crossrail, is building 21 km of nl'w tunnels
un<lcr n :ntn:il l .ondon linking tuhc st;.1tions in tlw Wl'St a11d l'é:ISt, which should
great ly lwrwlit travcl withi11 l.ondon and onward co n1H.-ctions to anJ from othcr
ra rts ol' thc..· country. But tlw com rktion date hc1s hl'l 'll pus lwd hack lwc:au sc or
construction dcla ys.
Thc Channd 'fonnd, originc1ll y run h y a 1:rcm·h/British privatL· compa11 y,
Euro tu111wl , opt·1wd in 1~)q4 unJc..·r thl' E11glish ( ' ha111wl with two tcrrninals,
l·olkcstonc ( near Dowr) and Co4ul'lk·s ( 1war C 1Liis), lwing 31 n1iks ( 50 km)
ap art. lt is now rna11agcd ;111J opc rntl'd hy ;1 puhli c co mpany, Gctlink (2007),
hascJ in l\.,ris. lt was nw;mt to improvl· p:,ssl·ngn a nd l'n·ight rail travel twtwt'l'l1
Britain and 111;1inland Eurnpc..· ;111d has takl'll husincss l'rrnn sea/frrry scrvices. lt
providt·s a drivc-on , driw-oll shuttll' scrvin· lc.)r l·;1rs, co;1dws and frcight vchi-
cle, ;:inJ also <'ams rt 'VL'IHH' l'rom ra~scngcr tr~1ins (su c h as Eurostar) from thc
re novatcd (2007) St Paneras lnt<'rnational St;1tion in l .011don. A high-specd mil
cornwdion (1 IS 1) hctwcc n /\shllm.l st;1tion in Kl'nl a11d London has hel'n com-
pl ' tl'd and it is plann cd to hring donwstil· trains l'ron1 tlw rL·st of Britain into th c
Euro¡w a n huh ,1t St Paneras. Tlw C han,wl Tunn<'I snvin·s arl' rd atiwly cHic icnt,
although scrious hrca kdowns ,111d dcL1 ys on : urrcd in thc wintl'r of 200~). But
thcrc ar¡wars to haw hn·n littlc disc uss io n ahout tlw ownnship and usa gl' of
the Tunncl élh:cr Brcx it, in cluding tlw possihility o!' horder chcc ks.
Tlwrc are ovcr 300 sea¡wrts in Brit;iin , hut most a1T small con c ·rns. Thc
b iggcr ports, su ch as C lydc, l.c ith, Dovn, lrnrningham , I Iull, Grimshy, South-
ampton, Fclixstowe ami .,anlil{ snvi n· mnst of thc tradl' and passenger travcl
r "quircnwnts. Th c shipping tkl't has d cdin cd sin cc its peak ye ar of 19 75, with
thc cargo markct now dominatcd hy a sm;1ll numhn of large private sector
groups and contain e r rorts. Yct ~)5 pcr cent of Brita in 's ove rseas trade (.by value)
is carried by sea and until recently UK rorts h andkd a greate r weight of gnods
The coun try
than any o ther in Europe. Although m ost p assenger ports havc b ee n privatize d
and passcnger milcage has b een re duccd, th e Port of Dovcr is E urop 's busi-
cst ferry p o rt. Cargo and passenger traffic may d ecline furthcr due to p ot e n-
ti al competition with th e Channel Tunnel and aviation . Thc n egativ ~ cffect of
Brexit upo n all th cse activiti es could b e very serious.
According to thc Civil Aviation Authority (CM) statistics, Britain's civ il
aviation system acco unted for 288 million p assengers in 2017 and is now wholly
in the privatc sector followin g th e privatizatio n of th e form c r statc-o wn <: d air-
line, British Airways, in 1987 . The re are oth er carricrs, such as Virgin Atlantic
anJ A cr Lingus, whi c h run schedul ed an<l chartcr passengcr servi ccs on d om es-
tic and intc rnational routes, as w cll as air frc ight serviccs. Passcngcr mileag, has
increascd dramatically since 2007 and thcrc has al so h ce n signif-i -ant growth in
low-cost airlin cs, such as casyJ et, FlyBc and Ryanair ( l:.urop<.> 's largcst airlin c in
tcrms of passcnge rs carricd), whi ch compete with th e cstablish ed cani e rs. Ali
are controll cd by thc Civil Aviation Authority (CA/\), a n indep nd cnt, par-
tially privatizcd body which regulates th e in<lustry and air traffic co ntrol. NJ\TS
is th e air traffic control organization whi ch supe rvi ses aircraft movem c nts in
UK airspacc and the East ern North Atlanti c from two ce ntres in HampshirL',
England and Prestwick in Scotland. Brexit could h avc a se rious po tc ntial dh·ct
upon landings and takc-offs by British aircraft through o ut Europ anJ possibl y
furth er aficld .
There are 142 lice nsed civil aerodrom es in ílritain , o f varying size. H c ath-
row and Gatwick J\irports o utside London are th (.' largcst and husicst in t c rms
of aircraft mowmcnts. Thcsc airpo rts, t ogcth c r with Stan stc<l in south-c ast
England and Clasgo w, Edinhurgh anJ Abe rd e n in ScotlanJ hanJlc th e major-
ity of air p asse11gl' r tr;il'lic ;rnd 84 pc r e ' nt of air cargo movc m l' nts. Many oF th<..·
regional airporls, sud1 ;1s l .ut n n, M anch est cr, Liverpool , Birmingham, Bclfast,
N ew castl e, L1st M idb11ds ;1nd l .tTd s Bradford, are controllcd hy local author-
ities and pro vidt· tllt' n 1u11try's n ·111 ;1ining p assenger an<l cargo nccd s. Thc y arl'
increasing tlwir tr;11'1it·, ;111d I rn111wtitin11 lc)r passengers anJ frc ight is fi ero:- at ali
airports. Airporl 1';1t iliti t'-' ;111d l111 si1H ·sst·s m ay also fa ce considerable compli ca -
tions aftcr Bn·:-;il .
It is argw ·ti t li ;1t n ¡1;111 -' i1111 1,!' 1·\ ist i11 g a irports (partic ul arly region al fa c il-
ities) and thc p rn i-' i1111 1d 111' \V 11111 ·., \\' ill lw ne ~cssary ifBritain is to cope with
crowdcd airport -', i111 11 ·:1, 1·11 11111., 111111·1 dl· t11 é111d and competiti on from Europc,
should Brcx it ;1ll() w ., 11111 1l1·v1· l1 1¡11111'1il . Tl wsl' p rojects are also vc ry cx pe nsivc,
controversia! ;111d l'n ·q111 ·11tl \' 11¡1¡ 1 11w1 I 111 1 1·11 vironmental reaso ns b cca use of thc
constructio11 Wl 11 k. 111 1i, 1·. 1ll1 1I11111111 .111 , 1 t 1;11°1i t· t hcy would invo lve. Th e re is also
disquiet ahout ¡il:t1H · 11111 ¡•_1 ·•, 111111 111 11 11' ·, ki1 ·., nvc r Britain and carbon cmi ssions
from airc ral't. < ::111q 1. 1i ¡ ,11l'1 •, ¡11 , it c··, 1 .1¡•,. 111 1·, I llw co nstruction ofn c w runwa ys at
0
airports (sud1 ; 1., 111 ·:11111 1•\\'). l1·111·.il 11 ·111 111 ·. cd . t·:-; istin g runways and building of
ncw airports.
The country
Communications
Communications systcms in Britain are still Jividl'd hetwccn thc puhlic and
privatt sc<.:tors, hut th 'form 'f dccrcascJ consi<lcrahly in thc twcntieth <Tntury.
Thc main surrlicrs today are prívate tdccornmunications cornpanil's such as
British Tckcom (BT), thc now-privatizcd Royal Mail ami thc ruhlic Post Ofhn.' .
Tckcornmunications is <me of thc most compctitivc and r,1pidly c.:xpanding
scctors oF thc economy. British Tclccorn (BT) was originally in public owncr-
ship, hut was privatizc<l in l ~)84, has sorne 71 per cent of rnarkl't sharc and
pnwidcs dorncstíc anJ international tckphonc, hroadhand ami tckcommuni-
cations systcms, with 20 rnillion domcstíc and 8 .5 million husi1wss suhscrihcrs.
Tlwrc was rnuch criticism of BT's pt'rforrnancc aftcr privati:.-,.ation . J\lthough
sorne scrviCl' prohlcms wcr' solvcd, and it hccurn<.· an inHw' ntial world l'orcT, it
has again cxpnicnccd prohkms with its l'xpansion, tcchnical programnws and
custornL'r rdations. Howcvc1~ ah:cr disposing ol' its mobik phoiw componcnt it
has now r '-purchascd it, rl'turncd to the rnarkct, and is building ur íts sharc.
Privatc companics compete iicrcdy with British 11:lecom in a volatik rnar-
ket in whi ch husinesses cm 'rgc, mergc and disarrcar in gencrational nctworks,
iirst with Ccllnct, Vodaphonc and Orangc, sccond with C\ élnd EE and third
with 2G and 3G Sorne grow rapi<lly and are licrnseJ to providc tdccornmu-
ni cations faciliti es and dcvclop broadhand scrviccs, such as Vírgin Media, BT,
4GEE Mobilc Nctwork, EE tihrc br0c1dband an<l supcrfast phoncs anJ broad-
hand such as SG and BT.
Thc strongcst and rnost cornpctitivc -ommuni cation growth in rcccnt
years has bccn in mohik tclcphoncs and scrviccs providcd owr thc lntcrntt.
Thcn.' wcre 53. 7 rnillion rnohik phones in thc UK in 2017 and thc nurnber oF
smartphonc owncrs re ached 78 pcr cent in 201 7 (95 per e nt for those agcd
l (i- 24 J. Thc Offin., of Comrnunications ( Ofcom) found that 40 p er cent of
rnobilc owncrs accessed social networking sitcs such as Facebook and Twitter
in 2012, hcadcd the global ranking for onlinc shopping in 2011 and also sent
200 tlXt rnessages r er pcrson per month. J\ccording to the Office for National
Th e country
Statistics (ONS) , in 2014 sonw ~ u-: 111illi()ll ;1dults (76 per cent) accesse<l thc
Internet evcry <lay and Intenwt acn ·ss hy ll1()hilt· phone had increascd bctween
201 O and 2014 from 24 p e r cent t() e¡~ ¡wr lTnt. In Great Britain, 22 million
houscholds (84 per cent) ha<l Intn11d ;1l·l·t·ss in 2014 and fixed Internet con-
n ections wcre used by 91 pcr <:l'llt ni" lwusl'hokL. Broadband Inte rnet con-
nections using fibre optic or cahlc ,w rc usc__•J by 42 per cent of houscholds
in 2013, up from 30 per cent in 2012. /\ Communications Market Report
found that household take-up of t.-1hll'l c:nm puters had almost doublc<l during
2014 to 44 p er cent at the expcnsl' o!" laptops. However, outgoing calls from
landlines decreased in 2013, cvcn though landline owncrship was nccessary
for broadband connection for sorne co mpani es such as BT. Ofcom ·oncludc<l
that the UK was becoming one of thc world's most web and gadget obscsscd
countries.
Thc Ge neral Post Office was establish cd in 1635 as a govcrnment Jcpart-
m e nt, and included thc Royal Mail delivery service. Today, the Royal Mail is a
privatized (2013) company which owns Parcelforce. It is rcspons ihlc for col-
lccting, handling and delivering sorne 80 million lctters and parcels L'V ' ry <lay. It
has sorting otfices throughout the country with sophisticat J handling cc..¡uip -
mcnt, has -.J on the postcodes which evcry address in Britain has. Parcdfon:c
Worldwidc operates domcstically and ovcrscas. Thc Royal Mail's intcrnational
conncctions and ·ustomcrs are cxpanding, but thc growth of clntronic com-
munications such as cmai l, smartphones an<l thc In ternet has maJc inroads into
its markets. Thc Royal Mail <loes not havc a monopoly on thc rnllcction anJ
d · livery of lettcrs. Li ccnsc<l competition by priva te sector couricrs and cxprcss
operators, although limitc<l, is likely to in crcasc. Th e Post OHicc continucs in
th c publi - sector anJ provides ·ounter serviccs through its outkts on thc High
Stre 't for in<lividuals. Local post officcs throughout the country (som ' of which
have hee n controvcrsially doscd in both rural and urbana reas to iiercc pro tests)
proviJc postal an<l othcr scrviccs.
The impact of climate changc on the UK has been increasingly evident over
the past ] 5 years and <loes concern sorne of the public. Defra itself argues that
such change is serious and that the public should alter their habits and move to
a low-carbon economy. Summer heat waves and droughts, severe cold winter
weather and summer tloods in recent years have b ecom e more frequent. The
UK is vulnerable to rising seas on its east and south coasts and wildlifc an<l the
countryside are aftected.
Sorne respondents to polls and surveys do identify specitic activities that
contribute to global warming1 such as vehide and aircraft pollution1 traffic con-
gcstion, lack of an adequate publi c transport system, e nergy production an<l
gas emissions from powcr stations. This awarcncss leads to concerns about th e
damagc ca used to personal hcalth, wildlifr and thc wider environme nt.
Britain sufte rs scrious air pollution from th e <lischarge of carbon cmissions
into the air. It aftects both urban and rural areas, is a threat to p coplc's hcalth
(particularly thc cl<lerly, asthmatics and thosc with rcspiratory problcms) a11LI
was linked for the first time in 1997 to hea rt attacks. Although pollution was
rcduced by Clean Air Acts in the 1950s an<l 19fü)s, it still regularly n~aches
dangcrously high levels, particularly in summer when pollutants mix with sun-
shinc and humid conditions to produce high ozonc lcvels. Thc number of publi c
alcrts and dcaths attributc<l to air pollution is increasing annually.
Othcr contcntious problcms, such as land usagc, are associatcd with th c
environmental debate. Agricultural, wooJlanJ and grceni-ield lan<l is usc<l
increasingly for buildin g schemes. Research survcys and opinion polis report
that som<.> peoplc are worried about the foturc of thc countrysidc and want to
stop building work and road/airport schemt's which dircctly affcct thc environ-
ment and contributc to pollution and global warming.
OHice for National Statistics (ONS) reportcd that th( main sourccs ofUK cmis-
sions in 2017 were transport (27 per cent), energy supply (24 pcr cent); business
(] 7 per cent); residential (15 per cent); agriculturc (1 Opcr cent); wastc managemcnt
(4 per cent); and other (2 per cent). Britain is supposcd to reduce it.:; grccnhouse gas
emissions by 80 per cent from 1990 levels by 2050. Although such action on cmis-
sions docs not satisfy all critics, the govemment argues that it has to reduce emissirnK
without harming the economy. It maintains that the d~velopmcnt of clcancr, more
ctlicient technology in cars, aircraft, factories and power stations wil1 reduce cmis-
sions without harming industrial production and the wider cconomy.
Pol1s show that sorne respondent,;; are prepared to makc sacrinccs to clcan
up the environment and conserve wildlife; believe that environmcntal protcction
should rate higher than economic gro-wth or the interests of companics; fix.l that
the govemment should protcct thc vnvironment; and that environmcntal problcms
should be tackled morv a<:tiwly. Yd such vicws do not always lead to susta incd sen-
sitive or effectiw hchaviour and tlwn· is sti11 widespread en vironme ntal damage in
rural and urban arcas hn ·;H1sv ni" industri é-1! agricultura] and individual behaviour. lt
1
is argued that gowrnn1t·11l ami indu.stry alonc cannot solvc the problems and that a
widespread cultun: ol" t·11vinll111w11t:di.s n1 must be developed in Britain.
The country
restrict diesel carsJ ration roaJ sp;in· i11 L1 vrn 1r ol'huscsJ increase taxes or charges
on car usage and parking and giw 1'1111di 11 g to local sch cmcs that irnprnvc publi
transport. These efforts do not st-crn to li ;1w grcatly improved the national traf-
fic situation (or rnotorists' bchaviour), ami roa<l congestion increases.
A congestion charge was introdun·d in LondonJ whcreby owners are
charged for driving into central arc;1s. Th is initially rcduced traffic by 25 per
cent. But Britons are dividcd about using congestion zoncs and charging to
reduce traffic. Yet l3SA (2013) rcportcd that 28 per cent of Britons consid-
crcd congestion on motorways to be a problern and 45 pcr cent of respon<lcnts
thought thc sarne about congestion in towns and cities. Sixty-onc per cent of
people were also concerned about damage to the countryside frorn road builJ-
ing to resolve congcstion.
Dcspitc rising concerns since 2012 about pollution an<l congcstion, polls
suggcst that peopl e will not give up their cars casily (if at ali). Whilc a rnajor-
ity of respondents wish for better public transport, cut. in traffic pollutionJ a
rcduction of congestion and thc rcrnoval of freight frorn th e roa<ls, thcy an.· kss
kecn on rcstricting car usage. Thcy seern to acc ·pt car taxcs, charg ,s or tolls as
an inevitable part of thcir depe ndencc upon the car. Thc polis revea] that thcn:
is a large gap (an<l conflict) betwccn what pcoplc think in general should hap-
pcn and what th cy rcport that thcy are prcpared to do. Mcanwhik, car volurnc
inncascs cvcry year.
J\ircraft and their associatcd businesscs, such as airport an<l runway cxpan-
sion, are also part of thc transport an<l environrnental problcrn in Britain. How-
ever, in 13SJ\ 2013 1 66 rcr cent of respond ' nts said that prnplc shoul<l be ahlc
to travcl by planc as rnuch as thcy like, anJ 49 pcr -cnt thought so, cvcn if ncw
terminals or runways are nccdc<l to rn ect thc dcrnand. Whik 41 pcr cent agrcuJ
that th e pric ' of a plan c ti cket should rdlcct th · cnvironrnental damagL that
flyin g causes1 21 pcr crnt thought that pcopl e shoul<l be abk to travcl by planc
as rnuch as they lik<.\ even if this harrns th c cnvirnnrncnt.
Polls suggcst that most peoplc now rcaliz' that air travel <loes <lamage thc
environmcnt an<l has a s 'rious effrct on dimatc changc. But rcsponde nts sccm
willing to acccpt big riscs in air farcs to offset th' cnvironrncntal damagc causcd
by flyingJ even if this rnakcs air travcl rnuch more cxpcnsivc. Howcvcr, thcy are
arnbivalent about whcthcr thcre shoulJ be ·ven strongcr limits on tlying. Thcy
seem willing to pay charge, but are unwilling to curb usag '. Otfsctting <larnage by
high ·r prices does not rcmovc thc problcrn of incrcasing usagc. It is argucd that an
actual rcduction in vchicl and aircraft passcngcr nurnb ·rs in 2008 was causcd not
by a dcsirc to restri ct travel for cnvironrncntal rcasonsJ but by th · dh.x:ts of highcr
fue) priccs in th t. e ·onornic downturn an<l rcsultant rcccssion. Mcanwhik, thc Brit-
ish prcss continues to carry storics about thc <langcrs and dfrcts of global warrning.
British governrnents havc studic<l intcgratc<l tran sport syst ·ms ( roa<ls, rail
an<l air) to reli ev' cnvironrne ntal pn_--ssuresJ but havc not produce<l a satisfactory
rnodel. Problcms arise hccause of 13ritain 's varic<l gcography and thc <lisputcd
role of local authoritics in developmcnt. This is seen in the controversia) anJ
The country
expensivc plans for the proposed HS2 railway line from London via Birmingham
to northern cities. It is condcmned by many because it encroachcs upon the
co untrysidc for little gain in rcduced train times, caters largely for business trav-
llers and has inconveni ent intcrmcdiate co nnections. It is difficult to implement
one overall intcgrated transport plan an<l to agree on who will pay the costs.
Exercises
Briefly define and examine the following terms, commenting on their
significance in British life:
2 Critically discuss the cases for and against nuclear energy as a heating
source.
3 Examine the impact of Britain's plan to leave the European Union upon
its agricultura! and fisheries industries.
Further reading
3 British Social Attitudes Survey (2013) Publ ic attitudes towards transport, London : Depart-
ment for Transport
4 Champion, A.G . and Townsend, A.R . (1990) Contemporary Britain: A Geographical Per-
spective, London : Edward Arnold
5 Clapp, B.W . ( 1994) An Environmental History of Britain since the Industrial Revolution,
London : Longman
6 Connelly, J. and Smith, G . ( 1999) Politics and the Environment: From Theory to Practice,
London : Routledge
7 Gray, T. (1995) UK Environmental Politics in the 1990s, London : Macmillan
8 Harvey, G . ( 1998) The Killing of the Countryside, London : Vintage
9 Hook, D., Whyte, l. and Winchester, A. (2005) Society, Landscape and Environment in
Upland Britain, Oxford : Society for Landscape Studies, Supplementary Series 2 , Oxbow
Books
l O Regional Trends, UK National Statistics, London : Office for National Statistics
11 Tulip, K. and Michaels, L. (2004) A Rough Guide to the UK Farming Crisis, www.
corporatewatch .org .uk
12 Woodcock, N . (1994) Geo/ogy and Environment in Britain and lreland, London: Taylor &
Francis
13 Your Region, Your Choice: Revitalizing the English Regions (2002), London : The Statio-
nery Office
Websites
British Social Attitudes, London : NatCen Social Research : www.natcen .ac .uk
Office for National Statistics: www.ons .gov.uk
The Met Office: www. metoffice .gov.uk
Department of Energy and Climate Change: www.decc .gov.uk
Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs : www.defra .gov.uk
Department for Transport: www.gov.uk/dft
Transport for London : www.tfl.gov.uk
Office of the Rail Regulator : www.rail-reg .gov.uk
Strategic Rail Authority: www.sta .gov.uk
Office of Telecommunications : www.oftel.gov.uk
Office of Water Services: www.open.gov.uk/ofwat
Office of Gas and Electricity Markets: www.ofgem .gov.uk
Scottish Executive: www.scotland .gov.uk
Northern lreland Executive : www.nio.gov.uk
Northern lreland Department for Regional Development: www.drdni .gov.uk
Welsh Assembly Government: www.wales .gov.uk
Countryside Commission: www.countryside .gov.uk
The Green Party: www.greenparty.org .uk
British Geological Survey: www.bgs.ac .uk
The National Archives : www.national archives.gov.uk
MORI Social Research ln stitute : www.mori .com/environment
3
The people
■ Exercises
■ furth er reading
■ Websites
The people
icists argu that most Irish p cop1e carry English genes in th cir DNA and that th c
great rnajority of thc population of the islands have a common Palaeolithic gene.
Today, there are immigrant minorities with th eir own cthni c idcntiti 'S who may
have sometimes intermarri ed with the indige nous population, maintain cd their
own separate ethnic culture or eventually acquired British idcntity throu gh nat-
unili7.ation . Their children have often becn born in Britain with many bcing of
1
mixed ethnic parentage, and they may posscss scveral allegianccs in a<l<lition to
British nationality.
These historical developments have crcated a contcmporary socicty with
multinational and multi cultural characteristics. However, sin ce assirnilation
and integration processes are not always succcssful , controversia] qucstions are
asked about the meanin g of ' Britishness' as a national idcntifi cation 1 the nature
of loyalties in th c population and th e validity of govcrnrnent imrnigration and
asylurn poli cies.
The people
PLATE 3 .1 Happisburgh (Norfolk beach) ; earliest human footpri nts found in Britain 2014,
dated at 850,000 years old; fossi lized rema in s were uncovered, belong ing to a n esti mated
five individ ua ls; 3D images recorded before footpri nts destroyed by tide . © Martin Bates
The people
about 850,000 years old were found on th c east coast shor near Happisburgh
in Norfolk, England. It is claimed th at this discovcry, long hidden by scdime nt
and th e sea, is th e earli est direct evidcn ce of a hominid presen cc in north ern
Europe. These pcoplc we re Palaeolithic (Old Stone Agc) nomads moving north-
wards through mainland Europe, who used rudimentary ston e implcmcnts. It
is lik ,)y that thcy travelled to Britain by land whcn the co untry was still mainly
joincd to th e Europcan land mass. It is argued that th c grcat majority of thc
human population of th c islands today havc a common Palacolithic g ·ne.
Mesolithi c (Middk Stone Agc) scttlers from about 8,300 HC arrivc<l hy land
and sea in th e transitional stage betwccn thc Palaeolithic and th c Neolith ic eras
and b ctwccn th c m eltin g of glacial ice caps an<l th c b eginnings of agriculturc in
th c Mi<ldlc East. Neolithic (Ncw Stonc Agc ) arrivals from 4,000 BC had a<lvancc<l
skills in stonc carving, form c<l settled agricultura! communitics, tamcd wild an i-
mals, an<l thc population incrcase<l. Sorne possihly carne by sea from mainlanJ
Europc and scttlcd in south-wcstern 13ritain. They built largc wood, soil and
stonc monumc nts, likc Stonchcngc an<l Avcbury H ·nge. Latc r arrivals (lkakc r
Folk) travcllc<l to south-cast ern I3ritain from thc Russian Steppcs about 2,450 Be,
who are idc ntificd by thc drinking cups (hcakcrs) huricd in thL·ir graves. Rcccnt
rcscarch suggcsts that more Ikakcr folk anivcJ, rcplaccd prcvious Ncolithic sl't-
tlcrs, introducc <l an ca rly Bronzc J\gc culture around 2,100 ne and form cd thc
gen -'tic anccstry of thc historie 13ritish population from Dorsl't to Orkncy.
PLATE 3.2 Aveb ury Henge, Wi ltshi re; Neolithic monu ment co nsisting of a stone circle from c.
2,600 BC. © Francisco M artinez/ Alamy Stock Photo
from about 600 BC there was a movem ent into the islands of so-callcd
The people 6S ;.
'°~
Celtic trihcs, who have been credited with bringing an Iron Age civiüzation with
thern. Sorne possibly carne by sea from central and w estern Europe and settled
in eastc rn 13ritain, while others arrive<l frorn Iberian (Spanish-Portuguese) areas
and populatc<l Cornwall, lreland, Walcs, thc Isk of Man and western Scotland.
T h<: ir dcsccndants livc to<lay in th c samc western parts. Debates continue about
who th c Cclts actually wcrc, what th cy r "'prescnted and what the naturc of
th "'ir rdationship with ex isting groups was. lt is thought that th cy were not a
un ified national group with a single Celtic ge ne, had at lcast two main languages
an d wcrc dividcd into diffc re nt, scattc rcd tribcs with fashion-bas d cultures,
who oftc n fought with cach othcr. Thcy wcrc latcr overcomc by ' Belgic tribcs'
(a rguabl y also of Ccltic western Europcan ori gin) around 200 l3C.
Thcsc varicd groups w 'r ·' subjcctcd to a series of Roman ex pcditions from
55 ne. Thc even tual Roman military occupation of thc islands (cxcept for lrc-
la nd and most of Srn tland) lastcd from Al) 43 until An 409. Thc tcrm 'Brit-
ai n ' probahly dcriws from thc.' Crcck and Lc1tin names given to Fngland and
Waks hy th c Romans, although it may stc m from C ,Jtic originals. lt is argucd
that thc Romans Jid not mix wcll with th c existing population, whom thcy
ca lkd ' Britons', c1nd that thcir lasting social influcncc was slight. Ncwrthl·kss,
so rne Rnman Christian practiccs sprcad throughout thc islands; political and
1 gal in stitution s wcrc intr0<..lucl'<l; m·w agricultunil mcthods and produce w<.'rc
im portcd; and thcrc is still considerable physi ·al cv idc ncc of thc Rorn an prcs-
cncc thrnughout much of England.
Aftcr Roméln withJrawal in AD 409, Gcrmanic tribcs such as Anglcs (from
whi ch thc na mes' England' and 'English ' wcrc supposc<lly derivcd ), Saxons and
Jutcs from north-wcstc-rn Europe invac.kJ th 'co untry. Th ey c ithcr rnixc<l with
th · ex isting populati on or pushcd it wcstwards, although th c dcgrcc of Ji splacc-
mc nt h as bccn dispute<l. Thc country was JiviJt,J into s ·ven sc paratc, warring
Anglo-Sax<Jn kingdoms in Engl and, with isolatcJ 'Cclti c' arcas in Walcs, Scot-
la nd and Ircland.
Thcsc rcgions sulfcrcd from Scandinavian (Viking) military invas ions in
the cighth anJ ninth ·cn turics AD, until thc Scandinavians wc1-c defea tcd in
England, Scotland and Ircl and in thc tcnth to clcvcnth -cnturi cs. Th 'Sca n<lina-
via n prcscncc, aftcr initi al 11 'Ctin g raids, was rcfl 'ctcd in sorne pc rman c nt settle-
m ·nt, intcgration of' pco pks, farming, political instituti o ns an<l thc adaptation
of Scan<linavian words.
Early English history was complctcd whcn th e Anglo-Saxons were defea ted
by Frcnch-Norman invadcrs at thc 13attlc of Hastings in AD l 066 and England
was suhjcctc<l to thei r rule. Th c Norman Conquest was a watershed in English
history and markcd th c last succcssfu l cxte rnal military invasion of the country.
Thc Normans influcnccd thc English and thcir languagc (French was used by the
nohility for 300 years) an<l initiatcd man y social, legal and institutional frame-
works, such as a fe udal systc m, which wcrc to charact erize future British society.
The people
Celtic groups continued in what are now Wal es, Scotland and lreland,
which were divide<l into separate (anJ ofren warring) kingJoms, tribes and clans.
Anglo-Norman rule of Ireland and Wales was initially patchy an<l was not suc-
ce:.ssfully imposed upon Scotland. Th latter was inhabited (cxcept for Angl es
in the south) by the original Picts and later Scots (Scotti) from lrelan<l who
colonizcd western Scotlan<l (AD 200-400), giving th eir name to prcscnt-day
Scotl and .
Diff 're nt pcoples had thus cnte rcd the British Islcs from th c south-wcst,
th e east and th c north by l 066. But scttlem cnt was oft:en hindcrcd by climati c
and geographical obstaclcs, p articularly in the north anJ west. Many carly ncw-
comers con ce ntratcd in south ern l: nglan<l and settle mc nt patte rns wcrc not
unifórm ovcr all of th e co untry at th c . ame time. Dcs pitc sorne int ' rmin gling
bctwe:.e n the various settlcrs, th crc wcrc cthnic diffácnccs and gcographi cal
scp aration betwccn th c English an<l th ' pcopl , of lreland, Walcs and Scotlan<l,
as well as varyin g id 'ntitics bctwccn groups in all th c rnuntrics. It is this mi x-
ture, increase: d by latcr immigration and inte rna! migration, which has pro<luccd
ethnic and national div crsity in Britain .
Thc early settl e mc nt and invasion movc mcnts substantially atfcctcd thc
devcloping fabric of British lifc and hmncd th c lirst tl ntativc foundation s of
th e modcrn state. Ncwcomcrs som times tricd to imposc thl'ir cultures on tlw
cxisting socicty, as well as adopting sorne of tlw nativc charactcristics. ToJ ay
thcrc are fc w British town s that lack an y physical cvidcncc of th c successivc
changes. Thc invaJcrs and scttlcrs also intlucnccd social, legal, cconomic, politi-
cal, agricultura!, cultural and administrativc institutions and contributed to thc
cvolving languagc.
Th 're are no rcalistic population figures for thc carly British Islcs. Thc
nomadi c lifestylc of groups of possibl y up to 20 pcoplc sce ms gradually to
h avc bee n replaccd by m ore permanent farmin g scttkmc nts of a fcw hundr ,J
inhabitants. It is ~stimated, fo r cxample, th at th c English population during th c
Roman oc upation was 1 million . By the Norman p eriod, the elcvcnth-ce ntury
Dom esday 13ook showed an increase to 2 million. The Domesd ay Book was thc
firs t systemati c attc mpt to evaluate En gland 's w ealth and p opulation, mainly
for taxatio n purposcs.
England, Scotl an<l, Wales and lre land had dcvelo ped more clca rly d -,f-in ed ide n-
titi cs anJ gcographi cal arcas by thc tw clfth ce ntury, although 'tribal ' and royal-
ist confli ct (rath cr than nation al unity) continu cd in thc fo ur nations. Politi cal
an<l military atte mpts w re madc by Englan<l ovcr su ·ccssivc ce nturi cs to unitc
Wal 'S, Scotl and and Ircland und cr th t· En gli sh C rown . En glish monarchs tricJ
to conc.¡uc r o r all y th c mscl vcs with th csc co untrics as protecti o n against th rcats
fro m w ithin thc isla n<ls and fro m contin e ntal Europc, as wcll as Í<.>r in crcascd
powcr and posscssions. Inte rn a! colonization anJ po litical unii, cation of thc
islands gradually c rca tcJ tht' British statc. This proccss was accompanic<l hy
ficrcc anJ hloo<l y strugglcs bctwc ·n and within th c nations, ofo.' n rcsultin g in
lasting tc nsions anJ hittcnwss.
Ircland was invackd by He nry II in l 16~) . Parts oF th c country wc n.' occtt-
picd hy J\n glo-Norman nohks, but littk dircct ro yal auth ority was initi all y
PLATE 3 .3 A Northern lrela nd parade of l 7 March 2009 set off fro m Belfast C ity Hall to
ce lebra te St Patrick's Day. St Patrick is the patron sa int of lrelan d . Secu rity was observed ,
but the armed pol ice on duty joined in with the spirit of the day after years of the Troubles .
© Alan Lewis/Shutterstock
68 The people
PLATE 3.4 Chi ld ren celebrate St David's Doy (St David being the patron saint of Wales) by
dressing up in national costume and waving Welsh dragon fl ags, Cardi ff, 1991 . © Vivien
Jones/Shutterstock
The people
Immigration from abroad into th1..' British Isles also continued due to fac-
tors such as rdigious and political pcrsecution, trade, business and e mploy-
mcnt. Immigrants have had a significant impact on British society. Th ey have
contributcd to financial institutions, commerce, industry and agriculture, an<l
influcncc<l artistic, cultural and political developments. Yet immigrant activity
and succcss havc also resulted in jealousy, discrimination an<l violence from th e
indigenous populations.
In addition to political integration, intcrnal migration and immigration
from ovcrscas, Britain's growth and the mixing of its people were also condi-
tioned first by a series of agricultural changes and sccond by a numbcr of latcr
industrial revolutions. Agricultura] dcvclopmcnts started with N eolithic scttlers
and continucd with thc Saxons in England who cleared the forests, cultivated
crops and introduced inve ntions and equipment which rcrnaincd in use for ccn-
turies. Their open-field system of farming (with strips of lan<l worh·d by local
peo plc) was latcr rcplaccd by widcsprcad sh -cp-hcrding and wool pro<luction .
Britain expande<l agriculturally an<l commcrcially From thc clcvcnth cc ntury,
and also create<l manufacturing industries.
lmmigration was associatcd with finan cia}, agricultura! and industrial skills.
Jew ish moncy-lcn<lcrs cntcrcd England with thc Norman Conquest, to O<.:' fol-
lowed latcr by LornbarJ bankers from northcrn Italy. This commcrcial 'Xpcrtis1..'
crcatcd grcatcr wcalth which was influcnccd by thc mcrchants of thc Gcrman
Hansa Leagu ', who s<..'t up th eir trading posts in London and on thc cast coast
of Englan<l. J\round 1330, Dutch and Fle mish wcavcrs arrivc<l, who by thc cn<l
of thc fiftccnth ccntury ha<l he]ped to transform England into a major nation of
shccp farmers, cloth producers and texti1c cxportcrs. Fourtecnth-ccntury immi-
gration also introduccJ specialized knowl -dgc in a varicty of manufacturing
trades.
Sorne immigrants stayed only for short pcriods; others rcmained and
adaptcd to British society, while preserving thcir cultural an<l cthnic i<lcntitics.
N ·wcorncrs were often encouraged to scttlc in Britain and thc policy of using
immigrant cxpertisc continued in later centuries, but forcign workcrs had no
legal rights and carly immigrants, such as Jews an<l Hansa mcrchants, could be
summarily expelled.
Agricultura! and commercial deve]opme nts werc refl ected in changing
population concentrations. From Saxon times to 1800, Britain had an agricul-
tural]y based economy; 80 per cent of its people live<l in isolated villages in thc
countryside; and original ethnic identities remaine<l relatively -fixe<l. Scttlement
was concentratcd in the south and east of England, wh ere the rich agricultura]
regions of East Anglia and Lincolnshire had th e greatest population <le nsities.
During the fourtccnth ccntury, however, the increase in peoplc was haltcd by
plagues and numhcrs di<l not start to improve again for anothcr hun<lrcd ycars.
As agricultura! produ ction moved into shcep farming an<l clothing manu-
factures, larger nurnlwrs ol" peopk scttlcd around wool ports, such as Bristol on
The people
thc wcst coast and coastal towns in East Anglia. Others moved to cloth-produc-
ing arcas and market towns in the West Country and thc Cotswol<ls. The south
Midland an<l cast "rn English counties were the most densely pcopled, with the
total British population at the end of thc seventeenth century b e ing estimated
at 5.5 million.
Othcr ncwcomcrs ontinucd to arrivc from overseas, induding gypsies,
b lacks ( associated with th e si ave traJc ) and a furthcr wavc of Jews, who in
1655 created Britain 's first p e rmanent .Jcwish community. In thc sixtc nth and
·evcntccnth ccnturics, thc country attracted refugecs, such as Dutch Protestants
and Frcnch Hugucnots, drivcn from Europc hy warfarc, political and religious
persecution and cmploymcnt nccds. This talcntcd and urhanizcd immigration
co ntributcJ consiJcrably to thc national cconomy an<l adde<l a ncw dim ' nsion
to a largcly agricultura] population. Howcvcr, from arounJ 1700, immigration
dccrcascd throughout thl' ncxt two ccnturics. Britain cxportcd more pcopk
than it r lTivcd, mainly to North J\mcrica and thc cxpanJing colonics.
A sccon<l crntral dcvclopmcnt in British history was a nurnhcr of industrial
rcvolutions in thc cightccnth an<l ninctccnth ccnturics. Thcs<' tnrnsforrncd Brit-
ain from an agricultura] cconomy into an industrial and manufacturing country.
Proccsscs such as stl'arn powcr bascd on coal-burning an<l water wcrc <lcvclopcd
and cxploitcd. Factorics an<l factory towns wcrc IH.'l'dcd to mc1ss-producc IH.'w
manufacturcd goods. Villag ' S in thc coaltields and industrial an as gr "W rapidly
into manufacturing centres. A Jrih of population away from thc countrysi<lc
began in thc late cightccnth C( ntury, as pcoplc sought work in urhan factories
to escape rural povcrty an<l t111l'mploymcnt. Thcy moved, for cxamplc, to tl'xtilc
milis in Lanc:::ishirc and Yorkshirc and to hcavy industries and pottcry factorics
in tlw Wcst Midlands. Parts of thc prcdominantly agricultura! population in thc
ninctccnth ccntury dcvclopcd into an industrializcd workforn·.
Th , 180 l Cl nsus ( thc tirst ofücial nwasurcmcnt of population) gavc ligures
of 8.3 rnillion fór England, O.G million for Wales, 1 .(l mi1lion for Scotland and
8 mi Ilion h.w lrclan<l. lktwcrn 1801 and 1901, th' population of EnglanJ anJ
Waks grcw to 32 .5 mi1lion . The numhcrs in Scotland incrcascd lcss rapi<lly to
4 .5 million, duc to cmigration, but in lrclan<l th c population was rc<lucc<l to
4 million bccausc of faminc, dcaths anJ cmigration. Thc grcatcst ·o nccntrations
of pco plc wcre in London and industrial arcas of thc Midlands, south Lan-
cashirc, Mcrscysidc, Clydl'Side, Tyncsidc, Yorkshirc an<l South Walcs.
Thc industrial rcvolution reachc<l its hcight Juring thc carly ninctccnth
century. lt <lid not n qui re foreign Jahour hccausc thcrc wcrc cnough skillc<l
tradcs among British workers anJ a rcady supply of unskilled labourcrs from
Walcs, Scotland, Irch-m d and thc English countrysi<lc. Thosc from North Wales
w 'nt to thc Lancashin.' textil ' mills; Highland Scots travelled to the Lowland
Clydesi<le industri es; an<l lrishmcn flockcd to England and Scotland to work in
th<.: manual tradcs of thc industrial infrastructure constructing roads, railways
and canals. Thcsc migrations crcateJ ethnic conflicts (which sometiml'S gr "w
The pe o ple
into violent confrontations in citics such as Liverpool anJ Cardiff), but also
sorne integration.
Jndustrialization led to an expansion in commercial markets, which
attractcd ncw immigrants who had the business and financia} skills to cxploit
thc industrial wealth. Sorne newcomers joincd City of London finan cial insti-
tutions and the import/export trades, to which th ey brought their international
conncctions, while others were involvcd in a rangc of occupations and tradcs.
Immigration to Britain might havc bccn grcakr in thc ninctccnth ccntury haJ
it not bccn for the attraction of North Amcri ca, which reccivcd larg ' numbcrs
of ncwcomers from arounJ thc worl<l.
By the end of thc ninctccnth crntury, Britain was thc worlJ's lcading indus-
trial nation an<l among th c ri chest. But, as foreign compctition grew, it lost its
lcad in manufacturing, most of which was in nativc British hands, whilc its
position in intcrnational financc, sorne of which was undcr immigrant control,
was reta in ed.
Although immigrants historically haJ rc1ativdy free acccss to Britain, thcy could
be easily ex pe11ed, haJ no legal rights to protcct thcm; and cntry rcstrictions
wcre increasin gly imposc<l. But th c 1871 ccnsus showcd that only l 57/)()0
peopl e in th e UK population of 37 million haJ bccn horn outside the British
Empirc.
Dcspit thcsc low -figures, economic immigrants anJ asylum scckcrs causcd
public and politica l conccrn. In the early twc ntil.·th ccntury .kws anJ Polcs
1
csca pcd pcrsccution in Eastern Europe and settl ed in thc East End of London ,
which has always attractc<l newcorners. Dcrnands for irnmigration co ntrol grcw
and an anti-foreigner feeling spread 1 fue]lcd hy thc nationalism an<l spy mania
ca usc<l by thc First World War (1914-18). But laws that wcrc mcant to cu rtail
foreign entry ( such as thc Alicns Act of 1905) provcd in ctkctivc. By 1911 thl.
numb 'r of pcoplc in Britain born outside thc Empirc had rcac:hcd 428,000 ( 1
p er cent of th e population ).
As a result of the 1930s world recession an<l thc Sccond World War, r +-
ugccs first from Nazi-occupi ed Europe and later from Soviet bloc countrics
in addition to cconomic immigrants entered Britain in spitc of e ntry controls.
Aftcr the war, refugees such as Polcs, Latvians and Ukrainians among othcr
nationalities chosc to stay in Britain. Later in th e twentieth ccntury, othcr
political refugees arrived, such as Hungarian s, Czechs, Chileans, Libyans, East
African Asians, Iranians, Vietnamese and oth er Eastern Europeans. Italian,
Frcnch, German, Irish, Turkish, Cypriot Chinese, Spanish an<l Commonwealth
1
PLATE 3.6 Notting Hill Carnival , London , 2009; a costume parade over two days every year
in August. Originally a West lndian street carnival with floats, dancers and steel bands, the
annual event now includes other ethnic groups . © carniva lpix/ Alamy Stock Photo
political asylum. Thcre was a 5 1wr ct·11l in creasc in asylum seekers in th c ycar
cnding 2014.
According to thc Office for Nalional Statistics (July 2018), 572,000 intcr-
national immigrants arrived to livc in th e UK in mid-2017, 78,000 fcw cr than
the previous ycar (a] 2 p er cent dccrcase) , anJ 342,000 international cmigrants
left th e country, 28,000 more than th e prev ious year (a 9 pe r cent incrcasc_). N et
migration was 230,000 (the differen cc bctwccn immigration anJ cmigration) .
Work is thc most co mmon reason for immigration to the UK. But th "re was
a 43 p c:. r cent d crease in the number of pcoplc immigratin g to look for work
in 2017 . The risc in emigration from Britain was mainly becau. e British citize ns
have lcft an<l citize ns of EU countries have rcturn cd home. These ch angcs sug-
gcst that Brexit may be a central fa ctor in pcoplc's J ccision to movc from th c
UK. But thc continuation of high lcvcls of non-EU immigration, whi ch can be
controllcJ by th c governm cnt, is a sourcc of politi cal and public concern.
In March 2019, official figures showcd that immigratio n from tlw EU has
fall en to its lowcst lcvcl in nine years as more castcrn European s leavc thc
country than arrive under EU free movcmcnt rules. Ovcrall nct migration rose
from 277,000 to 283,000, which was ncarl y thrcc times th -' govnnmc nt's tar-
get 100,000.
Sin ·e the Brexit rdc rcndum, in Jun c 201 (i, EU net migratio n has fall e n by
20 pn cent, <lrivcn partially by a drop in thc numbcr of migrants arriving from
Polan<l, Hunga ry, thc C zcch Rt.public an<l tivc oth1..'r eastnn Europca n statcs that
joincJ the EU in 2004. More mi grants from these eight l"ast European states are
leaving the UK than arriving, a trcnd arguably refl ecting un ccrtainty over Brcxit
and in sorne cases improving cconomic conditions in thcir home ·c.mntri es or
altcrnative destin ations in th e EU. But fcw cr EU workers ·orning to thc lJK
in creases labour anJ skills shortag 'S across many sectors in th c British eco nom y.
Thc Confederation of Briti. h In<lustry ( Cl31) strcsscs that husincsscs nceJ
access to ski1ls anJ labour anJ argues that th c governm cnt shoulJ devise a post-
Brcxit immigration system whi ch is both open anJ controlkd. A new systcm
would give thc UK control ove:.r who com es to Britain, whilc cnabling employ-
ers to have acc ss to the skills the y need from around th c worlJ .
Howcver, forecasts suggcst that recent anJ futurc immigration will fucl an
cstimatcd 7 .2 million growth in th e UK population over th e ncxt 25 years. Gov-
ernm e nt argucs that th e nation must compet e in th c intcrnation al markctpl acc
and attract those migrant workcrs that th e economy nccds to compcnsatc i-cx a
declining labour force, an ageing population an<l a shortage of both skillcJ anJ
unskilled workers. However, it is generally ag rccJ th at immigration and as ylum
should b e controlled. Conservatives argue th at nct migration must be r ,JuccJ
to 50,000 or lowcr each year, Liberal D e mocrats want a regional points sy. te m
of control and Labour also favour a lower cntry total. It is also tdt that un c m-
ployed Britons shoulJ und crtake cducation and training to till job vacancies and
redu ce a dependc ncc 011 un cmployment w elfare b cncfits and migrant lahour.
Th e people 77
.,
A ~
;T
Th c flexibl e nature of migration, shown by the abovc EU changes, shoul<l
be rccognized if the immigration debate is to be kept in p crspective. Histori-
cally, therc has usually b en a balance of migration, with emigration cancelling
out immigration in real terms, but th erc have also been pcriods of high emi-
gra tion . Groups left England and Scotland in the sixtecnth and seventeenth
centurics to scttlc in Ir land an<l North America . Mil1ions in the nineteenth
and twentieth ccnturies em igrated to Australia, Ncw ZcalanJ, South Africa,
Canada, other colonies and the USA . Emigration meant that Britain had a net
loss of population <luring th' 1970s an<l 1980s. This trend was rewrsed in th e
1990s and mor immigrants have entcred Britain than cmigrants have le ft. Pco-
pl -' from Indía, Pakistan and /\fri ca havc traditionally ma<le up th c largcst pro-
portions of ncwcomcrs. Today, more entrants have in creasíngly ·orne from th c
Old Co mmonw -'alth and, untíl recently, thc EU.
In rcc 'llt ycars, th e re has also bccn co ntrovcrsy about thc incrcasíng num-
bers of asylum scck ·-rs c ntc ring Britain and suspicions that man y are cconomic
migrants rather than genuínely in humanitarian ncc<l . J\ prcvíous Lahour gov-
crnmcnt tried to tighten thc rules for thc a<lmission of asylum scckcrs and
to incrcas<: the numbe r of <lcportations of thosc who fail th 'Ír applications.
PLATE 3 . 7 Diwali Festival on Leicester's Golden M ile, Belgrave Road , October 2014 . Trad i-
tiona l lnd ian food , music, dance and fireworks to mark the festival of light, reputed to be one
of the biggest celebrations outside India . Diwa li {Sanskrit for row of lights) is a festiva l in the
lndian calendar, celebrated by Hindus, Sikh s and Jains worldwide . © Graha m Oliver/Alamy
Stock Photo
The people
In t he latest U K ccnsus (2011), 55,073,552 (87.2 pcr cent) out of a total pop-
ulation of G3, 182, 178 classiticd the msdvcs as ct hni c w hi te group., a J ccrease
sinn.' thc 2001 cc nsus of 4 .9 pc r cent . Othcrs dcscribcd t h ' msclvcs as /\sian/
/\ ·ian British ( 4,373)3~) or 6.9 pcr cen t); Blac k/Bl ack British ( 1 ))04,684 nr 3 .0
pe r cent); m ixcd o r multi plc racc ( 1,250,22~) or 2 pcr cent); ami mc mhcrs of
othcr cthnic grou ps (580,374 or 0 .9 pc r ce nt) (sce Table 3 .2) .
Th e non -wh itc minority cth nic grou ps, 50 pcr cent of w hom wcrc horn
in Britain, constitutc a rclativcly sma ll , hut growi ng, pro portion of thc Bri tish
popu latio n. Sorne 50 pcr ce nt of them livc in Lon don (as opposcd to l O pcr
cent of thl' w hi tl' pop ul at ion ) whc rc t hcy ma kc up 2~) pc r cent of a11 rcsidc nts.
By co ntrast, lcss t han 4 pcr cent of no n-w hi tc groups li vc in tlw north -east ami
cxpcctancy and 1ncrcasing irnrnigration. Thc ONS in 201 1 rcportc<l that thc aver-
age rnc<lian population agc was projectc<l to incrcasc to 42.2 by 2035 an<l thc
population is expcctc<l to be over 73 million hy 2029- 35. To avoid such growth, it
is arguc<l that nct rnigration nccds to be cut to 50,000 or k ss cach ycar. Th c non-
whitc ethnic rninoritics are grnwing 15 timl.'s !aster than thc whitc population and
are also younger, whilc white population nurnhers havc falkn. It is cstirnatc<l that
the countics of south crn an<l central England will haw thc highcst population
growth , and thc hcavicst population losscs will occur on Tyncsidc antl Mcrscysick.
Thc Off-ice for National Statistics cstimatc<l in mi<l-2015 th at
27,189, 000 million pcopl e (40 per cent) of thc. total British population of
65,110,000 livcd in city regions. These arcas are usually part of an cstahlishcJ
city or rcgion anJ th c top 1 l wcre defin cJ hy growth rates of thc population
from mid-2011 to rnid-2015 (see Tabl e 3.4 ). For cxarnplt , thc City of Lon<lon is
a historie city but is a vcry. mall part of th c Crl'ater London city rcgion , whi ch
is th c rnost popul ous in th ' UK. The other city regions cach have ovn 1 million
resid nts, with Bristol bcing the smallcst.
lmmigration to Britain has often been seen as a thrcat to prcsumcd British idcn-
tities and values. However, the p eopl s of thc British Isks hav , bcen cultural1y
and ethnically diverse frorn the earliest population rnovern ents into the country.
Diff rences rem ain between England, Wal es, ScotlanJ and Northcrn lreland
and th erc are contrastin g ways of lite within cach of th ese nations at national
and local levels. Minority ethnic gro ups within th ese countries have incrcascJ
The people
with th e arrival of more immigrants and thcir descendants, who may specify
their ethnic identity, for exa mple, as J\sian British, Black British or Mixed. Such
groups may have British nationality, 50 pcr cent of them wcre born in Britain,
and may also regard thernsclves as English, Scottish, Wdsh or Northern Irish,
as wcII as having an ancestral origin. Dcspitc governmcnt atte mpts to intro-
duce th e concept of Britishness (of what it m eans to b e British) into school
citizcnship classes and naturalization proccdurcs for n ew citizens, th e tcrm still
lacks a precise dcfinition and can mean many things to many pcoplc. Similarly,
atte mpts by rcligious lcadcrs, politi c ians and social commentators to ide ntify
'British valucs' tcnd to use universal rather than . uppos--dly unique national
exa mpks. It is th ercforc ofo_,n argucd that a dctinition of Britishn ess requircs
the rnmhination of a legal 'civic' identity (such as British citize nship of th c UK
w ith its c ivil framcwork) andan 'cthnic' allcgiancc (such as rcside nce and often
birth in onc of th c four nations ). Man y pcoplc may havc additional cthni c roots
bast:'d on oth e r lin es of dcscent.
Thc cnnditioning history of th c British lsles hchxe th e e ightccnth century
is not about a single British identity or politi cal entity but about four distin ct
nations, which havc oftcn bce n hostik towan.Is onc another. 'Britishncss' since
thc 1707 union bctwccn England/Wales and Scotland was mainly associatcd
with cc ntralize d and civic state institutions, such as monar ·hy, Parliamcnt, th c
law and Protestantism . Notions of Britishn css beca m e more widdy articulatcd
in thc nin1.:'tcc11th crntury following thc l 8(fl /\et of Union and later bcca mc
linked with civic valu es associated with th c Victorian monarchy, thc c mpirc ,mJ
Britain's industrial and military position in th c world. Thesc ckmcnts wcakc ncx l
as Britain lost its globa1 powc r in the twcntieth cc ntury; rcligious faith de clincd;
res pcct fr>r Parliamc nt, the law and the monarchy dccreased; anJ arguahly so rne
peoplc rcturncd more strongly to thcir original cthnic allcgianccs.
Howcvcr, Britons still havc a layered iJcntity in which man y of th em may
think of th e msdvcs as simultaneously civi c British and eithcr cthnic Scottish,
English, Welsh or Northc rn lrish, in addition to othcr anccstries. But the use of
tcrms such as 'British' and 'Britain' to ch~s Tibe this situation ca n scem artificial
to thosc pcopk, who havc retained mo1T sp ccinc: ethnic and cultural idcntitics.
Many Scots, Wc1sh , English and North crn lrish rcgard thcir cthni c idc nti-
ties as csscntial an<l it is arguc<l that man y ' British ' pcople to<lay do not have a
stro ng scnse of a 'British' idc ntity, cxccpt possibl y for sorne immigrant groups.
Most Scots think of th cmsclvcs primarily as Scottish; most of the Welsh think
of thcms 'lv ~s as Wclsh; North c rn Jrish i<lc ntitics are complex; and th e English
ap parcntly in crcasingly scc th emsdvcs as more English than British. In this
situation 1 sorne critics arguc that thcrc ncc<ls to b e a rcthinking of what it
mcans to be Rritish in a multination al, multicultural UK 1 a changing Europe
an<l a globalizcd world. Th e Brexit rcfrrcndum result, in parts of England at
least, rcvealed furth er strong local/regional ide ntifications among Leave voters
in particular.
The people
regard themselves as British and wish to continue the union with Britain. Many,
if not all 1 Nationalists feel themselvcs to be Irish and want to be unitcd with the
Re public of Irdand. Devolution in Northern lreland has not succecdcd in cra<l-
icating deep-seatc<l Jjfferences betwecn the two communities and thc pcacc
proccss is still fragilc.
The contcmporary Blitish are a very diverse people with identitics that ca n
vary over time. An Ipsos MORI poll for The Economist in Scptcmber 1999 cxa m-
ined responses to diffcrcnt lcvels of association. Scots said thcy wcre most likcly
to jdentify with Scotland (72 pcr cent) and their rcgion (G2 per cent), lcss with
their local community (39 per cent) and only rarely with Britain (l 8 per cent).
The Wclsh idcntitied tirst with Walcs (81 per cent), then with thcir rcgion (50 pcr
cent) and cornmunity (32 pcr cent) and tinally with Britain (27 pcr cent). J\mong
the English, ther - was a relatively cvcn <livision between thc importance of rcgion
(49 per cent), Gritain (43 per cent), local community (42 pcr cent) and England
(41 per cent) . The Wdsh an<l Scots sceme<l incrcasingly to bt J efining thcmsclvcs in
terms of their' thni -• nationaliti es than of a British civic ide ntity1 while the English
in 199~) apparcntly rcflcctcd thc various componcnts of th 'ir idcntity cqually.
.J\ British Social Attitudes (BSJ\) report in 2003 cxamine<l whcthcr Britons
saw a British national idcntity as being b asc<l on 'civi c' or' 'thnic' factors. Most
respon<lcnts thought that both d "'m ents wcrc relevan t. C ritics frd that th e rnn-
ccpt of Britishncss is complicatcd 1 unlike 'nationality' in man y co untrics, is suh-
jcct to generational differences and does not tit in.to cith cr ca tegory cx( lusivcly.
J\ BSA survey in 2013 emphasized this when it r ·portcd that 63 pcr cent of
respon<lents thought that British national i<lcntity consistcd of civic an<l cthnic
factors with both bcing important, 31 pcr e ' nt felt th at it involvc<l only civi c
aspccts and 6 pe r cent found that it involved ncithe r civic nor cthnic factors.
It seemed that Scottish and Welsh ethni c idcntitics have bccom c stronger
in th ., twe nty-first century, and peoplc in England werc aL o in crcasingly likcly
to see th em selves as more English, poss ibly as a response to dcvolution and
Brcxit. Being British was still seen as the share<l óvic and cthni c i<le ntity of a
multinational st at e. But this association secmcd to be <lccreasin g against thc
press ure of rnany competing forces, such as indcpc n<lcncc for Scotland. Thcrc
also s emed to b e a d ecline in the strcngth of peoplc's pridc in he ing British Juc
partly to age and partly to new competing collcctive cx pcricnccs over time, as
well as the degree to which the civic part of national iclcntity is arguably ovn-
taking the ethnic. Nevertheless1 th e 2013 BSA survcy foun<l that th ' pcrccntagc
of respondents saying that th ey were 'proud ' ofb ing British was 76 pcr cent in
Scotland, 74 pcr e ·nt in Wal es an<l 73 pcr cent in Englan<l, and an average 82
per cent of peo plc wcre 'somewhat proud ' to be British .
These fin<lings sugg(.'St that th c con cept of Britishncss is cvolving in
a multinational l JK, hut also revea] a degrce of understatcd British pri<lc in
England, Scotland and Waks. Th l' attitudes of th se nations to Britishncss are
fluid and respond to :1 , arid y ul" conditioners. lThe North ern lrish were not
included in th c surwy d :1t;1 ) .
The people
Exercises
Briefly define and examine the following terms, commenting on their
significance in British life:
Further reading
Websi tes
Campaign for the English Regions : www.cfer.org .uk
Devolution : www.britishcouncil.org/devolution/index .htm
Looking into England : www.britishcouncil.org/studies/english
Scotland Office : www.scottishsecretary.gov.uk
Wales Office : www.walesoffice .gov.uk
Northern lreland Office : www.nio .gov.uk
4
Religion
■ Rcligious history
■ Re:.ligion in schools
■ Rcligious identification
■ Exercises
■ further readini
■ Websites
Religion
This chapter examines rcligion in Britain from pagan times; thc latcr conflicts
b etwccn diffcrcnt beli efs; fundam ental changes in religious history; th e arrival
of new faith s; and debates about religion's place in contcmporary l3ritain .
Thc Christian religion has been a significant part of lifr in the British Isl cs
for ncarly 2,000 years tirst sporadically Juring th' Roman Conquest and thcn
1
more widely following conversions from paganism . J\ftcr Henry VlII 's scpara-
tion from Rom c in th e sixtecnth century and th c gradual crcation of a Protcs-
tant Church of England religion was subscqucntly charactcri7.cd by contlict
1
T here is littlc concrete evidence oforganized r ,Jigion in early British history, although
archaeological Jiscoveries suggcst varied fi.)rms of pagan belief associated with the
move mrnt of people into Britain from continental Europc. Littlc is known about
any religious structures for thc nomadi c Palacolithic p oples who roam ed the coun-
try. It scems that Mcsolithic hunt r-gathcrers from 10,000 Re 1itually worshipped
the natural workl, animals and seasonal fruit<;_Ncolithic s-ttlcrs from 5/)00 BC built
mcgalithic stonc burial monumcnts to cd -bratc thcir an ·estors. Thcy embraccd
fortility cults and thc spirit world and wcre lcd by pricst-like shamans. Bronze A.ge
comrnunitics from 3,000 ne d -signcd stone and carth monumcntc:; which wcrc
aligncd to thc sun or moon and th cir lcaders b "'Carne priest-kings who mcdiatcd
with th c gods. Cdtic gods and goddcsscs from 1,000 ll< : influen ·1.x l Iron A.ge socicty,
warfan.\ mctalworking, h caling and poetry, and sac1inccs wcrc ca rricd out hy Druid
plicsts in spcci-fic sacrcJ places, such as springs and woodlands.
Somt Christian intluc nces had rcachcd Britain Jurin g th c Roman ot-cu-
pa tion bctwcc n AD 43 anJ 41 O, but opinions dill ' r on how widcsprcad they
wcrc. lt is argueJ that thc intc rplay betw<:en pagan an<l C hristian obscrvancc
(re pcatcJ wilh Scandinavian invasions from AD 800) might haw hcc n . ignili-
cant. Missionarics anJ monks in 1rcland, who reprcscntcd a Cdtic variant of
th' Rom an Catholicisrn brought from Rom ', co nwrtcd sorne of thc pagan lrish
kings to C hristi anity as carly as AO 300. This prnccss continuc<l anJ mu ch of
Ireland was co nvertcd from arounJ AD 432 by St Patrick and othcr monks.
lrish missionarics spn-ad Ccltic Christianity to Walcs, ScotlanJ an<l northcrn
England, l'Stahlishing rcligious centres, such as that of St Columba on thc Srnt-
tish isl am! of lona . Opinions vary as to thl' cxtc nt of thc Ccltic Church's inllu-
ence on England as a wholc.
In AD S~)C>- 7 thc J\nglo-Sa xo ns of Kcnt in southcrn EnglanJ wc1-c introduced
to the Roman Catholic faith by St J\ugustinc and othcr monks, who had bccn
sent from Romc by Pope Grcgory an<l who l"oundcd thc ccclcs iastical capital of
Cantcrbury in Al) 597. Thc spn: a<l of Christianity was cncouragtd by Anglo-Saxo n
kings, who thought the hierarchical exa mplc of th c Christian church would sup-
port thcir royal authority. Th c church proviJc<l c<lucate<l adviscrs and adminis-
trators, through whom th c kings controlkd th cir king<loms mor -' cffici cntly anJ
th ·' con ncction betwcen -hurch and statc was cstablish cd carly in English history.
Southcm English Christianity was bascd on th bdicfs and practices of thc
C hurch oF Romc. J\lthough th E faith of lrcland, Walcs, Scotlan<l and northcrn
EnglanJ was also founJcJ on Roman doctrines, it hada more Celtic i<lentifi.cation.
Co nflicts and divisions arose between th c two branchcs of Christianity. But these
wcrc cvcntually resolved in AU 6(-,4 at thc syno<l ( religious m eeting) of Whitby,
whc n.' ali thc chun:hcs agrced to acccpt thc Catholic form of worship and practice.
Christianity b ecamc a central and intluc ntial force in society. Thc Catholic
C hurch was hascd on a hierarchy of monks, pricsts, bishops and archhishops.
Religion
It was a part not only of religious culture but also of national administration,
government and law. However, it was increasingly acc used of worldlincss and
rnaterialism and thought to be corrupt and conc rned with politi cs rath er than
religion. Nevertheless, rnonarchs maintained their allegiance to the Catholic
Church and thc Pope in spiritual matters, sorne with more conv iction than
others.
H owcvcr, the relationship b etwccn England and Rome becam e difticult
and by thc sixteenth century was at brcaking point. English monarchs wcrc j 'al-
ous of the wealth and power of the Church and rescnte<l th e influence of Rome
in national affairs. Henry VIII argued in 1529 that as King of England he, not th C'
Pope, was th e supremc legal authority in the country and that the Church and
courts owed their allegiance to him.
ln 1534 H enry broke away from Rom c and <lcdarcd himsclf hea<l of th c
Church in England. Th e immed iate rcason for this bn: ach was the Popc 's
refusal to accept H enry's divor ' <:' from his quecn, Kath arinc of Aragon , who
had not produced a malc heir to thc thron c. But Henry also wantcd to curb thc
Church's power and wealth. In 153G he dissolvcd monastcri cs an<l conf-iscated
much Church property.
Although Henry had establishcd a national Church , that Church was still
Roman Catholi c in its faith an<l practiccs. Henry did not rega r<l himsclf as a Prot-
estant, nor <lid he consi<lcr the English Church to be part of thc Protcstant Rcf-
ormation, which was affccting rdigious lite in continental Europe. Indccd, Hen ry
had defended the papacy against Martin Luther in 1521 . Thc Pope rewardcd
him with the titlc of Fidci D efensor ( Deh.-ndcr of the Faith), which British rnon-
archs still bear today, and which can be secn on most British coi ns as 'FI)' .
Ncvcrtheless, the influencc of the Europea n Rcfnrmation ca us ,d the
English, Scottish an<l Welsh Churches to movc forthcr away from Rome's doc-
trines. This developrnent in England incrcasc<l und cr Edward VI ( l 547-S3 ),
when practices and b elicfs bcca me more Protestan t. John Knox in Scotland also
accekrat ,d the proccss by founding the separate Prot stant Church of Scotland
in 1560. Meanwhile, lreland remaincd mostly Catholi ·.
Conflicts between Catholics and Protcstants bcgan, which oftc-n involved
violcnt pcrsecution. H enry VIII 's daught ' r, thc Catholi c Mary TuJor, tri c<l to
restorc thc Catholic faith <lurin g her reign (1553- 8), but did not succe d. H 'r
half-sister, the Protestant Elizabcth I (1558-1603), establishcd th t: Protestant
status of the Church of England by the terrns of h er Church Settlement. Thc
Church's doctrine was stated in th e Thirty-Nine J\rticlcs of Faith ( 1571) an<l its
forms of worship were contained in thc Book of Common Praycr (both r ·v iscJ
in later centurics). English replaced Latin in church docum<:.nts and scrviccs, and
priests were later allowed to marry. The English Church now occupicd an intcr-
m ediate position between Catholicism and the Protestant Churchcs of Eumpc.
However, thc crcation of th c Protestant Church of EnglanJ <lid not stop
th e religious argumcnls which wcre to affect Ilritain in latcr centurics. Many
Rel i g i on
Protcstants in th e sixtccnth and seventcenth crnturics h_,]t that thc Church had
not distanced itsclf sufticicntly from Rome and sorne left to form th eir own
religious organizations. Initially callcd Disscntcrs bcca usc th cy JisagreeJ with
the majority view - such as the Baptists form cJ in 1612 who beli eved in full
immcrsion in water Juring baptism - they wcrc latcr known as Nonconformists
and toJay are mcmbers of th e Free Churchcs. Tcnsion hctwccn difh.~rent forms
of Protcsta nti sm also occurred in th e Civil War ( 1642-51) betwecn Royalists
and Parliamcntarians, which led to the protectorate of Oliver Cromwcll.
Thc collapsc of Cromwcll's narrowly puritan rcgimc aftcr his death, anJ
the restoration of thc Stuart monarchy under Charles 11 in 16(>0, brought sorne
rel igious modcn1tion . But sorne rdigions still suffered. The Catholic Church
had undergo ne pcrsccution after the Reformation and the English Civil War,
an d Jews and Nonconformists also cxpcricnced Jiscrimination. These religious
groups were excl udcd from the universities, the House of Commons and pub-
1ic off-ice. It was not until the early nin eteenth century that most restrictions
placed on them wcre formally remove<l. Meanwhile, the Church of England
soli<litic<l its dominant position in 1688, when the Dutch Protcstant William
Relig i o n
IIJ succccded James II, the last English king to sympathizc openly with th c
C atholic cause.
Howcver, furth cr quarrels affccted religious life in th e ' ightce nth and nin c-
teenth ccnturi es, as groups react cd to rationalist developments in th c Church
of England. For examplc, the Methodists (foundcd l 73 9) st rcsscd th e ' mo-
tional aspc.cts of sal vation and reli gion. Thcy tried to work within the Chur -h
of England, hut opposition to thcir views eventually forced th cm to separatc.
N ev rth E'lcss, an cvan gclical wing within the Church was stron gly influenc "'d
by Mcthodism. Th c cvangelicals bascd th eir faith on a literal interpretation of
th e Biblc and a humanitarian idealism. Thcy accomplished industri al and social
rcforrns in ninct ccnth-cc ntury Britain an<l to<lay th e 'Low Church ' wing of thc
Chur -h of England is intlue nccd by evangcli ·alism. Other groups also rcactcd
to the Church of England and fóundc<l a variety of Nonconformist se ·ts.
On thc oth e r han<l, thc O xfor<l or Tractarian Movcm cnt devclopc<l in th e
1830s and emph asi zcd th e Church of Englan<l 's histori cal and thcological co n-
nections with Roman Catholicism . It follow cd C atholi c doctrin es an<l ust>d
claboratc ritual in its chur h scrvi ces. It intlucnccd foturc gcncrations and tod ay
is rcprcse ntc<l by thc J\nglo-Catholic or ' High Chur -h' wing of th e Church of
England.
By th e e nd of thc nineteenth ccntury th e various Christian an<l non-Christi an
church 'S, such as .Ju<laism, wer ' scattcr ,J throughout Britain . In th c twe nticth
century, immigrants a<ldcd furth er rcli gio us diversity. Muslim mosques, Sikh
and Hin<lu temples, and West ln<lian church cs, such as th c Pc ntccostalists, are
common in arcas with largc min ority cthnic communiti cs.
In Britain today, th c growth of Chri sti an and non-Christi an rdi gious obser-
van e and vitali ty is found outsi<lc thc hig t ra<liticm é.l l C hristian churchcs. Thc
evan gelical m ovcme nt has grown as a hran ch of Chri sti anity and is charactcr-
izcd by a closc r ,]ation ship among membcrs and a p erson al frc ling hctw T n
th em and G od, Christ and the Holy Spirit. It has basic Christi an lx lids, hut
cxpresses thcm in diffe re nt ways; breaks <lown th b arri crs of more tra<litional
worship; places littl e rcliance on church furniturc; and h as m any c.liffcrc nt
meeting places. Th c growth of fund am cntalist fa iths, 'cnthusi asti -' Christi an
churches, cults and other rel igious move mcnts have also in crcascd th c numbcr
of pcoplc active in religious life. Mcanwhile non- Chri stian faith s, such as Isl am,
haw ex pandcd significantl y, due to incrcasc<l immigration and largc birth ratcs
in thcse communitics.
Thcre is reli gious frcedom in contemporary Britain; a pc rson rnay hd ong
to any religion or nonc and religious discrimination is unlawful. Th crc is no
r --ligious bar to the holding of public otfice, cxccpt that th c monarch must he a
rn e mber of the C hurch of England. None of th e Church es is spccihcally ti ed to
a political party an<l th er , are no religious parti es in Parliame nt. In 2006, in citc-
m cnt to religious hatred was m ade a criminal offc ncc in England anJ Wales.
Th cre was opposition l'rom scculari sts and tho e who argucd that it was not a
Religion
CHRISTIAN CHURCHES
NON-CHRISTIAN CHURCHES
crimina l oHcncc to robustly criti cizc rcligion. Th c Act was limitcd to incitcm c nt
by 'thrcatc ning bchaviour or words' and much wi ll dep cnd on how thc courts
intcrrrL't thcsc in a givcn case.
PLATE 4.2 The Church of St Peter and St Paul , West Newton, Sandringham , Norfolk; a Church
of England bu ilding, which is on th e royal Sandringham estate. © A lbanpix/Shutterstock
Religion
PLATE 4 .3 Canterbury Cathedra l was establ ished in 597 AD and rebu ilt in various
styles, including Gothic; seat of the Archbi shop of Canterbury and cen tre of the
Church of Eng land/ Anglican fa ith ; contains the shrine of the murdered St Thomas
Becket; and is a site of pilgrimage . Courtesy of lmmanuel Giel
Religion
debate split th e Ch urch into factions and drove sorne membcrs and clergy into
the Roman Catholic Church, and th ere is significant hostility to thc idea of
women pri ests in sorne parish es and from a number of mak priests. D ebate
then beca m e concerned with th e G eneral Synod's proposal in 2013 that
womcn should b appointed as bishops in thc Church. Afte r more conflict, the
pro posal was passed in 2014. Th e first woman bish op was consccrateJ in 2014
and reached a total oftcn by 2016.
Thc church is opposcd to same-sex marriagcs although it acccpts sa m e-sex
partn erships. Anothcr area of conflict is wheth er priests should be ope n]y gay
or in practising gay relation ships. At prcse nt, non-practising gays may bccomc
pricsts, but the iss ue is controversia] and a practising gay pricst who marri ·,J in
2014 was prcve nted by church authoritics from scrving as a pri cst . Divisions
havc appcarcd in many pari shes an<l thc Church tinds it <lifticult to maintain a
co mmon]y acccptabk policy.
Thc Church of Englan<l is somctirncs rderrcd to as thc 'J\nglican C hurch ',
in thl scnsc that it is part of a worldwic.k cornmunion of churchcs whosc prac-
ticcs an<l hc lids are very similar, an<l many of whi ch desccnd from thc Church
of Englan<l. This Angli can Communion co mpriscs sorne qo million r -orle in
th ' British Isks (indu<ling discstahlishcc.l Episcopal churchcs in Walcs, Srntlan<l
an<l North rn Ircland) an<l abroa<l, such t1s th c Pmtcstant Epi scopal C hurch in
thc lJSJ\ and oth ers in Africa , South-east Asia, South J\mnica and Ca nada. lt
is thc world's third largcst C hristian organization. Snmc of its churdws h:1vc
wo mcn pri csts an<l hishops, whilc othcrs do not. But thc qucstion of wlwthn
to acccpt practising gays as p ricsts or bishops is also bcin g J cbatcd in tlw C om-
munion, with th c d angcr of schism bctwccn co nscrva tivc (/\frican) a nd lihnal
provine.es (North American) . Thc Lambdh Conh.'n.·1KL' (a meeting of J\ngli can
bishops from ali OVL'r thc worlJ) is hdJ cvcry ten ycars in Lonc.lon ami is prc-
ickd ovcr hy th c J\rchhishor of Ca nt ' rhury. lt has grcat prLstigc ;111d its delih-
rations on doctrin e, rclations with othn chur ·hes, and attitudcs to politi cal
and social qucstions ca n be intlucntial. Howcvcr, it is also currcntly struggling
w ith a numb 'r of th co logi cal, political and social probl e ms among its membns.
Toda y, muc.:h of th c Church of EnglanJ mcrnlwrship is midJle- and uppcr-
·lass, rural-hascd and agcing and it tcnds to be idcntificJ with cstablishmrnt
thinking and authority. Howcvcr, thcrc is co nflict in thc Church lwtweu1 trac.li-
tionalists, who wish to m aintai.n old fórms an<l bclids, and m odcrnists, who want
an cngagcd and a<lvc nturous Church to attract a co ntcmporary co ngrcgation .
In rL'C "nt ycars, th c Church of Englan<l has bccn more willing to e n ter into
co ntrovt' rsia] argumcnts about socia] and political problcms in contemporary
Britain , such as povcrty and th c condition of pcopk living in th e inner cities,
and has be ' 11 critica] of govcrnm 'nt policics. This has brought it into conflict
with politi cians, amongst whom its popularity is not high. It has t ended to avoid
such issucs in th e past and was describcd as 'thc Conservative Party at prayer'
bcca usc of its safe, establishment imagc. It is still widely felt that th e Church,
Religio n
like thc monarchy, should not involvc itself in política] qucstions and histori-
cally it has favoured compromise and neutrality. Howevcr, sorne critics argue
that th ' Church is mediocre, divided by squabbles, unccrtain of its future and
lacks both authority and charm. In this view, it must modcrnizc its attitudes,
organization and values if it is to continuc as a vital force in British lifc and to
rcgain its historical status.
PLATE 4 .4 Requiem Mass at Westminster Cathedral, London . This mass was in memory of Pope
John Paul 11, 3 April 2005 . The cathedral is the centre of Eng land's Roman Catholic faith and
the seat of its prem ier Cathol ic cleric, the Cardinal Archbis hop of Westminster. © Shutterstock
There are many voluntary or faith schools that catcr (if not exclusively today)
for Catholic pupils and are sometimes staffed by mcmbcrs of religious ordcrs,
such as the Jesuits, Marists and Christian Brothers. Th · se an<l other ordcrs also
carry out social work, such as nursing, hospital dutics, child care and looking
after thc clderly. Howeve1~ thc number of rnen entering thc pricsthoo<l decl incd
sharply in the 1980s, l 990s and in the twcnty-first ccntury, although -figures
seem to be incrcasing again. Thc Church has faced accusations of sex abuse by
sorne of its clcrgy.
Thc Baptist English found ers in 1612 wished to purify the Church of
England and baptism by water was their cleansing symbol. Thc Baptists are
toda y grouped in associations of churches. Most of these now bdong to the Bap-
tist Union of Great Britain (covering England and Wales), which was formed in
1812 and had a m embership of 150,000 people with 2, l SO church es in 2009.
There are also independent Baptist unions in Scotland and Ircland 1 in addition
to a worldwide Baptist followship of sorne 37 million rn embers, making this th e
fifth largest Christian Church in the world.
The United Reformed Chun:h (URC) is a union bctwccn old churchcs.
The ancient Congrcgational Church in England and Wales had its roots in six-
tcenth-century Puritanism. lt gradually m crgcd with thc Calvinist-influenccJ
Preshytcrian Church in England, Wales and Scotland, the Churches of Christ
and other sccts in 1972, 1981 anJ 2000 to form th e URC. lt is a small Christian
dcnomination in Britain with sorne 68,000 rncmbcrs, 1,500 congregations and
700 ministe rs. It bclicvcs in Christian unity and ecume nism worldwidc, and
a multicultural pcrspcctivc achi evcd through 11-initarian ( Holy Trinity) crecJs
and thc ílibk as th c Word of God. It is ccntrcJ on local congrcgations through
w hi ch all mcmbcrs collcctivcly make dccisions. It coopcratcs with thc Method-
ist C hurch in Britain and works globally with 70 million Christians who sharc
its rcformcd bclids.
Th c Sal11atúm J\nny is an intl'rnational Christian cvang<..'lical movc mcnt.
lt c mphasizcs saving souls through a pract ica] Christianity and soc ial conccrn
and its messagc is hascd on thc 13ihlc. It was foun<l cJ in Britain hy William
Booth in 1865; now h as so m ' 1. 7 mi Ilion active mcmhcrs Jnd 1,500 otli ccrs
and mini stc rs; has sprcad to 126 othcr rnuntrics and has a worldwiJc strcngth
of sonw 2.5 million. Thc Salvation J\rmy is an cHicicnt organization and has
e ' ntrcs nalionwidc to h clp thc homclcss, c!Jcrly, ahuscJ , poor, si -k and thc
necdy and to sca rch For missing pcrsons. Its uniformcd mcmhc rs may he frc-
qucntly scen on th e stret'ts of British towns and cities, pl ay i ng and singi ng
rcligious music, coll ecting mon t'y1 pr 'aching and sclling thcir ma gazim thc
Wt,lr Cry.
PLATE 4.5 Interior of Bayswater Synagogue, west London , with parchment Torah containing
the first five books of the Hebrew Bible . © Jonathan Hordle/Shutterstock
PLATE 4 .6Muslims attend ing Regent's Park Mosque in west London for Friday prayers, 15 July
2005 . © Andy Paradise/Shutterstock
Religion
population, 41.7 per cent of which in 2014 were nominally Christian despite
the growth of agnostics and atheists. Non-Chri stian groups have altcred thc
rcligious face of British society and influenced employment conditions, sincc
allowances hav to be made for them to follow their rcligious observanc s and
customs.
Such groups have also becomc vocal in cxpressing th eir opinions on a rangc
of mattcrs, such as protests about British foreign policy in the Middle East, Iraq
and Afghanistan; a Muslim demanJ for mor of their own schools to be sup-
portcd by statc fonds; and Muslim outrage against Salman Rushdi e's novel The
Sataníc Verses, parts of which ar<:. considered to be blasph ' mous.
The earlier mutual intoleranc' among Chri stian denomin ations in Britain has
gra<lually m e11owed aher centuries of hostility and reprcssion. Thcn. ' is now
considerable cooperation betw en th e churches, although this stops short of
ecumcnism (full unity ). Discussions continuc hctwecn the Roman Catho-
lic Church an<l other Christian churchcs ahout doscr tics and an J\n gli can-
Roman Cathoüc Commission ex plores points of possible unity. Th e old cnmity
betwecn Protestants and Catholics h as becn reduccd, though tension continuc s
in Scotl and, Northcrn Ircland and parts of En gland.
On oth er levcls of coopcration, Churchcs Togcthcr in Britain and lrcland
has reprcsentatives from thc main Christian church cs and works towards com-
mon action and Christian unity. Thc Free Church F -<lera] Council does a similar
job for th e Free Church cs. The Anglican and the main Free Churchcs also par-
ticipate in the Worl<l Council of Churchcs, which attempts to promotc wor1J-
widc cooperation and studies common problcms. Th " Council of Christians
and Jews works for better understanding among its mcmbcrs and th e Coun cil
for Churches Togethcr of Britain and Irdand has cstablished a Committcc for
Relations with Peoplc of Othcr (non-Christian) Paith s. Thc Inter Faith Nctwork
for the UK consists of sorne 100 organi zations and pro motes good rclations
b etwcen th e country's different faith s. Thc growth of inter-faith and multi-faith
bodies sin ce 2000 in di cates a <lesire anda nccd for coopcration to sol ve Britain 's
current religious and social problem s.
Such attempts at possible cooperation are seen by sorne as positivc actions,
which might break down barriers and hostility and promot ' a more inclusive
BritaiJ.1. Others see them as signs of weakness, ' incc denomination s are obliged
to cooperate bccause of declining m embcrships and a lack of n:.a1 influc ncc
in th e contemporary world . Movcm ent towards Christian unity may al so be
thr atened by interna] contlicts in British dcnominations and by th e ordination
of women priests and bishops in thc Church of England, since thc Rom an C ath-
olic Church is opposl'd ,111J tht·1-c are rifts in Anglicanism worldwi<lc on thcse
Re ligion 109
.,
JO ~
;T
and other matters, such as civil partn erships and gay marriagc. Similarly, there
are ge nerational and religious tensions within Islam and externa] conflicts with
non-Muslims in Britain.
Sorne church pcople at grassroots lcvcl argue that the churches must adapt
mor to the requircments of modern life, or clse decline further in mernber-
ship an<l influe nce. Rcligious lifc in Britain has bccom e more cvangclical and
cooperative in ordcr to rcfl cct a divcrsc co nternporary socicty and values. How-
ever, traditionalists wish to preserve th e historical elemcnts of rcligious bclicf
and practicc an<l thc tcnsion hetwecn th e m an<l mo<lcrnists in all religious
gro ups is likely to continuc.
Religion in schools
Religious identification
Howcvcr, rcsults in the 2017 British Social Attitudes (BSA) survey, which
did not covcr Northern Ireland, showed more declines in religious allegiance.
Fifty-threc pcr cent of the British p eople now claimed to b e non-religious and
having no rcligious affiliation. Christian ide ntitication was now 41 p er cent
(comprising ] 5 pcr cent Anglican, 9 per cent Roman Catholic and 17 p er cent
other Christian). Th e non-Christian total wa. 7.7 pcr cent (4.6 per cent Mus-
lim, ] .5 pcr cent Hindu, 0.5 pe r ce nt Jewish, 0,4 per ce nt l3uddhi st, 0.3 p er cent
Sikh and 0.4 per cent other non-Christian) . Th ese results suggest that Christian
denominations such as th c Church of England werc losing ground.
Thc BSA survcy also found that fewer peopl of most Christian faiths
(cxcept for Ro man Catholics) actually attcndcd a servicc once a wcck, a major-
ity hardly cve r attended and smaller p ercc ntagcs attcndcd infrc4ucntly. Church
attcndancc, outsidc spccial occasions and 'rites of passage' visits, such as wed-
dings, fun e rals and baptisms, was low anJ continues to d ecl ine.
D csp ite th e 2017 BSJ\ figures which show a minority 4] pcr cent saying
that th cy wcrc Christian, sorn e p eop le argue that Britain is still a Christian
co untry, a position that is criticized by sccularists and oth ers. Scc ularization
appcars to be incrcasing, but rcligious growth, pluralism an<l spiritual belit: f are
indicatcd in sorne non-Christian and a few C hristian faiths. lt is é:llso argued that
r ligious and spiritual fedings do not nu:cssa rily re 4uirc regular observancc,
formal me mbership of a Jcnomination or allcgiann: to a givcn set of rdigious
doctrin es and practices. Th cy ca n manH<:st thcmsdves in altcrnativc ways in
society. Nor, é:lccording to sorn e critics, should rdigious institutions continuc to
receivc privil egcs in a diversc, mode rn Britain.
As religion has bccom c privatizcd and fragm ented, polls suggcst that p eoplc
still havc bcliefs which th ey may relate to a Cod or spiritual force, sin, a soul,
heaven, angels and spirits, life after <lea th, rc incarnation , th e ckvil and hcll, thc
powcr of praycr and mirncks. Man y of th ese bdiefs may be rooted partly within
religious traditions, but may not involve formal me mbership of a n:~ligion, and
may be duc to a sense of spirituality whi ch ·,mnot be explain ed through sci-
cnce. A Th eos surwy in 2013 found that on]y 13 pe r cent of ali British aJu1ts
and 25 pcr cent of th c non-rcligious agreed that humans é:11-C purely material
bcings with no spiritual dcment. lt was felt that spiritual beliefs are not only
held by thc conventionally re ligious and that even supposedly non-religious
peoplc havc such fcclings.
Thc 20] 1 Ccnsus reported that many Britons had a range of altemative
bdief structures, such as Jedi Knights ( 176, 632), Paganism (57,000), Spiritual-
ism (39,00(f) Abrnosticism (32,382), .lain (20,000), Humanism (15,067), Wi cca
Re l i gion
(11,766), Rastafarian (7,906), Bahúi Faith (5,021), Druidism (4,189) and Sci-
entology (2,418). Th re were activitics such as tarot reading, star sign rcading,
refl xology, healing with krystals, rciki sessions, faith hcaling, the paranormal,
mysticism, New Agc practices, telepathy, second sight an<l astrology which sat-
isfied othcr-worl<lly nccds.
Poll results suggest that peoplc in modern Britain are becoming more in<li-
vidualistic in tht..ir vicws and less depcndent upon church authoriti e.s or dogma.
Respondcnts who .say they have no dcclared religion may mean that they do
not bclong to a church structure, do not follow organiz ,J rcligion, but may
adopt a more personal approach towards belief Survcys indicatc a distinction
bctwcen formal rcligious obscrvance an<l a private sphcrc of rcligious or moral
focling.
Yct Jcspite the appcarancc of a .secular British statc, r "ligion in its traditional
forms is still a factor in national lifo. It is reflectcd in radio, t ,Jcvision anJ thc
pre. s which conccrn thcmsclvcs with rdigious anJ moral topics. BroaJcasting
of religious servie<::'S and debates can attract largc au<licncc ligures anda dcman<l
for more, <lcspite attcmpts by sorne brna<lcastcrs to cut rcligious programming.
A religious scn.sibility may also be rdlcctc<l in traditions, ccrcmonics, and
public or national morality. Rcligious <lcnominations are rclativcly promin<.'nt
in British lite an<l are active in cducation, voluntary social work and l nmmu-
nity carc. Religious lcadcrs of ali faiths puhlicly <lcbatc doctrine, social mattcrs,
political conccrns anJ thc moral 4ucstions of thc Jay, not always ncccssarily
within narrow church limits. Thcy may frcquently come into conffo.: t with pol-
iticians on issucs such as povcrty in Britain, food hanks, gay marriagc, forcign
wars and ocial incquality. Yct sorne largl' churchcs appcar unabk to mount
rohust dcfrnccs in countcring forther institutional <lcclim', an<l this process
scems likcly to continuc.
Howcvcr, thcre are other irnpli cations in this situation . Rdkcting a decline
in rcligiou.s faith anJ accord ing to a Lcc<ls lJnivnsity survcy in 19~)7, many
Britons do not trust othcr peoplc and now scc lif<.' as lcss prc<lictablc, more
timc-prcssurc<l, lcss s 'Cure, more materialistic anJ fast-moving, and thcir soci-
cty as rid<llcJ with mistrust, cynicism and grcc<l . I .acking traditional fait h in
conventional rcligion, more peoplc appcar to put thl'ir trust in matnialism,
physical appcarancc, fashion, tren<ls, cckbrity anJ indivi<lualism. Thcsc may
bccomc the rcligions of thc Jay.
Neve rthc1css, therc also secms to he a longing l<)r spiritua lity, othcr-worlJly
·ornf-órt and cxplanation, particularly among thc 18-30 agc group, which is
not being provid --d by tht' cstablishc<l or main.strcam churchcs, or hy in stitu-
tional identitics. The Times in a kaJcr on 19 .lanuary 2015 rnmmentl'J that this
situation:
suggests that 'th erc is a resilient and perhaps irr -ducibk wish for spiri -
tual answers even in an age of doubt anJ pluralism. It speaks to a nu.·d
Religion 113
.,
A ~
;.T
for something beyond ourselves - and rigorously rational intellccts
have b een willing to at least cntertain this notion'.
Such concerns secm also to influence mattcrs of personal morality and civic
rcsponsibility. J\..lthough th e re are differcnces of ernphasis betwccn younger
and oldcr ge nerations an<l hctwccn rn e n and wornen, many Britons have
strong views about right an<l wrong. Whilc thcse are not ncccssarily ticd to the
tcaching of any particular dcnomination, many British pcople do embrace an
authoritarian posturc in sorne c..¡ucstions of morals and social b ehaviour. 'Moral
traditionalism', old values, a scnsc of 'what is right' and civic responsibility are
still supportc<l by man y pcopl '. Thcrc is oftcn a grc atcr adhercncc to concepts
of personal an<l social morality than thosc dictatcd by official, rcligious and legal
restra in ts.
In tcrms of civic rcsponsibility, polis suggcst that attitudcs to authority and
th e law rcmain rclativcly convcntional in sorne arcas hut not in othcr.s. Thc
numbn of pcoplc who considn that thc law should be obcycd without cxccp-
tion has fallen, an<l more now bclicvc that onc should follow onc's conscicncc,
cvcn if this mcans brcaking thc law. /\ ccrtain critical indcp ' nJcncc cxists sidc
by sidc with thcse vicws and pcoplc are vcry willing to voie<.' thcir strnng con-
ccrns aboul a range of mattcrs. On many oth er mattcrs, howcvcr, thcn.' sc·cms
to hl.' a grnwing lihcralism.
Thc British sccm to havc bt.' come more tolcrant, ·for c·xampk, of scx in
tilms, homoscxuality, rnhahitation outsiLk marriage, altnnativc lifr.styks,
assisll'd Jying and euthanasia ( allowing a doctor to cm! a patit'nt's lik) if thc
pc rson in qucstion is suffering from a ¡,ainl'ul incurable illness, and that it is
worsc to convict an in non nt rerson (miscarriagc ofjusticc) than to kt a guilty
indivi<lual go free.
Thcs · varicd rcsponscs partly n:fkct thc d ·hatc on whcthn Britain is a
Christian country. Dcnominational Christianity has dccrcaseJ and a 2013 BS/\
survcy h.1Und that 7(> pcr ce nt of rcspondcnls thought that hcing Christian is
notan important ck mcnt in hcing British.
It is asscrtcd in othcr quartns that Britain is a Christian country bccausc
its laws and slructurcs are bascd on a framcwork of Christian valucs. This view
is opposcd by those who arguc that British law <loes not owe:.' its cxiste ncc to
'Christian' valucs, and that tlw convcntions an<l rcgulations that conJition
social lifr, predatc Chrislianily. Britain has bccn shapcd hy pre-Christian, non-
Christian and post-Christian forces, as wdl as universal values which are not
uniquc to Britain . Critics arguc that il is inappropriate to place Christian beli efa
abovc other Faiths and secular framcworks, which also contribute to British
culture. Thc non-rdigious havL incrcascd, thc number of Muslims, Buddhists,
Hindus, Jcws and Sikhs has grown, and Christianity has declined. It is argued
that th c UK has a plural rcligious lan<lscapc and no one faith group now has a
natural preccdencc in the state.
Rel i gion
Exercises
Briefly define and examine the following terms, commenting on their
significance in British life:
4 Examine the public opinion polls in this chapter. What do they tell us
about British society?
Further reading
Websites
Church of England : www.churchofengland .org.uk
Church of Scotland : www.cofs.org.uk/3colcos. htm
Roman Catholic Church : www.tasc .ac.uk/cc and www.catholic.org .uk
United Synagogue : www.brijnet.org .uk
Judoism : www.jewish.co.uk
Islam : www.muslimdirectory.co .uk
O-News (Muslim) : www.aapi .eo .uk/q-news
Churches Together in Britain and lreland : www.ctbi .org .uk
lnter Faith Network for the UK : www.interfaith .org.uk
Church of England Internet parish : www.i-church .org
O ffice for National Statistics : www.statistics .gov.uk
Belief in Post-religious Britain: www.theosthinktank .co .uk
5
Politics and
government
■ Political history
■ The UK govcrnm nt
■ Attitudcs to politics
■ Exercises
■ Further reading
■ lM!bsites
.,
"') 118 Pol i tics and govern men t
This chapter examin es the growth of political culture in the Unite<l Kingdom
(UK) since AD 43 and evaluates its conte mporary institution s and structurcs.
Britain's political history shows the weake ning of monarchical and aristo-
cratic power in its original nations (England, Scotlan<l, Walcs and Ircland) . This
led to political an<l legislative authority being centralized ü1 London in a UK
parliame nt, a UK governmcnt and a UK Prime Minister. A central break in this
structural devclopme nt occurre<l whcn th e UK joincd the Europcan Economic
Comrnunity (now EU ) in 1973, befóre evcntually voting to !cave th e organi-
zation in 2016. Changing social conditions rcsultcd in thc growth of politi cal
parti es, cxtcnsion of thc vote to ali a<lults, <lcvclopmcnt of local govcrnme nt
and a twe ntieth-cc ntury dcvolution (transfor) of central p olítica! powcr from
the UK Parliam ' nt to Wales, S ·otlanJ an<l Northcrn lrcland . Th csc proccsses
were accompanicd by political, social an<l rcligious co ntlicts, an<l co nstitutional
cornpromise.
The UK poli ti cal structures havc b ccn vigorously deh atcd and thcn.' is at
prcsent public disillusionment with th _, politi cal proccss and th e pcrforman ·e
of politicians. Th governmcnt in Lon<lon is accuse<l of bcin g too senctivc, too
ce ntralized, too rcmote, too m -<lia-reactivc, too controlling, loo ori cntcd to
party politi cs an<l insufhcicntly rcsponsivc to th e ncc<ls of th c <liv ·rsc pcoplcs
of the country. It is argucd that th e UK Parliam cnt has lost inllucncc ovcr thc
executive governrncnt; that political powcr has b ypasscd Parliamcnt an<l shiftc<l
to a presi<lential Prime Minister with a prime.· ministeri al officc in l O Downing
Str 'et, London; that unclected bodics, such as regional business groups, an<l
quangos ('quasi-autonornous non-govcrnm cntal organizations ' ) an<l political
advisers h avc becom c too influential; that th c Civil Se rvi ·e has h cen politicizcd;
th at th erc are weaknesses at devolved and local gov -' rnmental lcvds; that rccc nt
parli arnentary ex penses and sex scandals havc furth er tarnishcd thc rcputation
of politicians; and that the British political system nce<ls rcform in or<l r to
m ake it more efficient, more accountable to thc cl ectoratc and more adaptable
to modern requirem ents.
Recent govemrnents have atte mptcd constitutional an<l political 'mo<lcrn-
ization', such as devolution, the creation of a Suprcm' Court scparatc from th c
House of Lords in 2009, and the introduction of human ri ghts anJ frcc<lom
of info rmation legislation. Th c coalition govcrnment from 201 O also proposcd
co nstitutionaJ reform of thc Hous<.: of Lords in 2012 and ma<lc a failcd attcmpt
to r +orm the parli anw nt;-¡ry votin g systern. But sorne of th ese dc.vclopm 'nts,
such as human rights, h;1vt' ht en criticized for crcating more proble ms than th 'Y
Politics and govern m ent
have sol ved, and other proposals, such as Hous of Lords reform, have not been
carrÜ:' <l out. It is argued that the constitutional system needs to b " fundamen-
tally reformed to avoid inadequate proce<lures and political <lrift.
Political history
Early political history in the British Islcs is th e story of four gcographi cal arcas -
Wales, England, Scotland an<l Ir -. Jand (North e rn Ireland) - and th eir turhulcnt
struggles for indcpe n<lcnt nationhood. English political and military expansion-
ism ovcr thc ce nturies intluc nccd thc dcvelopml'nt of thc othcr threc nations.
Ireland was invadcd hy EnglanJ in thc twclfth cc ntnry; EnglanJ and Walcs werc
unite:.<l aJministrativdy hy thc l S36-42 /\cts of Un ion ; th c thrrnws of England
and Scotl and wcrc dynasti ca lly unitied in 1 fü)3 afo.r English attc mpts to rnn-
qu ' r Scotland; England/Walcs and Scotland wc1T joincd as Great Britain hy
th e 1707 /\cts of lJnion ; tlw 1801 /\et nf Un ion inrnrpnratcd Crcat Britain and
lreland as thc Unitcd Kingdom; and Southcrn IrclanJ (now th e Rcpuhlic: ol'
lr<:'land) hccamc indcpcn<lcnt in 1921 , k·1ving North c rn lrcland within the l JK.
English modcls wc1T cmploycd t(.)r thc UK, until Scotland, Walvs and Nortlwrn
Irclan<l rcgaincd sorne of thcir formcr politica l idc ntitics undcr dc·volution in
1998-99.
monarch and court advisers dev lopl'd. This continued a · a powcrful influence
until it lost authority to increasingly strong parliamentary structurcs in th e late
eightecnth and early nincteenth centuries.
But although Parliament gained limitcd powers against thc monarch , therc
was a return to royal dominance in Tudor England (1485- 1603 ). Th e nobility
had bccn weakened by wars and interna! conflicts (such as thc Wars of th e
Roses betwe n Yor1usts and Lancastrians). Monarchs controllcd Parliame nt and
summoncd it only to raise m oney. Tudor monarchs (of Wclsh ancestry) unitc<l
England and Walcs administratively, politically and lcgally in thc sixt 'enth
century. They also interve ned in Irclan<l and Scotland, with frequcnt military
campaigns.
Following th e Tudors, James VI of Scotland beca me .Jam "'S I of England
in 1603, cstablished a royal Stuart dynasty and considcrcd himself to be kin g
of Great Britain. But th e two co untri cs were not closdy join ,J politi ca lly or
cultura 11 y.
Howcvcr, the English Parliamcnt now showcd more rcsistan ce to royal rule
by using its weapon of finan cia! control. It refuscd royal requc.sts fór moncy and
Lit ' r forc d the Stuart Charles I to sign thc Petition of Rights in 1628, which
pr 'vcnted him from raising taxes without Parliament's consent. Charles ignored
l h 'Se poli ti cal dcvclopments and thcn fail ·d in his attempt to arrcst parliamen-
t;1ry lca<lcrs in thc House of Commons. Thc monarch was in futurc banned
l'rom thc Commons.
Charles's rcjc tion of parliamc ntary idcals anJ b elicf in his divine right to
rul e without opposition provoked ang 'r again t th e Crown anJ a Civil War
hroke out in l 042 . Th 'Parliamcntarians undcr Olivcr Cromwcll won thl mili-
tary struggle against thc Royalists. Charl '. was beheaJ ed in l G49; the monarchy
was aholishcd; Britain was rulcd as a Prot 'Ctorate by Cromwcll and his son
Richard ( 1653- G0); and Parliamcnt compriscJ only thc Housc of Commons.
Cromwell asscrtc<l th' Protcstant anJ parliamentary ·a usc in Scotland and lre-
land, which provokcd lasting hatrcd among many pcople thcrc.
Cromwell's Protcctoratc bcca mc unpopular an<l most peopk wantl'J tlw
r storatio n of thc monan:hy. Thc two Houscs oF Parliamcnt wcrc 1-c-cstahlislwd
an d in 1660 thcy rcstorcd thc Stuart Charles II to thc thronc. lnitially Charles
· oopcratcd with Parliamcnt, but his financia! ncc.:·ds, hclicf in royal authority ami
support of Catholicism lost him popular anJ parliamcntary backing. Parlianwnl
nd ·J his 'Xpcnsivc wars and imposcJ l'urthcr rcforms.
political wing, Provisional Sinn Féin . Both wanted to removc the British politi-
cal and military presence from Northcrn Ireland.
On thc othcr sidc, Unionist paramilitary groups and th eir parties, such as
the Democratic Unionists and the Ulster Unionists, wcrc loyal to thc 13ritish
Crown and wanted to rema in part of th e UK. British troops and thc Ulstcr Con-
stabulary (now the Policc Servio: of N orthcrn Ircland - PSNI) werc supposed
to co ntrol th e two populations and to curb terrorism .
Various asse mblies and executives in North ern lreland to giv' th e Nation-
alist minority politi cal reprcscntation in coopcration with th c Unionist majority
(power-sharing) fail ec.t although most injustices to Catholic civil libertics wcrc
gradually removed . Thc lcvcl of violcncc in thc provin cc flu ctuatcd from l 9(i8.
British govcrnmcnts tric<l to involvc thc lrish govcrnmcnt in promoting rcsolu-
tion :md th e Anglo-Irish Agrecmcnt of 1985 was a joint dfort to solvc ditlicul-
ti es (such as bon.kr sccurity and cx tra<lition arrangcmcnts) in ordcr to crcatc
a devolved powcr-sharin g govcrnmcnt for North crn Ircland. This was achicvcJ
in l 998 (scc 'Dl:'volution'). Th c Rcpubli c now sccs unifi cation as a long-tcrm
aim and thc Ilritish govcrnmcnt insists th at no changc in North crn lrclanJ will
takc place unl css a majority of thc inhabitants thcrc agrec. Thc 2011 Crnsus
population of Northcrn Ir ,}and was 1,8 10,8(i3 and consistcd of Catholics at
817)85 (45.1 pcr cent), Protcstants at 875J 17 (48.4 pcr e -nt) and othns at
117Jn1 (G .5 per cent) .
Thc prcv ious scctions havc cxamin cd th c c.lcvclopnwnt of central British polit-
ical institutions. Th c following sections dca l with smallcr politi ca l units such
as local government throughout the UK and devolved structun.-s in ScotlanJ,
Wal cs, Northcrn Ireland and London.
Local government
Th e crcation of local government structurcs involve<l a hi stori cal movcmcnt
from ccntralization of political power to local rep rese ntative kvcls in res ponse
to politi cal needs. Monarchs and later central authorities had to rnntrol what
was happening in the country an<l req uired local otlicials to enfrm.:c thcir poli-
cies. Therc have consequently b een local govemm ' nt systems in EnglanJ, Wales,
Scotland and Ireland for ccnturies, ranging histori ca lly from th c basi c Function
of a monarch 's or leader's sole representative to the more sophisticatt'd J\.nglo-
Saxon division of Englan<l into countics and parish cs, which wcn:' organized by
local councils.
Local governm cnt dcvclopcJ, particularly in the ninetcen th ce ntury to
cope with th e necds ol' a r~1pidly growing population and th mon cy n ccdcJ al
Polit ics and go vernment 127
.,
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the local level now comes from central grants and local Council Tax. These pro-
vide local services throughout the UK 1 such as education 1 health, fire services,
transport 1 social services, sanitation and housing, through elected councils. In
England 1 it is administered by professional staff and an elccted two-ticr sys-
tem of county and smaller councils, with sorne single-ticr ( unitary) authorities
rnostly based on large citics. Th c local systc m is currently using ncw structures
to mcct social nccds.
But although many pcoplc count on local govcrnmcnt scrvices thc sys-
1 1
tem is languishing because of govcrnmcnt finan cia] cuts to reduce thc budget
deficit. lt is still dcpcndent upon ccntralú.c<l control anJ fun<ling from th , gov-
ernmcnt; whilc no longcr providing thc full rangc of traditional local scrvices;
and lacks adcquatc local pown to fultil its role of scrving communitics. Intcr-
est in local govcrnmcnt is low and opinion polls suggcst that dissatisfaction
with its councils has in crcascJ. Critics arguc for a more rigorous, cornpctcnt
and indcpcndcntly tinanccd localism with lcss hureaucracy, which would he
accountahh to local intcrcsts an<l free frorn central governmcnt intcrfcrcncc
an<l control.
Devolution
Dcvolution (transfcr of sonw political powcr from the UK Parliamcnt) was lirst
broach ' d in lrcland. Nationalist fcelings and unrcst in thl' ninl'tccnth ccntury
lcJ to calls lt)r Home Ruk for lrcland with a l\,rliamcnt in Duhlin. Howcwr,
Irdand was partitioncd in 1~)21-2 into thc lrish Free Stalc, with ils own Par-
liarncnt, ;111d Northcrn lrcland rL'rnainL·d in thc UK with a devolv ed Parlianwnt
(1921 - 72) .
Political and culturnl nationalism also grcw in Waks and Scotland frorn
thc l 9()0s. Aftcr faikd attcmpts to givc tlll'm devolved political powcr, thc
Labour gowrnnwnt crcatcd in l 99~) ( aftcr rcfcrcn<lums) an ckctcd Parliamcnt
with lcgislalivc and tax-varying powcrs in Scotland anJ a non-lcgislativc, part
tax-raising d cctcd J\sscmbly in Walcs. Northcrn Irdand achicvcd an ckctc<l
powcr-sharing J\ssemhly an<l Exccutiw in 1998 with thc passing of thc Coo<l
Friday (Bclh.1st) J\grccmcnt aftcr tortuous multi-party talks hctwccn Unionists
anJ Nationalists. Ali-Ir ,Jan<l rdc rcndums on thc J\grccmcnt wnc hdd . North-
-rn Ircland votcd 71 . l pcr cent in favour an<l 28.8 per cent against, whilc in thc
lrish lfrpublic th1..· rcsult was ~)4.3 pcr cent and 5.6 per cent rcspcctivdy.
Dcvolution is a ticr of <lccc ntralizcd govcrnmcnt. It allows these coun-
trics (with thcir l'Xl'Cutivcs anJ füst ministcrs) to decide thcir own affairs, in
dcvolwJ mattcrs such as cducation, lwalth, transport, environment, home
affairs an<l loca l govcrnmcnt. The UK Parliamcnt still has reserve<l powcrs over
sorne UK rnattc rs such as dde ncc, forcign affairs, social security, taxation, broad
C' ·onomic policy and immigration. Roles an<l procedures ( except for sorne ckc-
tions) in local anJ devolved structurcs are gcncrally similar to those at l JK ll'vcl.
Politics and government
The devolution experiment had a shaky start. The Welsh Assembly lacked
extensive powers: th e UK Parliament provided its primary legislation and th ere
were initial political problems. The Welsh Assembly now has more legislative
and tax-raising legislative authority. The Scottish Parliament was initially crit-
icized and seen as parochial and in effective. It is now stronger and more inde-
p endent, has a Scottish National Party (SNP) government and First Minister
and has passcd sorne legislation on education (student fees) and h ealth issues
(prescription charges and care for the clderly), which is <lifferent to that in
the rest of th e UK. After rejection of the independence referen<lum in 2014,
Scotland will rcceive more devolved powers over taxation and self-government.
Thc Northern lrish Assernbly ha<l a <lifficult start. lt was suspcndc<l in 2000,
2001 and 2004 largely bccausc of thc failurc of thc IRA to disarm until 2005, an<l
the province was under direct rule from London. However, thc Assembly was
restored in 2007 and th e peace prncess is holding, despitc tensions and outbrcaks
of sectarian and terrori st violcncc. Thc Assembly has sign ihcant legislative ami
cxccu6ve authority; and reservcd UK powcrs ovcr policing, sccurity mattcrs, pris-
ons and criminal justicc were transforred from Wcstminstcr in 201 O. But thcrc has
been conflict betwccn thc two govcrning partics of thc J\sscmbly (Sinn Fe.in and
th e Dcmocratic Unionist Party). Thc Ass rnhly ccascJ to function in 2017 and
public scrviccs are now bcing organizcd by civil scrvants and London politicians.
Although devolution marks a signif-icant step in British history, it is sti ll
developing as a political modcl an<l it is possiblc that Scotl an<l will agai n push
fór independencc. Critics argue that dcvolution structurcs h avc not hccn adc-
quat "ly thought through in te rms of altcrnative mockls, such as fc<l c ralisrn,
and particularly th e relationship with the UK Parliamc nt and thc anomalous
position of England.
England has no interrn ediate devolved ti er. I3ctwccn 1994 and 201 l it did
have a network of nin e appointed Regional Developrnent Age ncies (R.OAs),
whi ch implemcnted UK govcmmcnt politico-econornic programmcs in th c
regions, but did not provide elected devolved governm ~nt. It was intcndcd that
th ey could form the basis for a forth er regional dcvolution of powcr frorn Wcst-
rnin ster, analogous to the other devolved structurcs. But the RDAs an<l thcir
successors were abolish ed in 2011. English 'regions' still exist, but are only used
for limited purposes, such as regional offices of th e BBC and (former) EU Par-
liament constituencies.
Th e administrative area of Greater London has since July 2000 bee n run by
a directly elected devolved Greater London Authority with an elected mayor
and Assembly. Although a signif-icant office, the mayor <loes not have the t~xec-
utive and financia] authority of American big city mayors. lt was also hopcd
that mayors would be elected in oth er British cities, in an attempt to inneasc
devolved powers. Rut thc cxpcriment has not proved to be attractive in most
areas and thcrc are onl y a srnall numbcr of clccted mayors.
Devolution dm·s 110L mean indc pcndencc or scparation from thc UK for
London, Scotland , W;d(·s a11d Northcrn Ireland or a British federal systcm,
Pol i t i cs and government
PLATE 5.3 City Hall, headquarters of the elected London Assembly and Greater London
Authority which governs London under devolved powers, on the south bank of the river
Thames near Tower Bridge . © Peter Mackinven/View Pictu res/Shutterstock
As a rcsult of its p o1itical history, Britain has at present (201 9) a 'multi-k vel
governance' model (see Figure 5.1), in which the different lcvcls haw srwcilic
fun ctions and inilue nce each other to various degrees. Wheth cr thi s s ilu ;1linn
Po l itics and governmen t
European Union
l
UK Parliament
l
UK govrnment
l
Scottish
l
Welsh
l
Northern English
local local lrish local local
government government government government
will continuc dcpcnds upon the eventual outcomc to Brcxit ncgotiations. Thc
UK has a central constitution; the monan:h is formally hcad of statc; ami prac-
tica! politics opcrat, at national, devolved and loca l govcrnmcnt kvds. Thc UK
Par]iament in London with its govcrnmcnt c..kpartmcnts plays a 1.-cntral rok
in how th e UK i · governed, hut thc Scottish Parliamc nt, Asscmblics in Walcs
and North ern lreland an<l a Grcatcr London Authority have thcir own forms
of selF-governmental powers. Local govcrnrncnt structures throughout Britain
organizc society at small er comrnunity 1-•wls.
Th e UK joine<l the Europcan Economic Comrnunity ( now EU) in 1~)73,
which bccam a very important tier of UK govcrnmcnt. Its Europcan l\irlia-
m ent crcatcd legally binding legislation, an<l tlw -f-indings of th , Europcan C ourt
of Ju ti cc were supreme over British law in thc cvcnt of con 1-lict. Aftcr a frélc-
tious mcmbership, the UK was due to leave thc Europcan Union in 2019, fol-
lowing a 2016 refercndum. But this may not happrn.
The constitution
The constitutional systcm has cxpcrienced few scrious uphcavals sincc I G8H,
and existing principies h:,vc hccn pragmatically adapted to new conditions.
Politics and government 131
.,
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However, sorne significant constitutional chan ges have occurred in recent years,
, uch as EU cntry and devolution in l 9~)8-9, which have had constitutional
implications.
The powers of th e state in many countries are d efin cd and laid down in a
written document (or co nsti tution ); are often -Iassificd as cxecutive, legisla ti ve
an J judicial; relate to <listin ' tivc institutions (governme nt, parliamcnt and the
judiciary respcctively); and are separate. In Britain, how cvcr, th re is no absolutc
separa ti on of p owers, for t xa mpl e between exccutiv ' an<l lcgislaturc.
Britain is somctimes J 'Scribed as a co nstitutional monarch y, wherc th c
monarch rcigns as head of stat<: without exec utivc p owcrs un<l cr constitutional
limitations. It is also rc Fcrrcd to as a par1iamcntary systcm, whcrc thc UK Parlia-
mcnt ( co nsisting of thc Housc of Commons, th ' Housc of I ,or<ls anJ formally
the m o na rch) in Londo n is thc kgislaturc ami has lradition ally posscsscJ th c
sup rcmc powcr to makc laws in UK mattns (until ElJ l'nlry).
Thc l'Xl'<:utivc lJK governrncnt (sitting mainl y in thc Housc ol" C ommons)
govnns hy p assing its policics (sorne of which are applicahlc throughout ílrit-
ain) through Parliam c nt as /\cts of' Parliamc nt and opcratcs through ministril s
or departmcnts hcadeJ by ministcrs or sccrctarics of statl'. Within thc govnn-
mcnt, a C abinct rnnsisting of k adin g mini stl'rs ami lwadcJ hy th c Prime Minis-
ter, pr 'sc nt draft lcgislation, which is prcsc ntc<l to Parliamcnt as tlw lcgislating
hody. The rclationships bl'tWl'l'n Prime Ministcr, Ca hinl't and Parliamcnt c.H1 he
co mbativc a nd so mdimcs constitutionally un ckar.
Thc judicial bran ch is indcpcndc nt of the lcgisl atiw anJ ('X l'Cutiw hrandws
of govcrnmcnt. Thc judgcs (judic iary) of thc highn co urts dctcnnin c thc law
and intcrpret /\ cts of Parliamcnt. Thc highcst cou rt o f appl·al for many mattns
in t hc UK is thl· Suprcmc Co urt, crcatcd in 200~) . lt also d etermin es ckvolution
disputes co n ·crning En gland, Scotland, Walcs ami Northern lrcland .
Thcsc bran chcs, although distinguishahk from <. ach othn, are nnt e ntirely
se para te. For cxampk, th e mon arch is formally lwad of thc eXl'c utiw, k gislaturl'
and judiri ary. A Mc mhcr of Parliam c nt (MP) in thc Housc of C ommons anda
peer of thc Hm1Sl' of I .ords m ay hoth he in thc govcrnmcnt of tlw J ay.
Thesc hra nches are supposc<l to opcratc according to thc British co nsti-
tution. But Britain has no writtcn co nstitution containcd in onc doc ume nt .
Instcad, the constitution co nsists of distinctive lcm cnts, most of which are in
w rittrn form. Thcsc are statull' law (/\cts nf Parliamcnt), co mmon law or judge-
ma<lc case law, con ve ntions ( prin ciplcs an<l practi ces of govcrnm ent which are
not k gally binding but have th c force of law ), docum ents su ch as Magna Carta,
and El J law.
Thc constitutional el ·' mcnts are sa id to be fl exible enough to respond
quickly to ncw rnnditions. UK law ca n he crcated or changcd by th e Westmin-
ster Parliam c nt through Acts of Parli amc nt. Thc common law can b e ex tended
hy thc judiciary and convcntions ca n be altc rcd, made or abolish ed by ge neral
agrcc me nt .
Pol i t ics and govern ment
PLATE 5 .5 The officia l opening of the third Welsh Assembly, Card iff, 5 July 2007 .
© Dim itís Legakis/Shutterstock
law-initiating body. It was estimatc<l that thc EU until 2019 was the sourcc of
75 p er cent of Britain's laws.
Sin ce devolution, Parliament is still able to legislate for the Unit ~J
Kingdom as a whol e on reserved matters and for any parts of it separatcly.
However, it has undertaken not to legislate on devolv d matters without the
agreem e nt of th c devolved Parliament and Assembli 'S . Thc Scottish Parlia-
mc nt and thc North ern lri sh Assembly can therefor ' legislate on devolved
mattc rs, but the Welsh Assembly still has limited primary legislativc powcrs
in d evolved areas. Ultimately, howeve r, it is thought that thc lJK Parliam ent
has the constitutional right to abolish thc Scottish Parliame nt, th e Welsh an<l
Northcrn lrish Assemblics and, as it seems with Brcxit, to with<lraw thc UK
from th e EU.
The monarchy
Thc constitutional ti tic of thc UK Parliarncnt is thc 'Qucc n-in-Parliam c nt'. This
mcans that state and govcrnment business is carricd out in thc namc of thc
monarch by thc politicians and officia ls of th c systcm. Howcvcr, thc Crown is
only sovcrcign by thc will of Parliament and acceptancc by thc pcopk.
Thc monarchy is the oldcst secular institution in l3ritain an<l thcrc is hercd-
itary succcssion to th c thronc, but only for Protestants. The cl<lcst son of a mon-
arch once ha<l priority ovcr ol<ler daughtcrs ( mal e linc of descent). HowcvL r,
this was changcd by thc Succession to thc Crown Act 2013, and Princess Ch<lr-
lottc born in May 20] 5 becam c fourth in lin e to the thronc as the daughtt' r of
a dirct~t hcir to thc thron , <le moting h ' f uncle and others in line after him. Thc
chang will not apply retros pcctivcly to those born b efore October 2011.Thc
monarchy's continuity has bcen intcrruptc:d only by Cromwellian rule ( 1653-
60), although thcr, have b een diHe rcnt royal dynasties such as the Tudors, Stu-
arts and Hanovcrians.
Royal cxccutivc power has disappcared. But the monarch still has formal
constitutional roles and is head of state, hcad of the executive, jud-iciary and leg-
islature, 'supremc govcrnor' of the Church ofEngland and commandn-in-chicl'
Politics and government
Functions today are merely ceremonial an<l lack powe1~ it would be more ratio-
nal to aholish thc offic · and replace it with a less expensive non-excc utive
preside n -y.
Critics who favour the continuation of the monarchy arguc that it is pop-
ular, has adaptc<l to mo<lcrn reyuire ments, an<l is a symbol of national unity.
It is s ·en as a dcfrndcr of thc constitution anJ a pc rsoni-fi cation of th ' statc;
shows stability an<l continuity; has more prcstigc than politicians; is not suhjcct
to political manipulations; plays a worthwhik role in national institutions; is
neutral; pcrforms amhassa<lorial functions; and promotcs thc intc rcsts of Britain
abroad.
Th c monarchy in rcccnt ycars has attractcd criticism, although it app<.'ars
to havc h ·pt its appeal despitc the difhculti<.'s, with thc Quccn lwing pcrsonally
popular and rcspccted. J\n lpsos MORI poli in 201 (i whcn slw was ~)() and Brit-
ain 's longest n: igning monarc h, found that 7<-i pcr cent ol' adults f'avoured Brit-
ain rcrnaining a monarchy, while 17 pn 1..Tnt w.1ntcd a r('puhlic Scvcnty-livc
pc r cent th<)ught thélt thc monan:h had an important role to play in British lik
and thc1t shc should rcmain 4tH' <.'ll foras long <is possihk·, ratht·r than ahdil·ating.
Ncwrtlwkss, polis also suggcst that tlw monarchy should be rnodnnizcd
to n: lkct changes in British lil<.·. Yl'l traditionalists k ,1r that a modcrnii'.cd mon-
archy would losl' that aura oF cktachml'nl which is .stTn as il.s main strcngth. lt
would thcn be associatcd with chang1..' rnthcr than tlw prcsnv;,¡tion ol' existing
valucs. AL prcsn1l, it halanccs bctwccn Lradition ;111d modnni'.l.ing lr<'nds.
PLATE 5.7 The Houses of Parliament (Lords and Commons) at the Palace of Westminster on
the north bank of the river Thames . The clock tower on the far right contains Big Ben , which
is the nickname of the tower bell that strikes the qua rter hours . © Shutterstock
Polit i cs and g overnment 139
PLATE 5.8 State Opening of Parliament, 18 November 2009 . The Oueen 's Speech is deliv-
ered from the throne in the House of Lords to the assembled members of the House of Lords
and House of Commons . Following the retirement from public life of the Duke of Edinburgh,
the Prince of Wales now sits by the Oueen 's side and may read the speech . © Shutterstock
2 [I] 4 2
8 8
10
11
l
9
but must exercise this choice so that it reflects establishe<l convcntions. The
Speaker is important for the orderly running of th e House. MPs can be combat-
ivc and unruly, an<l th e Speaker can som etimes di smiss or suspcn<l a member
from the House.
Pormal debates in both Houses of Parliamcnt usually begin with a motion
( or proposal) which may b e <lebated. Thc matter is oftcn thcn <lcci<lc<l by a sim-
ple majority vote at th e cnd of <liscussion. In th c Commons, MPs c ntcr ci th er
th e 'Yes' or 'No' lobbics ( corri<lors running alongsi<le thc Commons chamber)
to record thcir vote, but th cy may also abstain from voting.
Th ' pro ·ecdings of both Houses are ope n to thc puhli c and may he vi 'wcJ
from th' public and visitors' gallcrics. Transactions are puhlishc<l Jaily in 1 lan-
sard (thc parliamcntary 'ncwspapcr'), debates are tclcvise<l, an<l ra<lio broa<l-
casts may b e in livc or rccordcd form. This cx posurc to public scrutiny has
increased int 'rest in th c parliam "' ntary proccss, although ncgativc co mmcnts
are ma<l . . about low attcn<lancc in both Houscs an<l thc incrcasingly hoistcrous
hehaviour of M Ps in th e Commons during debates and qucstions ( including thc
wcckly Prim e Minister 's Qucstion Time).
Thc process of law-making is an cxpansion of thc simple debate struc-
turc. Bcforc th e creation of n 'W UK law (which may takc a ti._,w Jays or many
months) anJ changcs to ex isting law, a govcrnmcnt usually issucs prcliminary
<locumcnts. A Gre '11 Paper is a consultativt documcnt that allows intncsted
partics to stat . . their case bcfore a hill is introJuccd into Parliamcnt. A Whit<..'
Papcr is not normally consultativc, but is a Jocumcnl that dctails thc prospcc-
tivc lcgislation.
A Jraft law takcs thc form of a bill. Most bills are 'public' bcca usc tlwy
involvc statc business anJ ar' introJuccd in cither Housc of Parliamcnt hy thc
govcrnmcnt. Othcr bilis may be 'prívate' lwcausc th cy relate lo mattcrs such as
local govcrnmcnt, whik sorne are 'private membcrs' bills' introduccd by MPs
in thcir pe rsonal capacity. Thcsc latt 'í bills are on a topic of in ter 'St to M Ps,
but are often dcfr:atc<l for lack of parliamcntary time or support. Howcvcr,
sorne prívate mcmhcrs' bilis conccrning thc <lccrirninalization of homos<..'x ual-
ity, ahortion and sexual offencts haw survivcJ thc ohstacles and hccomc law.
Bilis must pass through hoth Houscs and rcccivc thc royal assent bcforc
thcy bccomc law. Thc Commons is normally thc lirst stcp in this pro -. 'SS . Thl'
Lords an vote against or <lclay a non-finan cia) bill . Jt can proposc amendmcnts,
anJ if amcnded the bill goes back to thc Commons 1-ór furthcr consid 'ration.
This amcnding fon ction is an important powc r and has bccn frcqucntly uscd
in r 'Cent years. However, the Lords' role today is to actas a forum for rcvision,
rathcr than as a rival to th e elected Commons. In practi cc, thc Lords' amrnJ-
mcnts can lead to the acceptance of changcs by th , govcrnmcnt, orto a with-
drawal of thc bill.
When the bill has cventually passed through Commons and Lords, il is
sent to the monarch for th royal assent ( agre "ment), which has not bccn
Politics and government
¡
HOUSE OF COMMONS
¡
First reading or formal introduction of bill
¡
Second reading
(debate on general principies)
¡
Committee stage
(detailed discussion and amendment)
¡
Report stage
(amendments)
¡
Third reading
(formal but debate possible)
¡
HOUSE OF LOROS
¡
MONARCH
¡
ACT OF PARLIAMENT
rcfuscd sin n ' thc cightccnth ccntury. /\her this1 the hill lx·rnmcs an /\ et ol'
Parlianwnt a nd is placed on the statutc-h<..)ok as rcprcscnting th c law of th c
lan d at tha t time.
UK Parliament elections
Thc UK is divided for Wcstminstcr parliamcntary elections to th e House of
Commons into ()SO constitucncics (gcographical areas of the country co ntain-
ing ahout fü) 000 voters- although sorne havc more orfewer). Each rcturns 01w
1
Poli t ics and government
British clections at parliamcntary, devolved and loca l lcv ,Is <lcpcnJ upon th c
party politi cal systcm, which has ex isted since th c scvcnteenth century. For UK
parliamentary general ckctions, th c partics prcscnt their policics in th e form
Politic s a nd g overnment 145
.,
A~
;T
1 ,r manifostos to th e electorate for consideration during the few wceks of cam-
¡)aigning prior to election day. A party candidate ( chosen by a spccific party) in
; 1 constituency is elected to th e Westminster Parliament on a combination of
1 iF th electora te.
Since 1945 th erc havc be n ninc Lahom~ ten Conscrvativc and onc Con-
scrvativc/ Libcral Dcmocrat coa lition govcrnmcnts in 13ritain. Sorne have had
l;.1rge majoriti es in th e Housc of Commons, whik oth ers havc had small oncs.
Sorn e, such as thc Lahour govcrnments in thc 1970s and th c Conscrvativcs
in thc 19~)0s and 2017, ha<l to rcly on th c support of small cr partics, such c1s
Lhe Lib ' rals, Ulstcr Unionists, Dcmocrati c lJnionists and l ,ibcra l Dcmo ·rats,
image that is attractive to voters and develop policies more in tune with th e
changing face of British society.
Nevertheless, it was unablc to forrn a majority governrnent in the 201 O
general election and organizcd a coalition go vernment with th e Libera l D m-
ocrats. The party has struggkd to win in crcascd support and face<l opposition
fo r its European, cconomic and immigration poli cics. But it won thc G e neral
Elcction in 2015 with an ovcra ll majority. D av id Cam e ron th en rcsigned thc
lcadcrship, largely as a r<.-'s ult of th e 2016 Rdcrcn<lum vote to lcave th e EU and
was succee<led by Thcrcsa May. Th c Conscrvativc govcrnment faces rnany EU,
party and national probkms, and although winning th c 2017 ge nual clection , it
h a<l no ovcrall maj o rity. Its survival dcpcnds upon th c support of thc Northcrn
Irish Dc mocratic Unionist Party (DUP) , but thC' Conscrvativc Parly is dccpl y
<livi<led bctwcen <liffcrc nt policics anJ i<lcological factions.
Th c I.ih ·'ra l Dl' mocrats ( Lih Dcms) wcrl' formcd in 1988 whcn thc old
Lihcrals ami a ncw Social Dcmonati c Party mcrgc<l into onc party. Thl'Y SlT
thcmsl lvcs asan altnnativc political force to thc l .ahour an<l Conscrvatiw Par-
tics, bascJ on thc ce ntP -kft of British poli ti cs. Tlwir strl ngths are in local gov-
c rnmcnt, constilutional rc form and civil lihcrti cs.
Thcy are rclatively strn ng in south-wcst England, Wak s an<l Scoth1nd and
in crcascd thcir MPs at th e 2001 and 2005 gl· nc ra l e k ction s to hcconw thc hig-
gcst third party in Parli amc nt sincc 1~)29 . But they lack a ck arl y dclincd ilkntity
and poli cics that are rccogni:1.cd by t hc clcctoratl'. Th e Lih Dc ms havc won
som~' dram ati c hy-clcclions an<l had co nsilkrnhlc succcss in local govnnment
c kction s. But thcy havc nol rnaJ c a largc brca kthrough into thc Co mmons
or tlw ElJ Parliarncnt, whcre thc y did badl y in tlw 2014 ckction. Thcy havc
also faccd thc thrcal from tht· Unitcd King<lom lmkpcndc ncc Party (l JKIP)
ami lost support for thcir ce ntral policics. Electoral rcform to a form of PR
might in crcasc thcir numbn of M Ps. Whik tlwir p c d~m11an cc in thc 2010- 15
coalition govnnmcnt was criticizcd, they tastcd powcr an<l workc<l cfli cil· ntl y
within thc politi ca l rcstraints. Howcvcr, th cy <lid b adly in thc 2015 G e neral
El<.: ction and lost man y M Ps, as more supportcrs anJ mc mbcrs ohjecte<l to tlwir
policics an<l lcft thc party.
Smalkr partics are also rc prcscnlc<l in th c Ho usc of Commons, such as thc
Scottish National Party; Plaid Cy mru (thc Welsh National Party); th e Ulstcr
lJnionists an<l th c D crnncrati · Unionist Party (Protestant Northern lrish par-
tics ); thc Social Democratic an d Lahour Party ( modera te Nationalist, largcly
Roman Catholic North crn lrish party); an<l Sinn Féin (Republican Northcrn
Irish party) . Oth e r small partics, such as th c Grecns, UKIP and fringe groups
(like thc Rav ing Monstcr Loony Party), may also contest general clections.
A ca ndi<latc who fails to ga in a ccrtain numher of votes in the elcction loses
th c ir dcposit (th c sum of mon -y p aiJ wh ' n parties register for electio ns).
Social cl ass and farnily tra<lition used to be important factors in British
voting hchaviour. But these have now bccn largely replaccd by propnly- and
Polit ics and government
Conservative 42 .4 317
Labour 40 .0 262
Scottish National Party 3.0 35
Liberal Democrat 7.4 12
Democratic Unionist Party (NI) 0.9 10
Sinn Féin (NI) 0.7 7
Plaid Cymru (Wales) 0.5 4
Green Party 1.6
Others :
lndependent 0.2
Speaker 0.2 1
Total seats 650
Turnout of voters 68.8
Source: adapted from BBC News, 8 June 2017
Thl' main 1-easons for this rcsull wcn.· lhl' votcrs' distrust or Consnvativc
social, political and cconomic poli cil'S, divisions among parly nwmlwrs, ami a
lacklustr(' l'lcction pc rformancl' from thc party's kadl'rship ami organization.
Youngcr votcrs wcrc voting for thc tirst time and wnc attractcd to th c Labour
Party, its lcadcr .Jcrcmy Corhyn anJ hy thc party 's more kftist political platl"orm .
Pub lic rcaction at thc ckction was also inllucn ccJ hy thl' 201 (> Rdl'fl'nd um
dccision to !cave tlw ElJ ( Brcxit) and rnn cnns ahout thc foturc of thc lJK.
Th c largcst minority party (L1hour in 20 17) hccomcs tlw Ofh c ial Opro-
sitio n with its own kad cr a nJ 'shaJow govcrnmcnt'. Th c Opposition plays
an important role in thc parliame ntary systl'm, whic h is hascJ on adversaria!
politi c.:s. Sl'ating arrangcmcnts in thl' Hous ' of Commons n_,flcct this systt·m.
L aders of thc gnvcrnmcnt a nJ oppositio n partí ·s sit on fac.:ing 'front bc nchcs ',
w ith tlwir M Ps, or 'ha ckhl nch crs', sitting hchind th cm. Sorn e criti cs dislikc this
confrontational styk an l advocate more con se nsus politi cs an<l less aggr ~ssivc
seatin g. Howt'Vl' f, traditionall y, th c c lfcctivcncss of parliame ntary democracy is
supposeJ to rest on th c rdationship bctwccn the govcrnment and opposition
partics and thc observé.lnce of procedural co nvcntions.
Opposition partics may try to ovcrthrow the government by defeating it
in a vot ·, though this is usually unsu cccssful if th e government has an overall
majority or ca n count on the support of' its MPs, allies or coalition ·coll t>agues.
The opposition partics ·onscquently attempt to influence th e formation of
nationa l policy by thcir critic ism of pc ndin g legislation; by tryin g to ohtain
Politics and government
The UK government
The prime minister sits in the Commons, as do most ministers, where they
are question ed and held accountablc for govcrnment actions. Th e prime minis-
tcr was hi storica11y th e link bctwecn monarch and Parliament. Thi s convention
continues in th e contide ntial weekly audicncc with thc monarch, at which gov-
nnmcnt business is discussed.
Th e prime ministcr has grcat powcr in thc British systcm of governm ent
and it is suggcstcd that th e office h as ·orn e to rcscmblc an all-powcrful cxecu-
tive presidcn cy, which bypasses Parliamcnt and govcrnment dc partmcnts. It is
argucd that governm ent poli cy is dccidcd upon by thc Downing Strcct political
machi ne with its hurea ucrats and 'spin doctors' . But thcrc are chccks on this
power, in side a nd outsidc thc party an<l Parliamcnt, which ca n on occasions
brin g Jown a prim' ministc r. Howcvcr1 thcrc is grcatcr c mphasis upon prime
mi nisterial govcrnm cnt today, rathcr than thc traditional constitution al notion s
of Cabinct govcrnmcnt.
Thc Cabinet is a small cxecutivc body in thc govcrnmcnt and usu ally com-
priscs ahout 20 sen ior ministcrs, who are chosen and prcsidcd owr by the prime
minister. Examplcs are thc C hancellor ol' th c Exchequer ( Fin anu.' Ministcr), Scc-
reta1ics of Statc fór Forcign and Commonwcalth J\ffairs, th e Home OHicc and
Education . The Cabinct originatcd in mcctings that the monan:h had with min-
istcrs in a royal Cahinct. As thc monarch withdrcw from active politi1.:s with thc
gro wth ol' party politi cs and Parli amcnt, this dcvdopcd into a parliamrntary hody.
Constitutional th eory has traditionally argw.-d that govcrnnwnt rule is
Cahin ct ruk bl·causc thc Cab in ct collcctiwl y initi alcs and J ccidcs govcrnmcnt
policy at its wcckly mcl'tings in 1O Downing Strel't. J\lthough this not ion has
wca kcn cd, thcrc are still occasions wh 'n poli cy is thrashcd out in Cahin ct. But,
si ncc tlw prime ministcr is rcsponsihk h)r Cahinl'l agendas anJ controls Cab-
inct pnKl'cJings, thc Cabinct ca n bcrnmc a ' ruhbcr-stamp ' or briding for pol-
icics that havc alrcady bccn Jcci<lcd by th c prime ministcr or smallcr groups.
Much dep c nJs upon tlw p erso nality of prime ministcrs an<l th c way in
w hich thcy avo i<l potcnti al Cabin et friction. Sorne likc to kad . Othcrs work
within the Cabin et structure, allowing mini sters to cxcr ·isc rl·sponsibility within
thc ir own ministerial fi el<ls. M uch of our information about thc opcration o!' tht·
Cah i1wt rnmcs from inform ation divulgc<l by Cabinet ministcrs. Although thc
Cab in ct mccts in prívate and its discussions are m cant to b e sccret, the publi c
is usually and rcli abl y informcd of Cah inct deliberations and disputes by 'lcaks'
to th c med ia.
Thc mass and complex ity of govc rnm cnt business and ministers' concern
with th ci r own dcpartme nts suggest th at foil debate in Cabinet on every issue
is irnposs ibk, but it is fe lt that outlim·s of policy should be more vigorously
dcbatc<l. Thc prcscnt system arguahly concentrates too much powcr in the
hands of th e prime ministcr; ovcrloa<ls rninisters with work; allows cru cial
decisions to be tak ·' n outsidc thc Cabinct; and reduces th e notion of rnllcctivc
responsihility.
Politics and government
PLATE 5 .9 Brita in's Prime Min ister Theresa May (on left) addresses members of the Cabinet in
the Cabinet meeting Room, l O Downing Street, London , l O Ju ly 20 16 . © Shutterstock
Coll ective responsibility is that which ali ministcrs, hut mainly thosc in thc
Cabin et, share for governrnent actions and policy. All must support a govcrn-
m cnt decision in public, even though sorne rnay opposc it during privatc dc lib-
erations. If a rninister cannot do this, th ey rnay feel ohligc<l to rcsign.
A rninister also has an individual responsibility for thc work of thcir gov-
ernment department. Th ey are answerable for any rnistakcs, wrong<loing or bad
administration, wh cther pcrsona11y responsibl e for th em or not. In such cases,
th c minister rnay resign, although this is not as comrnon today as in thc past.
This responsibility should also cnahle Parliamcnt to rn aintain so rne control ovcr
executivc actions because the minister is ultimatdy answerablc to Parliarncnt.
Howevcr, critics argue that such control today has wcakcncd .
Government departments (or ministries) ar ·' the chief in strurnents by whi ch
the government implem ents its policy. A chang' of govcrnmc nt <loes not ncccs-
sarily alter the number or fon ctions of departrncnts. Exampks are th c Dcpart-
ments for Communities and Local Government (D C LGL Business, lnnovation
and Skills (BIS) and Transport (DfT).
Departments are staffed by the Civil Servicc, consisting of carcer adrninis-
trators (civil servants) . Thcy work in London and throughout Britain on govcrn-
m ent activities and are rcsponsihlc to thc ministcr of thc ir departmcnt for thc
implementatíon of gow rnmcnt poli cies. A change of minister or govcrnmcnt
<loes not requirc 1ww civil scrvants, since th ey are expccted to b e politicall y
Pol i tics and government
in dep cnd nt in questioning civil servants, minist rs and others who are called
tn givc e vidcncc bcfore them (but who may refuse to attend). Selcct commit-
tvcs can be effoctivc in cxamining legislation and exp enditure and thcir rcports
l an be damaging to a gov rnm ent. It <loes s cm that they have str ' ngth e ned
Pa rliamcnt's authority against government, and critics would likc to see th eir
pow r e nhanced.
Attitudes to politics
Po lls regularly show that British politi cians and politi cal parties Jo not ratl'
highly in British votcrs' opinions. Respon<lcnts say that politicians are among
t he lcast aJmircd gro ups of profr,ss ionals (scco nd o nly to journalists) an<l that
thc y s ' cm in ca pabk of answcring . pccific qu estions put to thcm. /\. British
So ·ial J\ttitudcs (BSJ\) surwy in 2013 found th at 93 pc r ce nt oF respondrnts
said that thcy h ad littk orno faith in M Ps to tl'II th 'truth in a light c:orncr. On ly
18 pcr cent trustcd govcrnmcnts to put tlw nation's nccd abovc thosc of a polit-
ical party, or trusted gov ·rnments of any party ali or most of' thl time. J\lthough
76 pcr cent sa id that thcy e.lid supporl a politi ca l party, rnmparcd with 87 pc:r
cent in 1~)83, largc.· majoritil's frlt cxclu<led from thc politi ·al proc.-css.
Politicians are niticized and sa tirized in th c media and allcgations of slca1.c.·
(bad hc haviour), corruption , crnnyism (favouring politica l supporters) ,11HI
uncthi cal bchaviour havc lcJ to Jcm érnds for stri ctcr co ntrols on parlianwntar-
ians hy in<lcpcnJcnt cornmittccs. A largc scandal in 2008-0~) arising from M Ps '
cla irns l'or l'Xpcnscs on itl'ms allegcdly inrnrrcd whcn pcrforming thcir dutivs
k d to a sh arp J cclin c and dciining monwnt in tlw puhlic's trust in politi cian s,
and provoked harsh niticism and angry rcactions by votns in tlw 201 O Grncral
Elcction ca mpaign. In rccc nt ycars, th c rc havc bcc n com plaints ahout allcgcd
s x ual , profrssional anJ gcndcr-bascJ misconJuct and harassmcnt by M Ps élllll
officials in and outsidc Parli am cnt lcading to resignations.
It is alkgcJ, validly or not, that thc cfü_,cts of sud1 bchaviour havc r<' vcalcd
a gulf in values and rcality b 'twccn politi cian s and thcir constitucnts, and havl'
increascd many pco plc's scnsc of disillusion with Par.liamc nt and th c politi cal
proccss. It sccrns that political apathy among voters and a sccpticism about
politi cians' ability and willingncss to solvc urgent national problem s has lcd to
<lecrcast:d turnout by votcrs in rcccnt clcctions (such as 65 per ent in 20] O,
66. 1 pc r cent in 2015 and 68. 7 in 2017 L increasing criticism of politicians by
thc dcctorate and distrust of politica l institutions in Britain. Disillusionment
has incrcased since th c 2016 Rdc rcndum to leave th e EU (Brexit) and has
b ce n dircctcd at political lca<lcrs, parti cs and Parliament. There has also b een
c1 11 apparcnt Jccrcasc in bcli + in th c traditionally expressed values of British
socicty.
Po l i t ics and govern ment
Exercises
Briefly define and examine the following terms, commenting on their
significance in British life:
4 Discuss the position and relevance of the monarch in the British political
system .
5 Are British politicians treated unfairly by the British public? Give the
reasons for your answer.
Further reading
Aughey, A (2001) Nationalism, Devolution and the Challenge to the United Kingdom
State, London : Pluto Press
2 Bogdanor, V. (2001) Devolution in the United Kingdom, Oxford : Oxford University Press
3 Bogdanor, V. (2009) The New British Constitution, London : Hart Publishing
4 Childs, D. (2006) Britain since 1945: A Political Hístory, London : Routledge
5 Deacon, R. and Sandry, A (2007) Devolution in the Uníted Kíngdom (Politics Study
Guides), Edinburgh : Edinburgh University Press
6 Foley, M. (2000) The Brítísh Presidency, Manchester: Manchester University Press
7 Ford, R. and Goodwin . M (2014) Revolt on the Right: Support for the Radical Right in
Britain, London : Routledge
8 Foster, C. (2005) Britísh Government in Crisis, London : Hart
9 Jones, B. and Norton, P. (2013) Politics UK, London : Routledge
1O Kavanagh , D. (lead) (2006) British Politics: Continuíties and Change, Oxford : Oxford
University Press
11 King, A (2015) Who Governs Britain? London : Pelican
12 Leach, R., Coxall, B. and Robins, L. (2006) British Politics, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan
Websites
UK government: www.gov.uk
Houses of Parliament: www.parliament.uk
Polit i cs and government
M onarchy: www.royal.gov.uk
Privy Council Office : http://privycouncil.independent.gov.uk
<.a binet Office : www.cabinet-office .gov.uk
Prime Minister's Office: www.gov.uk/government/organisation/prime-ministers-0ffice- l 0-downing-
street
Wa les Office/National Assembly for Wales : www.wales .gov.uk
Scotland Office : www.gov.scot
Scottish Parliament: www.scottish .parliament.uk
Northern lreland Assembly : www.niassembly.gov.uk
Northern lreland Office : www.nio .gov.uk
Yo uGov polls : YouGov.co . uk
O ffice for National Statistics: www.ons .gov.uk
lfo nsard Society: www.hansardsociety.org .uk
l3riti sh Social Attitudes, Nat Cen : www.bsa .natcen .ac .uk
6
lnternational relations
■ Exercises
■ Further reading
■ Websites
l nternational r elat i ons
Thc lJK has long had significant intcmational rclations with other countrics,
and people have constantly moved to and from l3ritain bccause of its colonial
past and because its power anJ survival hav · depended on global tradc. This
chapter examin es thcsc histori ca1 connections an<l concentratcs on significant
contcmporary arcas: forcign and J cfcnce policy, thc Commonwcalth an<l lr -
land, and 13ritain's (plannc<l) departurc in 201 9 from thc European Union (EU)
aftcr a 4G-year membcrship.
Historicall y, Britain 's foreign and d<:Jence policics aimed to achiev 'a balance
of power in Europe, so that no singl country could domín ate th e Contin c nt. Its
main rival, from th e Hundrcd Years' War until th e dcfeat of Napokon (1337-
1815) was Fran ce, and it won dccisive wars (although not th ' Frcnch-supportcd
American War of Independcnce 1775- 83 ). lt crcated contin ental alli anccs with
Europcan powcrs, whi ch wcrc buttr ss<:.d militarily by a powe rful Royal Navy,
an<l establishe<l a global British Empin:' which rcachcd its peak in wcalth in
1900 and ma ximum siz "' by 1920-40. Britain 's econo mi c an<l política! status
th en progressively diminishcd, and it built rdations with th c US/\, a military
allian c' with Japan in 1902, anda Triple Entente with Fnm cc ( 1904) and Russia
(1 907), which opposcd G crmany in th e First World War ( 1914- 18) .
Aft:er the Scco nd World War against Germany, ltaly and .Jap an ( l 93~)-4 5),
Britain 's traditional position as a colonial, economic and políti ca! powcr on th c
world stage was in furthcr rclative decline. Som<:. largc coloni cs, such as C an-
ada and Australia, had alrcady achievcd sclf-govcming dominion status. Thc
growth of natio nalism and a desire for sclf-dctcrmination among /\fri can, Asían
and Carihbean countri es pcrsuaded Britain to decolonializc furth cr from 1945,
colonics became in<lepe ndcnt, and British involvcmcnt in th c Middk East was
curtai1cd by the Su z Canal Crisis in 1956 .Th " cffccts of global economic co m-
p etition, two world wars, th · cmcrgence of Col<l War poli tics (dominatcd b y
the USA and the form er Soviet Union") and dom esti c conomi c and social prob-
lems forccd Britain to recognize its reduced intcrnation al status. It was obli gc<l
to seek new military alliances such as NATO, política] an<l economic organiza-
tions such as the EU, and global agencies such as thc United Nations.
It tricd with difficulty to find a new idcntity and to cstablish difkrcnt pri-
orities. Sorne of thc previous overscas links co ntinucd with thc Commonwcalth
(formerly th e British Empire), traditional tradin g partn crs and thc conn ction
with the Unitcd Statcs, whil e othcr relationships, such as thc EU, were n~w. l3ut,
in spite of fundaml'ntal ch,rn ges, Britain stil1 ex p ·"ricnccs un certainti('s ahout its
defence and foreign poli cit's, its potcntial intcrn ational influence and its appro-
priate role in glohal alfoirs.
l ntern at i on al r elations 163
.,
A ~
;T
PLATE 6 .1 Queen Elizabeth
11greets the Namibian High
C o mmissioner ata reception
in Buckingham Palace, 28
April 2009 to commemorate
the sixtieth anniversary of the
1949 London Declaration .
This marked the birth of the
modern organization , which
became the Commonwealth of
Nations, commonly known as the
Commonwea lth. © Shutterstock
rnilitary action in Iraq (frorn 2003) was initially supported by a rnajority of the
British public, the re was increasing opposition ovcr its afterrnath; <listrust of
th e previous Labour governrnent's justification for the war, and scepticism that
overseas military involvernent would protect Britain's interna} security. The war
in Afghanistan attracte<l widespread public opposition and con cern at th e loss
of British livcs an<l the alleged lack of adequatc rnilitary cquiprnent and pro-
tection. It is also fclt that th e current costs of defcncc and global commitmcnts
could be more profitably directed to solving domestic probl ems. In a 2013 BBC
po11, 75 per cent of respondents believed that Parliament was right to rcject UK
air and (particuJarly) ground military action in thc latcr conflict in Syria.
Britain's foreign and defrncc preoccupations refl cct its tra<litional position
as a major trading nation and finance centre based on a worl<lwi<lc colonial
empirc. In changcd circumstances, it is now conccrn ,d to maintain stablc com-
m ercial, cco nomic an<l political conditions through global conncctions. Britain
is a large cx porte r of goods and services, has substantial overseas or outward
investmcnts, imports much of its food an<l basic manufacturing rcquire mcnts,
and also has substantial inwar<l investment from abroad. It is d cpcn<lent upon
maintaining global commercial links, although it was in creasi ngly comrnitted to
thc 27 EU countries during its me mbership, who constituted ílritain 's 53 pcr
cent import an<l 44 pc r cent ex port markets (GO p ' r cent total tra<lc - ONS
2015). Howcvef¡ other European countries, th e USJ\, China, In<lia, .lapan,
South America and Cornmonwcalth nations are also important tra<ling ami
invcstm ent arcas.
Foreign policy
Britain's foreign policy and membership of international organizations is basc<l
on the principle that overseas objectives in the contemporary world ca n be
best attained by p ersuasion and cooperation and by actively working with othcr
nations on a regional or global basis and according to the obligations of intcr-
national treaties or coalitions. The imperial days of unilateral action are now
largely past, although Britain did take such action in th e l 98 2 Falklands War.
However, its foreign policy can rcflect particular biases, with support for onc
country outweighing that for another.
The USA has often becn seen as Britain's closcst ally. A 'spccial rclationship'
exists b etween th e two based on a comrnon languagc, cultural tra<litions, history
and military partnerships, particularly in the Sccond World War an<l :ubsequ ' nt
actions. Yet this association has varied according to geopolitical circumstanccs,
personal relations b etween political leaders in both countries and divergc nt pol-
icies. Th erc have bcen differences of opinion about American e ntry into th e
Second World War, orroscd attitudes to participation in the Vietnam War, and
questions about I3ritain's mcmbership of the ElJ, British involvcment in the
Suez Canal invasion ( l ~).)()) an<l US support for decolonialization. Neverthdcss,
lnternationa l relati o n s 165
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nritish politicians are generally concern ed to maintain American military and
s •curity influ<::.nce within Europe and NATO an<l to preserve the global stability
of the Atlantic connection.
However, public opinion polls have recent]y suggested more varied sup-
rort among both British and American respon<lcnts for th e spccial relationship.
/\ March 2009 Gallup pol1 reported that 36 pe r cent of Ameri cans regarded
Britain as th eir country's 'most valuablc ally' an<l 89 pe r cent gcn erally viewed
the UK favourably. A 2009 Pcw Rcscarch Ccntcr poli found that 70 pcr cent
of Britons had a favourahlc vi ew of th e USA. Yet a Pe w poll in 2013 found
tha t attitudes towards th e special rclationships diffe rc<l b ctwccn political lcad-
crs and thc publi c, with thc lattcr thinking that it was not ali that spccial.
Whilc thc British and American publi cs broadly agrcc on many intcrnational
issu es, th ey do somctimcs diffcr on th c dctails of forcign policy challcngcs.
lnterestingly, a 2013 BBC poll found that 72 pcr cent of l3ritish rcs pondc nts
did not think that Parliamc nt's dec ision to rcjl'Ct military action in Syri a in
20 13 would damagl' th c UK- US rclation ship and two-thir<ls sa id that thcy
would not carc if it <lid. Furth crmorc, 67 pcr ce nt thought that thc spccial
relationship was not rclcvant in th c mod crn agc. This suggcsts a majority h_,cl-
ing among British respondrnts, rdlcctcd in othcr polls in 20 1O, that thc lJK
has littlc or no intluc ncc on /\mcri ca n policics, th<it th c lJS does not consi<lcr
PLATE 6.2 Prime Mi níster Theresa May, 20 16-19 (second from left) at a summít meeting
wi th other G7 leaders in Charlevo ix, Ca nada, 8 June 2018 . © Neil Ha ll/Pool/EPA-EFE/
Shutterstock
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A~ 166 l n ternational relatio ns
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British interests and that thc relationship is unbalanccd . It also refl ects a feel-
ing that Britain was allegedly dragge<l into the Iraq invasion and that th e Brit-
ish were b ecoming more determined to avoi<l foreign cntanglements and to
pursuc th eir own paths.
Britain's rn embership of thc EU rneant that it was to sorne cxtcnt <lcpen-
dent upon EU forcign policy. In 2009 the EU ratificd thc Lisbon Treaty, which
was intcndcd to tighten institutional and poli cy fun ctions, and crcatc<l a Prcsi-
dcnt of thc EU Council and High Rcprcscntative for Foreign Affairs, which gave
the EU a legal negotiating idcntity and status on thc worl<l stagc. But, although
thc EU is moving to more unificd forcign poli cics, mcmber statcs havc conflict-
ing interests and Britain also had its own prioritics. EU forcign policy is still in
its infan cy and rnany critics doubt its vali<lity an<l valuc, although it has proved
rdativcly eff-ective in Europea n and Middlc Eastcrn conflicts. Britain insists that
leaving the EU will not lessen its commitmcnt to taking part in Europcan sccu-
rity and def-" nce.
Britain has diplomatic relations with 160 nations and is a mcmbcr of sorne
120 intemational organizations, ranging from ho<li cs fór cconomic coopcration
to th e United Nations (UN). Support for thc UN and thc principies ofits char-
ter has becn part of British foreign policy sin ce 1945, although thcrc has sonw-
times been sccpti 'ism about its effectivcncss as a practi cal and dccisivc hody
(for insta nce, o ver Iraq rcsolutions in 2003).
Yct, as a permanent m -mber of the UN Security Council, Britain has a
vcste<l interest in supporting the organization . It sces a strong UN as a ncccssa ry
frarn cwork for achieving many of its own foreign policy objectivcs, su -h as th c
pcaccful resolution of co nfli ct, arms control, <lisa rmame nt, peacckcc ping nper-
ations an<l th e protcction of human rights. UN agenci 'Salso providc forums for
discussing issues in which Britain is involvc<l, such as disaster rdid; tcrrorisrn,
thc cnvironment, cnergy <levelopment and world rcsources. However, Britain,
like other nations, may <listancc itsdf from the UN wh en it St:Ts its own vital
interests challenged .
Defence policy
Britain's major defence alliance is with thc North J\.tlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) . This currently comprises 28 m embcrs (Bclgium , Canada, D ' nmark,
Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the N etherlands, Norway, Spain, Portugal, Britain,
thc USA, Greece, Turkey, G ermany, Poland, Hun ga ry, th c Czech Rcpubli ·,
Francc, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Slovc nia, Alba-
nia and Croatia). Th e original justification for NATO 's crcation was that it pro-
vided its m embcrs with greater security than any could achicvc in<lividually and
was a deterrent against aggrcssion by th e now-defun ct Warsaw Pact co untrics.
The principlc of colkcti w dcfe nce is still maintaincd and many former Warsaw
Pact countries haw joinnl NATO.
lnternational relations 167
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All th e major British political parties are in favour of retaining the NATO
1ink and, according to opinion polls over th e years, the public would not support
any party which tried to take Britain out of th e alliance. Membership of NATO
also allows Britain to operate militarily on the inte rnational stage. lts defence
policy is based on NATO strategies and it assigns most of its armed forces and
<lefen ce budget to th e organizati on.
Despitc changcs in Eastern Europe since the fall of th e Berlín Wall in 1989
and movcs to transform NATO into a more fl ex ibl , Iean er and high-technol-
ogy military association, British governments has t akcn such <levelopments
cautiously and are concern ed to maintain Britain 's own military dde nce with
conve ntional and nuclear forces. 1t rccogni zcs that global uncc rtainty, intcrna-
tion al terrorism and un stablc statcs would pose incrcascd risks to its own secu-
rity if it wc re t o redu ce its and NATO 's armed <lefc nce capacity. Howcvcr, thcrl'
are doubts (and .sorne criti ca! opinions) about NATO's capacity to rcspond to
glob al prohlcm arcas and it is tdt that ali its ml'mbcrs should i11e1TaSl' thl'ir
dcfcncc spcnding and viahility to h cttc r support NATO obj cctivcs. Britain has
achi ··v ·<l th , NATO 2<Yci contribution targl't in the last 8 ycars.
In 1~)98 l3ritain argucd that th c EU must havc a crc<lihlc military ,rnd scrn-
rity capahility to support its políti ca! rok, cnahling it to rcsponJ 4ui ckly lo
intcrnation al criscs. Thc EU has slowl y dc vclopcJ its own ' rapid rcaction l'orn:'
plans from 2007. This force is supposcd to consist oF battalion-si;.,.cd military
u nits known as hattlcgroups of sorne 1,500 troops unJ cr an ElJ kaJ nation
and othcr ElJ participa nts. Th csc would he undcr thc dirccl control of thc ElJ
Coun cil which opc ratcs thc Common Sccurity and Dác ncc Policy of thc EU.
T hc units h avc bccn sccn as a ncw standing army for Europc an<l W<'IT wcl-
co mcd as hclping th c UN to dcal with trouhlc spots.
lnitia11y, th c debate focusc<l on whcthcr thc hattkgroups should he Sl'('n
as an indcpe n<lcnt force outsidc NATO or whcthcr th cy should opcratc within
NATO fram cworks. Thc ElJ fclt that it could rcspond to intcrnational criscs,
w ithout prlju<licc to NATO (which woukl continuc to he thc foundation of
coll 'Ctivc sccurity ). Sorne critics arguc that this <levelopmc nt has bccn inad-
cquatdy pl annc<l, h as coopcration problcms an<l could potcntially wcakrn
NATO. Britain 's withdrawal from th c EU suggests that it will not b e sud1 an
integral part of EU dcvelopments in thc future. But th e current Conservativc
govcrnmcnt maintains that Britain will ·ontinue to share in Europe 's Jcf ,ncc
and sccurity arrangcm e nts alon gside its primary commitmcnt to NATO.
Th c British govcrnment's defc nc<' spcnding was 2.3 pcr cent of GDP in
2015 (anda publi c spe ndin g budgct for 2015 of [46 billion) putting it in fourth
position in terms of world defence budgcts after the US, China and Russia .
Ove r th e last Fe w years it has controvcrsially reduced armed forces p erson-
nd, ships, aircraft and cquipm ' nt, but has in creased spending in other priority
ar ~as, such as ~apabilitics and stru cturcs. lt aims to dep end on lcancr, multifun c-
tional, fast-rcaction, more flexible forces, although therc havc bccn strrnuou s
lnternat io na l rel a t i ons
objections from military lcaders to thcsc policies and the considerable reduction
of army numbers, planes and ships. Thc primary objectivcs of defence policy
are to ensurc the country's security and the NATO commitmcnt and to allow
l3ritish forces to engagc in high-intensity war as well as in pcacekeeping roles.
A budget reduction to 1.9 pcr cent of GDP by 2017 did not suggest a
Britain that would be able to cope with contemporary and futurc uncertain-
ties. Further defence cuts conncctcd to an exit from the EU could cndanger
th e armcd forces' new 1 aner structun:.s, put national sccurity at risk and limit
Britain's capacity to scnd troops abroad at short noticc. This reduce<l power
will rcsult in a lowcr number of trnops in sustaincd opcrations an<l critics argue
sorne British national idcntity will be lost bccause it is conncctcd to images of
Britain as a martial nation .
However, des pite th ese conccrns, defencc spcnding carne fifth in 2015 on
the list of governmcnt expenditurc. lJK defencc spcnding over the pa. t 5 years
has been stabl at around [36 bi1lion and is planned to b ' L3 7 .6 billion by
2019- 20. l3ut qucstions ar' still raised as to whcther th e moncy could be bct-
ter spcnt in othcr areas of national life. At thc same time, although th c 13ritish
arml d forces are in dcmand for global commitments, thcy are arguably under-
manncd an<l military cquipmcnt is oftcn out of date anJ in short supply. Th e
PLATE 6.3 British troops arrive in Kandahar in October 2014 as British and US forces with-
draw from Helmand province, Afghanistan after 13 years of combat operations . © WAKIL
KOHSAR/ AFP /Getty lmages
lnt ernation a l re lations
,n ilitary claim that they need more effective and reliable resources to cop e with
1he demands placed on th em. D efence cuts have resulted in a reduction of air-
n aft carri ers, aircraft, d estroyers and frigates, and replace m ents are only slowly
hci ng built.
Nuclear wcapons, which acco unt For a ve ry large part of th e J cfcnce bu<l-
g1.' t, continuc to be fi e re ly dcbatcd. Britain 's nuclear dcterre nt consists of
long-rangc Amcri ca n-built Tri<lent nuclea r missilcs carri ed by a Hect of four
Vanguard submarincs (although only onc is on patrol at any given time ). Th c
nuclear missilc arse nal is bcing upgraded ata cost of t35 .8 hillion or on c-thir<l
nf th, c.k·fonce cquipm cnt budget. Critics want chcapcr altcrnativcs, or thc can-
1.: cllation of th e nu ck·ar system (on the groun<ls that thc systcm was basc<l on
C ol<l War planning which is allcgcJly no lo nge r applicablc). Y ·t whil c a YouGov
poll in 2015 showcd that 25 p er ce nt of rcsponde nts wanted to givc up nuclear
weapons compktcly, 25 pc r cent wantc<l to rc placc them with an cqu ally pow-
c rful missik system, 31 per cent want<: d a lcss powcrful and kss costly systcm,
and 18 pcr cent did not know. It secms that thc British nu ckar strategy will
continuc as é.l detl'rrcnt in a worscning intcrnational climatc <lespitc the qucs-
tion of whcthcr nuclear mi ss ilcs ca n prot 'Ct againsl cyhcr warfon.', tnrorism
and Jn)IH_'s. Thc major political parti cs are still multilatnalist (kceping nuclear
w capons until they crn he abolished on a global hasis), and thcy are awarc that
a nurnher oF countrics now possl'ss nuc lear wcapons or thc nwans to dcvclop
and usl' tlwm.
Britain can opcrat · militarily outsidl' thc NATO and Europcan arca,
although this capacity is in(Tl'asingly cx pensiw anJ qt1t·stiorwd. Military g::lrri-
. on s are stationcd in C,crmany (now largcly withdrawn), Brurwi, Cy prus, thc Far
an <l Mid<llc East, thc Falkl an<l Islands, Dil'go Ci an:ia, Asccnsion Island ami Cihral-
tar. Thc 1q82 Falklands War, thc 1991 and 2003- 04 Culf Wars .1nd Al"ghanistan
in 200 l showed that Britain ( with othcr nations) was al1k to rcspond to glohal
chalkn g(_s outsilk thc NATO arca, although thc opnations did draw attcntion
to ckfrcts and prohlcms in such a ·tions. Iraq and Ai-ghanistan in particular alsu
dcmonstratcd a lack oF suitahlc cquiprnent and manpowc r. Britain 's choi ccs are
to retrcat from glohal commitmcnts, greatly scak h ack <lch.·1icc spe nding, ere-
ate one combineJ military force rath c r than sl'parJte componc nts or coo pcra tc
more with NATO an<l EU co untri cs across J range ol" dcfrncl' activity.
Nati o nal Statistics ( ONS) tigurcs in April 2018 showcd that th c total
strc ngth of the regular or full-tim c UK arnwd forc('S, which é.lJT now all volun-
t ccr following th c e nd of consc ription in l ~H-i2, was I 4G,5fü), a planncd ru.lu c-
tion of somt' 2.0 pcr crnt sincc 2017. Th ey rnnsist of 81,120 in th c Army ( with
3, l 50 Curkhas)i 32,480 in th c Royal Navy and Roy al Marines an<l 32,960 in
thc Royal Air Force. Thc cost- ami p e rsonncl-r ' duction has h cen balanccd by
th , rccruitm e nt of 36,480 part-timc rcscrvists ami 7,~)G() specialists across the
forces. This policy is controv<: rsial, has bccn lwavily criticized and is seen as a
way to cut th c numbers of the regular fórccs. Th c reserves (now known as the
l nternational relations
Volunteer Reserve), perform a crucial rol e, support the regular forces at home
and abroad, serve with NATO and coalition ground or front-lin e troops and
help to maintain sccurity in Britain . Women p ersonnel in the Army, Navy and
Air Force (sorne 7 p er cent of the total figure ) are integral parts of the armed
services. They wcre previously confined to support roles, but sorne may now b e
employed in certain front-line müitary action.
Criticism of defcncc cuts and arguments that these will risk British mili-
tary forces being seriously undermanne<l at home and overseas arguably fail to
recogni ze the resources required to meet the security challengcs of thc future,
such as cyber and tcchnological w eaponry, which m eans shifting the balance
of defence investment. It is not conceivably possiblc to maintain traditional
regular forces at historie levels while also invcsting in trying to countcr foture
non-traditional thrcats.
Dcspitc such qucstioning, the defence budget is considerable, given that
Britain is a medium-sized economic power which fa ces the prosp ects of a
domestic anti-EU mood andan EU cxit, which rnay furth er reduce its intlucnce.
By 2020, Britain could wcll be a smallcr, less impressive power. If the loss of a
manufacturing base is compared together with provision of essential military
force, thc costs of dde nce might secm too grcat.
The strength of thc armed forces could be furthcr cut in future years and
the Ministry of D efe nce budgct is likely to fall bccausc of the risin g cost of
employing military and civilian p ersonnd and thc costs of equiprnent. M uch
will dep end cm th e development of futurc warfarc, such as cyber warfare ém<l
thc use of dron e and robot technology to replace manncd aircraft anJ ships.
Recruitment of both regular and reservist fórces to fill gaps is bchind schedule
at present and the military restructuring programmc is fa cin g problem s.
issues. The relationship bctwccn thc two countries has irnprovcd signitica ntly
in recent years, symbolized by state visits to Ircland by the Qucen and to lfrit-
ain by the president of Ireland. Since Britain (inclu<ling Northcrn Ire1an<l) and
lrdand were both m embers of the EU, therc was no 'hard border' bctwcen the
Republic and Northern Ireland and each had free movement of pcoplc, goods
and services. This bccamc a signifi ant difficulty in coping with Britain's deci-
sion to lcavc the EU and thc status of thc bordcr rcmains problematic.
Thc prcsent Comrnonwcalth is a voluntary association of sorne 53 indc-
pendent states (including Britain). lt <loes not have written laws, an ' lected
Parliamcnt, or one politi ca l ruler. fn many of th c countrics th ere is cvidcncc of
past colonial rule, such as th -ir cducational and legal systcms, although few have
kept th e 13ritish fórm of parliamentary govcrnment. Sorne havc aclaptcd it to
thcir own nce<ls, while othcrs are onc-party states o r havc constitutions has J
on a widc varicty of models, with varying rccords on civil and human rights.
Th e Commonwcalth has nea rly a third of thc world's population and a
quartcr of thc ca rth's land mass and comprises pcopks of <liffc rent rcligions,
races and nationa1iti es, most of whom sharc a colonial history, with strugglcs for
independcncc from colonialism. Though th c Commonwcalth is oftcn Jcscribcd
as a fami ly of nations, th ere are oc:casional wars, tcnsions and quarrcls bctwcc n
th ese fomily m cmbcrs. The British monarch is its non-politi cal hca<l an<l has
varying constitutional roles in th t different c:ountrics. /\ foca l point of i<lcntil-i-
cation1th -' rnonarch has an important unifying and sy rnboli c h.mc:tion which has
oftcn kept th e Commonwcalth togeth er in times of crisis and co ni-lict.
Thc prim ministcrs, or hcaJs of state, in Cornrnonwcalth countrÍl'S nor-
mally m cct cvery two years undcr the auspiccs of thc monarch (or Prin cc
Charles as a repres ·ntativ' of thc Queen) for Cornmonwcalth rncctings or co n-
forenccs in diffcrcnt parts of thc world. Common problcrns are discusscd and
sornetimcs scttlcd 1 although thcrc sccm to have bt'e n more argumcnts than
agrecmcnts in recent y"'ars, with Britain having a rninority position on sorne
issucs (such as opposing trae.le sanctions against th e f-()rmcr apartheid rtgirnc in
South A-fri ca ). Sorn e countri cs have been suspended frorn m c rnbership1 such as
Zimbabwe (whi ch has rea pplicd) and Pakistan (whi -h has return ed).
Therc is a Commonwealth Secrctariat bascd in London which rnordi -
nates policy for thc Cornmonwealth un<lcr a Dircctor-G "n ral , who is thc
senior official of th e Commonwealth. The Cornmonwcalth lnstitute in London
is th e educational and cultural centre of thc Commonwealth , through which
many Commonwealth societies1 institutes, librari cs, profcssion al associations
and university exchange programmes are organizcd. Cornmonwealth citizcn s
travel to Britain as immigrants, students ancl visitors, whi lc British cmigration
to Commonwealth countrics co ntinues in rcc.luccJ amounts. English in its
many varieties remains th e common language of thc Commonwealth anJ thc
prestigious Commonwca lth Gamcs (athletics and other sports) are held cvcry
four years (thc last in /\ustn-1lü1 in /\pril 2018). Th re are many joint British/
l n ternationa l r elat i ons 173
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PLATE 6.4 Commonwealth Heads of Government meeting , London and W indsor, Novem-
ber 2018 , led by the Queen . © Yui Mok-WPA Pool/Getty lmages
its hcadquartcrs were based and who was its head, sorne 70 p er cent of all
respondcnts correctly identified the Queen as the head of the Commonwealth.
Yct only onc in five respondents were able to name any activities undertaken by
the Commonwealth, and among those th e great majority identitied the Com-
monwealth Gamcs. When asked to identify which international bodics wcre
valuablc to the UK, 33 per cent optcd for th e Commonwealth, compared to 44
p er cent for NATO, 42 per cent for th e UN, 37 per cent for th e EU and 35 per
cent for th e G7 group of nations.
This situation m ay vcry wcll change wh en Britain leaves th e EU and begins
to seek more substantial trading anange ments with Commonwcalth co untrics.
Britain had preforential trading arrangcmcnts with thc Commonwcalth before
it joincd the European Economic Community (EEC) in 19 73 and th e Com-
monwealth question form ed part of th e debate on mcmbership. EEC cntry was
seen as ending the dose relationship between Britain and thc Commonwcalth.
Yet economi c coop eration and trading b 'twecn the two ha ve co ntinucd, and
Britain contributes a considerable amount of its ovcrscas aid to countrics in thc
Commonwealth . However, although Britain has a dcclining sharc of th c Com-
rnonwealth trachng market and its cconomic prioritics wcrc prcviously more
with th e EU and othcr worlJ partn crs, this situation may changc considcrahly
following Brexit.
Nevcrthdess, British govcrnmcnts fccl that thc Commonwealth is a succcss
and are committcd to raising its profile. lndced, a number of countril's wish to
join th 'organization, not all of whom havc ht~en prev ious British colonies (such
as Mozambique) . Howcver, it is argued th at thc valuc of th c Commonwcalth in
thc contcmporary workl should not be as a histori cal anachronism, but must b e
based on a concrete and rcalistic role that is distin ct from that of othcr global
organizations. for example, it might function as a worldwid ' tórum or n ~twork
that cmphasizes accountablc govcrnmcnt, dcmocratic conccrn s, universal val-
ues, anti-corruption reform and civil and human ri ghts.
Britain's rclationship with Europe has con<litioncd thc country's history for
man y ce nturies. In 19 73 it took a tortuous journcy from initially distancing
itsdf from Europe to scepti cal m embership of thc EU, and cvcntu ally a vote to
lcavc in 2016. The relationship is central to thc i<lcntitics of hoth Britain ami
E uropc and has included ideological contlict, political sclf-intcrcst, class an<l
nationalist perspcctives, widespread media covcragc an<l govcrnmcntal inahility
to solve problems.
The ideal of a unitcd Europc with stron g economi c and politi ca l institu-
tions bccame in crl·asingly attractivc to European statcsmcn aftcr th c ScconJ
World War ( 1~)3q-4 '.) ). Tlwrc was a desire to create a peaceful and prospcrous
ln tern a tiona l relation s
l~urope aftcr the destruction of two world wars and years of antagonism and
J istrust b ctwcen European powcrs. Thc foundations for a more integratcd
Europc wcre cstablish cd in 1957 whcn six countries (West G ermany, France,
Belgium, thc N etherlands, Luxcmbourg and Italy) signed the Treaty of Rome
and form ed the Europea n Economic C ommunity (EEC) . Britain did not join,
hut instcad hc1ped to create the Europcan Free Trade Associati on (EFTA) in
1959. Not wishing to be r estricte<l by dose European conn ections in thc 1950s,
it saw its futurc in trading links with the Commonwealth anda 'spccial rclation-
ship ' with th c USA. An o lJ suspicion of Europc also led many British pcoplc to
shrink from membcrship of a supranatio nal European organization, which th cy
t ho ught might kaJ to a loss of th eir idcntity and ind epc nd ' ncc. Thi s tcnsion
bctwccn 'cvcr doscr union ' within thc EU and thc prcscrvation of individual
na tional idc ntity continucs.
Howcvc r, a Europcan commitmcnt grcw among sccti ons of British socicty
in thc 19fü)s, whi ch was influcn ccJ b y thc country's incrcasing social and cco-
no mic prohkms. Yct attempts hy Britain to join th c EEC wcrc vctm'd hy thc
Frcnch Prcsidc nt, Charles de Caullc. He was criti ca! of Britain 's n·lationship
w ith th c lJSA (parti cularl y on nuclear wcapons policics ), qucricd thc cx tc nt of
British rnmmitmcnt lo Europc ami arguably did not want Britain as a rival lo
t hc kad crship of thc EEC.
PLATE 6 .5 The European Parliament, Brussels . The Parliament also meets in Strasbourg ,
France, on a rotating basis . © Etienne Ansotte/Shutterstock
176 ln t erna t ional rela t ions
De Gaulle resigncd from thc Frcnch presidency in 1969, and new Brit-
ish negotiations on rncrnbership began in 1970 undcr the pro-European Con-
servative Prime Minister, Edward H eath. In 1972, Parliament voted in favour
of entry, despite widespread doubts and thc strong opposition of a politically
diverse group of interests among the British pcoplc. Britain, togcther with Den-
mark and thc Rcpublic oflreland, formally joine<l the EEC on l January 1973,
having left EFTA in 1972. Howevet~ a Labour govcrnmcnt (197 4) undcr Har-
old Wilson was committed to giving the peoplc a rdcrcndum on continued
membcrship. After forth er rencgotiations of the terms of entry, the refere ndum
was held in 1975, th e first in British political history. Pro-markcteers won by a
margin of 2 to l (67 .2 p er cent in favour, 32.8 per e nt against).
The EEC was based initially on economic concerns and institutcd harmo-
nization programmcs such as common coal, steel, agricultura} and fisheries pol-
icies, th e abolition of trade tariffs bctwecn mcmbcr statcs and dcvt'lopme nt aid
to depressed areas with.in its borders. Britain's poorer regions havc hencf-itcd
vcry considerably from regional fund s. In l 986 thc mcmbcr states form ed an
internal or Single European Market in which goods, scrvio.? s, prnple and capital
could move freely across national fronti ers within what was thcn callcd th e
European Community ( EC). The EC an<l Britain prospcrcd anJ by 2011, 53
pcr cent of British cxports were to the EC, and Britain rccdvcd 51 pcr o .: nt of
its imports frorn EC countries.
Sorne politicians had always hoped that economic integration woulJ kad
to political initiatives and a more integratcJ Europe. Th c Maastricht Trcaty
(1992) was a stcp in this proccss as a result of which thc Europcan Community
becamc the Europcan Union (EU). Thc trcaty provided i-or th e intro<luction
of a common European currency ( thc euro), a Europcan Bank an<l common
defencc, foreign and social policics. Furthcr trcatics have also incrcascd thc intl'-
gration momentum.
Thcrc are now (2018) 28 EU members with a total population of sorne
511.8 rnillion p eople (Britain, Denmark, Germany, Grt:'ece, Spain, Bc lgium, Irc-
land, Luxe mbourg, thc Neth erlands, France, Italy, Portugal, Swc<lcn, Finland,
Austria, Cyprus, th e Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta,
Poland, Slovakia, Slovcnia, Romania, Bulgaria an<l Croatia. Sincc 19~)4, most of
the EU single markct measures have also bcen "Xtc n<lcd to Iccland, Norway
and Liechtenstein through the creation of thc Europcan Economic Arca (EEJ\) .
Th e actual growth ofth c EU (to potential1y indu<le Eastcrn Europcan nations)
has been seen as providing an important political voice in worl<l affairs and a
powerful trading area in global economic matters. In 2014, according to EU
Commission figures, thc EU was the world's largcst eco nomy, with over 50 per
cent of the world's gross domestic product (GDP). According to 2012 figures, it
was the world's largest trading block, accounting for ] 5 pcr cent of global trade
in goods and 22.5 p er cent in services and was also the world's sccond-largcst
investor after the USA.
lnternat i onal re lat ions
The main institutions involved in the running of the EU are the European
Council, the Council of Ministers, the Euro pean Commission, the European Par-
liament and the European Court of Justice. In 2009, the Lisbon Treaty reformed
many aspects of the EU. It created a President of the European Council and a
High Representative of the Un ion for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.
The European Council consists of national government leaders (heads of
state or heads of government) who meet several times a year to discus. and
lnternational re lations
agree on broad arcas of policy. lt is thc suprem e political authority and com-
prises the appointcd President of thc European Council, the President of the
European Commission and one representative from each mcmber state.
Th e Council of Ministers is the policy-.implementing and law-initiating
body and is composcd of governm ent ministcrs from th membcr statcs who
vary accor<ling to the policy ar a that is being addr ssed . It has legislative func-
tions ( with the Europcan Parliam ent) and al so cxecutive powcrs undcr the
Common Foreign and Se ·urity Poli cy.
Th e Commission (under a Presidcnt appointed by thc Europca n Coun cil)
is thc central a<lministrativc fórce of th e EU, proposin g programmcs and policy
to th e Council of Mini sters. It comprises commission crs chosen from mc m-
ber states to hold certain portfolios, such as agriculturc or competiti on policy,
for a rcnewabl e five-year pcriod. Th eir intercsts thcn becom ' thosc of thc EU
an<l not of th eir national govcrnments. Th e most pro min e nt Co mmissioncr is
th e High R "prcscntative of the Union for Foreign Atlairs and Security Poli cy,
who also serves as Vi ce-Presidcnt of th e Commission an<l is appointcd by thc
European Council. Jt is argue<l that th e un electe<l Cornmission has too much
power, favours fcd cralism and should be more d mocratica lly accountablc. ílut
th e EU has a rclativcly intlucnti al voicc in worlJ affairs, both politi cally an<l
cco nomi cally.
PLATE 6 .6 Hall of the European Court of Justice, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg , 2012 .
© JULIEN WARNAND/EPA-EFE/Shutterstock
lnternational re l atio n s
The Court of Justice (ECJ) compriscs appointed ju<lges from the member
states. It interprets EU laws and treatics, scttles disputes concerning EU law and
resolves conflicts bctween m ember statcs and th e EU. It is a very influential
institution and has built up a solid body of EU case law which is directly appli-
cablc in th c <lomestic systems of thc m ember states. Critics estima te that 70 p er
cent of l3ritish law originated in the EU, but which has now bccn transposed
dircctly into British law, pr paratory to leaving th e EU.
Th European Parli ament is dircctly clected for a five-year te rm on a party
political ba, is from the EU-wi<le electoratc. Jt advises the Council of Ministcrs
on Cornmission proposals, dete rmines thc l: U budget, cxerts sorne control ovcr
thc Council an<l thc Cornrnission and is thc ElJ's kgislative body (togcthn with
t he Counci l of Ministc rs ), rcsponsibl e for most of thc EU's ordinary kgislation.
lt is argucJ that thl' Parliamcnt, as thc only <lircctly clcctcd hody in thc ElJ,
shoulJ havc more power, a nd its veto ovcr EU poli cy has now h 'en extended.
The turnout of British votcrs in thc 20! 4 ElJ Parliamcnt ck ction was a
low 34 .1~) pcr ce nt and mainstrcam partil'S pcrformcd badly, particularly thc
coalition govcrnmc nt Conscrvativ cs and Lihcral Dcmocrats. Th e lJK lndcpcn-
dcncc Party (lJKlP), which wantc<l British withdrawal from thc ElJ and rn n-
trols on immigration , ca rne tirst. Thc ck<:tion uscd a PR sysll'm ol' voting with
party lists for England, Scotland and Waks and thc Single Transkrahlc Vote
CSTV) for Northcrn f rcland. Britain haJ 73 scats (or mcmhns the Europl',.111 or
l\1rli amrnt - MEPs) in tlw Parliamcnt (sel' Tahle Í) . l ), which was rcdun-d frnm
78 in 2004 hcca usc of ElJ cn largemcnt. Sorne 2~) difh:-rC'nt partics stood in thc
ck ction anJ UKIP's succcss was thc tirst time a British political rarly otlwr
TABLE 6.1 European Un ion Parliament election resu lts 2014 (Britain : main porties)
than Labour or Conservative Partil's has won thc popular vote in a national
elcction since the 1906 general clcction. It was also thc first time a party other
than Labour and Conservativc had won the largcst number of seats in a national
election since the December 191 O general election. The Conservativcs werc
push ed into third place and thc EU-supporting Lib Dcms lost all but one of
th =-- ir scats. It was also the tirst time since 1984 that thc largest opposition party
(h ere Labour) had failed to win the European Parliament clcction.
Th e 2014 EU election saw thc risc ofleft and right radical parties. This was
seen as a sign of disillusionmcnt with the EU after a period of economic crisis
and a long-term fragmentation of traditional I .eft-Right poli tics. Th ese parties
werc also seen as anti-Europcan, who could potentially shift the EU Parliament
from its fcderalist traditions and provoke reform of th EU, allegedly in order to
make it more relcvant for its citizens.
British m ' mbership of th e EU continucd to be Jifficult, particularly with
the el ectoral succcss of UKIP. Thc UK had complaincJ about its contrihution
to thc EU budget (which although reduced undcr Margarct Thatcher was again
undcr threat); objected to agrjcultural and tisherics policics; and opposcd move-
ments towards grcater políti ca! and economic int ·gration. On th e on · hand,
Eurosccptic critics argue<l that Britain's sovereignty anJ independencl' wcr<:.
threatcncd by EU dcvelopm 'nts and wantcd th c rcpatriation oF sorne national
rights from the EU back to Britain . Thcy tended to se' thc EU as a frcc-trade
area in which national legal rights and intercsts c:ould b' rctaincd. Howcvl'r,
Europhile supporters wanted economic and politi cal intcgration (possibly on
fed era l lin es ), arguing that th e EU enabl cs national governmcnts to rational-
ize industrial and agricultura! plans and a1lows Europ "a n co untrics to opcratc
effectivdy in a globalized world by running l'Xte: rnal poli ics which ar<.' bcyon<l
the capacity of a small or mc<lium-sized ·ountry. In this view, mcmbcrship of
thc EU <lid not mean a handing over of power to Brusscls but a nct incrcasc in
effective power for EU mcmber states.
The major UK political parties have maintaincd until reccntly that th ey
want to be in the EU, but were divided in their opinions about what its ulti-
mate form should be. Thc Liberal D emocrats support an EU federal ideal, to
which thcrc is Eurosceptic opposition in the Labour and Conservativc partics.
The Conservative mainstream has wantcd to remain in thc EU, but supports
the allocation of more power to national parliamcnts, and insists on rcform of
EU treatics and structures and the repatriation of major functü)ns to thc lJK,
under the principlc of subsidiarity, wherc sorne economic and social activitics
can be carried out at lower levels in individual co untries rathcr than th e EU. Thc
Brexiteer wing of th e Cons rvative Party wanted British 'xit from the EU and
global trading activity. Thc Blair Labour Party had wantc<l a strong Europe in
which Britain ca n play a n ntral role; supported enlargement of thc EU; ba ·ked
the Lisbon Trea ty; was initially in principle in favour of Britain cntcring tht
European common n1rn·ncy ( thc curo); and proposed a common defcncc and
lnternational relations
lt)rcign policy for the EU. But it was against the concept of a federal 'superstate',
fovo ured the Council of Minist ers as thc main decision-making body and was
,1gainst enhancing thc powers of th e Europcan Parliament. The prcsent Labour
Party, at kadership and m ember l vcls, has bccome more dividcd anJ sorne are
l·:uroscep ti · in thcir attitudes to thc ElJ whil e others are Europhile.
Therc are diffcrcnt vicws in Britain about the p erformance and effici ency
of the EU anJ the pace and dircction of future developme nts. Feelings about
the 2007-09 Lisbon Treaty (a r vamped EU constitutional system) wcre vol-
atilc. Among other things, the Treaty gavc legal iden tity and authority to the
EU; created a lcgally binding chartcr of rights; allowed for a full-time prcsi<lent
,md forcign ministcr; and formally recognized thc supremacy of EU law ovcr
natio nal law. It was finally adopted in 200~) after ca rlier rejections by Francc, the
Nethcrlands and th e Repuhlic of Ireland. But thc UK rcj cctcd mcmhcrship of
the euro (UJ common ·urrcn cy ).
British support for th t' EU peaked in thc l 980s but has sin ce crodc d, anJ
Britain has hcc n th e l --ast cnthusiastic of thc EU ·ountries, with a 2003 MORI
poll f-in<ling that only 30 per ce nt of British rcspondcnts fclt that Ll J mc mbcr-
ship was a gooJ thing. Sorne earlier polis suggcstcd that only a small majority of
rcs pondcnts wantcd to stay in thc EU whil 'a majority wantc<l a rcfrrcndum on
Britain's continucd membership and bclicvcd that Britons had not bu:- n givcn
cno ugh information about th ' argumcnts for and against nwmhcrship. A l3BC/
Com Res poll in 2009 found that 55 pcr ce nt of Britons wantcd to kavc th e EU;
84 per cent wanted a rdt~rc ndum bcforc transh.'rring ncw powcrs to thc EU ; 55
per cent wanted Britain to !cave thc ElJ hut maintain clos<' trading links ( 41 per
cen t di sagrccd); and 51 pcr ce nt <lisagrccd that Britain bc nditcd ovcrall from
memhership in tcrms ofjobs and trae.le.
Support for thc EU has bce n changcablc, lukcwa rm and indiff 'H.'nt.
Turnout of votcrs for British EU Parliam cnt clections is low anJ there is a
g neral ignoranc' in Britain about th c EU, its b ncf-its and its institutions.
A Pcw Rcscan.:h poll in May 2014 founJ that British res pondcnts gave ]im-
it ,cJ support to Europcan in stitutions, such as th c European Parliamcnt
(36 pcr e 'nt), thc European Commission (34 pcr cent) anJ the Europcan
Ce ntral Bank (30 pc r ·c nt) . An ea rli c r MORI poll in Septcmber 2004 found
that 32 pcr cent of rcspondents fclt th at th e EU necds Britain more than
Britain nccds thc EU; but 32 pcr cent also felt that Britain and the EU n ed
ca ·h othcr cqually.
Howcvcr, othcr polls havc shown mixed, nuanced and positive responses
to thc ElJ, and a wish for EU rcform. Sorne suggest that 'Europe' is consid-
crcd to be rclativcly more important to Britain than th e USA and th e Com-
monwcalth. Europ 'a nism (rathcr than an E.U institutional entity) sccrns to
he more casily and naturally acccptcd by people, particularly th e young; largc
numbcrs of Britons live and work in EU countrics; many Britons takc tht'ir hol -
idays in Europe; and therc is considerable intcrchange at many k vcls, s11t ·h ;1~
l n t ernational relations
Exercises
Briefly define and examine the following terms, commenting on their
significance in British life:
1 Chapters in Block, J. (2000) Modern British History from 1900, London : Macmillan
2 Connolly, C. (2003) Theorizing lreland, London : Palgrave Macmillan
3 Dixon, P. (2001 J Northern lreland: The Politics of War and Peace, London : Palgrave
Macmillan
4 Marshall, P.J . (2001 J The Cambridge 11/ustrated History of the British Empire, Cambridge :
Cambridge University Press
5 Moody, T.W. and Martín, F.X. (2001 J The Course of lrish History, Cork and Dublin : Mer-
cier Press
6 Srinivasan, K. (2005) The Rise, Decline and Future of the British Commonwealth, London :
Palgrave Macmillan
7 Tonge, J. (2005) The New Northern lrish Politics?, London : Palgrave Macmillan
8 Warner, G . ( 1994) British Foreign Policy since 1945, Oxford : Blackwell
lnternat i onal rela tions 18S
.,
A ~
_:T
.
9 Watts, D. and Pilkington, C. (2005) Britain in the European Union, Manchester: Manches-
ter University Press
l O Young , J.W. (2000) Britain and European Unity 1945-1999, London : Macmillan
Websites
Foreign and Commonwealth Office : www.fco.gov.uk
Department for lnternational Development: www.dfid.gov.uk
The Commonwealth : www.thecommonwealth .org
Ministry of Defence: www.mod .uk
NATO : www.nato.int
Eu ropean Union : http://europa .eu .int/
7
The legal system
l ,c-gal history
■ Th e legal profcssion
■ J\ttitudcs to thc legal systcm and crime
■ fxeni\·es
■ Furt-her rearling
■ Websites
The legal system
Legal structures have played a central part in British civilization for rnany ccn-
turies. lnitially, leadcrs or monarchs, and th en Parliament crea ted th e law; law-
ycrs and th e courts havc scrviced it; and all citizens are subj ect to it. lt has been
influcnccd by social contli ct, political struggle and constitutional change. This
chapter examines its history, the main elements that comprise it today, an<l the
problcm s that it faces.
Law and order1 and the actions of th e legal system are of concern to the
British people and affect individuals at diffcrcnt lcvds in thcir <laily livcs. Legal
issues rcgularly appear in opinion polis about the state of the country, and
includc the need for accurate figures of crime offenccs1 anti-social bchaviour,
violencc on th e streets, yobbishness, security and terrorism issues, cybcrcrimc
and th e rnonitoring of communications systems, and cuts in police tórces. Opin-
ions diffor on whether the legal system has been abk to <leal cffcctivdy with
th ese concems.
Britain <loes not havc a common legal systcm. lnstead, th crc are thrce
separate 'lcmcnts: thosc of England an<l Walcs1 Scotland, an<l North crn lrc-
land. These sometimes differ from each othcr in thcir laws, procc<lurcs c1nd
court namcs. Following J cvolution , sorne laws are applicahle only to individual
devolved nations, although UK Parliament legislation on rcscrvcd mattcrs still
applies to ali of Britain .
To simplify mattcrs, this chaptcr conccntratcs on th c largcst clcment: that
of England and Wales, with comparative rdcrcnccs to Scotlan<l and North crn
Irelan<l. Th e Northern lrish legal system is si milar to that of England and Walcs.
But Scotland has historically had its own in<lcpcn<lcnt legal apparatus.
British legal cases are dividcd into civil and criminal law. C ivil law involves
non-criminal privatc rights and scttles disputes betwee n inJividuals or organi-
zations. It deals with claims for compensation, finan cia] or othcrwisc, by a per-
son (claimant) who has suHered loss or damagc (such as a hrcach of contract or
a neglige nt act) at thc hands of another (defcn<lant). C ivil cases may he du :idcd
b y negotiation and settlement b efore trial or by a judge (.and somctimcs a jury)
aftcr a trial.
Criminal law protects society by punishin g thosc (thc accuscd or dch.'n-
dants) who cornmit crimcs against the state, su h as th eft or mur<ler. Th e state
usually prosecutcs an individual or group at a trial in order to establish guilt.
The result may he a fin e or imprisonment. Such punishment is supposed to act
as a deterrent to potcntial offcndcrs, as well a stating society's attitudes on a
range of mattcrs.
T he lega l system
Legal history
The legal system is one of the oldest and most traditional of British institutions.
lts authority and influencc are hjstorically due to its growing indcpendence
i"rom thc cxccutive and legis]ative branch es of govemment. Its role is to inter-
pret and apply the law, serve citizens, control unlawful activities against thcm
and th e state, protect civil libcrtics, and support legitimatc govcmmcnt and
lcgislation.
Yet, it has been accuse<l of harshness, of supporting vest ,J and political
interests, favouring propcrty rath cr than human rights, maintaining thc isolation
.-m d mystiquc of thc law, c nco uraging th e del ay and 'X pc nsc of kgal actions, a nJ
being biased against the poor and <lisa<lvantagcJ. lt has hccn criti cizcJ for its
resistancc to rcform anJ thc maintcnan cc of profrssional privikgcs which can
·e.mtli ct with th c puhlic intcrcst.
Sorne critics fecl that th c law to<lay has sti11 not aJaptcd to changing condi-
tions, nor undcrstood th c nccds of contcmpornry socicty. Govcrnmcnt law oHi-
cers, thc kga l prokssion anJ th c policc are somctimcs niticizcd for pursuing
thcir own scctional intc rcsts. Rcccnt miscaniagcs of justicc haw c mbarrassed
the policc, govl' rnmcnt and judiciary (judgcs) and incrcascd publi c conccrn
about thc quality of criminal justicc. Therc are similar mi sgivings about thc
expense, Jclays and f'un ctioning of th e civil law.
Britain historically has not bccn thought of as a litigious socidy. Pcoplc
us ua11y avo id th c Ji Hirnlty and cost of legal action s if poss iblc anJ regard thc
law anJ lawye rs as a last rcsort in rcsolvin g thcir prohkms. Yct, rccently, more
Britons have b cen using thc civil co urts to gain sa tisfi1ction h)r allcgcd wrongs
aga inst thcm an<l a 'compcnsatinn culture' has grown, <:' ncouragcd by spccial-
ist lawy<.:' rs. L:1rgc dam agcs may be awardcd in lihcl cases anJ actions against
sch )ols, co mpanics, doctors, hospital s, the criminal justicc systcm, media abuse,
person al injuries, phont hackin g anJ medi ca} ncgligencc. Th c Human Rights
Act, 1998 is bcing incrcasingly used by indivi<lual s to asscrt thcir cl aims and
rights and can leaJ to se -mingly opposc<l actions. For cxa mpl e, a right to pri-
vacy can co nfli ct with the right of express ion , both of which are con tain eJ and
protccteJ in th c 1998 J\.ct, and which may be abolish -d by the Conservativc
governm ent.
Thc legal systcm has changed ov 'r the cen turi cs in response to chan ging
social circumstanccs anJ philosophies. Contcmporary consumer demands, pro-
fcssio nal prcss urcs anJ government reforms havc forccd it to develop, sorne-
times rapidly anJ somctimes slowly. Most p eoplc in the past were unaffect ed
by th c law, but it now involves citizens more directly and to a greater extent.
lncrease<l J ern an J s are made upon it by individuals, the state and corporate
bo<lies. Co ncern ahout crim c has em phasizcd the control role of the criminal
law, whilc in creascd Jivorce, family breakdown and a m ore litigious soc icty
have leJ to a h eavit.r worl<load for thc civil law.
The legal sy stem
Th three main sources of English/Welsh. law are the common law, statute law
and, until Brexit, European Union law. The oldest is the common law, based on
thc vari d local customs of early settlers and invaders. After thc Norman Con-
qucst, it slowly b e -ame a uniform boJy of rul e , principles and law which was
d cided and writtcn down by judges in court cases. Thc same rul es still guide
judges in th eir intcrpretation of statutes an<l the cxpansion of thc common law
(also known as case law or judge-ma<lc law).
Common law dccisions form prccedcnts from which judgcs can determine
thc principies oflaw to be applied to currcnt cases. Normally today, thc crcation
of new prcce<l c nts in Englan<l an<l Walcs líes with thc Suprcmc Court, as thc
highest court of appcal from most courts in thc lJnitc<l Kingdom. Its rulings
state the prcscnt law to be applicd hy ali courts. Thc tra<lition of following prcc-
edent maintains consistcncy an<l continuity, hut it can rcs ult in consc rvative lclW
and fai l to takc account of social changc.
Statute law was originally maJc in various h)rrns hy thc monarch, hut the
Westminstcr Parliamcnt gradua ll y bccamc thc lcgislating authority hccausc of
its growing powcr against th' monarch . Statutcs (Acts of Parliamcnt which
cr ate ncw law) multiplic<l in thc ninctccnth an<l twcnticth ccnturics lwcausc
rules wnc ncc<lc<l for a changing, more complcx and largcr socil"ty. Much Brit-
ish law today is in statutc form and shows thc influcncc of the statc in citizcns'
livcs. Acts of thc Westminstn Parliamcnt are applin1blc to England, Waks and
sornctimcs to thc lJK as a whok and forml'rly w ' IT suprcml' over most othcr
forms of law ( cxccrt for EU law).
Eu.rupean Union law bccamc part of English (ílritish) law Following lhit-
ain's cntry into tlw l~uropcan Economic Community in 1973. EU h1w took
prcn.'ckncc ovcr British domcstic law in many areas and British ju<lgcs had to
app ly EU law whcn thcrc was a conHict with Acts of Parliamcnt. EU law and
British domcstic law thcrcforc cocxistcd and sorne 70 pcr cent of British law
originatu.1 in thc EU. How ·'V "r, whcn thc UK tricd to with<lraw from thc ElJ,
rckvant law was transfrrrcd into British law.
Anothcr form of law applicabk in B1itain stems from l3ritain's mcmhcr-
ship of th c Council of Europe's European Convcntion on Human Rights. The
Europcan Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg is not part of thc l~lJ lega l
structurcs, but rules on appcals madc to it by l3ritish citizcns on human rights
issm·s which havc bccn rcj 'Cted in the Briti.sh courts. Thcrc is continuing con-
tlict at rrcscnt bctwccn thc British nrnrts (cspccially thc Supreme Court) and
thc European Court nf Human Rights as to whcth er Britain must abidc by thc
lattcr's dccisions, or whether British rnurts are sovcreign in sorne matte rs, such
as whcther -onvicted prison ers in British jails have a right to vote in British
ekctions, which thcy have traditionally not posscssed .
The lega l sys t e m
Scottish law derives from legal principles and rules modclled on both
Roman and English law. The sources of Scots law are judge-madc law1 author-
itativ' legal trcatiscs, EU law (pre-Brexit) and lcgislation. Thc first two consti-
tute the common law of Scotland and are similar to th e Engli sh common law.
Legislation consists of relevant Wcstminster Acts of Parl iamcnt and Scottish
ParliamentActs on devolved matters in Scotland.
Northern Irish law has a similar common law tradition to England and
Wale . Jn add ition to UK statutes affccting Northt'rn Ireland, th e Northern lre-
land Assembly has legislative and executive authority for devolved matters and
can thus mak · laws in Northcrn Ircland.
Thc court system is divided into criminal and civi l courts (sce Figur' 7 .1) undcr
thc central directio n of the Ministry of .Justice. lncrcasing numbers of British
p eople have d 'alin gs with thc thff'~rent courts at various 1cv Is. Thesc are not,
CIVIL CRIMINAL
SUPREME COURT
• •
HIGH COURT CROWN COURT
,,. 1
1
1
(- -- -- - appea l structure)
Criminal courts
There are two levels of criminal courts. Thc lower and husicr is thc magis-
tratcs' court, which dcals with summary (l ess scrious) cases and handl es over
~)5 pcr cent of all criminal mattcrs. Thc more scrious (in<lictablc) criminal
offenccs, such as murder, are trie<l by th' highcr ·c.)Urt, thc crown ·ourt. Mag-
istrates1 courts se rve local areas in EngLrnd and Walcs. Two typcs of officials
try cases in thcsc courts: magistrates or .lusticcs of thc Peacc (.IPs) ami District
Judgcs.
Most magistratcs' courts are prcsiJcd ove r by 16,125 lay magistrates (J Ps ),
who may be appoint J from thc agc of 18 an<l retire at 70 . Thcy are part-timc
judicial officials chosen from thc general puhlic, hcar cases without a jury,
rccdv' no salary for thcir scrvic 'S ( only 'Xpcnscs), and havc soml' mandatory
legal training. Mag-istrates may be motivatcd by thc dcsirc to pnfrlrm a public
scrvice or thc supposcd prcstigc of the position . Thcy sil daily in big ·itics and
lcss fn:' l)Ul"ntly in rural arcas, in 330 ·ourts in England and Waks. ·rhcir oHin.'
dates from 1327 and illustratcs a 1 'gal systcm in which thc ordinary pnson is
ju<lged by othcr citizcns, rathn than by profcssionals. ThL'Y dl'al with crinws in
thc adult court anc.1, on gaining cxpcricncc, may he involvcd with dcfcndants
aged b -tw 'en l O an<l 18 in th' youth court, with thc wclforc ol" childrcn in
the family court, or with a ju<lgc in thc crown court when an appcal is hcard
against a scntencc passcd in thc magistratcs' court. Media rcports of youth
and family cases must not norma11y idcntify thc partics involvcd. Youth courts
play a central rnlc, particularly at a time whcn many nimcs ar· committcd by
young pcoplc agcd undcr l (), and family conrts are incrcasingly busy in civil
cases at a tim e of family problems. Magistrates' courts also hanJlc road traffic
offcnc<?s.
Magistratcs are now forma11y appointcd by th e Lord Chi< f .Justicc (hcad ni'
th e judiciary in England and Wales), who wiJI havc bccn givcn suitabk rccom-
mendations by local advisory committecs and who dclcgatcs thc function to a
se nior prcsiding judgc. [n the past, magistratcs wcrc mainly whitc midJll'- or
upp ' r-class males who were promincnt in thc local community, such as land-
owncrs, do ·tors, r -·tired military ofliccrs an<l busincssmcn. But thcy are now
recruitcd after a rigorous selection proccss from wi<lcr and more rcprcscntative
ocial, cthnic and gcndcr backgrounds. Howcvcr, thc govcrnmcnt has re<luced
th e numbcr of magistratcs and magistratcs' courts to cut costs. Both are now
struggling to produce a basic scrvicc in inadcquat ' conditions and subject to
long delays.
Thl magistratcs' court has an average of thrcc .JPs when hearing cases, usu-
ally composcd of hoth mcn an<l women. Thcy decide a case on th e facts ami
The legal system
PLATE 7.2 Interior of Kingston-upon-Thames crown court show ing computer equipment
installed for trial ; cou rt conta ins many trad itional fea tures such as the judge's cha ir and bench,
jury seats (left) and prosecution and defence benches (centre) .© Kevin Wheal/ Shu tterstock
The lega l syst em
PLATE 7.3 The UK Supreme Court, 2009 in Parliament Square, London , which took over the
role of the House of Lords as the supreme court of appeal for many purposes for most parts
of the UK . © Ion Macpherson London/ Alamy Stock Photo
The l e g al system 197
.,
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Crown courts hear appeals from magistrates' courts and both may appeal
nn matters of law to a divisional court of th e Queen 's Bench Division . Appea ls
fro m the crown co urt are made to the Criminal Division of the Court of App :> al.
Appeals may th e n go to the Suprem e Court in London as the high ~st court in
England and Wales (and for civil cases in Scotland and criminal and civil cases
in Northern lreland) . But p ermission is only granted if a point of law of public
imp ortance is involved. Usually, fivc to ninc Suprcm e Court .Justiccs (out of
twclvc) may hca r a case and thcir decision rcpn:' Scnts th e currcnt statc of th c
law.
ln Scotl.a.nrl, thc High Court of Justiciary acts in sorne largc and smallcr
towns in Scotland as a criminal court and in Edinburgh as thc suprcmc court
fo r criminal appcals. Thc Suprcme Court in Lon<lon is thc final court of arr -al
in thc UK for civil cases, an<l also frH criminal ·ases from Dnglanrl, \M:tles and
Northern lrelanrl.
Civil courts
C ivil law proceedings in England an<l Walcs, if not scttlcd hy ncgotiation out
of court, are gcncrally brought cith cr in thc ·ounty court (which dcal s with ~)()
pcr cent oF civil cases ) or in th c High Court (sec Figure 7 .1 ). More straight-
forwar<l and lcss ex pensivc actions are Jcalt with in tlw cnunty court, rathcr
t han thc H igh Court, and most c ivil <lisputcs do not 1Tach court at ali. Sin ce
2014, England an<l Walcs havc bcc n <livi<lcd into so111c ~)2 county courts, which
handlc a rangc of mon cy, propcrty, contract, divorn.' and family mattcrs anJ a
d istrict judgc usually sits alonc whcn h c.aring and dcc iding Célscs. Various typcs
of trihunals, such as thos ' d<:aling with cmploymrnt and disnimination m attc rs,
may also he uscJ hy th c civil law. Thc magistratcs co urt, crow n court ami family
co urt also Jcal with so rn e ' ivil matters.
Thc I ligh Court of .lustice has its main centre in l ,ondon, with courts
throughout England an<l Wal es whc rc High Court prncecdings may he issu ed
an<l hea rJ . Jt is <lividc<l into three <livisions which spccializc in spccifi c 111 attns.
The Queen's Henc:h Division has a wi<lc jurisdiction, induding rnntract an<l ncg-
li ge nce cases; the Chancery Court Div'L~ion is conccrnc<l with cornmcrc ial, finan-
cia! and succcss ion mattcrs; and thc Family Dillision dcél ls with dom csti c issucs
such as m arriagc, Jivorce, propcrty and th c custo<ly of childrrn . Afr.n mu ch
controvcrsy thcrc were changes to family ju, ti c' in 2014, which ar· supposc<l
to pul th c wclfarc of chil<lrc n at th c ce ntre- of th c systcm. Thc mcasurcs indudc
a single Family Court to rcplace th c prcvious thrcc-ticr systcm, and ncw time
limits for G.l Scs whcrc childrcn are take n into ca rc.
ln Scotlanrl, th e sheriff court d<:.als with most civil actions, bcca usc its juris-
<liction is not finan cially limited, although th c highcr Court of Scss ion may also
be used for sorne cases. The Northern lrísh High Court han<ll es most civil cases.
.,
"°~ 198 The l egal sy stem
;T
PLATE 7 .4The Royal Courts of Justice in the Strand , London , which contain the High Court
and the Courts of Appeal (civil , and criminal) . © Alex Segre/Shutterstock
Many featurcs of civil and criminal procedurc in England and Walcs are similar
to those in Scotland and Northcrn Irdand.
The legal syst em
Civil procedure
/\ civil action in the county court or th e I ligh Court b egi ns when thc claimant
serves papers with details of a claim on the defe ndant. If the defe ndant dcfcn<ls
the action, documcnts are circulated to a11 parties and the case procceds to trial
;.rn d judgmcnt. A decision in civil cases is reachcd on the balan ce of probabil-
ities. Th e court also decides th ' 'X P ·nscs ami damagcs of' th c c:1ction, which
may be co nsiderable. Civil law proccdurcs have bcen rcorganizcd and simplifi --d
sin ce 1999 b cause of concern about th e effi cicncy of th systcm, with its dclays
and cxpcn. e. M uch of th e High Court's work has bcen transfcrrcd to th c co unty
court. Pro ·ccforal ruks betwccn the two co urts hav ' b een unifi ·d. Active court
managem cnt has b ecn adapted, with judgc. sctting th c pace of litigati o n, and
chcapcr, quicke r forms of scttlement in oth 'r co urts havc hcc n implc nwntc<l,
such as thosc dealing with mattcrs in small claims courts. NL'vc rthckss, it is
advisable th at disputes b e scttl cd by nL goti ation out of co urt rath er than by a
co urt tria! in ordcr to avoid high costs an<l any un cc rtainty about a res ult.
Criminal procedure
Crimcs c:1rc offenccs aga inst th e laws of thc sta te, and it is thc statc wh i -h usu-
ally hrings a pcrson to trial. Prior to l ~)85, th e policc in England ami Walcs
wc rc rcsponsiblc for prosccutin g criminal casl:'s. Thc Crow n Prosecution Sn-
vicc ( CPS) now pcrforms this role. lt is indcpcn<lcnt of th c poi in·, linan cc<l hy
th e statc and staffed by statc lawyc rs, but th crc has bccn criticism of its per-
fo rman ce, which has suffe rcd from undcrstafling and undcrl"unding. Thc C PS
and its hcad ( th e Director of Puhlic Prosccutions - 1) PP) havc th c final word
in dcciding whcther to pnxccd with cases. In S<.:otland, prosccution duti cs rlst
w ith th . . Crown Officc and Prncurator Fiscal Scrvicx and in Nortlzern lreland
with th e poli ce and thc DPP.
J\rrcsts for most criminal offcnccs are ma<lc by thc poli cc, although any
citize n ca n makc a 'citiz<:. n's arrest ' . J\ft:c r criticism of thc poi ice for th cir arrcst,
qu<.>stionin g anJ chargin g practi ces, th cy now opcratc und cr co<lcs of prac:t ic.T
(PACE) , which lay down strict pro -c<lurcs for th c protcc:tion oF suspl'Cts. Tlw
poliu~ ca nnot usually int ·-rrogate peoplc, or dctain th c m at a poi ice station iF
th ey have not be ·n arrested. On ce pcrsons havc bcc n arrl'Stcd, had thcir rights
read to th cm anJ b ee n chargcd with an ofh:ncc, thcy must be brought before
a magistrates' court, norrnally within 24 hours. In sc rious cases and after arrcst,
a pcrson ca n be hckl for up to 96 hours. After this pc riod, the susp ect must b e
rel eascd if no charges are brought.
Whe n a pcrson appcars beforc a magistratcs' co urt prior to a trial, thc mag-
istrates ca n grant or refose bail (frecdom frorn custody). If bail is rcfused, a
p erson is kcpt in custody in a re mand ce ntre or in prison. If b ail is gra ntcd ,
The l egal system
[TI
6 7
9
5 8
10
the individual is freed until a later court appcarance. The court may rcquire
assuranccs from th e accuscd about conduct whilc on hail, such as residc ncc in a
specific arca and reporting to a poli -e station.
Application for hail is a legal right, since th e a ·cuscd has not yct becn founJ
guilty of a crimc, and th ere shoulJ be strong r 'asons for rcfusing it. Therc is
concern that those who are rcfused bail are, at th t ir latcr tria!, either foun<l not
guilty or are punished only by a fine. Thc systcm thus holds ailegcd crüninals
on remand to await tria!, which incr ases overcrowding in prisons. But th crc is
also public concern about accuscd persons who commit further , erious offcnccs
while free on lcngthy bail.
Criminal trials in th " magistratcs' and crown courts are usually open to thc
public. Howcver, th e m edia can only report the court proceedings and must not
comment upon them whil e the trial is in progrcss (the sub judice or ' pending
litigation' rul e) .
Thc accused enters the dock, th c charge is rcad and they plead 'guilty'
or 'not guilty'. On a 'guilty' plea, the p erson may be scntcncecl after a statc-
m e nt of the facts by the prosecution. However, scntencing may be defe rred
to a latcr date for furth er reports. On a 'not guilty' plea, th' trüil proc eds in
order to establish the person's innocence or guilt. An individual is innocc nt
until proved guilty and it is thc respo nsibility of th e prosccution to prove guilt
b eyond a reasonablc doubt. If proof is not achicvcd, a 'not guilty' vcrdict is
returned by magistrates in th e magistrates' court or by thc jury in th e crown
court. In Scotland, there is an additional possiblc verdict of 'not proven' (lack
of evid nce to convict, but judge or jury unconvin ccd of th c innocencc of th e
defcndant).
The lega l syste m 201
.,
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The prosecution and defe nce of th e accused are usually perforrned by soli c-
itors in magistrates' courts and by barristers and solicitor-advocates in crown
courts, but it is possible to dcfend oneself British trials are adversaria] contcsts
between dcfcn ce and prosecution. Both sides call witnesses in support of th c ir
case, who m ay b e qu -'Stionc<l by the other side. The rules of evidence an<l procc-
dure in this contestare comp1icated and must be strictly observed. The accused
rnay remain silcnt at arrest, charge and tria] and n ec<l not givc cvidencc. How-
cver, thc right to sile nce has now been limited, which means that the poli cc
must warn arrestees that their silence rnay a<lvcrsely affcct their later <ldt.' nce.
Th e prosccution and judgc at the tria] may commcnt on silence and it may
influcncc th c de ision of juries and magistrates.
It is argue<l that thc adversaria] naturc. of criminal trials ·an r sult cithcr
in the convi ·tion of innocent peoplc or in thc guilty cscaping conviction . It is
suggestec.1 that th c inquisitorial syste m of sorne oth -r European co untri cs would
be bcttcr. This allows thc prior qucstioning of suspccts 8nd cstablishing of facts
to be ca rri cJ out by professio nal impartial int ' rrogators (or judgcs) rath cr than
the poli cc.
The judgc in th e crown ·ourt an<l th c mag istratc s in thc magistratcs' court
are controlling inHucnces in thc battl c hctwce n ckknc and proscc ution. Thcy
apply thc rules of the court and givc Jiru:tions on proccJurc and ev ickncc, hut
th "'Y should not intt'rferc too aclivcly, or show bias. /\her thc prosccution and
ITJ QJ
7 8
3
[D] 13
19 101
12
i
Court appearance (magistrales' court)
(court may consider legal aid or bail)
Offences triable
¡
on ly on indictment Either-way offences Summary offences
1
t
Mode of trial enquiry (magistrales)
::-
Committal proceedings
(before magistrales)
i Trio!
(by magistrales)
Trial (crown court)
(judge and jury) ¡
i Sentence (if gui lty)
Sentence (if guilty)
¡
i Appeal (crown court or divisiona l
Appeal (Court of Appeal) court if point of law)
thc J efrnc' have condu<le<l thcir cases, th c magistratcs deci<lc hoth thc vcrdict
and scnt -' ncc. In the crown court, th e jury ddivcrs thc ver<lict after th c judge
has given a summing-up and th e judgc th e n pronoun ·es scnten ce ( which rnay
be dcfen-e<l).
Thc use of ca meras has historica lly not been allowed in British co urts.
Although they wcre allowc<l in Scotland in ] 9~)2, restrictions h ad prevcntcd
thcir use in all circumstances. The Court of Appeal in Englan<l and Walcs has
now allowed cam eras into their procccdings from O ctober 2013 on limitcd
occasions.
The jury
Trial by jury is an ancient and important featurc of British justi ce. It has declincd
in civil cases (except for libel and fraud) , hut is th c main clcme nt in ·rirninal tri-
als in th e crown court for indictable offenccs. Most Rritish residcnts are obligc<l
to undertake jury service when summoned.
Bcfore th e start of a criminal triaJ in the crown court, 12 jurors are chosen
from a list of 30 namcs randomly selectcd from electoral rcgistcrs. Thcy li sten
to the cvide ncc at tlw trial and give thcir verdict on the facts, after having been
isolated in a roon1 l"or tlwir J clihcrati ons. If a jury cannot reach a dccision, it
will h e dischMg( ·d ;111d ;1 1w w onc sworn in. Thc accused can thus be tricd twi cc
The le ga l system
(double jeopardy) for thc same offence ( as in appeals that order a new tri al or
in th e re-h 'aring of cases in the intcrcsts of justice where new and compelling
evidence app 'ars). Such results are an cxception to the principle that a person
can only be tried once for the samc oHence. In most cases, the jury reaches a
decision. Thc judgc acccpts a majority (rather than a unanimous) verdict after
the jury has ddiberat -'d for more than two hours, if there are no more than two
diss ntcrs (ten to two). The jury does not Jecide thc punishmcnt or sentence,
except in sorne civil ·ases, whcre it awards damages.
Th e jury system is th , citizen's link with thc legal proccss. 1t is supposed
to safoguard individual ]iberty and justicc because a common-sense decision on
the facts cither to punish or an.¡uit is takcn hy tellow citizens. Yet the systcm has
becn criticizcd because of high acquittal ratcs; allcgedly unsuitable or suhjcctive
jurors; intimi<lation of and thrcats against jurors; and thc ncc<l to savc time an<l
expense. Sorne critics wish to r ' place thc jury with 'cxpcrts'; the Labour govcrn-
mcnt reduce el th e right to jury tria! in sorne 'eithcr-way' offenc s; and othcr trials
in which jury intimidation is allcgc<l may now hl hcar<l and dccidcJ by a single
judgc without a jury. J\lthough criticism continucs, it se 'ms that thc jury systcm,
as an esscntial fcature of British justicc, will continuc for most rdevant cases.
cases, and in other crown court work by up to 18 per cent. Lawycrs argue that
this will prcvent people having proper reprcscntation in court, will seriously
affect the quality of justice and diminish the criminal bar with many junior
lawye rs leaving the profcssion. The government maintained that lawycrs would
be fairly paid for their work after thc reforms and that effi ci ncies are nccessa ry
to e nsurc that legal aid remains sustainable.
Critics argue that thc rcduction of legal aid has already rcsulte<l in many
1 'gal firms (and barriste rs) withdrawing from th e systcm beca use it is unprofit-
able. In this view, access to legal serviccs is restricted to thc poorest mcmb 'rs of
society (for whom re<luced legal aid may still be availahk without co ntrihution)
and thc richcst minority ( who are able to pay th eir own I gal f ,cs). Most peo-
ple on mcdium incomcs will usually have to pay th eir own civil and criminal
expenses in eme form or anothcr if thcy are involve<l in 1 'gal a ~tions.
Sin cc frwcr pcople are now eligible for statc hclp at a time when <lcmanJ
is rising, it is argu ed that th e provision of legal aid shoul<l be mad ' more cfti-
cient and cffective. But in crcascd demand res ults in a more expc nsiw legal aid
system ( which cost .[2 billion in 2014), and is both on c of th c most ex pc nsivc
and gencrous in the worl<l. Rece nt govcrnmcnts havc increascd 'm ca ns-tcsting'
oflegal ai<l ·o that any hdp is dfrctivcly tied to incomc. This practicc rcs ultcd
in a decr'asc·<l cxpen<liturc on legal aid of fl .5 billion in 201€)-17. Polls by lpsos
MORI showcd that bctwccn 2013 anJ 2014 thc numhcr of rcspond cnts sup-
porting th 'government's rnts in legal aiJ had fa11cn from 34 pcr crn t to 23 pcr
cent; thosc disagrcci ng rose from 44 p T cent to 4~) pcr ce nt; an<l thosc nc ithcr
agrccing or disagrceing rose from 18 pcr cent to 25 pcr cent.
It was hopc<l that a rcc 'nt rc form would hclp thosc pcoplc who wish to
start personal injury civil actions, but who ca nnot afford thc cost. C licnts ca n
e nt r into co nditional agrc ' mcnts with lawycrs, in which paymcnt of lega l
fees on a pe rccntagc hasis is only madc if th c clic nt wins ( 'no win-no 1-<.:e' ).
This schem could be ex tended to most civil Jisputcs that involw mon 'Y or
damagcs (and possib]y criminal matt 'rs). But critics argue that such work only
appeals to lawye rs if th 'tT is a rcasonabk chane of winning; it will not solvc th c
proble m of insuring against th <:. cost of losing; lawycrs may imposc largc frcs;
and it C>nco urages a compcnsation culture.
order and safety (at about 2.5 per cent of GDP). But EU statistics suggcst that
it also has more violent crime than other European countries. Evaluations of thc
cxtent of crime in Britain are influe nced by significant non-reporting of oflenccs
such as assaults, burglary and rape; the level of unsolved crime remains high;
and despite improvem e nts in recording offenccs by the policc anJ other bodics
th 're are still conflicting sets of crimc statistics and interpretations.
In October 2017 1 th e OHice for National Statistics (ONS) rcportcd that
the policc in England and Wales recordcd 5.0 million criminal offon ces, more
than thc 4.G million in 201 G. Thcrc were incrcascs of 19 pcr cent in violcnt
crim c, assau1t with injury, robbcry, attempted mur<le r, thrcats to kili, rape and
sexual assault (incluJing stalking and harassment). Th cre wetT also incrcases
in theft:1 criminal damage1 shop]ifting (stealing from shopst fraud and public
order oHcnces. Th ese rises wcre arguably duc to improvcd rcporting and police
rccor<ling, and a surge of sex complaints.
On thc othcr hand, the British Crimc Survcy in England and Walcs
( CSEW ), which is baseJ on replies from rcspon<lcnts who cx pcricncc crime,
cstimatcd that th erc w 're l 0.8 million -rimes against houscholds and rcsidcnt
aJults (agcd 16 ycars an<l over) in 2017. This figure was a ~) pcr cent r ,Juc-
tion comparcd with 201 G. Thc rc<luction of crimc measurc<l by thc C SEW
was reportedly influcnceJ by dccrcascs in a rangc of crimc typcs, such as thclt
of-frnces, violc11cc and criminal <lamagc.
Howcvcr1 critics point out that th c Survcy focuscs on houschold responses,
whi -h may inflatc figures, an<l yct <loes not covu~ for cxamplc1 thc homckss,
studcnts in halls of rcsidcnc' and business crimc. It also surv 'YS peoplc h1l-c-to-
facc, whi ,h allcgedly rcsults in its figures diffning from the numbn ol' crinws
rcportcd by police. Thc ddinition of <Time in the CSEW also dilfrrs somcwhat
from how th c policc record it, an<l pohcc-rccorde<l statistics are conll'sll'd .
Ncvc rthckss, ONS figures in 2017 also rewaled that many more pcork in
England an<l Walcs worry about bccoming a victim of crimc than will actually
ex pcric ncc it. Th e risk of bcing a victim of crime is relativcly low. J\JJitionally,
thcrc has be '11 bcttcr rc porting oflow-level crimc, dom esti c violcncc and sexual
offcnccs1 an<l th c numbcr of crimcs that atlc -t most p eoplc, such as hurglary,
robhcry and vchicl' thcft:1 have d crcascd. However, strcct crirnc, such as knifr
attack\ is a politi cally high profile issue and 40 pcr cent of this typc of ninw
occurs in Lo11don.
Rcscarch survcys (_like th e Oftc nding 1 Crimc and .lusti T survcy up to
200G) suggcst that about l O p er cent of oftenders are rcsponsihlc for GO pcr
cent of offcnccs and that serious and prolific oHc nders amount to aroun<l l pcr
cent of thl' populatio11. It is also estimatc<l that only 011 ' in 50 crimcs results in
a conviction and that only sorne 23 per cent of all crimes are rccorded by thc
poli ce. Opinion polls still regularly suggcst that 50 p er cent of victims do not
rcport inc.i<lc nts to the policc b ecause thcy lack confidence that criminals would
be caught.
The legal system
Disturbing aspects of thcse statistics are the increasing use of knives, fire-
arm and acid in criminal acts, particularly those connccted to gang violence
and serious organize<l crime (leading to deman<ls that all police officcrs shoul<l
be armed); the increased arnount of drug- and alcohol-rdate<l crimc and vio-
lcnce; and thc number of offences committcd by young pcople. Britain has a
problem with you ng offcnders, the p eak age for committing crime is 15 an<l 1O
per cent of rcporte<l criminal offen ces are committe<l by teenagers undcr 16.
Th ere is a widcspread membership of gangs in this age group an<l adherence to
gang culture (all egedly cncouraged by rap music lyrics) in which thc carrying
and use of guns and kniv s are prevalent. But th e amount of knife-carrying is
also rcportedly <lue to self-protection from attack. Binge-drinking in town aJ1d
city centres has also increased and lcd to more violcnce on th e strcets (although
such behaviour declined in 2017). Critics argu that the prcvious Labour gov-
ernment's dccision to ext nd drinking hours in pubs, clubs and restaurants in
2005, in an attempt to copy Continenta l cate culture, on ly furth er ·ontributed
to th e problem.
Respondents to polls think that the causes of crime in Britain are lack of
parental discipline and male role modds; the hreakdown of family an<l commu-
nity structure ; drugs; alcohol; lcni ent sentencing by the courts; gangs; un cm-
ployme nt; a lack of school discipline; povcrty; tclevision; poor policing; teenagc
boredom; and lack of free-time faciliti es for young pcople. Govcrnments havc
tri ed to ease public concern by promising to confront crime by intrnducing
strictcr punishment (parti -ularly for young p eople ), curfews and rcstrictions on
persistcnt offe nders, longer jail terms and great1::.r protection for thc pub]i c. But
polls continue to show that people do not think that govcrnments havc <leliv-
ered 011 their law and or<ler promises.
A person found gui1ty of a first criminal oHe n ·e may, d 'pending 011 its sev "r-
ity, eithcr receiv a su. pended prison scnte11ce, or be placed o n non-custo<lial
probation for a pcriod under the supervision of probation officcrs, despite a
serious reduction in the staffing of the probation servicc. Other punishments for
adults are fin es or imprisonment (for those ovcr 21 ), which vary according to
thc severity of the offence and any previous convi ctions. Strictcr sentencing will
lead to more prisoners and convicted pcrsons are imprisoncd at a high e r rate
than in othcr western [uropean countries. In 2018, th erc were 93,000 peo pl e
in prisons in thc lJK (83,430 in England and Walcs, 7,595 in Scotlan<l and 1,475
in Northern Ireland) . The prison population is expected to grow by 500- 1,000
prisoners each year into the 2020s. Prison overcrowding is a serious problem
and prison warders lack control over inmates in many institutions, which suffer
from interna} violence and abuse, drug traffi king and widcspread dru g usage.
Alternatives to prison are community P habilitation orders (scrving thc
community in sorne capa ity for a number of hours over a number of months)
and suspended prison scntcnccs ( dependent upon no forthcr oflences being
committed for a s¡wcificd pcrioJ) . A recent experirnent is 'tagging' (arm or
The legal system
resulted in serious disorder and riots in recent ycars, low moralc among pris-
on ers and prison staff-; more suicides by inmatcs and terrorist indoctrination
of prisoners. Debates about punishment as opposcd to th ' rchabilitation of
offenders continue. Yet proposals to improve thc situation encountcr the prob-
lem of expense, although the governmcnt is building more prisons. Sorne pris-
ons and prison serviccs (such as escorting prisoncrs to court) havc also been
privatized.
A majority of prisoners are not rcformed by thcir scntences. Sorne (>Ü per
cent are rcconvicted for later off-cnces, and fcar of prison or punishment <loes
not seem to act as a detcrrent. Critics suggest that jail terms should be cut
(with weckend-only prison ers) an<l that institutions should he humanizcd and
prisoners given a scnsc of purpose. Alternativcs to custodial scnt 'nccs, such as
superviseJ housing, probation hostcls and superviscd work projccts are also
advocate<l. But othcrs argu ' that thc fonction of thc crim inal systcm is pun-
ishmcnt and not rchahilitation. For exampk, thc coalition govcrnmcnt argucd
that prison crs should not havc the right to vote in ekctions orto challcngc the
validity of ful] lite scntenccs, ckspitc opposition from thc European Court of
Human Rights.
PLATE 7.5 Clashes between police and Occupy London anti-capitalist protestors, Fetter Lane,
London , 12 May 2012 . © Matthew Chattle/ Alamy Stock Photo
reprcscnt thl puhlic, act on public vicws in poli cing mattcrs, produce polín'
and c rim c plans with proposa ls for local prioritics, an' supportcd hy a budget,
em ploy thcir own admini strators, and hold thc Chicf Constahk to accounl
for poli cc performance on bchalf of thc publi c. Thc Cornmissioncrs do not
havc a party political position an<l arl' givcn frc ,dom to Lkvclop thcir own
mcthn<ls ap propriatc to thcir an.: a. This scrv icc has ha<l élll un certai n start,
with co ntrovcrsy, contli ·ts an<l lack of Jircction , hut now appcars to havc
bccmnc more settled.
J\ crnrding to thc Housc of Co mmons Library, thcrc wcrc· 123, 142 Full-
timc policcmcn anJ womcn in thc 43 polín' forces of England anJ Wé.!lcs in
2017, a dccrcase of' O. 7 pu- e ·' nt or 924 sincc 201 (i. Poi ice forces are' bcing cut
und cr thc governmcnt's austerity measurcs and m any arcas of the country,
hoth urban and rural , h avc lost thcir loca l poli cc. Loca l populations m T vcry
co ncc rn cd and cri ti cs arguc that the forces are undcrstaflt:d anJ should be
in crcascd. Only a disproportionately small numhcr of poli cc ar -' from non-
whitc cthnic ·ommunitics l6 p cr cent o ran in creasc of] pe r cent in 1989 of
the total force ). Thc proportion of fe rn alc police ofticcrs increased from 7 p er
cent in 1997 to 29 pcr cent in 2017. Many in th c cthnic communities are hos-
tilc to or sceptical of thc policc, although thcrc have bcen attempts to recruit
mon of th ern to th e forces, with varying <lcgrces of success. Community Sup-
port OHicers (14,205, a decrease of 188 or 1.3 per cent since 2012_) provid e
.,
A~ 210 The legal system
;T
supplcmcntary h elp to the regular police in security duties and givc a greater
street presence. There are also part-time special constablcs (1 ~),01 O, a decrease
of 1,332 or 6.6 per cent since 20] 2) who form a voluntary police resourcc for
at least four hours p er week.
The police are not allowed to join tradc unions or strike. But they do have
staff associations or federations to rcprescnt their interests. Thcy are subject to
the law, and can be sued or prosecuted for any wrongdoing in thc coursc of their
work. lndivi<luals and organizations can complain about police actions to an
lndependent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) which, it is hoped, might
provide a strongcr role than previous modds. Howcver, critics still arguc that
complaints procedurcs are unsatisfa ·tory and that dcmocratic control of the
policc should be strengthened.
The police, with their distinctive hclmcts and lack of tircarms, are often
regarded as a typical British in stitution. They uscd to 'mbody a prcsencc in thc
local community by 'walking th c beat ' and personif-i ,J fairncss, stolidity, fricnd-
liness, hdpfulness an<l incorruptibility. Thcsc virtucs still exist to a <lcgrcc an<l
the traditional view is that thc poliet~should control the community by conscnt
rathcr than force and that thcy should be visible in local arcas.
Howtve r, in n.: cent years, thc poli ·e have bee n takt n off foot patrols; put
into cars to in crcasc cffcctivcncss and mobility; and more are now armcd and
trairn-<l in riot-control programmcs. Thcy haw be<. n accuscd of institulional
racism, corruption, brutality, exc:cssive use of force, pervcrting thc coursc of
justice, tampcring with cvidcnce in criminal trials, and inappropriate bchaviour.
Sorne of thcse accusations havc bccn prnvcd. Thcy havc lowereJ thc imagc of
the police as well as thcir moralc and have contrihutcd to a loss of puhli c con-
fid ence and trust. Th crc ar' still public conccrns, anJ govcrnmcnts and senior
polio:' ofhcers havc attcmpted to reform the polic, forces.
The poli ce trca<l a thin lin e in community activities, strikes anJ dcmonstra-
tions. Th ~y are in th e middk of opposing forces, much is ex pected of thcm and
uncertain law an<l politically correct attitu<les somctimcs hinder th eir effective-
ness. Thc problcms of violent crimc, organizcJ criminal gangs, rclations with
ethnic communities and an increasingly complex socicty have ma<le th eir job
more difficult. The policc are trying to tind ways of adc4uatcly and fairly con-
trolling a changing society. Th ey are conccrncd about th cir imagc, but insist that
th ir primary duty is to maintain law and or<lcr.
In an attempt to counter a more complcx crime sccne, a National Crime
Agency (NCA) of sorne 4,200 officers was fr)rmeJ in 2013, with powers appli-
cable to England, Wales and Scotland. It combats major organized crimc such as
drugs, people trafficking and child exploitation, as well as complex intcrnational
fraud, such as onlinc cybercrim that cuts across regional an<l international bor-
ders. The NCA can also instru ·t regional polic anJ othcr agencies to carry out
specific tasks or opcrations.
The lega l sys t em
The legal profession in England and Wal es is <livided into two prin cipal types
oflawy er: barristers and soli citors. Each branch has its own vested interests and
j urisdicti on an<l hercely protects its position. This system is criticized because
of a <luplication of servi ces, dclay and expense. But legal services have b een
refonn cd to b c ndit consumers, promote competition and give easier acccss
to th c ]aw. Lcgislation in 2007 made forth er inroads into th e profcssion's tra-
ditional self-regulatory role and excl usive rcprcscntative status by opening up
lega l services and firms to commercial ownership anJ th e sharing of functions
with other prof-essionals. An independ ent, lay-Jominatcd Legal Services Board
was also establishcd, which oversecs th e rcgulation of lawye rs and their orga-
nizations in England anJ Waks. It controls thcir general accountability to cli-
ents anJ socicty; acts in th c interests of thc consumers of legal scrvices; an<l
refo rms an<l modcrnizcs thc legal scrviccs markctpl acc. Arguahly, th e rc is now
bcttcr provision for th c puhlic to makc consume r complaints against legal
profcssionals.
Therc wcrc 142,28G solicitors in Englan<l an<l Walcs in 2018, who practisc
mainly in privatc firms, hut also in loca l ;.:inJ ce ntral gov ·rnmc nt, legal ce ntres
an <l in<lustry. Th cy are rcprcsrnte<l hy thcir profcssion al boJy, the Law Socicty,
but regulation is pcdc)rm cJ hy th c irKkpcn<l(' nt Solicitors Rcguhtion /\uthority
(S R/\), which examines thc conduct of solicitors and thcir rcl ationship with
clic nts anJ thc publi c. Thc free Lega l Omhudsman scrvicc (from 201 O) also
examines consumcr co mplaints hy thc puhlic against legal profr-ssionals.
/\lthough th c solic:itors' profrssion is historically middlc-class, it is attract-
ing mc mhcrs from widcr class, cthni - and gcmkr spcctrums of society. Solici-
tors dcal with general legal work, although many now sp ccializc in onc arca of
thc law. Th c ir tirms (or partncrships ) ofkr scrv i(·es such as conveya ncing (the
buying anJ sclling of rrorcrtyL probatc (wills and success io n after death); fam-
ily mattns; criminal an<l civil liti gation ; co mnwrcial cases; and tax and financia]
affa irs. Large firms m ay b e vcry succcssful, but small firms are currently affocted
by cuts in Legal Aid and so rn e fa ce closure.
Thc dicnt with a legal probkm will lirst approach a solicitor, who ca n ofte n
dcal with all aspccts of thc case. Solicitors originally co uld only appear (rights of
audi c ncc ) for thcir clie nts in th c lowcr co unty an<l magistratcs' courts, and cases
in highe r rnurts had to he han<lc<l to a barristcr. This expcnsive practice h as now
bccn reform ed an<l solicitor-advocatcs ca n appear in highcr courts.
In order to b ecome a solici tor, it is usual to havc a university degree, n ot
ncccssa ril y in law. Aftcr passing furthcr profcss ional cxaminations organized by
1aw colleges, thc studcnt serves a practica! apprenticeship as a train ee solicitor
with an cstablishcd solicitor for sorne two years. After a total p eriod of about six
yea rs' education and training, the ncw so li citor can practise th e law.
The l egal system
PLATE 7.6 The Middle Temple, one of the four lnns of Court in London, where student barris-
ters become members and often work in chambers there on becoming fully qualified . © Frank
Monaco/Shutterstock
There were about 17,000 barristers in privat ' practicc in 2018, who have
thc right to appear bcfore any court in England and Walcs. Th ey helong to th e
Bar, which is an ancient protessional legal institution whose Bar Council pro-
vides rcprescntation, support and scrvices for barristers in Englan<l an<l Waks.
Barristcrs are also mcmbers of one of four Inns of Court in London ( Gray's I nn,
Lincoln's lnn, Midd] e Temple and the Inn er Temple), wh crc many barristcrs
work from chambers or off-ices. The Bar Standards Board is an indepcndent
body of the Bar Council which regulatcs barristers and th cir profr~ssiona1 con-
duct in thc public interest through a CoJe of Practice, although th e publi c ca n
now complain about barristers to thc Legal Ombudsman servio.~ (2010).
Ba1Tisters have two functions: to give specializcd advicc on legal matters
and to act as advocates in the courts. Historically, th e general public coulJ not
approach a barrister directly, but must have bcen introduccd by a solicitor. This
regulation has now been relaxed for sorne clicnts.
In order to becom e a barrister, one must usually hav' a univcrsity degree,
pass professional cxaminations and becom e a mcmber of an Inn of Court. Thc
student must dine in the lnn for a number of terms beforc b eing 'ca11c<l to
the Bar' ( acceptcd as a barrister). They must then serve for a one-ycar pcriod
(pupillage) un<lcr a practising barrister and therc is grcat compctition to gain
a place. Aftcr this liw-ycar training p eriod, th e ncw barrister can practisc law.
The l egal system
An lpsos MORI po11 in .June 2018 reported that concerns among respondents
about crime and law and order in the UK had risen to fourth place at 20 per
cent in a list of th e most important issues facing Britain, aft:er Brexit and the
NHS.
British attitudes to thc criminal justi ce systcm (CJS) in England and Wales,
which covers crime, criminal institutions, court proccdures, legal p crsonnel, the
police and criminal statistics, vary over time and ca n b e contradictory. Crime
statistics deriv e from two main sourccs. Th e first is crime figures record ed by
th e polín: on the basis of offenccs reported to them by th c publi - (recordable
crimes ). Th e sccond is th Crime Survcy for Lngland and Wal cs (CSEW). This
is regarded asan accurate survey of crim inal statistics bccause it asks households
in fa c ' -to-facc intcrvi ews whcther they have ex p e ricn ccd any crimc in th e past
ycar. But since it registers offe nces that have not b ccn reported to th e police,
and bccause it does not cover all groups (su h as studcnts living in univcrsity/
collcgc accommoJati on or individual childrcn under 18), thc Survcy's rcsults
are oftc n different to police-recorded crimc, anJ attitudes to crim e anJ th c CJS.
Thc CSEW in 2017 (see ca rli er scction on Law and or<lcr) re portcd that
th e r<:' wcrc l 0.8 million ofü~nccs, which was a 9 pe r cent rcduction on th e
previous ycar. But ONS figures of crimes recorJ c<l hy the police in 201 7 had
ex - ' ded 5 mil1ion for th c first time in ten ycars, anJ riscn by 13 pn cent from
4.6 million offc nces in 2016.
Wh en respondents w re askcJ in th e 2017 CSEW wh cthcr th cy thought
that crimc had incrcascd or decrcased in rcccnt yt ars, 60 pcr cent sai<l that it
had gone up (as opposcd to 57 pc r e 'nt in 201 G) and 83 .5 p cr cent thou ght that
crime was a big proble m; 72 pcr cent thought that crime in thcir local arca was
similar to or hi ghcr than crime nationally; had fórm ed opinions about (:rime in
th eir local arcas from th 'ir own or oth e r local p ' ople's expericn cc; but G7 pc r
cent said that thcir main so urce of information about crim e was from th e mc<lia
(TV /radio ncws).
The CSEW's 2017 finding of a rcduction in crime was rdlccted in a
decline (15.2 p er cent in 2017) of p eoplc who felt a likclihood of bcing a vic-
tim of crim e. Th ere was also a downward trcnd of aJults who worricd about
spe ·ific crime typcs, such as burglary, car crimc and violcn ce. As opposed to
th esc CSEW declines, police-reported crimc showeJ a 22 per cent inc rcase in
offenccs involving knives or other sharp instrume nts an<l an increasc in iirca rms
offenccs, which attract m edia comment and public con ·cm. It is argucd that
such crim es, whilc rclevant as individual incrcases, <lo not suggest , ignitica nt
trends. Most p oplc do not exp crien ce crimc, an<l vio! -nt offences tcnJ to be
localized in certain arcas in th e big ·iti es.
Arguably, thl' CSEW survcys and ONS poli ce-reportcd ofte nc 'S illustrate
that different polis, hascd on particular research mcthods, give varying pi cturcs
T he legal system 21S
.,
A~
;.T
< il" overall trends in British crime. There an:. spikes in ncw types of violence,
which attract media and public attention, such as acid and moped attacks on
i11Jividuals, that often focus on parti cular groups or individuals. But it is argued
tha t fear of crime in Britain has becn historically higher than its actuality. The
1casons why sorne pcoplc think that crime has incrcased in England and Wales
rnay also depend on wh crc thcy obtain th ir information, such as telcvision,
ra dio, ncwspapers or local hcarsay.
The policc are at the for front of the tight against crime, but thcir numbers
have fallen by 19,000 oflicers sin ce 201 O duc to government finan cia! cuts.
/\ttitudes towards thc police have vari ed in reccnt ycars. According to a Poli ce
1:ederation Ge neral Pubhc Online Omnibus poll in 2014, rcspondc nts were
,,sked whcth cr they had co ntidcncc in th c poi ice in local arcas to kccp th crn safc
( 12 pcr cent rcplied 'very co ntidcnt', 59 pcr cent 'fa irl y confi<l ent') anJ to tell
the truth (15 per cent 'vcry co nfi<lcnt', 51 pcr cent 'fairly co ntidc nt').
An lpsos MOR( poli in 2014 also suggcstcd th at trust in thc poli cc at loca l
lcvcls haJ incrcased. Sixty-tivc pcr cent of rcspondcnts said thcy would trust thc
polio.:' to tell thc truth and 63 pcr cent disagrccd that loca l policc abus<...~ thcir
powcr. Scvcnty-thrcc pcr cent agrccd that thc poli cc coulJ be trustcJ not to
exc cd thcir au.thority and 66 p er ce nt of' rcspondcnts disagreed that tlw poli cc
think thcy are abovc th ' law. Thc1T hav ' bccn times whcn trust in tlw policc
at nation al leve! was relativl ly h igh anJ long pcriods in th e l ~)70s-~)0s whcn
it wa. low. In the last 30 years thc policc havc hcrn hc!J to higlwr standards
and thc ir actions have bee n more closdy <.. 'xa mincd. But dcspitc more positive
sta tisti cs, the formcr InJcpendcnt Poi ice Cornplaints Commission ( IPCC ) in
EnglanJ and Wales in 2015 rcportcd that cornplaints about poli n' co n<luct had
riscn by 15 pcr cent to a record high. Man y of thesc dcalt with assa ults by a
policc offi 'l'r or unl awful or unncccssa ry cktcntion. Foll ow in g recent angcr an<l
m istrust ovcr inv ~stigations into th c dcaths of scveral me n in poli cc custoJy, a
new IPCC was form cd in 2018. Th e aim was to cnsur' grl'atcr accountabi li ty
to th ' public by allowing th" ncw body to pursm. invcstigations indcpcndcntl y
of th c policc forces.
Howeve1~ thcre ar opposcd views ahoul th c ovcrall perfo rm ance of thc
Crirninal .Justicc System (C.JS) in England an J Wal es. Acco rding to thc Publi c
Accounts Committcc of M Ps in 2016, it was JcscribcJ as failing victims of
crimc anJ court witncss 'S and was closc to coll apse. BBC Ncws also reported
(2016) that it was wcakcncd by lon g-standing poor p erfo rmance, delays and
incfhcicncics. Th c r 'port warncd that a 26 pcr cent decline and a 27 p er cent
cut in Crown Prosccutio n lawycrs aff-t'ctc<l th , courts' ability to deliver justice.
Two-thirds of trials in thc crow n co urts were ddayed or did not go ahead at ali.
Therc was a list of cases and lon g wa it ing tim s to move frorn rnagistrate courts
to th 'crow n ·ourts. vVitn esses cxp cricnced lon g waits to give evidenc in court.
Th c systcm was described as in effectivc and putting criminal court justicc at
risk. Th Ministry of Justice in 2016 rcportcJ that th ere werc on ly 33 pn n·nt
The l ega l sys t em
of effective trials in 2014-15; the estimated cost for cases that diJ not go to trial
was f21.5 million; and thc backlog of cases in thc crown court since 2013 was
34 per cent.
Exercises
Briefly define and examine the following terms, commenting on their
significance in British life :
Further reading
Baker, J.H . (2005) An lntroduction to English Legal History, Oxford : Oxford University
Press
2 Berlins, M . and Dyer, C. (2000) The Law Machine, London : Pengu in
3 Clark, B. (2009) Scoffish Legal Systems Essentials, Dundee : Dundee University Press
4 Cownie, F., Bradney, A. and Burton, M . (2007) English Legal System in Contexf, Oxford :
Oxford University Press
5 Crime Survey for England and Wales, London: Office of National Statistics
Th e lega l syst em
6 Emsley, C. (2005) Crime and Society in England 1750-1900, London : Pearson Education
Limited
7 Griffiths, J. (201 O) The Politics of the)udiciary, London : Fontana
8 Heale, J. (2009) One Blood: lnside Britain's New Street Gongs, London : Pocket Books
9 Hough, M ., Radford, B., Jackson, J. and Roberts, J.R . (2013) Attitudes to Sentencing and
Trust in )ustice: Exploring Trends from the Crime Survey for England and Wales, London :
LSE Research Online (the London School of Economics and Political Science)
1O Martin, E.A. and Law, J. (2009) A Dictionary of Law, Oxford : Oxford University Press
11 McShane, J. (201 O) Underworld UK: Knife Crime: The Law of the Blade, London : Ouercus
Publishing
12 Muncie, J. and Mclaughlin, E. (2002) The Problem of Crime, London : Sage Publications
13 Muncie, J. and Mclaughlin, E. (2002) Controlling Crime, London : Sage Publications
14 Partington , M . (2006) lntroduction to the English Legal System, Oxford : Oxford University
Press
15 Robe rtson, G . (2006) Freedom, the Individual and the Law, London : Penguin
16 Slapper, G . and Kelly. D (2015-17) The English Legal System, London : Routledge
17 White, R. ( 1999) The English Legal System in Action: Administration of Justice, Oxford :
Oxford University Press
18 White, R. and Wilcock, l. (2007) The Scottish Legal System , London : Tottel Publi shing/
Bloomsbury Professional
Websites
Mini stry of Justice : www.gov.uk/government/organization s/mini stry-of-justice
Home Office : www.homeoffice .gov.uk
Police: www.police .co .uk
New Scotland Yard : www.open .gov.uk/police/mps/home .htm
Amne sty lnternational : www.amnesty.org .uk
Scottish Executive : www.scotland .gov.uk
Northern lreland Office : www.nio.go .uk
The Law Society: www.lawsociety.org .uk
The Bar Council : www.barcouncil.org .uk
Mag istrate s and judges: www.judiciary.gov.uk/about-the-judi ciary/who-are-the-judiciary/
judicial-roles/magi strates/
1
8
The economy
■ Financia! institutions
■ Consumer protection
■ /\ttitudcs to th c cconomy
■ Exercises
■ Further reading
■ Websites
The economy
constrnction and services. However, austcrity targets had not been fully m et
and cuts in public services, social welfare and spending continued. Thc poorest
sectors of society suffered, the middl e classcs wer e squeezed economical1y, and
the gap bctwcen rich and poor grew. Thc 2007-10 financia] crisis, rccession
an d rccovcry w cre th e deep est cconomic problem s sincc the Sccond World
War ( 1939- 45 ). In carly 2015, Britain's tradc deficit in goo<ls and serviccs with
the rcst of the world widcned, cconomic growth was faltcring and thc pound
was affoct d by volatility in thc currcncy markets. But thc economy rankcd
fift:h in th e world in 2019, measured by GDP, after the USA, China, Japan and
Germany.
13ritain's decision in a 2016 rcfcrcn<lum to lcavc thc Europcan Union (EU)
sccrned initially to have little economic impact. J\.lthough stc rling slumped,
G DP growth in th c second half of 2016 was faste.r than in thc hrst anJ un em-
ploymcnt fcll rathc r than grew. Yct thc view that the economy woul<l esca pe
. erious cconomic conscquenc s from Brexit were contradictc<l by cvcnts during
2018-19. Signs of eco nomic and politica l unccrtainty appca rc<l an<l thc future
was unclcar.
Britain was a largdy rural country until thc e nd of thc cightl'cnth ccn tury and
its cconomy was bascJ on products gt:neratcd by suclTSsivc r 'volutions in agri-
culturc si ncc Ncolithi c times. Th crc had also bcc n sorne industrial anJ manu-
fa turing dcvclopme nts over thc ccnturi es, which wcrc locatcJ mainl y in thc
largcr towns. Financial and co mmcrcial institutions, such as hanks, insurancc
houscs an<l trading companics, wcrc gradually foumk<l in the C ity of London
and throughout th e country to financc and snv icc th ' cx panJing an<l incrcas-
ingly <livcrsiiie<l cconomy.
Thc growth of a colonial empire from th e sixtecnth ccntury contributt'd
to national wcalth a - Britain capitalized on its worklwidc trading conncctions.
Colonics supplied chca p raw materi als, which w ' re rnnvertcd into manufac-
tured goods in Britain and exportcJ. Ovnseas tradc and marh ts grcw quickly
b ca use mcrchants and tradcrs wcrc protectcd at home and ahroad. Thcy
cx ploitcd th e colonial markets anJ controllcJ forcign compctition. By thc nin c-
tcc nth ce ntury, Britain haJ become a dominant military anJ 'conomic powc r.
lts wealth was based on intcrnational tradc and th c paymcnts it rcccived for its
ex portcd products. Govcmmcnts bcli cvcJ that a country incrcascd its wealth if
cxports excee<led imports.
This traJing system and its finan ·ial institutions assisted industrial revo-
lutions, which bega n in thc late cightcc nth ccntury. Manufacturin g inven-
tions, aided by a ri ch supply of <lomestic m atcrials and energy sources such as
coal, steel, iron, steam power and water, stimulated mass production .rnd thl'
The economy
PLATE 8.1 This bridge across the river Severn at lronbridge, Shropshire, Eng land, was part
of the industrial revolution . lt was the first major iron bridge in the world , represented the use
of iron in industrial architecture, and was buil t by Abraham Darby in 1779 . © David Cole/
Shutterstock
economy. Manufacturcrs, who had gaincd by inte rnational trade and a J c man<l
for British goods, invcsted in ncw inJustri 'S and tcchnology. Industrial towns
expandcd; fa ctories wcrc built and a transport system of roads, canals and rail-
ways dcvcloped . Effici ·nt manufacturing m ' thods produccd ·ompctitivcly
priced goods for forcign markcts and Britain was transformcd into an urban and
industrialized country.
Howeve r, industrialization was opposed by sorne. For example, thc Lud-
ditcs in the ninctecnth century dcstroyed new machin ery in an attcmpt to halt
progress and preserve ex isting jobs. Industrial anJ urban dcv --lopme nt haJ neg-
ative effects, such as long working hours for low wages anJ bad con<litions in
mines and factories. Rural areas lost population and thcrc was a declin e in tra-
ditional home and cottage work. Industrial co nditions causcd social an<l moral
problems in towns and th "' countryside, and mcchanization was oft: n regar<led
as cxploitative and dehumanizing. The situation was worse nc<l by th e inJiffrr-
ence of many manufacturers, employcrs anJ politicians to thc human cost of
industrialization.
Ncvertheless, thc industrial changes <lid transforrn Britain into a rich anJ
powerfol country, dcspit 'conornic slumps, periods of mass uncmployme nt,
th e growth of urhan slums and significant social and economic harJship in th c
T he economy
ninct ccnth ccntury for many p eople. Manufacturing output becam e the chief
gcncrator of wealth; production m ethods and tcchnology advanccd; and domes-
Lic compctition improved the quality of goods and scrvices.
Yct British dominanc of world tradc <lid not last. It dcclined relatively
hy the e nd of th e nineteenth century as countri es such as Germany and the
l JSA rapidly dcvclopcd th eir industrial bases an<l b ecam e more competitive.
How v '1~ British expe rtis ' co ntinucd to be intlue ntial in global finan cia} and
1.: ommercial dealings.
Economic policies
Although British govcrnmcnts havc historically tended to be laisscz-faire (lct-
ting things takc th c ir own coursc) in cconomic mattcrs, th cy b cca mc more
involvcd in cconomic planning from th ' 1940s and the pcrr<.>rm an ·e of thc
e ·onomy has hccn in crcasingly ti cd to th eir fiscal, monctary an<l rolitical poli-
cies. Ali ílritish governmcnts thcrcaftcr have variously intcrvened in cconomic
lifc in attcmpts to manage th e economy and stimulate <le mand an<l growth,
particularly as global co mpctition has grown an<l <lomcstic needs havc bccome
more co mplcx.
C onscrvativc govcrnments histori cally advo ·ated minimum in terfe rcncc in
thc 'CO nomy and favourcd thc workings of thc free markct, yct th ey havc often
intcrvencd out of ne -css ity or changing i<leology. Labo ur govcrnmcnts initially
argucJ that thc cco nomy must be central1y planncd and its csscntial sectors
sh o uld be ownt'd an<l managcd by thc state. But they have also changed their
policics, which have bccomc gencrally more neoliberal and market-oriented .
Labour govcrnments from 1945 nationalizcd (transferred to public own-
ership) railways, road transport, water, gas) electricity, shipbuilding, coalmin-
ing, th c iron an<l stcd industries, airlinesJ th ' health service, the Post OHicc
and tdccommunications. These industries and scrvices were run hy thl statl'
through govcrnmcnt-appointed board .. Thcy were responsibk to l\1rli,mwnt
The economy
and financed by tax ation for the benefit of all, rather than for private owners
or shareholders. But governments were expected to rescue any which had eco-
nomic problem s.
This policy was gradually reversed by thc Conservatives. Th ey argued that
public industries and services werc too exp ensive and inefficient; had outdated
technology and bad industrial relations; suffered from lack of investme nt in new
cquipmcnt; dep ended upon finan cing from taxes; and were run as statc services
with too little attention paid to profit-making, consumer demand or market
forces. They denationalize<l sorne state industries and rcturn ed them to private
ownership.
Conservative denationalization was from 19 79 cal1cd 'privatization'. Own-
ership of industries su ·h as British Telecom , British Afrways, British Petroleum,
British Gas, water and electricity supplies, l3ritish Coal and British Rail was
transferred from the state to prívate owners mainly through the sale. of shares.
Th ese companies/industries are run as profit-making con ·erns and are regulated
in the public interest by independ ""nt r<:.gulators. The aim was also to libcralize
the economy so that restrictions on businesscs werc removed to allow them
to operate frcely and competitively. For exa mplc, the stock markct and public
transport were deregulatcd, resulting in greater diversity in thc City of London
and prívate and publi c bus companics (subsidizcd by local govcrnrn ent) com-
p -ting with cach other.
Conservatives believe that privatization improvcs dnciency, reduces gov-
ernme nt spending, increascs economic frccdom an<l cncouragcs share owner-
ship. The public bought sharcs in the new privatc companics an<l share-owning
by individuals and -finanrial institutions incrcased, but th ' re was also ·oncern
about privati zation as private industries bt.camc virtual monopolies. Thcrc is
a lack of co mpctition in sorne private scctors, and th crc are doubts about th c
indep endent regulators' abilitics to superv ise th m in th ' public an<l co nsumer
interest. Thcrc are complaints by the public and politician s abo ut th . sector 's
alleged inadequate services, inflat d priccs and inferior products. Although
som initial problems have been solved, businesses, such as thc railways, cnergy
and water systems, are still h avily criticized for their poli cics and performances.
Othcr privatized concerns, such as railway co mpanics, have failcd and becn
renationalized .
Thc Labour government effectiv -ly acccptcd more privatization in 1997
(having dropped fu]l nationalization from its party manifr,sto in 1995 ); has
part-privatized concerns such as National Air Traffic Scrvices and introduced
the prívate sector into public services such as transport, cducation an<l hca lth .
There are now fewer state-owned public conccrn s and mor ' privatizc<l
businesses. Both Labour and Conservative governments since th e 1990s havc
also introduced mi xcd puhlidprivate arrangemcnts, such as Prívate Financc Ini-
tiatives (PFI) an d Puhlic: Privatc Partnerships (PPP). Th e prívate sector builds
and invests in largt· célpit~il huilding proj ects and services such as schools and
The economy
hnspitals, which are then leased to the public sector, which pays for their use.
This was intended to save public money, encourage cooperation on resources
and, for sorne critics, to expand the privatization programme. However, PFI
rrojects can be expensive or inadequate and may collapse. The state has to sup-
rort huge loans, and PFI schemes have weakened sectors such as the NHS with
sorne hospital trusts fa cing debt.
Policies such as privatization and PFI are criticized by those p eoplc who
support public sector services an<l ownership. Respondents to polls doubt that
allowing private sector companies and managers to build or run public services
results in big irnprove ments or that using prívate companies to providc public
services will improvc th em . Many consider schools, hospitals, trains, publi · util-
ities (water) and cncrgy (gas and electricity) shoul<l be providcd and managed
by thc public sector. Sorne prívate cornpanics havc found that joint building
and managemrnt schemes Jo not gcncrate thc cxpcctcd profits an<l with<lraw.
Whil e privatc. and public coopcration appcars to have workcd for thc com-
pletcd London Tube modcrnization, thc ongoing London Crossrail transport
projcct and thc HS2 train schemc to thc north of England have phmning and
cost prohl cms. The privatized East Coast railway linc from Lon<lon to Sc.ot-
land faikd and was returncJ to public owncrship as LNER (London and North
England Railway) in 2018.
Economic- mo<lds, such as nationalization, privatization an<l puh lic/privatc
schcmcs, are criticizcJ with claims that th 'Y do not work adcc¡uat<..'ly. Dl'spitl'
uch views, the política! partics havc gcncrally acccrte<l a closcr rclationsh ip
hetwccn tht publi c and prívate sectors, <lcr 'gulation and a mobill' workfon:c.
The prohlcm is how to manage a liberal eco nomy dlectivdy, whilc satisfy-
ing dcmands for puhlic scrviccs, such as thc National Hcalth Scrvicc and stat<.
school cducation, to be fun<l cd and organizcd from puhlic laxation . Follow-
ing thc crc<lit crunch and bank collapscs in 2007- 1O, thcrc w 're Jcmands for
stronger regulation of tinancial institutions by the left. Yct this is opposcd hy
Const.rvativcs for its allcged interferencc with eco nomic frccdom. Thc British
eco nomy is conscquently a mixture of diffe rent ideologics, which do not always
jcll ftcctively or opcratc cfficiently.
Economic structure
Thc mixed cconomy comprises public an<l prívate sectors. Thc public sector
includes thc rcmaining statc-run industries anJ scrvices which amount to under
onc-third of thc economy. Thc oth "r two-thirds are in the private sector and
this pcrce ntag ' will incrcase with furthcr privatization (e.g. of the Royal Mail
in 2014).
Unlikc public-s 'Ctor concerns which are owned by the state, th e prívate
sector belongs to people who havc a finan cia} stake in a company. It consists
of small busin csscs owned by individuals, co mpanies whosc sharcs clrl' suld to
The eco n omy
PLATE 8 .2 The o nce-flouri shing Briti sh car indu stry is now much reduced, with Briti sh com-
pany collapses . But the Min i production line at BMW, Cowley, Oxford continues to produce
new models which sel! well worldwide and other foreign-owned car companies hove success-
fully opened in the north-east and the Midlands . © lns News/Shutterstock
PLATE 8.3 Bombardier is the last remaining major train maker in the UK . lts production plant
is based in Derby and it won a big contract to provide trains for the London west-east Cross-
rai l tube service (under construction). © Joanne Roberts/ Alamy Stock Photo
National an<l for 'ign huycrs may be involvc<l in takcovcrs and mcrgc rs
of co mpanies (onc cxarnrlc bcing th : Ame ri ca n company Kraft FooJs which
bo ught th , traditional an<l lon g-cstahlishcd British Cadbury chocoJatc husincss
in 201 O). A takcovcr occurs wh e n a largc r company takcs over ( or huys) a
smalle r, ofte n loss-making, firm. Me rgcrs are amalgamations bctwcc n compa-
nies of equal standing. Such battles for ·ontrol can he fi c rccly fóught and havc
resulted in sections of th c cconomy, such as cars, hotels, media '(HKl'rns and
foo J proJucts, h cing dominated by a r ,]atively small nurnbcr of major groups.
Takcovcrs and mergers may b e again st ·o mpctition rul es anJ can G IUS(.'
concern to targetcd cornpanies, workforccs, trade unions and consunwrs.
A non-ministerial d ~partment, th c Compctitio n and Markets Authority (C MA)
was cstablishcJ in 2014 to monitor such ·ituations hy prevcnting onc group
fro m forming a monopoly or crea tin g unfair and un competitive trading con-
ditions. lt rnay cnforcc consum <:: r protcction legislation an<l bring crim inal
proceedings against individuals and companics who cornmit cartel offenccs. It
may rcport to thc Sccrctary of Statc for Busin ess, Innovation and Skills who
can rule against th c takcove r or mergcr in th e public interest. Sorne decisions
havc prcv -- ntcd un<lesirable d ·velopm ~nts, although others have allowed nca r-
monopo listic situations.
The eco n o my
PLATE 8.4 Rolls-Royce originated as a luxury car manufacturer and is now the world's second
largest maker of aircraft engines for major a irl ines . lts production plant is stil l based in Derby
and it also works in the marine propulsion and energy sectors . © Tim Graham/Getty lmages
The ten years following the Great Recession was a p eriod of shifting eco-
nornic extremes. In O ctober 2014, th e International Monetary Fund (IMF)
rcportcd that Britain would grow faster than any G7 nation, expanding by 3.2
per cent in 2014 and 2. 7 per cent in 2015 and ernployment was high. Howcver,
l3ritain in 2015 faced the threat of detlation (re<luced priccs for goo<ls) for the
first time since 1960 aftcr inflation (rising priccs for goo<ls) had fallen to 0.5
per cent, the cqual-lowest rate in 26 ycars. Productivity and wage growth were
also weak.
But Britain was the world's fifth or ninth largcst economy in 2019 (dcpend-
ing on mcasurem ent criteria) and is st.ill a significant industrial and rnanufac-
turing co untry and exporter of goods and services, d spite its rcdu ccd share of
thc global rnarket and manufacturing decline since the ] 980s. Its GDP in 2019
was 2,622.43 trillion US$. GDP cornpriscs th e purchasing powcr of goods, ser-
vices, ca pital and incorne which thc country produces. GDP in 2017 comprised
70.07 pcr cent from scrvi cc. and 18 .57 per cent from construction, manufac-
turing and industry, whilc agriculture had 0 .5 2 pcr cent. Thesc figures illustrate
the importance of thc scrvice sector and thc declin e of traditional sources of
national wealth such as industry, rnanufacturing and agriculture.
Britain 's trading pattcrns havc also changcd. Th c CIA World Fact Book in
201 G ranked it as th c world's t nth largcst cxportcr and frfth largcst importcr.
lts mai_n cxport partners wcrc th c USA ( 14 .6 p cr cent), Gcrmany ( l 0.1 ), Swit-
zerland (7 .O per cent), China (G.O), Francc ( 5.9), thc Ncthc.rlands ( 5.8) and
the Rcpublic of lrelan<l (5.5) . Its main import partners wcrc Gcrmany (14.8
per cent), China (9 .8), th e USA (~).2), th c Ncth crlands (7.5), Fran ce (5.8)
an<l 13 lgium (5.0) . Its chief exports are manufacturcd goods, fucl s, chcmi cals,
foo<l, bcvcrages and tobacco, anJ its main imports are manufacturcd products,
ma chincry, fucls and foodstutfs.
1t has had a pcriodic balan ce-of-paymcnts problem and a tradc J cfi cit
with the EU and non-EU countrics. A trade J ,fi cit rcsults whcn cxports do
not exce ·d imports. 'Invisible exports', such as finan cia}, aviation and insurance
services, contribute significantly to the economy and hclp to balan ce dcticits.
Britain has tricd to rebalan cc its cco nomy towards cxports and to cut down on
ovcr-spending b y rcducing imports and consurner spe ndin g. Yct tradc dcf-icits
betwccn th e UK an<l EU and non-EU countrics do oc ·ur on a monthly b asis
and sugg ·-st slowin g growth.
Although the EU is gcncrally considcrc<l as th e UK 's single largcst trad-
ing partn er, a House of Cornmons Briefing Papcr in July 2018 rcported that
UK cxports of goods and servi ces to th e rcst of thc world collcctivcly w 're
higher than UK exports to the EU for thc ninth yu1r running. In 2017, UK
cxports to non-EU countrics were f 342 bi1lion, showing that th erc was still
a worldwidc dcmand for British goods an<l serviccs. Exports to EU co untri ' S
were f274 billion (45 pcr cent of all UK exp orts) an<l UK imports from th ., EU
were 041 billion (55 p<'r n· nt of a11 irnports). This mcant that thc UK hadan
T he economy 233
nvcrall trade deficit of f67 billion with the EU in 2017. A surplus of f28 bil-
lion on trade in services was outweighed by a deficit of f.95 billion on trade in
goods. These figures illustrate the importance of services in UK trading patterns
and their continuance after Brexit. Thc 2018 figures showed that the UK was
t·xporting more services to non-EU countries than to the EU. This suggested to
sorne critics that the EU was 1osing its British export role and that th e UK could
1:apitalize on its world exports after a potcntial Brexit in 2019 .
Thc cconomy has also been affected historically by tluctuations in the
value of th e pound. Devaluation (_reducing th e poun<l's exchange value) was
used earlier by governrnents as an cconomic weapon . This boosted exports
by making thcm cheaper on thc worl<l rnarket, but raisc<l th e cost of imports
and dissuaded peoplc from buying foreign goo<ls. Dcvaluation has not becn
used recently. lnstead, tlw poun<l was allowcd to 'float' frorn 1~)72 and tinJ its
ow n market value in compctition with oth cr ·urrencies. Although Britain <lid
not join thc Europcan common currc ncy (euro), tht~ pound ha<l pcrformcd
rclativcly successfully outsi<le thc Eurozonc ( ·onsisting of thosc EU countrics
which havc adopte<l th c curo). Howevcr, th c pound's pe rformance an<l valuc
are variable, as political un ccrtainty can spark volatility in th c currcncy markets
and swings in sterhng may produce ckclincs against thc dollar and thc curo.
Social class
Clas. in Britain has bcen detin cd by factors such as wealth; ownc rship of land
and propcrty; control of th e mea ns of production as again st thc scllcrs oflabour;
cdu cation; job or profossional status; acccnt ancl (_lialc ·t; an<l birth and brccding.
Over time, a class systcm cvolved which <lividcd t hc population into uppcr,
middlc and working classes. In ea rli cr ccnturi c. hicrarchi es wcre based on
wealth, th e owncrship ofproperty, aristocratic privikge anJ political powcr, hut
a middle class of traders, mcrchants an<l ski ll cd craftspcopl e later made inroads
into this systcm. Industrialization in th e ninctcenth ccntury furth er fragmcntcd
class divisions. Thc working class chvided into skilled and unskill e<l workcrs,
while the middle dass split into lowcr, rniddl e and upper sections, depe nding
on job classification or wealth. Thc uppcr class was still largely defin cd by birth,
propcrty and inhcritcd money.
1t is argucd that thc spread of e<lu ·ation and expansion of wealth to incluJc
greater numbcrs of peoplc in thc twentieth century allowed greater social
mobility. For example, the working dass was more upwardly mobile. But th crc
were also downward movem ents and th e upper class gradually merged more
with th e middl e class. It was frlt that the old system was breaking clown as
the number of p eople in the various social and economic levels changed. Over
The ec o no my
Jt was suggested that there were two main occupation al groupings in Britain:
a 'middle class' m a<le up of classes 1, 2, 3 an<l possibly 4 and a 'working dass'
consisting of classes 5, o, 7 an<l 8. Accordingly, th c population largd y consistcd
of a middle class (6 0 per cent) an<l a working class (40 pcr cent) . Th e working
cl ass had shrunk histori ca11y and thcrc was more upward mohility, with peo-
ple advan cing socially <lue to changcs in occupational structurcs an<l cconomic
progrcss. Yet such movcment coul<l be haltcd and rcddin cd hy economi c fa c-
tors and decline, whi ch pushed, for exampk, sorne of the cstablishc<l 'miJdlc
class' into th c working class.
Nevertheless, later polis incrcasingly suggested that the British in fact fdt that
they were becoming more miJdk dass and it was argucd th at many pcoplc had
thc sort of lifcstylc, jobs and income whi ch woukl be traditionally identificd as
middle class. lt also seem ed that class identif-ication was as rnuch a mattcr of <lif-
te rent social habits and attitu<les as it was of occupation and moncy. The old gaps
between the classes have lessened and class to<lay is a more fin ely grade<l hierarchy
<lep en<lent upon a range of characteristics. Yct incqualitics of wcalth, difliculties of
social mobility for thc poorcst in society, rdative poverty, professional diffcrcnccs
and qucstions of prcstige rcmain. Surveys suggcst that Britain's rate of upwarJ
social mobility is thc lowest in Europe and levels of inequality are high .
A Grcat British Class Survcy by th e BBC an<l Mike Savage (2013) dcvise<l
a new way of m casurin g class, not only by refcre ncc to occupation or job, but
also hy the 'capitals' that people possess. Th ese were 'co nomic capital (incom e,
property values and savings), cultural capital ( cultural interests and activities)
and social capital (the number and status of people th ey know). Thc model
comprised seven classcs based on the relationship betwecn thc capitals an<l
rcflects a more complex, but arguably more accurnte, class systcm. Thc sevcn
classes (in descending order) are elite, establishcd mi<ldlc class, technical mid<llc
class, ncw afflucnt workcrs, traditional working class, emergent servicc workers
and the precariat ( unprcdilt ihk social existence or identification) .
The economy 235
.,
A~
;T
PLATE 8 .6 The Bank of Eng land is
Brita in's independent ce ntral bank,
w hich decides interest rotes and
oversees the economy. lt is loca ted
in Threadneedle Street in the C ity of
London. © Geoff Moore/Shutterstock
are still employed by an organization. This may be a small prívate firm, a large
private-sector company, a public sector industry or service, or a multinational
corporation. Most people are employees who sell their labour in a market
dominated by businesses which own and control production and services. The
class-<lefining boundaries of employees and employers have remain ed constant,
although sclf-employmcnt has increascd. In 2014- 1G thc ONS rcporte<l that
the wealth held by the top l O per cent of British households was five times
greater than the wealth of the bottom half of all households combin ed. These
figures suggest a considerable incquality of wealth in 13ritain, with the lcast
wea1thy half of households owning only sorne 9 p er cent of total aggregate
household wealth.
The contcmporary deregulated and mobile economy has created more and
different work patterns than traditional models. Manufacturing and industrial
jobs havc declined; service trades have increased; self-employmcnt ( 4. 79 m or
14.8 per cent of workers in 2018) has grown considerably; rnanagerial and pro-
fess ional fi elds have expan<led; and there are more part-timc workers ( with
women in th e large majority in 2018), job-sharing and temporary jobs or unpaid
intcrns. Manual jobs have decreased; non-manual occupations have incrcase<l;
thc wage-earning working dass has been ero<le<l by sa lari cd jobs; an<l th e work-
forcc has bccom e more mobilc and 'whitc-collar'. Job losscs an<l rcdun<lan cies
wcrc high bctween 2007 and 2014, and th c worst cmployment prospccts are
still ( 2019) among young job seekers.
ONS figures showc<l that in March-May 2018, thcrc wcrc a record num-
b er of 14.4 million working-agc women in th c British workforcc, comrarcd
with 18 mil1ion for m ' 11, abovc the average in major industrializc<l nations.
lt rcprescnted a large in crease since 201 O and many of thc ncw jobs wcrc in
skllled occupations. Thc numbcrs of wo mcn with jobs in agriculturc, manufac-
turing and co nstruction had incrcascd fastcr than thc numbc r of mcn in thosc
sectors. Howcvcr, these riscs in female cmployment havc also coinc idcd with
an incrcasc in thc gcndcr pay gar as m e<lian wagcs for womcn fcll whilc thosc
for men in creased or remain e<l stable. Th e increasc has also occurrcd bccausc
upward changes to th e State Pension agc has resultcd in fewcr womcn now
retiring bctween the ages of GO and 65 ycars.
In early 2018, 5.36 million peopl e w ·'rc e mploycd in th c puhli r sector
and 27.04 rnillion in the private sector. This meant that only 16.5 per cent of
all people worked in the public sector and 83.5 per cent in thc prívate sector.
Although women amount to 45 per cent of thc total private and publi c lahour
force, many, like m en, have recently found it diff-icult to find jobs ata time when
job creation has stalled. Women are the principal breadwinncrs in 30 per e nt
of households, whcther by choice or necessity, but many female workers are
still low-paid, part-time, unable to find full-tim e jobs an<l often unprotected by
trade unions or thc l<1w. Ncvcrtheless, new busin esses are increasingly startcd b y
women, particularl y in tlw scrv icc sector and in 2014 women ma<le up nearly
Th e economy
10
o-+------.--------------.---------r-------,
1971 1983 1985 2007 2018
FIGURE 8.2 Unemp loyment rate (percentage) l 971 - 20 l 9
Financial institutions
Financia] institutions play a central role in the economy. In the 1980s, thcy
responded to the dcrcgulated and freer framcwork crcatcd by Conscrvativc
governmcnts. Banks, building socicties, insurancc firms, moncy markcts and the
London Stock Exchangc cxpandcd, merge<l and <livcrsific<l. They cntcrc<l new
-fields and rcorganizcd traditional areas of exp crtisc as compctition bctwccn
institutions incrcascd. Economic ideologi cs became more flcxibk and aJaptcJ
to th e practical rcalitics of business lifc and liberal capitalism.
Howcver, th e institutions also expcricnccd problcms as the 'conomy
fluctuated in thc late 1980s, the early 1990s, thc ca rly 2000s ami thc Jeep
reccssion of 2007- 1 O. Thcrc was uncmploym e nt in tinancial busincsscs,
fluctuations on thc stock markct ancl incrcased Europca n anJ intcrnational
co mpetition. The crc.dit crisis in 2007-1 O forccd a govcrnmcnt rcscuc of
prívate banks with taxpaycrs' moncy; raiscd qucstions about th e futurc of
the financia] systcm; lcd to dcmands for strictcr rcgulation of thc tinancc
mark ets; and rcsultcd in criti cism of th e working practiccs of bankcrs, insur-
c rs and financia] tradcrs. Thc activities of sorne finan cia! institutions, such a.
thc rigging of th e Libor lending ratcs, crcdit loan and currcncy manipulation
have res ulted in publi c anger and a de mand for stricter rcgulation as thc
rcputations of banks and insurance companies haw fallen heavily. Ncvcr-
thclcss, LonJon has retaincd its status as a global tinance centre, although its
future aftcr Brcxit remains uncertain and th e re are concerns that a banking
anJ financia! ex odus from London may follow any collapse of negotiations
to lcavc the EU.
Many major financia] institutions have th eir hcadquarters in l .ondon, with
branchcs throughout Britain. Thc squarc milc of th e Cíty of London, with its
hanks, insurance houses, legal firms aml financia! dealcrs has always bee n a cen-
tr, of British and world iinance. Its resourccs havc financed royal war.s, military
and colonial cxploration and trading companies. Today it providcs f-inancial anJ
invcstmcnt services for commcrcial intcrcsts in Britain and overseas. Many City
institutions were founded in the sevcnteenth and eighteenth centuries, as Brit-
ain's prospcrity, overseas trade and financia] institutions grew, such as the insur-
ancc firm Lloyd 's ( 1680s), th e London Stock Exchange (1773) anJ thc Bank
of Englan<l ( 1694 ). The City is now heing challenged in financia] <lcalings and
The economy
PLATE 8 . 7 The Canary Wharf orea is part of the Dockla nds redevelopment programme in
south-east London , offering a mixture of financia ! companies, commercial services, hotels and
residential housing . The pointed Canary Wharf Tower (top right) is 800 feet (244 metres)
high w ith 50 floors . © Jonathan Player/Shutterstoc k
h1..'tween their savings and loan interest rates, treatment of customers' com-
plai nts and thcir management of small business clients. Banks are again making
large protits after th e recession, are involved in international finance and have
1.·xpanded their traditional activities. Building societies1 many of which have
hccom e banks, offcr mortgages (loans) 1 banking facilities and Internet banking
;1nd prnvide scrious competition to thc high street banks. The 2007-10 banking
nash and public ang r with thc banks forced thc creation of a bankers' char-
t ' r in an attempt to control th eir dealings and appcase ustomers. But rnost
high street banks have closed many bran chcs, allegedly b eca usc thcy no longer
attract physical c ustomcrs and prefer to operatc onlinc, rnuch to th c disapproval
of many pcoplc.
In a<ldition to these banks, therc are the long-establishe<l merchant banks,
which are mainly loc-atcd in London . Th ey givc advicc and tinancc to com-
mcrcial and industrial busincsscs in Britain an<l ovcrscas; a<lvisc ·o mpani es on
takeovers and mcrgcrs; provide nnancial assistancc for foreign tran sa ·tions; and
orga nizc a range of finan cia) serviccs for indivi<luals anc.1 corporations.
T'hc London Stock [xchange is a markct 1-c)f th e buying and sclling of quotc<l
(list ,J) stocks an<l shares in British public companics anda frw ovcrscas. Ocal-
ings on thc Sto ·k Exchangc r ,fl ect thc currcnt markct tre nds ami priccs h)r a
ra ng' of sccuritics, which may go up as wcll as down. In rcccnt ycars, thc pe r-
forman ce of thc stock markct has fluctua teJ un<lcr Jomcsti c and intcrnational
prcssurcs.
Thc Stock Exchangc was rcvolutionizcd in l ~)8() by Jcvelopmcnts, known
popularly as th e 'Big Bang'. Financia} markcts wcrc Jcregulatc<l, which cnablcd
more frcc<lom of opcration. Ncw m e mbcrs wcre a<lmittcd, Jinancial dcakrs
wcn.' givcn grcatcr powcrs anJ comp 'tition incrcascJ. However, sorne com-
panü.: s wcrc too ambitious, ovcr-cxpanded and suffercd frorn thc cffects of
the worl<l stock markct crash of 1987. Sin ce 1997, finan cia! transaction s have
bccn organizcd dircctly from computer screens in corporatc oHiccs by an ordcr-
drivcn systcm which automatcs th c tra<ling proccss1 rathcr than through the
previous dcaling on th c floor of th e Exchange.
The foreign [xchange Market is also hased in London. Brokcrs in corporatc
or bank ofticcs <leal in the buying and sclling of forcign currcncics. Thc London
market is thc largcst in the world in tcrms of average daily turnovcr of co m-
pl ~t ·,d tran sactions. Othcr moncy markcts arrangc Jcals on the Euromarkets in
fo reign c urrc ncics; tradc on tinan cial fu tu res (speculation on futurc pri ccs of
commodities ); arrangc gold dealings on th c London Gold Market; and transact
global deals in th c commo<lity, shipping an<l frcight markets.
Lloyd's of London is a famous namc in thc insurance market and has long
been active in shipping and maritimc insuran ·c. However1 it has now diversifie<l
anJ in sures in many arcas. It operatcs as a market (association), where indi-
vidual undcrwriters (insurers) carry on th cir business. Underwritcrs normally
form groups to provi<le greater sccurity b cca use they have to bcar any insurance
The economy
losses that rnay occur, but sorne in recent years have suffered due to heavy
insurance losses.
In addition to th e Lloyd's rnarket, there are rnany individual insurance
companies with headquarters in London and branches throughout the country.
Th ey have international connections and huge assets. They play an important
role in British tinancial life b ecause they are the largest investors of capital.
Their main activity has traditionally been in life insurance, though many have
now diversified into other associated fields, such as pensions and property
loans. However, their handling of customers' invcstments (particularly pension
miss-selling and handling of insurance, which have been afflicte<l by problcms
and rnismanagement of savings schemes) has bcen heavily criticized. lnvestors
have lost mon ey and sorne insurance companies have virtually collapsed.
British financia] institutions have traditionally bcen respected fiJr their hon-
esty and integrity, but, as th e money markets have cxpanded and bccomc frccr
there hav' been fraud cases, collapses of financia! organizations and scandals,
such as insidcr dealing. These give thc City abad irnagc and have fórce<l it to
institute sclf-regulatory provisions in ordcr to tighten thc controls on tinancial
dealings. But consurncr confidence and trust in the tinancial institutions con-
titme to decline.
Sorne critics hav argu d for strongcr indeprndent supervision and reg-
ulation of th e City 's business practiccs. Thc Labour govcrnmcnt crcated a
watchdog, the hnancial Scrvices Authority or FSA in 2000 and a Financia]
Ombudsman in 2001 to overse all finan cial Jcalings. Howevcr, thcsc institu-
tions hav been criticized for thcir lack of adcquatc control, particularly after
the 2007-1 O credit crun ch and rccession. Th e coalition government (20 l 0- 15)
broke up the FSA by handing its regulatory duti es to thc Bank of England and
crcated a new banking commission to overhaul the City and consi<lcr whcth r
the City and banks should be more closely supervised and restrictcd . .A Finan-
cial Policy Committee undcr th e Bank of England (2013) now has powers to
oversee the stability of the financia} system. The Office for Bu<lgct Rcspon-
sibility (OBR) is an advisory non-departmental publi c body established on a
statutory basis by the government in 2010 to provide independent economic
forecasts and analysis of the public finan ces as background to thc UK buJget .
It is an official independent fiscal watchdog which produces forecasts to judge
th e government's pcrforrnances against its targets and sccms to have achi ved a
respcctable reputation for its work.
Bankers and -financiers were not popular with thc general puhlic aftcr th e
crcdit crisis. They continue to receive large bonuses despite frequcnt losscs by
their organizations, and the public feel that they appear to have littlc appr cia-
tion of taxpayer anger. Their attempts to put th eir houscs in order havc not bccn
wel1 receivcd and they may face greatcr government control and regulation.
The composition of thost who create and control wcalth in Britain has
changed sincc thc Sccon<l World War. Bankers, aristocrats, landown ers and
The economy
industrialists were the richest p eople in the nineteenth and early twe ntieth
centurics. Today the most affluent are cntrepreneurs, tcchnology resea rch-
ers, social m edia and set-up d evelopers, an<l online retailers who servi ce thc
consumcr society, although holders of inh e rited w ealth are still numerous.
Many millionaires are self-made, from lower-middle-class an<l working-class
backgrounds.
There are great incqualiti es uf income an<l wealth in Britain and many <lif-
fcrcnt opinions about what constitutcs ri -hes. Protit an<l moncy generation are
een by sorne as worthy goals. However, many pcoplc are satisnc<l with th eir
incomc an<l oth ers think that th e issue is dependent on varying valucs an<l fac-
tors. Talking about what one earns and about mon ' Y g · ncrally has oftcn b 'C n
regarde<l as unsecmly in Britain and too much involve<l with ·rudc survival.
Howevcr, this m entality has changed sincc the expansion ofbusincss and monc y
markcts an<l ostentatious behaviour and lif 'stylcs are now more common.
m cmbe rs. Trade unions vary in th e amount of funds they rcceive from membcrs
The economy
and in their political orientation, which rangcs frorn th e left to thc right of the
political spectrum.
Sorne unions admitas members on ly thosc peopl e who work in a specific
job, such as miners or teachers, while others includc workers employcd in dif-
ferent areas of industry or commcrce. Sorne unions hav joined with others in
similar ficlds to form new unions, such as Unison (public ·ervicc workers with
] .3 million m mbcrs). Th e largcst in Britain at present is Unite with 1.5 mil-
lion mernbers, formcd in 2007 and whi ch indudcs the powcrful 1hnsport and
G eneral Workers' Union (T&G). Workers may choose, without victirnization,
wh ether they want to be]ong to a particular union or none at al l.
Sorne 58 trade unions are affiliated to thc Trades Union Congress (TUC)
in England and Wales, which was foundcd in 1867, serves as an urnbrella
organization to coordinate tradc-union inten:.sts and tries to prornotc worker
cooperation. It is able to cxert sorne pressure on govcrnmcnt (although this
has now dccreased) and sccks to exten<l its contacts in industry an<l cornmerce,
with ernployers as wcll as workers. Th · Scottish Tra<le Union Congrcss (_STUC)
and the lrish Congress ofTrade Unions (lCTU) perform a similar joh for their
me mbers.
The intluence of th c TUC an<l traJ -. unions, along with thcir membcrship,
ha declined. This is <luc to unemployrnent, changing attitu<lcs to tradc unions
by workcrs, the reduction and rcstructuring of in<lustry, a deregulatcd eco nomy,
a mor mobile workfórce, and Conservative lcgislation under Margar ·t Thatcher.
Laws were passcd to e nforce sccrct voting by union mcmbcrs before strikes can be
legally callcd and for the election of un ion offi ·ials. The number of pickcts ( un ion
strikers) allowcd outsidc business prcmiscs has bccn rcduccd, sccondary Cor sym-
pathy) action by other unionists is bann ed, and unions rnay b "' fin ed by the courts
if th ey <lefy lcgislation. Such Conscrvativc laws (which thc Labour govcrnment
acc pted) and the economic climate have forccd trae.le unions to be more realis-
tic in their wage demands. Howcvcr, pay claims are cscalating again and th ere is
increasing militancy arnong sorne union 1~adcrs. There are also arrangemcnts for
legal recognition of un.ions in thosc workplaces whcrc a majority of workcrs want
them and for consultation with workcrs in matters such as rc<lundancy.
Legislation has controlled extrem e union practiccs and introduct.<l more
democratic procedures into union activities. Thc grassroots mcmbcrship has
b com . . more in<lependent of union bosscs and activists, is more det -·rmin ed to
rcprescnt its own wishes, and is concE.rn e<l to rcform thc labour movcrnc nt. Th e
initiative in industry has shifted to ernployers an<l mo<lerate unions, who have
bcen moving away from the traditional 'class war' imagc of unionism an<l are
acccpting new technology and working patt "rns in an attcrnpt to irnprnve corn -
p etitiveness and pro<luctivity. However, there are still unions who will strikc in
support of pay dcmands and conditions of work.
Public opinion polls in the past found that, while a larg majority of rcspon-
dents believed that unions are essential to protcct workers' intercsts, a sizcablc
The econo m y
numbcr felt that unions had too much power in Britain and were dominatcd
by militants. Half of trade unionists thcmsclvcs agreed with this latter point of
view and half disagreed. The concern ovcr tradc unions and their close relation-
ship with Labour governments d eclincd aftcr the 'N ew' Labour election victory
in 1997, but may in creasc again if thc Labour Party again forma government.
Union strike action can b e damaging to th e national cconomy and is useJ as
an economi c an<l political weapon . .In sorne cases, strikes ar ' scen as lcgitimatc
and tind public support. But othcrs, which are politically motivatc<l, are often
unpopular and are rejecte<l. Britain historically scem c<l to be pron e to in<lustrial
disputes, with large numbers of strikcs in th c 1980s, such as th c Min crs ' Strikc
in 1984. Howcvcr, fcwcr workin g days are now lost in Britain cach ycar than in
oth cr industrial nations, although th e number has in creascJ reccntly, particu-
larly in 2014 among low-paid publi c sector workcrs. On average, howc vcf¡ over
th e past 40 years most manufacturing plants anJ business 'S havc hL·e n free of
strikcs, and media covcrage ca n be responsiblc for giving a Jistortcd picture of
industrial relations.
Industrial proble ms should be pla cc<l in thc context oF finan cia! rcwards.
Britain has a low-wagc cconomy, comparc<l with major Europca n co untrics and
has a rnmplicated paymcnt systcm to assist th c low paid . Th c Nation al Míni-
mum Wagc (NMW) is thc mínimum pay pn hour most workcrs un<lcr th c agc
1
of 25 are entitlcd to by law. Thc govunmcnt s National Living Wagc (NLW)
is th c minimum pay pcr hour most workcrs agcd 25 anJ ovc r are cntitlcd to
reccivc. Th c rclcvant ratcs ( which c hangc cvc ry ycar) will <lcpcnd on a workcr's
agc an<l if th cy are an apprcntice. Employc rs may he prosccutcd if thcy do nnt
pay thc co rrcct wagc, which may rangc (2018) from U. 70 pcr hour for apptTn-
ticcs to L7 .83 fo r thos · agcd 25 an<l ovcr. Thc ONS rcportl'<l th at th c ave rage
gross annual wagc of work ' rs in thc UK in 2017 was [28,fü)() pcr ycar, with
th · average for m cn be ing L592 pcr wcck and womc n [4~)4 . Man y workc rs
(parti cularly womcn) rcccivc lcss th an these fi gures. D c pc nding on pe rso nal
allowanccs and othcr dc<luctions, p ersonal annual incomc for 2017- 18 is laxL·d
at 20 pcr cent up to f. 46,350, 40 pc r cent a hove this figure and 45 pc r cent on
ca rnin gs ovcr f l 50J)00.
Dircct incomc tax may have to incrcasc in ordl r to pay for public scrv iccs
(such as h calth an<l social car ), futurc statc pc nsion provision and thc budglt
J ,fi cit following th c 2007- 1O rcccssion. In addition, govcrnmrnts havc also
raiscd indircct or 'stealth ' taxes aft:er l ~)97, such as inc rcascd National lnsur-
ance contributions for workers and c:- mploy ' rs, as wcll as initiating a gene ral
rcsch ·duling of taxcs.
Employers' organizations
Th nc are sorne l 01 employcrs' and managers' associations in Britain of various
sizcs and signiticance, which are mainly associatc<l with companies in thc privatc
.,
·~ 246 The e co n o my
)T,
sector. They aim to promote good industrial relations between businesses and
their workforccs, try to settle disputes, and offer legal and professional advicc.
Most are m cmbcrs of the Confederation of British Industry (CBI) . This
umbrella body represents its m cmbcrs nationally; negotiates on thcir b ehal I'
with government and th e TUC; campaigns for greater investment and innova -
tion in industry and technology; and is often more sympathetic to Conservativc
governments than to Labour ones. Howevc1~ it can be very critica] of somt·
Conservative policies. It also acts as a pubhc-rclations organization; relays the
employers' points of view to thc public, and has considerabl e economic intlu-
ence and authority.
Industrial relations
Complaints are often raised about the quality of industrial relations in Brit-
ain. Histori cally, this has tended to be confrontational rather than coopera-
tivc and based on notions of 'class-warfare ' and 'us-an<l-th em' attitudes. Trade
union lc.aders can be vcry militant and stubborn in pursuing thcir members '
interests. But the performan ce of man age mcnt and cmpl oycrs is also c1iticized.
lnsensitivc managers can be rcsponsible fór strikes arising in the tirst place, and
relations betwccn manage mcnt and workcrs still leave much to b e desired,
although industrial unrcst is notas cornmon as it on ce was. Sorne opinion polls
havc indicated that a majority of respondents beli eve that bad m anagem ent is
ofren more to blame than the unions for poor industrial relations and Britain's
economic problem s.
1 )(·e n in thc past, particularly in the cases of women, ethnic minorities and th c
1, >w -paid . Howe ver, there is still concern about the real effectiveness of such
1, ·gislation .
Consumer protection
·1 ·hc traditional rule in consumcr and contract dcalings was caveat emptor (buyer
lit·warc). H owevcr, this was gra<lually rclaxcd and it was acceptcd th at, in a
, ompetitive markct, consumcrs should have a choi ce of goods and serviccs, th e
11l·cessary information to makc choiccs and laws to safeguard th eir purchascs.
Statutory protection for consumers has grown steadily in Britain, with th c Con-
.-. umer Protection Act 1987 and the Supply of Goods and Scrviccs /\et l ~)82.
Th e public can complain to tribunals and th e courts about unfair trading prac-
t ices, dange rous and unsafe goods, bad servie<::\ misreprese ntation, miskading
;1dvertising and pe rsonal injuri es res ulting from defcctive goods.
Th c respon sibility for protecting consumer inte rests and ovcrscc ing th c
heh aviour of trade and industry in Britain líes with severa! diffcrcnt organiza-
lions, such as th e Competition and Markets Authority (CMA) and th c Finan cia!
Con<luct Authority (FC/\) . Thcsc bodics are indcpc ndcnt of gove rnm e nt, but
rcport to governm e nt bodi es such as th e Treasury and th c Dcpartmcnt fr)r Busi-
ness, whi ch may take furth er action. Th e y promotc fair trading, protcct consum-
crs, su ggcst lcgislation to govcrnmcnt and aim to improvc consumcr aware ncss.
They set codes of practice an<l rcgulatio n with in<lustrial and cornmcrcial orga-
nizations, watch for brcach cs of th c codcs an<l publish thcir tindings.
Non-profit organi zations which providc free information and hclp on con-
su mer affairs at th e local le ve! are Citize ns A<lvice Burcau x, Consumcr l\d vicc
Centres, and consumcr protcction J cpartmcnts of loca l councils, such as 1·h1d-
ing Standards Scrviccs. Prívate consumcr-protection groups, whi ch invcsti gatc
complaints and advise con sumers, may exist in sorne localiti cs, such as thosc
orga nized by the not-for-profit Trading Standards I nstitutl'.
Thc independe nt Consume rs' Association was a wcll-known cstahlish cd
campaign er and pressure group for consumcrs' rights. ft has bccn rchrandcd as
an onlinc scrvi cc and is now known by its magazine namc, Which? This puh-
lication ch ampions th c co nsumer and app]ics rigorous tests to an ythin g from
tclcvision sets to insurancc and est ate agcnts. Which.? is the 'huycrs' bihl c ' and its
reports havc raised thc standard s of commercial products and sc rvi ces in Britain .
Consumer protection at state and prívate levels has improved ovcr thc past
50 y 'ars. But much still nccds to be done in this field to achicw mínimum stan-
dards and adequatc protcction, such as dealing with unscrupul ous build ' íS and
tradcs pcoplc prcying on gulliblc consumers, p articularly th e elderly; commercial
in competence and miss-selling ofpro<lu 'ts bytinancial organizations; bad scrvice
in shops and retail outlets; and inferior products flooding a co nsumer society.
The economy
But there are signs that a British reticence to complain about goods and ser-
vices is brcaking clown as the amount of litigation and finan cia! claims increase.
This is associated with a growing complaint an<l 'compe nsation culture' in Brit-
ain. Howcver1sorne complaints are clearly frivolous and governments havc tried
to curb the worst excesses by introducing new legislation . A forther problem is
the confusing growth at official and independcnt lcvels of so many consumer
bodies1 which ten<l to duplicate each other's work and which can increase
bureaucracy.
a ncw High Pay Commission to investigate thc cffcct of high pay on th e econ-
omy and ociety.
Mixed signals by respondents in identifying the big issues that affcctc<l thc
country were refl ected in an ICM poli for the think tank British future. Its State
of thc Nation survey (2013) assessed issues of national concern prior to th e
2015 General Election and rep orted how thesc might intlucnce how people
would vote. lt found that 61 per cent of Conservativc Party rcspon<lents placed
importancc of th e economy in tirst place, Liberal D 'mocrats set it in seco nd
place at 42 per cent, Labour respondents in fourth place at 41 p r cent, and
UKIP respondents also placed it in fourth place at 3~) pcr cent.
Optimism about economic issues was not shared equally across th e coun-
try, retlecting a traditional north-south divide. Only 24 per cent of respon<l nts
living in thc north em areas of thc UK were economically optimistic, compared
with 30 per cent in London an<l the Midlands, and 34 p er cent in thc south-cast.
Th e survey revealcd a divided society in which sorne w re doing wdl, a major-
ity were struggling, anda fo w at the top doing very well. Problcms of inequality,
relativc poverty an<l low wag 'S have continucd. Questions ahout foturc pub-
lí e spending cuts, taxation, pensions, growth, un ' mploymcnt and productivity
have also rec "ntly b e 'n ce ntral to peoplc 's conccrns about possibk cconomi c
recovery. Business reports an<l ONS statisti cs in 2018 pointcd to a mi xture of
negative and positivc prognoses for th e UK. 'l h ddicit was shrinkin g slowly,
unemployment continued to fall, foreign <lirect invcstmcnt was continuin g and
thc economy was running at ncar full capacity. lt rcmains to b e Sl'l'n whcther
thc country copes well with a Brexit event, or whcth er it will be as disruptive
as th carlier credit Tisis and rcccssion.
Exercises
Briefly define and examine the following terms, commenting on their
significance in British life:
Further reading
l Booth, A. (2001) The British Economy in the Twentieth Century, London : Palgrave
2 Buxton, T. , Chapman, P. and Temple, P. ( 1997) Britoin 's Economic Performance, London :
Routledge
3 Cairncross, A. (2006) Britain 's Economic Prospects Reconsidered, London : Routledge
4 Davie s, H. (2006) The Chancellors ' Toles : Managing the British Economy, Oxford : Polity
Press
5 Floud, R. and Johnson, P. (2004) The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain, Vol.
1 lndustrializotion, 1700- 1860, Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
6 Gamble, A. ( 1994) Britain in Decline: Economic Policy, Political Strategy and the British
State, London : Palgrave Macmillan
7 Gregg, P. and Wad sworth , J. (ed s) ( 1999) The State of Working Britain, Manchester:
Manchester University Press
8 Johnson, P., Carnevalli, F. and Strange, J-M . (2007) 20th Century Britain : Economic, Cul-
tural ond Social Change, London : Longman
9 Mcllroy, J. (1995) Trode Unions in Britain Today, Manchester: Manchester University Press
l O O rton, M. and Rowlingson, K. (2007) Public Attitudes to Economic lnequolity, York :
Joseph Rowntree Foundation/Warwick University
11 Savage, M . (2015) lntroduction, Social Class in the 21 sf Cenfury, London : Pelican
12 The Economist weekly magazine : www.economist.com
Websites
■ Housing
■ Exercises
■ further rearling
■ Websites
Social serv i ces
Th e tcrm 'social services' covers health carc, social care (personal assistance),
social security (pensions and welfare b enefits) and housing in the UK. This
chapter examin es th e public, private and voluntary provision of these services.
Statc (public) sector social services are now very much takcn for granted
by many Britons. They also f ature prominently in lists of pcoplc's concerns,
directly affect the lives of individuals of all ages and are a much-debated part of
go v rnmcnt policy. But it was not until thc ] 940s that the statc acccptcd over-
all responsibility for providing basic social an<l mc<lical hdp for ali its citi z ns.
Previously, there had been few such facilities and it was tdt that thc statc was
not obligcd to supply them .
Until reccntly, thc UK government in London organizcd statc hcalth, social
security, housing and social ca rc for the sick, retirecl, disabl c<l, dderly, needy and
unemployed, which wcre delivered by agencies and local councils throughout
Britain. This systcm changed from 1998 . Thc individual countrics of thc UK
now havc devolved powers over most of thcir own atfair. · through thcir elected
parliament and assemblies. Th e UK govcrnmcnt distributes central funds to the
devolve<l countties to spend according to their loca l pl ans.
Consequ -ntly, Scotland has devolved powcrs in hcalth, social housing and
social carc; Walcs in health, social welfarc, and social housing; and Northcrn Jrc-
land in health and social services. The UK govcrnmcnt organizes th esc servi ces
in England, but also has reservcd powers over work, pcns ions an<l social scc urity
bcnefits in the UK through the state Departmcnt for Work and Pcnsions.
State systems are primarily funded throu gh UK central taxa tion and
National lnsuran ce (Nl). This m eans that although many statc social serviccs,
such as health care, are providc<l free at th e point of nccd, most p eopl e will have
contributed to the cost during th ir working lives through paymcnt of in come
tax and NI. But so rne social carc is means-teste<l or based upon ahility to pay
for . ervi ces.
In thc private sector, social and hca lth services are financcd by personal
insurancc schcm es, company plans and by individuals who choosc to pay for
such facilities out of their own incomc or capital. Most of thcsc pcople are
also eligible for state care because of th e ir state contributions. In th e voluntary
sector, thcre are long-established organizations, which continuc thc tradition of
charitable help for the needy and depcnd for their fon<ling mainly upon <lona-
tions from the public.
The state social services have becn undcr financia! pressure for many
years. For examplc, Conscrvative governments (1979-9 7 and 2010- 15) tricd
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to reform thc National H ealth Service and social securjty in order to reduce
expenditure, improve effi ciency, encourage more self-provision and target b en-
fits to those genuinely in need. These have been widely criti cized, and it is
argued that they are based on an economic free market orientation.
A previous Labour government from 199 7 also tried to promote change in
the cxpcnsivc welfare state by encouraging people to insure th emselves against
unemployment and sickncss and to provide for th ir own pensions and care in
3
old age. Such rcforms havc tried to help families, rc<luce poverty and exclu-
sion, and madc cfforts to return th e unc mploy ,d to work. l3ut it is argued that
the refo rms havc not been successful and succcssive governments have had to
incrcasc state sp ending in social sc rviccs to prevcnt thcir dccay and possiblc
collapsc.
This situation suggests that th e UK and its devolved countries in future
may be una ble (or unwilling) to meet th c finan cia! costs of state social servi ces
without increas s in personal incomc tax, altcrnativc funding schcmcs or c uts
in aid plan s. Governmcnt's role in the future rnay lic in dirccting aid rath er than
funding it. Th e Labour govcrnmcnt has tried to invnlvc th e private sector in
the creation and managcm cnt of public scrvices (su -h as hospitals). But thcrc
is public anJ traJc union opposition to this poli cy, which is oftcn pcrccivcd as
privatization of 'free ' social scrviccs. This illustratcs t hc diHiculty of rcconciling
statc d 'mand with a national 'free markct cconomy' systcm and of dcciding
how much dependcncc th ' re should he upon thc statc. /\. rccurrcnt issuc in
general ck ction ca mpaigns has bcen how to pay for th c National Hca lth Scrvicc
(NHS). Govcrnments ar oftcn for ·cd to providc budgct incr 'ases for thc NHS,
but hav · not solved its problem s. Critics arguc that without largc incr 'ases in
income tax, alternativc funding and improve<l managcment, th c social scrviccs
will collapsc. For exa mple, th e Conservativc governmcnt in .January 201 ~) intro-
duccd a tcn-year pl an for the NHS bascd on tax fun<lin g, but vvas also struggling
to implcment a new state social security system .
Historically, statc social services were non-existe nt fór most of thc 13ritish pop-
ulation. Churchcs, charitics, the rural feudal systcm and town guilds ( orga ni-
za tion s of skilled craftsm n) did give sorne prntc -tion against poverty, illncss
and un -' mployment. But this hclp was limited in its application and d'f 'Ct.
Most pco plc were thrown upon thcir own, often rninimal, resources in or<ler
to survive.
In Elizabeth I's rcign (1558- 1603), a Poor Law was established in England,
by which thc statc took over th e organization of charity provisions. Similar
schem s existed in Wales, Scotland and lreland. They operated at thc local par-
ish lcvel and were responsible for their poor, sick and unemploycd , hy providing
So cial services
housing, help an<l work relief The Poor Law was th c start of state social help in
Britain, but it was grudging, was limited in its cffects and discourage<l peoplc
from relying on it. Poverty and need were considercd to be the result of an
unwillingncss to work and provide for onesclt; a criticism which is still dirccted
at welfarc recipients and the unemployed in Britain today. The state was not
supposed to h ave cxtensive responsibility for social scrvices.
Thcsc attitudcs persiste<l, although urban and rural p ovcrty and need
continucd. Conditions worsened in thc eighteenth and nineteenth centuri es
as industrial revolutions expanded and the population rapidly increascd . The
urban workforcc had to work long hours, often in bad conditions, in low-quality
factorics for low wages. Families frequently inhabite<l slums of overcrowded,
back-to-back dwellings which lacked adequate scwcragc, heating or vcntilation,
in which sorne p ople also ha<l to work in crampcd and unh · althy surroun<lings.
The situation of many rural agricultura! workcrs was justas ha<l.
Public health hecame a concern an<l the poor conditions resultcd in infcc-
tious epidemi cs in the ninetccnth ccntury, such as mcaslcs, <liphth cria, typhoid,
smallpox an<l tuberculosis. Sorne Jiscases remain ed en<lemic in thc population
in the twentieth century becausc of bad housing, and th c lack of adcquate
health and social facilities.
Th e old Poor Law was rcplaccd by thc Poor Law Amcndmc nt Act of 1834
in Englan<l and Wal cs (later in Scotland). lt was <lcsign d to prevent th ' allcged
abuse of parish social reli ef and to reduce thc taxcs ncede<l to scrvi cc th ·, sys-
tem. It creatcd a systern of workhouses in which the dcstitutc and nccJy could
work and livc. However, th cse were unplcasant places and peoplc wcrc <liscour-
aged from relying upon th cm. They werc Jrcadcd by thc poor and ac -epted
only as a last rcsort. Since nin ctccnth-ccntury Britain cxpc1ienced cconomic
slumps an<l unemploymcnt, the workhousc system often resultcd in mis<.. ry and
the separation of familics.
Succcssive governments until th e ninetcenth century refu se<l to allow
workers to organize themselves into tradc unions, through which th cy might
agitate against thcir working an<l living co nditi o ns. This forced groups of work-
ers into establishing th eir own ocia] and sclf-hclp clubs in or<ler to providc
b asic protection . Although sorne cmploycrs were more bcnevolcnt than others
and provided good housing and hcalth facilities for their workers, such exa m-
ples werc few and lite co ntinued to be harsh for m any in b oth th e towns an<l
the countryside.
The social miscry of the nineteenth century pcrsuadcd sorne towns to
establish local boards to control public health an<l initiate health schcmcs,
though a publi c health apparatus was not created un til 1848 and an effcctiv ,
national system was not in place until ] 875. Legislation was passed to el 'an up
slum areas, but largc-sca le clearance was not achievcd until the mid-twcnticth
century. Rcfc)rms in ho usi ng, health, factory and min conditions, sanitation
and scwerag<..·, tnw11 -plc1n11in g an<l trade uni onism were implcmcntcd in th e
So cial services 257
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ninetcenth century. But th ey were limited in their effccts and were seen as
paternalisti c in their intention.
The socia] welfare problems of the nineteenth century were considerable
and thc state's failure to provide adequate h elp against illness, unemployment
and poverty made the situation worsc. Social reform ers, who promoted legis-
lation offe ring sorne rclicf from thc negative effects of industrialization, had to
strugglc against th e apathy anJ hostility of vested interests in Parliament and
the country.
However, small victories had bccn won and in th carly twcntieth century
it was slowly, if not univcrsally, admittcd that th e state had social responsibility
fo r th e wholc of society. Progrcssive Liberal govcrnmcnts betwccn l 905 and
1922 introduccJ rcform programmes on ol<l agc p cnsions, national insurance,
h -alth, employment and trade unionism. Thcse form "d th e basic structures of
the future welfare statc. But th ey affcctcd only a minority of people, and the
state was unwilling or unablc to introduce furthcr provision s in thc carly twen-
ticth ccntury. Th e finan cia] an<l physical cxhaustion resulting from the 19 14-18
World War anJ th e cconomic cris<::.s of thc 1920s and 1930s halted social ser-
vices cxpansion.
Th c un<lcrlying nccd for more statc hclp continue<l as the population rap-
idl y incrcascd . Th c mo<lc l for a wclfare statc appcarcd in thc Bevcridgc Rep ort
of 1942. This rcco mmcndc<l th at a co mprehcnsivc syste m of social sccurity
and hea lth ca n~ for all shoul<l h e cstablish cd to ovcrcomc suffcring anJ nccd
'from thc crac.lle to thc grave'. It was intc n<lc<l that thc systcm would be largdy
finan ·cd by a national insurancc (NI) se he me, to which workcrs wou ld con-
tribute, and out of which they and thcir families wou ld rccciv' bcnefits when
requircd. J\lthough Conservativc governmcnts passcd sorne of thc lcgislation to
implement thcsc proposals, it was th e 1945-5 1 Lahour govcrnm nt that ra<li-
cally altered th e social and h ea lth systcms an<l crcated the prcsent welfarc state.
lt was also gradually r alizc<l that most of the ·ost of th c systcm would havc
to b e providcd for by general ta xa tion, which woul<l sharc thc finan cia] burdcn
with Nati onal Insuran ce, and in sorne cases m ·,ans-testing.
The provision of contcmporary . ocial scrvices, in both the state and the prívate
sectors, is condition ed by changcs in family and houschold structures, demo-
graphic factors (such as birth ratcs and in crcase in life expectancy), govern-
mental res pon ses to social n cds, thc cost of scrviccs and individuals' personal
tinancial resources.
It is argucd that thc tra<litional British household type (two par nts and
chil<lrcn living together) is fragm enting into new units. These significant changes
may incur substantial finan cia! burdens for the family groups and British socicty.
Social services
1G and over gave the ir sexual idcntity as ksbian, gay or bisexual ( I ,CB ), 1.2 pcr
cent as gay or lesbian, ami 0.8 as bisexual. Maks wcrc twicc <.1s likcl y as h.' maks
to reveal th eir sexual idcntity as gay or kshian. Howevcr, transgcndcr pcrsn ns
did not appcar in thesc figures, although transgrndcr pcrsons haw had tlw right
to changc their legal gen<ler sincc 2005 ( LGBT).
More a<lults will b e living alonc in thc futurc. Thcrc has bcl'n a signiiicant
incrcase ovcr the past 20 years in onc-pc rson houscholds with no ch ildn' n.
Thcsc are peoplc of all ages who may be singk hy choice, divon.-ed, st·p.m1tcd,
wi<lows or wi<lowers and the largest numhcr in 2017 wc rl' womcn .
While marriage is the most common form of partncrship for mrn and
womcn, it is becoming less popular. ONS -figures show that tlwrc wcrc 23~),020
marriagcs bctwcen opposite-sex couplcs in 2015 in Englan<l and Waks, a 3.4 per
cent decrease from 2014. Sorne 30 pcr cent wcrc rcligious marTiagl'S, 70 pcr Cl' lll
wcre civil marriages, usually in ar gistcr offic and 15 pcr cent wcrc rl'marriagl'S
for both parties. More p eople dday marriage for carccr ami othcr 1-easons with
the average age in 2015 bcing 37 .5 years for rncn and 35. l for wom 'n.
Th e average British marriagc whi ch rnds in divorcc lasts 11 ycars anJ six
months. Th e rate of <livorce in England and Waks tluctuatl's and has rl'ccntly
becn d ,cJining. Rcmarriagcs are at greatcr risk than lirst marriagcs anJ p ·oplc
who marry under 21 are thc most susceptible to divorcc. Thc ratc for remar-
riagcs arnong rnen is <loub1e that of womcn ami thc most common <livorcc
ages for both womcn and men are bctw 'en 25 to 29 years. Divorce affects a
considerable number of chil<lrcn un<lcr 1(). Th c trauma is increas d by the con-
frontational nature of th e divorce systcm, with contlicts over property, financial
support and custody of childrcn.
Soc i al serv íces
over 65 and 7 per cent of disabled adults live in statc or prívate institutions.
Most disabled children and adults are cared for by their families and most of
the clderly are either cared for by famili es or live alone supported by th c social
s 'rviccs (Social Care). These figures represent a saving to th e state, without
which the cost of state health and social care would rise to very dcmanding
levels. H owcver, the burden upon famili es will grow as the population becom cs
more elderly, state prnvision is rcduccd and the numbers of disablcd (currcntly
b million a<lults) and disadvantage<l increase. There are proposals that more
social carc state aid shoul<l be given to carers, families and local authorities to
lightcn th "Ír bur<len and to cnablc thc clderly to stay in th eir own hom "S rathcr
tha n in expcnsivc carc homes or hospitals.
Th e picture that emerges from these statistics is one of smallcr households;
more pcopl e living alonc; an increasc in one-parent units; a declining <livorcc
ratc; more individuals living longcr an<l contributing to an ageing population;
mo re working mothcrs an<l wivcs; more cohabiting couplcs; ncw structures
. uch as civil partnerships; gcndcr classitications; and a tkclin' in oppositc-sc x
marriagc. Thcse featurcs intlu ' ncc thc contemporary state an<l privatc provi-
sions for social sccurity, hcalth , social can>. and housing. Th ey are v -ry diff '1-cnt
to previous gcncrations.
Housing Benetit, Disability Allowan cc, Child Benefit, d ental treatrnent, eye
testing and childre n's school rn eals.
Under the old system, there were sorne 30 rnillion p eople in th e UK who
received income and assistance frorn social security. There werc a very large
number of diffcrcnt payments and at 29 pcr cent of total government expendi-
ture, social security represcnted th e largcst single arca of state spcnding. Public
retirement pensions were the most expensivc itern, accounting for sorne 37
pcr cent of total expcnditure and it was argued th at the pension could becorne
unsustainablc without fu rther reform and raised qualifyin g agcs. The other
main categories of benefit recipients are generally familics with children (18.4
per cent) , uncmploye<l p cople (2.5 per cent), p 'opl c on low incornes (20.8 p er
cent), clderly people (42.3 per cent), sick an<l disabled people ( 15 .53 per cent)
and hcreave<l peoplc (0.31 p er cent) .
Social security benefits do provide a dcgree of security for many British
peopk:.. They are supposcd to be a safoty net against nced, but this does not pre-
vent rclative har<lship. Sorne 13 .5 million p cople with 1.8 million chil<lrcn live
in houscholds below the low-income threshold ([279 a wcek for a couplc with
two depcndent childr 'n under 14). Oth er stu<lics suggest th at a quarter of the
populati on live on thc poverty line, which is somctim <:.s meas urcd as fi() pcr ent
of th e average annual national in come. But accurate povcrty fi gures are <lifficult
to gather because th ere are diffcrent ddinitions of what constitutcs povcrty.
Social security benefits are exp ensive and will bccom more so as thc num-
b ers of thc sick, di sadvantage<l, d<lcrly, poor, disabled and unemploy ,d pcr-
sist. Th e numbcr of benefits has grown an<l ca n be <lifficult to understand. lt is
al1eged th at they cncourage a dependency and welfare culture in which succcs-
sive gencrations of sorne famili es have never workcd .
Governments have tried to reform thc welfare systcm by attackin g abuse,
cutting expense and reducing bcn cfits whilc still preserving the safety net com-
mitment, targcting th ose people with th c great st nccds, and cutting poverty
and exclusion, whil e encouraging p eople into employment and away from
a life time on b en efits. Governments argue th at thc cost of social security is
un sustainable and try to encourage sclf-provi 'ion through work. But it is dif-
ficult to limit thc numbers and to create a simple an<l fair system that pro-
tects the genuine needy and p ersuades people to b ecome more self-reliant and
indep endent.
G overnments are con cerned that p eople sho uld look afte r th e msclves
without automatic recour e to the state for h lp. Polib cal partics agree that it
is unacceptable that those who are capable of work should reject it for a life
on b enetits. Thc reati on of jobs, an embrace of the work cthic and grcater
p ersonal responsibility are seen as essential in th c face of a potc ntially <liHi-
cult economi c futurc, social un certainties, a growin g clder1 y p opulation and
p ension <lifti cullil 's. For c xamplc, it is now gcncrally accc pted th at workers
should work lon gl·r lwl"o rT cbimin g th eir statc pension s (65 years at prese nt,
Soc i al services
hut moving to 66-68), and save to supplement their pe nsions while in work.
More p eople are also now accepting th e chance to work longer, and work-
place agcism is decrcasing.
The coalition government from 201 O b egan to rcform w elfare henefits, and
argued that too many people werc trapped on hcncfits. After delays, changcs
werc gradually phased in in <litferent parts of the rnuntry from 2014 . Thcy
were designed to make work pay rather than pcople sccing thc ir in comc drop
when they moved off benefits. It has trie<l to simplify and rcform the system
by m crging former working-age hcnctit<; and tax credits into a single payment,
callcd Universal Crcdit (UC).
UC was supposed to he paid monthly in arrears and is bascd on peopl e
trying to move into work. But it ca n takc up to -five wceks to reccive th e tirst
UC paym nt after a successful claim, lcaving sorne rccipi e nts without intcrim
finance. Th e amount of UC rcceivc<l is gradually rc<luced as more moncy is
ea rn ed. Claims are madc online, and <litlcrcnt systems apply in Northcrn lre-
land, Wales and S ·otland.
In England, UC is a single monthly paymcnt for peo plc in or out of work,
an<l will replacc single hcn efits and ta x c rcdits. It compriscs a sta ndard allowance
to covcr hou. ing, duti es of carcrs, child-carl' rnsts, disabled childrcn an<l ill or
disahle<l a<lults. Thc maximum UC award comprisc·s one allowan cc for a housc-
hold an<l any family circumstanccs. J\n <1pplicant will rccc iw th c maximum
amount if thc household has no other ca rnings, savings or capital of [6,000 or
less. Oth er household carnings will b e takcn into account whcn ca lculating thc
UC paymc nt.
A pcrson o n UC ca n rcccivc paiJ work and qualify for a work allowan cc, or
thc amount of mon ey onc is allowcd to 'a rn bcforc th c UC paymrnt is affcctcd .
This work allowancc <lcpc nds upon whcthcr onc is rcsponsihlc for c.kpcnc..k nt
chil<lre n or is unablc to work beca usc of illn ess or <lisahility. Thc UC pa ym c nt
will be r ,Juced if earnings ex ·ee<l th c work allowancc ( carnings tapcr ). Earn cd
or pai<l hcndits, such as Maternity, Patcrnity and Sick Pay are trcatcd as ca rn-
ings an<l will also affect th e tapcr. Sorne uncarnc<l incomc, such as .Johscck-
T1s Allowan ·e and Pcnsion incomc will also affcct th c UC paynwnt. But othn
uncarncd in co me (Child Be nefit, Maintcnan ce paymcnts and Disahility l ,iving
J\llowan ·e ) will not be deducted from UC paymcnt.
The previous welfare systcm was scen as complcx, <lifl1 cult to un<lcrstan<l,
faulty, allowt.d pco plc who could work to rc main on wclfarc bc nctits and gavc
thcm insufficient incentives to start working again. But it is arguc<l that applying
for th c new UC can also be stressful.
Thc introduction of UC from 2013-14 was rn ca nt to improve th e previous
syste m by cnsuring that any be n ,fits that a person rcccived would in foture be
paid in one 1ump sum. The idea was to cncouragc people to find paid work,
in crcase thcir working hours, and move inlo a ncw working environment. Th e
ncw syst cm is supposed to be simpler, so that those who find johs do not have
Social services
to worry about increased poverty. The changes were also intended to reduce
error and fraud .
Howevcr a study ü1 2016 by th e Fabian Society argued that the new sys-
1
tem was inadequate1 most low-income working h ouseholds would be worse off
by 2020 and famili es on out-of-work benefits face losing a fifrh of their income
1
for poorer families will bccom c worsc as thcir incomcs dctcriorat e and child
1
povcrty and inequality will rise sharply. Th e Labour Party argued that what
was needed was a system that takcs account of contemporary social realities1
such as low pay high housing costs insecure work longer working lives and
1 1 1
largely achieved 1 and thc systcm is ccntrally fundcd through th c incomc taxes
and N ational Insurancc contributions of pcopl whilc in work. Hospital and
most m edica] treatment under the NHS are free for British citi zcns those for-
1
cign citizens lcgally rcsident in Britain and EU visitors to Britain undcr thc
Europcan H calth Insurancc Card (EHIC) . Th e NHS provides a comprchc nsive
range of m edica} and dental services bascd on hospitals and medica] practices 1
incomc. Children under 16, pcople on social security b endits and ol<l age pcn-
sioners rcceive free prescriptions, eye t ests and subsidizcd dentistry. Cov --rage
of NHS dental treatment is limitcd an<l many dentists havc left th e NHS for
private practice.
Th e complicate<l health structures in thc UK originated in legislation from
1946-69. D evolution in 1998 completed a scparation proccss, but whilc thc
lo ur devolved systems in England, Walcs, Scotland and Northern lrcland are
mostly indepcndent from cach othcr and handle their own health matte rs, sorne
Fun ctions are shared. The tcrm NHS usually rcfers to thc UK collectivdy, thc
UK government fund s thc NHS for th . . whol e UK, and has control over thc
English NHS through th e Departmcnt of Hcalth an<l Social Can~.
Thc individual systems ar National Hcalth Scrvicc NHS ( England ),
Health and Social Carc in Northern frcland, NHS Scotland anJ NHS Walcs.
NHS England also undcrwent rcorganization aftcr thc passing of thc Hcalth
and Social Carc Act 2012. Sincc ach devolved country has its own politica l
tructures, Jivcrgcnt programmes havc dcvelo¡wd Jcspite basic similaritics. For
examplc, paymcnts (such as prcscription charg --s) cxist in England, hut not in
the othcr systcms.
Thc UK Parliamcnt sctc.; thc ovcrall budgct availahk to thc NHS in Enghtnd
and allocatcs a hlock grant to cach devolved govcrnmcnt, which J cc icks how
much to spcnd on its regional hcalth-carc 1wcds. Hcalth cx pcnditurc in England
fo r 2017- 18 was [122 hillion, U 3 .2 billion in ScotlanJ, G.3 hillion in Walcs
and [5 billion in Northcrn Ircland. The NHS is th ' biggcst single cmployn of
labour in Western Europc. However, comparcJ with othcr G7 countrics, GDP
cxpe nditurc is rclativcly low and lnwcr than othcr major Western rnuntrics
which hav<.' a highcr co mbination of th e public and the privatl' in thcir hcalth
spcnding. lJK Funding de rives from UK taxation and National Insurancl' con-
tributions. Othcr sourccs of incomc include charging non-EU ovcrsC'as visitors
and insurcrs for the c:ost of NHS treatm nt, prcsniptions, dental chargC's and
hospital ca r parkin g.
Th crc has hccn much criticizcJ restructuring of NHS England by sucn·s-
sivc govcrnmcnts. In 2013, thc cxisting 152 Primary Carc Trusts (PCTs), which
controll ed loca l . pcnding on dt.ntists, hospital opnations, test<; and medicines
wcrc organi:t,cd mainly by health managers an<l accountcd for 80 rcr cent oF
NHS srending. Finan cia] and health commissioning Jutics (of primary carc)
wcrc given to 200 Clinical Commissioning Groups (CCGs) lc<l by General
Practitioncrs (GPs or doctors). F.:.vcry GP surgcry haJ to b clong to a CCC.
A. Clínica) Commissioning Boar<l was crcatcd which took charg . . of oversccing
thc NHS from thc Dcpartment of H ·alth. Hospitals had Trust or Foundation
status (r ,f rreJ or seco ndary carc based on rdc rrals from GPs) an<l would be
independe nt of Whitehall control. Thc Conservativc government promised to
cut bureaucratic costs, but this exercisc in reform and the resulting structures
have b een suhjcct to widespread criticism .
Socia l services
Doctors
Most people in Britain who require h ealth care will first consultan NI 1S-funded
doctor, who is a GP or non-specialist general practitioncr, of whom, for exam-
ple, thcre were in 2016 about 41 ,985 in England in 7, 6 13 practi ces and 2,887 in
Wales in 454 practices. There are difficulties with loss s, rctcntion and recruit-
ment of doctors. The majority of GPs are now membcrs of group practices,
where they share larger premises, scrvices and equipment, which also allow for
rnin or surgcry. A patient may be on the pan el of one narncd doctor, although
appointrnents with overstretched GPs can be diHicult to makc. Altcrnatives are
an NHS Jrop-in centre or Minor Care Unit, or in urgent cases th c A ccident and
Emcrgency Departmcnt ata local hospital.
Hospitals
lf patients rcquire furth er treatment or exarnin atio n, thc GP reters thern to
specialists and consultants, normally at local NHS Trust hospitals or Foundation
hospitaJs. Both typcs of h ospitals are 'self-govcrning' to a large extent, run their
own indcpcndcnt budgets and scrviccs, and provi<le rn ,Jica], dental, nursing
and rnidwife ry staff lt is argucd that although NHS England 's number of hospi-
tal bcds has fall en from 299, 000 to 142,000 in thc last 30 years, th e numbcr of
total pati nts being treated in hospital has increased bccause of greater input-
output efficiency. Britain has sorne rnodcm hospitals and fa cilities and m ore
hospitals are bcing constructcd, but it also has many buildings that were built
in th e ninctcenth century and are in need of moderni zation an<l repair. Th ere is
a shortagc of b cds in sorne hospitals, yet wards and hospitals are being d oscd.
Lon g waiting times for con ultancy visits and adrnission to hospital for op cra-
tions as well as for treatment in accident and em ergency dcpartments are still a
source of concern, despite a large infusion of governrnent funds into the system
and irnprovcm ent in sorne arcas.
PLATE 9 . 1 Doctors' waiting room at busy GPs' practice, National Health Service . © age
fotostock/ Alamy Stock Photo
\
PLATE 9 . 2 NHS operating theatre in action, Chelsea and Westminster Hospital, London .
© Photofusion/Shutterstock
.,
·~ 268 Social services
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PLATE 9.3 University Col lege Hospital, "'
London, one of the new NHS hospitals
bei ng constructed i n many pa rts of
Bri tain . © Jeff Black ler /Shutterstock
mortality rates. Howevcr, it lagge<l on health outcomes in tenth place and was
in third position for tirnelines of care.
and for elderly and disabled people to be cared for in th eir own homes by social
services. The aim was to prevent the institutionalization of pcople and to give
them independencc.
The schemc had difficulties, such as mentally ill and disab] ed patients
becoming homcless, being housed in inadequate temporary accommodation
and ncglecting their m edication, while elderly p eople receive poor or insuffi-
cient attention and help by hard-pressed official carers. It is argued that local
authorities need more support, that helpers and carers should receive b etter pay
and conditions, and that it should be recogni zed that home supervision of the
elderly is not only cheaper than hospital, but what they wish for.
The p ersonal social scrvices also catcr for peop] e with 1earning disabilities,
give h elp to families and provide day-care fa cilities for children. Childrcn in
need or suffering from family brcakdown and dysfunctional parents are a1so
supposed to be protected in rcsidential care accommodation and local author-
ities facilitate fostering and adoption services. But thcre have been a number
of serious cases in recent ycars which havc drawn attention to the physical
and sexual abuse in childrcn's care homes and grooming gangs in the com-
munity which prey on young p eople, as well as child dcaths in family homes
from neglect and abuse. Local government social services, which are often hard
pressed, havc been heavily criticized.
Jn 2018, actual spending on social care was 9 p er cent lower p cr pcrson
than ten years ago, despitc extra governmcnt fun<ling and councils trying to pro-
tect services by switching money from other budgets. According to thc Institute
for Fiscal Studies, this mcant that local authority spen<ling on adult social care
dropp cd by 1O per cent in real terms between 2009 an<l 2015.
Other scrvices (excluding adult social care) providcd by local authori-
ties have been cut more h eavily, with average cuts per person of 32 per cent
although th ere were big variations with councils in poorer areas making larger
cuts. In 2018, councils in the 30 most dcprived areas of England cut social care
budgets overall by an average of 17 pcr cent, comparcd with 3 per cent in the
30 least deprivcd.
The Conservative election manifesto in 2017 proposcd to reform social
care, arguing that bctter-off older p --ople shoul<l pay more for their social care,
including care at home. Suggestion s were also made to make th e health and
care systems work more closely togeth er. A<lult social carc faced fundamental
changes in order to provide a system that worked for everyon e in society.
th ese are also declining because of costs. It is therefore important that voluntary
chariti s and agencies have remained and continued their work. Thcse are a
complementary welfare service to the statc and private facilities and provide an
essential element in the total aid pattern. The state system would he unable to
cover all nceds without them.
Most of th e voluntary agencies have charitable status, whi ch m eans that
th ey gain tax concessions on their incomc, but r ceive no ( or vcry littlc) finan-
cia] support from the state. However, sorne groups, such as thosc dealing with
drug and alcohol addiction and released prisoncrs, do receive financia! grants
fro m central and local government. Thcre are many thousands of voluntary
organizations in Britain, operating at national an<l local lcvcls and varying con-
sidcrably in size. Sorne are small and collect limitcd amounts of mon ey or dona-
tions from thc public. Others are very largc, have professional stafts and rcceive
millions of pounds from many differcnt sour -es. Sorne groups, such as Oxfam
(for the relief of famin e) and the Save the Children Fund, have now becom c
international organizations, although O xfam anJ others suffcrcd from destabi-
lizing accusations of sexual abuse in thcir foreign operations in 2017- 18.
Thc following are examples of voluntary age ncies in Britain. Barnardo's
provides hclp for necdy children; th e Church of Englan<l Ch ildrcn's Socicty
cares for ncglectcd children and is Britain 's largest a<loption agcncy; thc Cancer
Rescarch I~und gathcrs nnance and carries out resea rch into cures for canccr;
thc Pcoplc 's Dispcnsary for Sick Animals ( PDSJ\) providcs free vctcrinary aid
for pcoplc's pets; the Samaritans give tel ephon e he lp to thc suiciJal; womcn's
groups have foundcd refuges for abused women; anJ Hdp thc AgcJ campaigns
for the elderly.
Housing
Housing in thc UK is divided between th c puhlic and private sectors. Thcsc are
ovcrscen by the Ministry of Housing, Communities anJ Local Govcrnmcnt in
England and by devolved bodies in Wal es, Scotland and North ern lrelanJ . Th c rc
is at pr sent a serious lack of affordahlc properties to buy or rcnt in l3ritain,
and to simplify matters this section will refer o nly to the h ousing situation in
England .
According to ONS statistics in 2017, there were 23.9 million Jomcsti ·
dwellings in England (a slight increase since 2016) . The majority consistcd of
15 .1 million owner-occupied [private) dwellings, 4 .8 million privatc <lwcll-
ings rented from a private landlord or letting agency and 4 .0 mtllion so -ial and
affordable rcntcd dwellings (Prívate Registere<l Provi<lers and Local Authority ).
Thc prívate rentcd stock decreased fr ) m 201 6, the social and affordable rented
stock had incrcased and public sector stock had <lccreased. These figures illus-
trate the very variable state of the housing market in recent ycars, such as th e
So c i a l serv ices
PLATE 9 .4 Detached hou se o n a new housing estate, Surrey, England . Detached houses
command the highest prices o n th e housing market, particularly as here in southern England .
But note the relatively sma ll-s ized house, sma ll w indows and high-density plot. © Shutterstock
Social services
PLATE 9 . 5 Terraced housing , Kensal Rise, London . Terraced housing , where houses are joined
together in a row, varíes in qual ity and type throughout Brita in. These are popu lar and can be
expensive, depending on location and condition . © Ray Tang/Shutterstock
Much social, public or 'co un cil housing' has historically hccn provickd
by local council s with tinance from loca l councils an<l central govcrnmc nt.
Although th c provision an<l organization of such prope rtics hy local govc rn-
me nt has d -clincd in rcccnt ycars and more has b ccn takcn ovcr hy housing
associations, sorne local co uncils are incrcasingly building propcrti cs tór rc nt by
local tenants.
Conservative governments ( 19 79- 97) enco uraged th e grnwth of privatl
hom e ownership in the housing mark ··t, as part of its programme to crcatc a
property- and share-owning dcm ocra cy in Britain. In thc publi - sector, th e Co n-
ervativcs werc criti ca} oflocal government housing polícies. Thcy wanted local
auth oriti es to divest thcmselves of housin g management and instead, work with
housing associations and th e prívate sector to incrcas the supply of low-cost
housing fór rent without building ít th e mselves. The Conservativcs also contro-
vcrsially introduced ( 1980) a right-to-buy policy by which lo ·al government
sells off coun cil housing to sittin g tcnants at b elow-markct pric -'s. This policy
has increascd thc numbcr of hom ·-owncrs by over l mili ion and rcli -·ve<l local
authorities of th e expense of decoration, upkeep and repair. Th e Conservatives
in their 2015 Election Manifesto also announced that thcy woul<l allow Hous-
ing Associations to sell th eir houses at discount rates to existing te nc:mt.:;.
So c i a l se rv ices
PLATE 9.6 Southmere housing estate, Thamesmead, London . Counci l or social housing bu ilt
by local government authorities for rent to low-income tenants . Many of these concrete tower
blocks hove now been demolished . © Cecilia Colussi/ Alamy Stock Photo
Social se rv ice s 277
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The normal procedure when buying a house or flat is to savc for a deposit
and then take out a loan on the sccurity of the property ( a mortgage) from
a building society, bank or other financia! institution. The amount of money
advanced on a loan depends mainly on the borrower's salary an<l it is usual to
borrow three times one's gross annual salary. This long-term loan is normally
paid off over a 25-year p eriod and includcs intcrcst. Currently many p "ople
cannot afford a deposit, obtain a mortgage, or, if lucky, pay off th c debt. J\t
present rates and priccs, many in the younger generation may n ver he abl . . to
afford to buy a property of th e.ir own.
Housc prices can vary considcrably throughout Britain, with London and
south-east England having the highest priccs and northern England, Scotland
and Wales having the lowest. Prices incrcascd dramatically at thc bcginning of
the l 970s and much property spcculation occurred. Increascs th ' n stabilizcd
for sorne years. But thcre was a price boom from 198G to 1988 followcd by
1
high inter st rates and an increase in mortgagc fr)reclosurcs. This mcans that 1
when pcople cannot afford to continue th eir rcpayments on thc loan thc lend-
1
ing institution takcs over the property (_rcposscssion) and the occupicr bccomcs
homdcss. Thcrc was also a fall in housc priccs1 a property slump anda growth in
negativ ·' equity ( whcre thc loan excccds the value of the propcrty ), which was
only slowly reversed from 1994 as intcrcst ratcs wer ~ red uccd ami thc pror-
crty markct recovered. House prices thcn incrcascd again throughout Britain 1
and properties were arguahly overvalued. lntcrcst ratcs incru1scd to co untcr
the propcrty boom . Lenders oft '11 gavc high loans to borrowcrs who coul<l
not rcpay them. A crc<lit crunch arrived in 2007 bringing a collapsc in thc
housing market and reccssion due to high mortgagc lending by institutions, thc
accumulation of p rsonal debt by borrowcrs and an ov ' r-supply of ncw prop-
ertics (such as buy-to-lct tlats accumulate<l by privatc landlords) . ForL·closurl's
incr . . ascd. After a pcriod from 2008 whcn thc housing market was closc to
collapsc, thcre was a gov . . rnment-aided growth in sales an<l priccs by 201 O. But
critics in 2014 were again warning about a potcntial housing bubhlc an<l an
overheated property market with high prices particularly in Lon<lon. On thc
1
other hand, by 2018 there was a slowdown in the buy-to-lct propcrty rnarkct
and spcculators wcre squeezed.
British homes still have variable construction stan<lar<ls. Many okkr typcs
are damp and cold; are frcqu ntly badly built; an<l lack central hcating, <loubk-
glazed winJows and a<lequate insulation. Yct therc has hccn sorne improvcmcnl
ü1 housing quality in recent years an<l most new houscs hav . . a reasonable per-
centage of the basic amenitics. Grcatcr attention has bccn paid to insulation
and energy saving, aided by governmcnt grants for oldcr properties. However,
as building costs rise and availablc land becomes scarce, thc trend in sorne new
property construction has becn towards flats an<l smallcr, more cramped rooms
in property generally.
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A~ 278 Social services
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Ncvcrtheless, there are still districts, particularly in the centres of the big
cities, where living conditions are bad and th e equival ent of contemporary
slums. N early half of the property in the inner-city areas was built before 1919
and, in spite of large-scale slum clearance in the 1950s and 1960s, much exist-
ing housing here is in barely habitable shape. Sorne high-rise (tower) blocks of
council flats and estates in the public sector from the 1970s and 1980s have had
to b e dcmolished because of defectivc and dangerous structures. According to
the Independent newspaper in 2017, 1.4 million households containing several
mmion people were living in unsuitable rented accommodation.
Twenticth-century town renovation and slum cl earan ce policies from the
1930s attempted to rcmovc the populations of large city centres to new towns,
usually located in the countryside, or to new council estates in the suburbs.
Sorne of thc new towns, such as Crawlcy, Hemel Hempstead and Stevenage,
have bcen s ·en as successes, although thcy initially had their share of social
and planning problems. However, many other council cstates have tended to
degen erate vcry quickly. The bad design of sorne estates, their social deprivation
and ]ack of upkecp are often blamed for thc crime and vanda]ism which affect
many of them. Sorne local councils have tried to modernize <lecaying housing
stock, rather than spending on new developmcnt, in an attempt to preserve
loca] communities, although others have demolishcd ol<l propertics, parti cularly
in northern tngland and the Midlands. But renovation work is also being done
by housing associations ( with government grants) and by priva te builders.
Th e provision of sufficient affordable and vari cd housing in Britain, such
as one-bedroom properties for young and single persons, has been a problem
for many years. People on low (and even m edium) wages, whether married or
single, are often unable to afford th e cost of a dcposit and mortgagc for suitable,
but expensive, private property in the current market. Evcn young profession-
als and university graduates with substantial salaries are unable to savc for a
dcposit and to obtain mortgages, and many live with thcir parents. One of the
factors (in ad<lition to high property prices and travel costs) causing difticulty
for young p ople in buying first homes, particularly in rural areas within com-
muting distance of London, is the desire of affluent p eople for homes - or
second homes - in the cow1try. It is also difficult for young people to obtain
council housing (even if availablc) beca use of long waiting list<; which contain
1
applicants with priority over them . The right-to-buy policy has also re<luccd
th e number of appropriate council houses an<l flats for low-incom e group an<l
the unemployed .
In a limited housing market, it is argued that Britons should give up th cir
obsession with exclusive homc-ownership and investigatc ncw alternativc ways
to mect housing demand, such as shared rentals, part- or shared-owncrship
arrangernents, and negotiated board with parcnts.
Conservative governments have tried to cncourage landlords and othcr
agencies to provide more privately rented acco mmodation by kssening th c
Soc ial services
cffects of rent legislation and introducing new lease structures. But th e relax-
ations have led to accusations of exploitation of tenants by landlords. Somr
landlords do not make repairs to their properties which can create dangero us
living conditions. They may try to evict tenants or lose their propcrties in a dif-
ficult housing market, leaving their tenants homeless. The previous Lahour gov-
ernment wanted a healthy prívate rented sector. It tricd to improve th e ri ghts
of 1 aseholders to purchase their freehold anJ protcct themselvcs against abuse
by unscrupulous landlords. At th e sam e time, there was a growth in inJividuals
purchasing 'buy-to-rent' propertics which proved to be attractive investrnc nts,
but which could collapse in an econornic Jownturn, leaving th e tcnant hornc-
less. The recession lc<l to the virtual collapsc of thc 'buy-to-rc nt' rn arkct as land-
lords over-extende<l themselves. Currcntly, the housing rnarkct is at a low ebb
for those without deposits an<l a reasonable salary.
There are many suggestion. for housc-building schcmcs in an attcrnpt to
cope with the demand for housing. Howcver, th cse frequently rncct ohj ections
such as building on flood plains with th e conscquent threa t of tlooding. Oth-
ers could cause cnvironmental darnage, in creasc<l traffic congcstion and loss
of Gr 'en Belt land, although g wernrncnts havc pe rmitted coun -ils to allow
high-dcnsity housin g in urhan arcas and in sorne Grc "'n Belts. Then.' havc hcen
prot sts about ina<lcquatc govcrnrncnt housc ck vclopmcnt, ,rn<l lo ·al support
which allegeJly supports buildcrs an<l planncrs. Yet, a growing population will
need more an<l diffcrcnt propcrti cs.
PLATE 9.7 A homeless man begging , Cromwell Road , London . The previous Labour gov-
ernment claimed that the number of beggars, home less peop le and 'rough sleepers ' had
been reduced during its period of office . But estimated levels continue to vary considerably.
© Denis Cameron/Shutterstock
Opinio n polis indicatc that British people are concern ed ab out th c social ser-
vices ( NHS, soci al care, housing, pensions and social security ). An flconomist
lpsos MORI poll in Scpt "mbcr 2017 reported that the NHS/hospitals/health
care wcre in second place at 40 per cent after Brexit among thc rn ost important
issues/probl ems fa cin g Britain . H ousing was in sixth place at 16 pcr -cnt, pov-
erty and in cquality wcrc in eighth piare at 15 pcr cent andan age ing popul ation
and social ca re wcrc in tt'nth pl ace at 12 pcr cent. This scction will be mainly
concern ed with the NHS.
An lpsos MORI. Political Monitor poli in Jun e 2018 aJdrcsscJ th c iss ucs
faced by thc NHS an<l political attitu<lcs abo ut hcalth car '. Whrn rcs pon<lcnts
wcr ' ask ,J which politi ca l party was thc bcst at managing th c NHS an<l has th c
best rolicics on hcalth ~are, 40 pcr cent said l ,abour, 22 pc r cent sai<l C onsc r-
va ti ve, 5 pcr cent sa i<l Lib Dcm an<l l pcr cent saiJ UKIP. But 7 pcr n' nt sa i<l
'othcr ', 9 p er e ' nt sai<l ' ncrn c' and 17 'J on't kn ow' .
Th e re wc rc rnany argumcnts ahout in suflicicnt f1n ancin g of th c NHS an<l
its potcntial coll apsc in 2017- 18. Th c Conservativc govc rnmc nt h ad plc<lged
t o provi<lc an extra .[20 billion a ycar to th ., NHS for thc ncxt hvc )'l ars. lpsos
MORf Political Monitor asked rcspon<lcnts wh cth cr this extra fundin g was
cnough to ge nerate an improvemcnt in NHS scrvi ccs. Onl y 14 pcr cent sa id it
was, an<l 4~) per cent th ought th at it woulJ only maintain currcnt NHS perfor-
mance levcls.
The Monitor as kcd responde nts whi ch m 'tho<ls th cy woul<l support to
pay for th e incrcased fundin g fr>r th c NHS announ ce<l by th c govl rnment.
Fifty-tive per ce nt supportcd increasing individual taxcs; 55 per cent favoured
more chargcs for pco pk on hi gh in com c; 38 pcr e ' Jlt wanted more chargcs
fo r vcryo n ·'; 21 per cent upportcd highcr govcrnm -' nt spe nding; 20 per cent
wantcd reduced spc nding on other publi c servi ccs; and 5 per cent favoured
othcr means. Whe n th e Monitor askccl fo r re. pondents' expectations of the
NHS, 54 per cent thought that it wo uld get worse and only 22 per cent thought
that it woul<l get better.
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A~ 282 Socia l services
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Fears about the future of th e NHS are widely hdd . For example, the NHS
Fedcration in 2018 argued that th e annual NHS winter crisis now lasts all year.
It maintained that:
The NatCen Social Research 's British SocialAttitudes (BSA) survey (2018)
asked th e public about their views on thc NH S anJ h ealth issues gencrally. It
found that satisfaction with thc NHS overall was 53 p er ce nt ( a 3 per cent drop
from 2017) . This was th e lowest lcvcl since 2007, but still better than th e low of
34 per cent in 1997. In particular, satisfa ction with GPs was at the lowest cver
of 63 per cent. The main reasons for satisfa 'tion with the NHS werc 4uality of
care; it was free at the point of use; the attitu<les anJ behaviour of NHS staff;
and the range of services and treatments avai]abk. The main reasons for dissatis-
faction were staff shortages, long waiting times, lack of fun<lin g and go vcrnment
reforms.
Surveys show that the NHS remains a rcsp ected national institution with
puhlic support fo r its founding principl es and the prio1itization of th c health
service for extra govemmcnt funding above other public scrvicc. such as cduca-
tion and welfare. Yet th e public's satisfaction with the NHS fluctuatcs in terms
of waiting times, patient exp rience, annual fears of immin ent collapse1 fundin g
and political attitudes to th e NHS.
The reason s for a decline in satisfaction include all eged J cterioration of ser-
vices, negative m edia reporting, public expectati ons of the NHS, and opposition
to government an<l its NHS p olicics. D ebate and concern continuc and it may
be th at th c publi c are supporting an iconi c state institutio n under threat from
perceived privati zation, irrespectivc of its actu al perform ance and satisfa ction
lev Is. Th c politi cal p arti es admitted in thc 2015 G '"' neral Election ca mpai gn
that th e NHS would run an annual defi 'it in th e futurc, which must be covered.
Yet there is no long-term programmc for m eeting the J d icit and no alternative
plan for how Britain can bcst generatc thc wealth to fund its public servi ces,
apart from ta.x revenues.
In spite of such concerns, th e 2010 BSA survey fo und th at 81 p ' r cent of
respondents thought that there should be m ore/ or much more spcnding on
health. But only 39 per cent said that govcrnment should in crease personal
taxes in order to improve health and social s -rvices and 50 per cent th ought
that ta.xes and spt nJing should rem ain at thc sam e earli ' f lcvcls.
The probkm of tin ancin g tate services remains1 and in Britain is linkcd to
the bu<lget Jdi c: it l()llowin g thc credit crisis in 2007 . Poll rcspondents diffe r
on how to redun· tlw hudgct J cncit, sh ort of increased taxa tion . A m ajority
Social services 283
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think that public sector spcn<ling in fact need to be cut. 0th rs f 1that mak-
ing th c public services more eff-i cient could save rnon ey to pay off th c defi-
·it without damaging the services or raising incorne taxes. Som belicv ' that
reducing NHS waste and rnanagem e nt would givc considerable savings in th e
NHS bu<lget . Othcrs argue that th e coalition govcrnment's reforms of th -' NHS
to give doctors and nurs s control over th e ir own bu<lgc ts and work proccdurcs
would improve thc costs and organization of thc NHS1 r duce hurea ucracy and
incr as local control. Y t it appcars that th ' various attempts at NHS structural
r form. had not b ec n succcssful.
It is doubtcd wh cth r eff-icien cy savings would in fa ct b e suff-icicnt to make
deep inroads into budget d -ticits. Publi c so ·ial serviccs are at presc nt <lemand-
1 d and must be servk d largcly by taxation r vcnu s despitc thc fa ·t that osts
1is annually. Most of th e suggcstcd solutions to improvc quality an<l produc-
tivity such as b cttcr pay an<l con<litions for publi · s ctor cmployccs; more su ch
workcrs; and more invcstm -nt on new buildings and equipmcnt hav to be
largely paid for from tax revenucs. Both working and mid<l1c c:lasscs have becn
squ -'eze<l by highe r tax es1 and th c high e r paid havc bccomc thc prcfcrrcd targ ' t
group.
Rcs pon<lcnts to polls oftcn <lo not bclicvc that thcrc had b cc n a grca t
improv ' mcnt in social scrviccs gencrally <lcspit ' in crcasc<l govcrnnwnt spc nd-
ing and cuts. The y do not co nsider that statc institutions are wcll run and tht n:
is growin g support for more co mprch c nsivc, bcttcr-fundcd ami more <. fficicnt1
lcss wast +ul statc scrviccs. Y, ,t d espitc considc rabie rccc nt criti c ism of tht' N HS
an<l social scrvi ccs1 th ' pe rsonal cxpcricnccs of many indiviJuals in th c ir dcal-
ings with th ' systcm ar' usually vcry positivc. Doctors and nurscs frcqucntly
h -aJ th c lists of profcssionals with whom Britons are most satisfic<l 1 dcspitc
rece nt sca ndals about hiiling hospital\ m -dical ncgligcncc1 dclaycd appoint-
m e nts1 pati ·nt abuse1 lack of ca rin g trcatmcnt and ovcrworkcd (,Ps.
ft is argucJ that altcrnatives might consist of bcttn1 more ·füci c nt funding
of th e NHS such as upfront chargcs for it ' mizeJ serviccs subj 'et to annual
maxima ( as in othc r countrics) an<l supplcmcntary insurancc likc thc appar-
. ntly successful social insuran c . schemcs in Francc and J\.ustralia 1 in addition
to proportional taxation and National lnsurancc contributions. I-Iowcvcr1 thc
importation of privat sector mode ls into th e NHS1 such as PFI and privatl' Sl'C-
tor re-styling of hosp itals and doctors' surgcri s1 havc· not provcd succcssful or
popular with th e public. N 'VCrth cless, th ere is alrcaJy a <legre<.' of privati;,.ation
in thc publi c hcalth serviccs and it is possibl e that hospitals and doctors' surgcr-
i s could bccome more compete nt and co mp titivc market structurcs free from
exccssivc governm e nt and mana gc m e nt intcrfcrcn cc.
Thc problems of NHS funding are con<litioncd by history anJ cultural tradi-
tions1 n:'liance on statc funding as a reaction to past suffering1 andan assurnption
that th e pr scnt syste ms should be ablc, without Jra tic alteration1 to solve th e
problems of an ageing population and in crcasing amounts of chroni c lon g-t rm
Soc i al services
Exercises
Briefly explain and examine the following terms, commenting on their
significance in British life:
2 Does the social security system provide a comprehensive service for the
needy in Britain?
3 Discuss the different types of housing in Britain and the method of buying
property. What are sorne of the problems that affect property buying
today?
Further reading
George, V. and Wilding, P. ( 1999) British Society and Social Welfare, London: Palgrave/
Macmillan
2 Glennester, H. (2000) British Social Policy since 1945, Oxford : Blackwell
3 Ham, C. ( 1999) Health Policy in Britain, London : Palgrave/Macm illan
4 Harris, B. (2004) The Origins of the British Welfare State: Social Welfare in England and
Wales, 1800-1945, London : Palgrave/Macmillan
5 Lowe, R. (2004) The Welfare State in Britain since 1945, London : Palgrave/Macmillan
Social services 28S
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6 Ludlam , S. and Smith, M.J . (eds) (2000) New Labour in Government, London : Macmillan
7 Mullins, D. and Murie, A. (2005) Housing Policy in the UK, London : Palgrave/Macmillan
8 Page, R. and Silburn, R. (eds) ( 1999) British Social Welfare in the Twentieth Century,
British London : Palgrave/Macmillan
9 Willman, J. (1998) A Better State of Health, London: Profile Books
Websites
Department of Work and Pensions: www.dwp.gov.uk
Department of Health : www.doh .gov.uk
Home Office : www.homeoffice.gov.uk
Charity Commission : www.charity--commission .gov.uk
Women's Unit: www.womens-unit.gov.uk
N ational Assembly for Wales : www.wales .gov.uk
Northern lreland Executive : www.nics.gov.uk
Scottish Executive : www.scotland .gov.uk
BSA survey and research : www.kingsfund .org .uk/projects/bsa-survey-2001 -14 and www.
natcen .ac. uk/our-research/ research/british-social-attitudes
10
Education
■ School history
■ Higher education
■ Attitudes to education
■ Exercises
■ Further reading
■ Website
Education
British education today operates on thrcc main levels: schools, furthcr/adult educa-
tion and highcr education. Schools are divided into stat (maintained from publil·
funds) and indepcndent (privatcly financed) sectors (the lattcrmainly in England).
But there is no common educational organization for the UK, and England, Waks,
Northern lreland and Scotland havc somcwhat diifer nt school systems. This
chapter concentrates on the largest school unit, that of England, with comparatiw
refcrences to Wales, Scotland and Northern Irdand. Furthe:.r/adult and higher edu-
cation have similar structurcs throughout Britain and are mostly state-funded.11w
four individual countries of the United Kingdom have signifü:ant degrccs of eithcr
national or devolved self-government in educational matters.
Thc quality of contemporary l3ritish statc school cducation is of conccrn to
many par nts and teachers and attracts criticism b eca use of tcachcr and fund-
ing shortagcs. J\.n Economistllpsos MOR! poll in 2017 placed e<lucation/schools
in fourth plac' at 21 pcr cent in a list of the most important issues/problems
facing Britain. In recent years, international comparisons by organizations such
as thc Organisation for Economi - Co-opcration and Development's (OECD)
Pisa tests have suggested that Britain does not rank highly in global terms for the
quality of its school systcm (defin ed by goo<l passes in national examinations
in reading, maths and scicnce by 15-year-olds). Rcs ults for 201 G, for example,
showed that Britain had droppcd to 27th in maths and 22nd in rea<ling, but
climbcd to 15th place in science. England had the stron gest results in the UK,
but performance had not improvcd globally. Th e highcst intcmational ratings
werc consistently achieved by Asian cducational systems and by sorne Scandina-
vian countrics. However, a Pearson/Economist international leaguc table in 2014
based on widcr school and university results showed that the UK had achieved
a good p erforman ce in sixth and second places in Europe behind Finland. But
statistics vary over time, cover different areas, and rai. e questions about how
educational systems are, or should b e, mcasurcd.
British prc-school and primary education som times give poor rcsults,
allegedly because of low-quality nursery schools1 unqualificd an<l undcrpaid
statt; and poor working conditions at sorne primary schools. Figures from Ofsted
(the Officc for Standards in Education) frequently rcport considerable numbers
of children leaving state prirnary schools without basic skills in reading, writ-
ing and arithmetic. Critics arguc that this results in sorn e functionally illiterate
pupils passing on to thc sccondary level of education, whcrc th ey may have
learnin g an<l associatcd lwhavioural problems. lt is also estimatcd that 7 mil-
lion adults (on<.: in liw) in Britain are illiterat . Low standards of literacy and
Educat ion
11l11ncra y arguably stem in large part frorn decades of inadequatc state school
, ·, luca tion and currcnt difficulti es. Ofsted inspectors have particularly criticized
·., liool stan<lards in English, mathematics, technology and writing/rcading skills.
However, th ,, Times Hígher Educ:atíon World University Rankings 2018
li...,l(·J British univcrsitics as leading the top 1,000 universitics in the world,
,,·ith the University of Oxford in first place, th e University of Cambridge (2),
Imperial College London (8), University College London (16) and the London
Sl·hool of Economi cs and Political Sciencc (25). But the ranking suggested that
1;ritish univcrsitics haJ cx perienced a year of 'stagnation and rnodcst Jeclin e' ü1
which sorne of them had lost ground and others had slipped frorn the top 200.
l)ritain had also fall en frorn th e second most n:prcscnted nation aftcr thc USA
, n th e rankings and th ere are conccrns that a bad Brexit result woulJ furthcr
liurt the UK's reputation an<l rcsearch capacity.
In 2001, ílritain had thc high est proportion (35 .6 pcr cent) of univcrsity
.1:raJ uatcs agcd 21, largely becausc of short (thrc ~-ycar) degree courscs in most
institutions. It is argucd that courscs should be cut to two ycars in orckr to incrcasc
qua lity and productivity and reduce costs. But, today, thcrc is also criticism of
dcgrcc standards, tea ·hing peri-órmancc, inadequatc contcnt of courscs, varying
(lutcornc lcvcls, and an allegcdly dedining quality of studcnts cntcring univcrsity.
Howcvc~ British education <loes have positivc dcmcnts. Governmcnts
have p1ioritized cdu cation, im.provcd its overall quality and madc it a lifc-long
lcarning expericncc. Sorne primary school litcracy has improvcJ an<l rcforms
are being encouragcd in s 'condary schools. National school cxa minations havc
improved in rece nt y · ars and tests havc bccn rcvised to avoiJ grade intlation.
Signifi ca nt nurnbers of schools and stu<lcnts in th e statc anJ inlkpcnd cnt scc-
lors and univcrsities produce exccllcnt work . It is th c failing and undcrper-
lórming state and indcpcndcnt school s, anJ sorne univcrsitics which attract thc
media hcadlines.
Neverth eless, cdu cation still appears in sorne critica] opinion polb as a con-
cern b ecause of declining quality, inadc quatc structurcs, political and burea u-
cratic intcrfcrcncc in schools and unive rsiti cs, a targcts and test culture, a leaguc
tabl . m '-" ntality, anJ confusing attcrnpts to rcform. cducational systcms.
School history
However, sorne church schools have long existed. After England, Scotland,
Ireland and Wal es were gradually converted to Christianity by the fifth and
sixth centuries, the church's position in society enabled it to create thc first
schools. These initially prepared boys for the priesthood, but the church then
developed a wider educational role and its structures influen ced the Iater state
system.
Other schools were also periodicaily establish ed by rich individuals or
monarchs. Th ese were indep endent, prívately finan ced ínstitutions and were
variously known as high, grammar and public schools. Thcy were later asso-
ciated with both the modern independent and state educational sectors. But
originally such schools wcre largely contined to the sons of the rich , aristocratic
and influential. Most people received no formal schooling and remained j]liter-
ate and innumerate for lite.
In later centuries, more children b enefited as thc church creatcd new
schools; local areas develop ed secular schools; charity schools were provided by
wcalthy industrialists and philan.thropists for working-class boys and girls; and
sorne other poor children attended a variety of schools organize<l by voluntary
societies, women (da mes), workhouses and th e Ragged School Union. But the
children attending such institutions were a minority and received only a very
basic instruction in reading, writing and arithmetic. Th e majority of children
received no adequate cducation.
By thc ninetecnth ccntury, Britain (except for Scotland with its quality
education) had a haphazarcl school structure. Protestant churches ha<l lost
their monopoly of cducation ancl competed with the Roman Catholic Church
and other faith s. Church schools guarded their independence from state and
secular interference and provideJ much of the available schooling. Thc ancient
high, grammar and public schools continucd to train the sons of the middle
and upper classcs for profess ional and lcadership roles in society. Yet, ata time
when thc industrial revolutions were proceedin g rapidly and the p opulation
was growing strongly, thc state did not provjde a school system which could
educate the workforce. Most of th e working class received no formal or suffi-
cient education.
However, local and central govcrnm cnt did bcgin to sh ow sorne regard fór
education in the early nineteenth century. Grants werc madc to local authori-
ties for school use in th eir areas and in 1833 Parliament funded thc construction
of school buildings. But it was only in 1870 that thc statc bccame more actively
involved . An Education Act (the Forstcr Act) crcatecl local school boards in
England and Wales, which financed and built clementary schools in their areas.
Such state schools supplied non-denominational training and the existin g reli-
gious voluntary (or Church) schools served denominational nccds.
By 1880 the state system was providing free and compulsory dcmcntary
schooling in most parts of Britain for children b etween the ages of 5 and 1O
(12 in 1899). The Balfour Act (1902) abo]ished the school boards, made local
Education
In 1944, an Edu ation Act ( th e Butlcr Act) reorganize<l statc primary and sec-
ondary schools in England and Wales ( 194 7 in Scotlan<l ami Northcrn Ir land)
and greatly influ ·' nct.d futur ' generations of schoolchildren. Statc schooling
became fr 'e and compulsory up to the age of 15 and was divi<lcd into three
stages: primary schools (5-1 l years), secondary s hools Cl 1- l 5) anJ post-15
education . A Ministry of Edu ation dr w up poli cy guidelines an<l local cdu-
cation authoritics CLEAs) decided whi ch forms of schooling would be uscd in
their areas.
Two typcs of state school resulted from th Act: county and voluntary.
County schools wcre created by LEAs in cach county and divided into primary
and secondary schools. Voluntary schools were mainly those elementary schools
which had bcen founded by religious and other groups and which were now
partially tinanced or maintain d by LEAs, although many retaincd a particular
Educat ion
The battle for the compreh ensive and selective systems was herce an<l still
continues. Although more schools beca me cornprehensive undcr th e Conserva-
tive govcrnment from 1970, it decided against lcgislative compulsion . In stead,
LEAs were able to choose the secondary cducation which was best suited to
local ne ds. Sorne decided for -omprchcnsivcs, others retain "'d selection and
grammar sch ool.s, while most chosc a mixture of the two systems.
But th e Labour govc rnrncnt in 19 76 intcndcd to establish co mprehensivc
school s nationwidc. Before this policy rnuld b e impl em entcd, th e Cons rva-
tives carne to power in 1979. Thu -, the statc second ary .sch ool sector toe.lay
still remains dividcd b etwccn the selectivc and no n-selective options since
a min ority of LEAs in En gland do not havc rnrnpreh cnsives and th ere are
sorn e l G4 gramrnar schools left. Grammar school s are allowecl to ex pand on
on sitc, but th er are incrcasing d emands from pare nts and politic:ians that
new grammar schools shoulJ be crcatcd to widcn school choi ce in more parts
of th c co untry. Sc:hools in Scotland and Wal es are comprc hcnsiv c, although
thcrc are so rne indcpc nd cnt cstablishmcnts. Northern lri sh schools are at
prescnt divi<led into grammars and scco ndary moderns, but thc el e ven-plus
anJ sdcctive tests for the grammar schools are schedukd for abolition .
Thc comprchcnsive/sclcction debate rnntinues in difforc nl forms. School
c<lucation is still subjcct to party political ami idcological rnntlicl anJ in thc last
frw ycars has bccome a very divcr. c markctplace. Opinion polls suggcst th at only
a minority of parents support the origin al comprehcnsivc rno<lcl whik a major-
ity favour a divers system of schools (induding grammarsL with cntry for their
childrcn bcing baseJ on choice, assessment or cxamination selcction. How 'Vl't~
govcrnmcnt rcforms to the statc school sy.stt m are slill b 'in g mac.k with th c intro-
duction of academies anJ free schools (scc f<.)llowing scction ). lt is oftcn argucJ
that thc long-running debates about thc rclativc m crits of Ji·ffL' rcnt typcs of
schooling in Britain havc not bcncfiteJ schoolchil<lrcn or the educational systcm .
Th erc is also dissatisfaction with school performanccs and standards, which t<: nd
to be link d to arguments about the various eJuca lional mmkls, and a conccrn
that lack of quality and disciplin e kads to furth c r social probkms anJ incquality.
The education system is divided into stages based upon agc. Early Vean;
Foundation Stage (ages 3-5); primary education (ages 5- 11), subdivided into
Key Stage 1 (KS 1), Infants (ages 5-7) and Key Stagc 2 ( KS2) Juniors ( ages
7-11); secondary education (agcs 11-16), subdivided into Key Stage 3 (KS3;
ages 11 - 14) and Key Stage 4 (KS4; ages 14-16); Key Stagc 5 is post-16 educa-
tion (ages 16-18); and tertiary cducation (for ages 18+).
At agc 16 the students mainly take exams for the General Certificate ni'
Secondary Education (GCSE) or similar level qualifications. While education
is compulsory until 18, schooling is only obligatory until l 6, ancl thus post-1 (l
education can take a number of forms, and may be academic or vocational. This
can involve continued schooling, known as sixth form or collegc, lcading (aftcr
two years of study J to A-level qualifications, or a number of altcrnative levcl
qualifications such as Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC), thc
lnternational I3a ccalaurcate (llf), Cambridge Pr -U, WJEC or E<luqas. It can also
·includc work-bascd apprenticcships, trainccships, or volunte 'ring.
Sixteen-to-eighteen student options are th -reforc full-tim c c<lucation at a
schoo] or college, an apprcnticeship, trainceship, part-time e<lucation or train-
ing, as well as bcing employcd, self-employcd or volunteering for 20 hours or
more a week. Su -h students can apply for 16-19-ycar-old funding schemes to
hclp with education costs. Schools are mainly mix ed-scx, although sorne are
PLATE 10. 1 Pupi ls in a primary sc hoo l cl ass, Tooting , London . Ethn ic mi nority children ca n
now form a majority in state schools in oreas of minority group conce ntration . © ll po Musto/
Shutterstock
Educat io n
Schools
State schooling bcfon:. th c age of tivc is not compulsory in Englan<l and th erc is
110 statutory rcquire mcnt on LEAs to provide e<lucation for un<lcr-5 children.
But more parcnts in England (particularly thosc at work) are sccking school
provisions for younger children an<l thcre is concern about thc lack of oppor-
tun ities and th ex pense of child care beyon<l thc basi c amount prnvided by
governmcnt. Pupils attcnd statc primary school (dividcd usually into infants
and junior lcvcls) from the ag of S. Most th en movc to statc scco ndary school
level normally at 11 until th e agc of 1G or 18.
Over 87 pcr ce nt of sccon<lary pupils in Englan<l attcnd rnmprehcnsivc
s -hools or ncw alte rnativcs such as 'free schools' an<l acadcmics. 'rhcrc are
o nly a small numbcr of grammar ( 164) and sccondary modcrn schools lcft in
the stat' system from 1944. The continuc<l -xistcncc of thcsc lattcr schoo ls
dcpen<ls partly upon local governmcnt <lccision s, partly upon parcnt powcr and
partly upon central governmcnt policy. Although thc Labour Party is i<lcologi-
l:ally against increasing thc numbcr of sel· ctive grammar s ·hools, man y criti cs
and pare nts argue for thcir retention and ex pansion on ncw sitcs. Many such
s ·hools achicvc high national examination results and providc a disciplincJ aca-
demic ba kground .
Comprehensivc school pupils are oft.cn of mix<:.<l abilitics an<l come from
a varicty of social backgroun<ls in the local area. Th erc is sti ll much argumcnt
about thc quality an<l performance of this systcm . Sorne criti cs arguc that <lisa<l-
vantagcd students from poor homes reccivc a poor e<lucation . Othcrs maintain
th at bright academic chi ldrcn sufter, although 'setting' (formerly callcd 'strcarn-
ing' ) <livi<lcs pupils into diff-erent ability and intcrcst classes, an<l cx amination
results ca n b e excdl "nt. Arguahly, therefor ', forms of 'selection' continuc within
comprchensives. Th c re are sorne very good comprehensive schools, whi ch are
not confined to privikged and atlluent areas. But there are also sorne w -ak and
failing on es, which suff-er from a variety of social, economic an<l ·ducational
problem s and are sometimes ( if not always) associated with deprived inncr cities.
Education
FIGURE 10.1 The state sch ool sector in England a nd Wa les Pre-primary (3-5)
Nursery and Sure Start
!
Primary (5-11)
!
Secondary ( l 1-1 8 - from 20 l 3)
PLATE 10.2 Nottingham Bluecoat Academy illustrates the historie stages that sorne English
sc hools hove passed through . Created in 1706 as a charity school with a Church of England
identification in ce ntral Nottingham, it moved premises before becoming a Technology Col-
leg e and in 20 12 a vo luntary aided Acad emy funded directly by the government. This buil d-
ing was established in 2006 and houses specialist teaching. © Martine Hamilton Knight/
Builtvision
The are sorne 2,500 indepcndent schools in the lJK, which cater for about
615,000 children. This is 6.5 pcr cent of all UK childrcn, but 7 p er cent of thosc
in England. The independent sector operates mainly in England, is separatc
from the state school structure and catcrs for children frorn thc agcs of 4 to 18
at different levels. Sorne ] ,289 schools today are mcmb ~rs of th e Independent
Schools Council, which accounts for 80 per cent of thc pupils in the UK inde-
pen<lent education sector.
The sector is defin ed by payrne nt for schoo] c<lucation . Its finandng derives
from invcstmcnts and the fees paid by th e pupils' p arcnts for thcir education,
which vary considerably betwcen schools and can amount to many thousands
of pounds a year. Th e independcnt sector is dep e ndcnt upon its charitable and
tax-cxcmpt status to survive. This m cans th at thc schools are not tax ed on
their income if it is used only for educational purposes. A minority of children
are scholarship holders, whose expenses are covered by thcir schools. Given
th e in creasing fccs, sorne parents are apparcntly movin g th eir chil<lren to free
schools where thcy may potentially havc good-quality s ·hools without paying
fees. Yet thcrc have recently becn incrcased numbers of pupils in indep endent
schools cau ed by overseas applications and Biiti h parents rnoving tccnagers
from state schools.
So-called public schools (private, not state ), such as Eton, Harrow,
Thc King's School, Canterbury and Winchester, are the more farnou s of the
Pre-preparatory (4-8)
1
Preparatory (8-13)
PLATE 10.3 Pupils at Eton College, a prestigious independent (public) school near Windsor,
England . © David Hartley/Shutterstock
Educati on
independcnt education to the lcss aHluent. But sorne parents make grcat finan-
cia! sacrifices so that their children can be independently cducated. Opinion
polls oftcn suggest that many parcnts would send their childrcn to an indcp n-
dent school if they could afford it because of the quality of man y of the schools
and because such schooling may give social advantages in later lite. However,
sorne schools have had to closc in reccnt years because of poor rccruitment, bad
finances, recessionary factors, ·ompetition, tcaching quality and legal demands
from government.
Thc independent sector is criticized for being elitist, socially divisive an<l
based on the ability to pay for education. In this vicw it perpetuates the class
system. The Labour Party has long argued for the abolition of indcpendent
schools and thc removal of thcir ta,-x and charitable status. Rcccnt go vcrnments'
cvaluation of the schools co nduded that the se ·tor should continue but that its
charitabl e position could be more ri gorously <lcfined to include aid to neigh-
bouring statc schools, such as the sharing of teaching and sporting facilities.
Short of outright government abolition, th c ind 'pe ndent schools secrn firmly
establish ed, despite the economic and political pressures upon thcm , and pro-
vide choice in what would othcrwise be largely a statc monopoly on school
educa tion.
The school day in English statc and independent schools runs at variable times
from about 9.00 a.m. until 4 p.m., with possiblc voluntary or ex tra-curricu-
lar activities aftcr school hours. Thc school year is divided into threc tcrms
(autumn, spring and sumrncr), although th ere havc bccn proposals to reo rga nize
this systcrn by adding another term and cutting holiday times. Classes in English
schools used to be calleJ 'forms' and in sccon<lary schools were numbered from
one to six, but most schools have now adopted ycar numbcrs from onc (e.g.
Year 2), which include a two-year 'sixth form' for advanced examination work.
An in creasc in th e birth rate from 201 Oled to larger numbers of schoolchil-
dren, particularly in cthnic minority communitics, and a need for more school
buildings and facilities in difficult economic times. OECD reported in 2014 that
the average lJK class size for state primary schools was 26 pupils, thc largcst in
Europe and secondary schools had average classes of 21.3 pupils. [ndep endent
schools have smallcr class sizes and a bettcr pupil- teacher ratio.
Most school teach ers are trained at univcrsiti es and other collegcs to dcgree
level. Thcre has long been a shortage of teachers in sorne subj ects, "spccially
in mathematics, tcchnology, physics and fore ign languages, and thcrc is an
increasing use of tcaching ass istants to take sorne of the burdcn from sp cialist
classroorn teachns. Sonw practising teachers incrcasingly see th e profession as
unattractive ami lc;1w l<)r lwttcr-paid jobs or retire carly. Teachers ( and th eir
Ed uc ation
PLATE 10.4 Pupi ls and teacher at a secondary (comprehensive} school practise a chemistry
experiment. There is a shortage of girls studying science subjects in schools and at uni versity
and there are attempts to attract more of them to the field . © Si mon Towns ley/Shutterstock
tradc unions) at prcscnt are sutfering from low mora le and rccruitmcnt dif-
ficultics aftcr battles with thc governmcnt ovcr pay, condition\ govcrnmrnt
targets, cuts and e<luca tional rcforms, and from what thcy think is thc low sta-
tus afforded thcm by government an<l thc general public. Th ' tcaching profcs-
sion has bccome vcry stressful and subjcct to grcatcr pressurcs, such as physical
and abusivc assaults upon teachcrs by pupils, increascd bun.'aucracy, lack of
rcsourccs, pupil indiscipline and an all egcd lack of support for tcachcrs. Thc
quality of tcaching in state schools has attract ed criticism an<l govcrnmcnts say
that th ey are cornmitted to raising standards, removing unckrpcrfórming tcach-
ers an<l dosing 'failing schoo ls'. Howcvc r, sorne successful rccruitmcnt cam-
paign s are now attracting high-quality and committed young gra<luatcs into
teaching.
Thc d'fcct of governm e nt spe nding or auste rity cuts on education has
b een considerable. Th ese have prcvented new school building and thc rcpair
and mo<lcrnization of ex isting schools; res ulted in redu ced serviccs and a
shortage of books and karning cquipm e nt for pupils an<l tcachcrs; an<l librar-
ies have also closed in man.y local areas. Howeve r, governments havc tricd
to protect schools in re al terms and th e budget for 2015- 1G was t53 bil -
lion. Moncy is b e ing spent for examp] e on the crcation of more free schools
in England. Thc aim is to produce a fairer fonding formula for schools to
Education
The standards achieved an<l exa mination results continue to rise, although
grades havc rcccntly declin ed after criticism of grade inflation. Th ere is con-
tinuing discussion about the format and content of A-lcvcls and the system has
been criticizcd for over-examining students, leaving lcss time for othcr school
activitics and leading to teacher overwork.
Altemative cxaminations are vocational GCSEs which -are taken by young
peoplc b ctween th e ages of 16 and 19 and providc a broad-based prcparation
for a range of occupations and higher education; and National Vocational Quali-
tications (NVQs and SVQs), Highcr National Diplomas (HNDs), anda number
of other tcchnical and vocational courses which are job-spe if-ic exarninations.
A new English Baccalaureatc (_EBac) is an alternative to GCSEs, in which stu-
dents take examinations in English, maths, two scie nces, a language and history
or gcography.
Scotland does not have a statutory national curriculurn and pupils takc the
National Qualification (NQ) at thc age of 16. Th ose b ctwccn l G and 18 take
thc rcforrned Scottish Highcrs (Highcr and J\dvanced High er).
Higher education
PLATE 10. 5 Balliol Co llege, one of the oldest ( 1263} and largest colleges of the University of
Oxford . lt admits undergraduate and postgraduate students and has a high academic repu-
ta ti on . © A ndrew Drysdale/Shutterstock
Edu ca t i on
..- ~
-~ ---:
t::::::-.;_ -~ ' · _ __ ·.. - - ·:~ --- - - -
PLATE 10.6 Leeds University in Yorks hire is one of the redbrick or civic universities established
in the nineteenth an d early twentieth centuries . Founded in 1904, its origins go back to the
nineteenth century and it is now a ma jor teaching and research ínsti tutíon . The Parkinson
Bui lding , shown, contains the Brotherton Libra ry, one of the largest university libraries in the
UK. © Mark Campbell/Shutterstock
Student finance
Th e rc are diHerenccs betw<.>cn studcnt financc systcms in England, Walcs,
Northcrn Irelan<l and Scotland. This s 'ction dcals mainly with Enghm<l.
J\ftcr th e 1944 EJucation J\ct, English studcnts who gain ·<l a place at an
institution of highcr cducation werc awarJcJ a grant from thcir local cJucation
authoritics ( LEAs ). The grant was in two parts: it pai<l th ' tuition focs of a first
degre (directly to thc university ), and also paid after m 'a ns-tcsting of pare nts'
in com ', maintcnance and rcsidcnce expenses of the stuJcnt such as thc costs
Education
of travel away from home, rent, food and books for a coursc during terrn time.
This grant system meant that higher education was free for many students,
~xccpt those whose parents were expected to contribute means-tested amounts
to their children.
In l 998, a Labour govcrnrnent replaccd the student grant with tuition fccs
an<l maintenance loans during th eir study period. The cost of thcsc schcmcs has
increascd significantly ovcr thc intervening ycars.
Thc prcscnt situation for most studcnts consists of two componcnts. First,
English and EU studcnt-, studying in England havc to pay annual tuition tees
for thcir courscs (T9 1250 in 2018). Thesc students apply to Studcnt Finance
England for a loan to covcr tht:'ir tuition f 't'S. This is paid dircctly to thc institu-
tion and thc studcnt has to start paying it back aftcr gra<luation whcn thcy reach
a prcscrih<.:d kvcl of incornc. Sccond 1 full-tirnc English stu<lcnts may apply for
a maintcnancc loan from thc Studcnt Finance EnglancC whi -h is intcndcd to
covcr living costs. Thc ncJn-means-testcJ loan in 2018 depended on whcther
thc stucknt livui at home ( up to an annual 1.:7,324 L away from home nutside
London (1.:8, 700) or away from home in London (.ll l 1354 ). Thc loan is paid
into an individual's bank acrnunt at thc bcginning oF tcrm. Part-timc English
stu<lcnts in tinancial or social diff-icultics may rcccivc assistancc from a maintc-
nancc grant, hut this may reduce thcir rnaintcnann.' loan. Purthcr hclp may he
availahk From hursarics and univnsity/colkge aid.
Studcnts start to pay back thcir tuition fl'CS and loans aFtcr graduation
whcn thcy are cmploy ·d anJ rca ch a salary kvcl of S..:25/)00 (2017). Consc-
qucntly1 ml)St stu<lents now havc to iinancc thcir own high 'r cducation withoul
free statc grants, sorne havc f-inancial diff-icultics, and rnay havl to takc part-timc
cmploymcnt. Howcwr, apart from a dccrcasc in applications to univcrsity alter
201 O, particularly from part-timc an<l maturc stulk nts, thcse changcs haw not
rcsult1: <l in a gn:at rc<luction in English studcnts. It is estimatcd that 45 pn
cent of thcrn will ncvcr pay ba ·k thcir loans in ful1 1 and any amount still owing
30 ycars after starting repayments will be cancclkd .
Scottish stu<lcnts living in Scotland rec ~ivc frt' l' tuition from the Srnttish
govcrnment. Howcvcr1 studcnts from l:,ngland 1 Waks and Northc.>rn IrclanJ
studying in Scotland are chargcd tuition fees by S -ottish univcrsitics, which are
similar to those chargcd in thcir own countrics. Currcntly, Wclsh an<l North ern
lrish tuition fccs are somcwhat lower than those chargcJ by English univcrsi-
til's to English studrnts1 who protest about this situation and thc sizc of thcir
tuition f 'CS. Howcvcr1 studcnts are now consumers of cducation and frd Frccr
to complain about what thcy see as the inadcquacil's of courscs, tcachcrs and
tlwir tcaching.
Thc Labour Party in February 2015 said that it would cut tuition frcs by
a third to rn,000 if it won the general election and consi<l 'red that tuition
fo es 'ha<l bccn a disaster'. This plan was supportcd by the National Union of
StuJcnts (NUS) 1 but the univcrsiti ' S said they would lose incorn , for te aching
Edu calion
and othcr reso urces if it wcre adopteJ . In thc event, th e Conscrvatives won the
2015 and 2017 elections and in 2018 announccd that th ey would cut +~es to
f6,000.
to part-timc lcarners for the first time, which help ed OU stude nts. In 2015-16,
ovcr J 74 1 739 students were studying with the OU, including 34 pcr cent under
25 and ovcr 7,430 overs as. Many studcnts acccss coursc matcrials on smart-
phon s and tablets at convcnicnt and flexible times. According to a National
Studcnt Survey in 2016 1 89 pcr cent of respon<l 'nts gavc an overall satisfaction
rating with thc quality of th eir coursc anc.1 thc OU was in joint 28th place out
of thc top unive rsitics in th ·, UK for stu<lcnt satisfa 'tion.
J\n important aspcct of British cducation is the provision of furthcr :rnd adult
cducation, whcthcr hy collcgcs1 univcrsitics1 voluntary bo<lics, tradc unions, the
Workcrs' Educational J\ssociation ( WEJ\), cvc ning institutcs, local socicties,
clubs and othl r institutions. Courscs may lx· vrn:ational (for cmploymcnt) or
rccrcational (for pkasurc), and cover a varicty ol" activitics and prngrammcs.
Soml' of thl'sc organizations originatl'd in a thirst for knowkdg<' which was
fr,lt hy working-class p1..·opk in thc nindccnth ami carly twrnticth n nturics,
parti c uL1rly aftn tlw ~1rrival of clcmcntary statl' ·ducation ami growing litcracy.
Today a wick rangc ol" cducational opportunitics is prnvidcd hy sclf-gowrning
statc-l"undcd colh·gcs of furthcr cducation (CFl ~s), and othn ty¡ws ni" puhlic
and privatc institutions. 'Thcsc may offn vocational and acadt·mic suhjccts ~<)r
part- and full-tinw studcnts and may srcciali:1.c in a widc varicty ofskills, su c h ,ts
art and dcsign, catering, l' nginccring ;rnd building tradcs, or husi1wss and lin,11HT.
Sorne ¡:nrt-time studcnts ovcr sixtccn, suc h as apprcnticcs, m . 1y study in tlw
cv ' nings or on day-rckasc from tht·ir nnploycrs and tht ir studics are oftcn
work-relatcd, includc govcrnrncnt training programmcs ami hav<' closc tics with
local comm<..'rce, cornpanics and industry. Ful!- and péirt-timl' studt·nts of vary-
ing agcs are taking a widc spcctrum of furthcr cducéltion courscs; somc colkg<'s
dcsign courscs cspccially for studcnts from othn countri<.·s; ;1nd thc l JK offns
work-hascd training for studcnt'> sccking to huild can·ns in sp<.:cilic industries.
Privatl' training companies coopcratc with collcgt·s ;rnd cmployns lt) providc
practi ca! work and qualil-i<:ations in suhjccts such as cnginccring, construction ,
lCT and social caw
For cxampk, National Vocational Qualdications ( NVQs) in England and
S ·ottish Vocational Qualilications (SVQs) are g:..IÍ1wd through asscssmrnt of
performance and knowlcdgc at work and collcgc. Thcy are a valuahk alt<.:ma-
tivc to acadrn1ic qualif-ications and NVQs 1- 5 are tlw cquivalcnt of CCSEs,
A-levcls, Jcgrccs and sorne postgraJuatc rnurscs. CanJiJatcs may work towards
an NVQ that rdlccts th cir cmploymrnt rol e in a paid or voluntary position,
su ch as somconc in an administrativc oflice rol e taking an NVQ in Business anJ
Administration.
Educ a t i on
Attitudes to education
Conccrns about thc quality of British schools, univ 'rsitics and cducational pol-
i ·y :f rcqucntly appcar in opinion po11s. RcsponJrnts arguc that stat' s ·hools
are not pcrforming wdl, that th e educational systcm is co nfuscd, that more
moncy shoul<l be spcnt on cducation, and that parcnts' vicws about thl'ir chil-
Jre n 's schools are not takcn scri ously by politicians. Howcvcr, hoth Lahour and
Conservative governm nts havc givcn more funding to thl school systcm and
crcatcd n 'W typ cs of schools, as w ,11 as ref-o rming examination structurcs anJ
the National Curriculum.
But Jissatisfaction is still ft.lt. For exa mplc, an Economist Ipsos MORl poli
in Scptcm bcr 2017 placed cducation/schools in fourth placl' at 21 per cent in a
list of th e most important issucs/probl ems facing Britain, fo11owing Brcx it, thc
NHS and immigration .
A ccording to bu<lgct figures in 2017, spcnding on cducation as a sharc
of puhlic spending continued to shrink compare<l with other big govcrnmcnt
departmcnts, an<l was [102 billion in 2018-19, a 12.7 p.,r cent fall from 2017-
18. Thi. was largely attributcd to austerity cuts following thc cre<lit crash of
2007. A central qucstion for many critics is whcthcr thc availablc fund s are in
fact spcnt adcquatdy. Thcy query whether govc rnm cnts are rnmmitte<l ·' nough
to raising quality an<l performanc , and whethcr c<lucation has thc same politi-
cal priority as othcr arcas of state ex pe nditure.
Education
wcre dismissed and funds w ere provided for srhool rcpairs and co mputers in
every school. There was also a move away from having only onc type of state
secondary school ( cornprehensive) to embrace diversity through th e expansion
of faith schools, specialist technology collegcs, academies and 'free schools'. Th e
govcrnment also wantcd grcater numbers of poorer, di sadvantagcd and work-
ing-class studcnts to en tcr university. But it is still maintain ed th at ethnic and
disadvantaged studcnts are not gaining entry to co mpetent schools in th e inner
citics or winning univcrsity places in suffici · nt nurnbers, parti cularly to elite
instituti ons.
Th e argurn nts continu ' from both th c lcft and th c right oF th e politi-
cal spectrum, arguably lcaving thc British educational system in an uncC'rtain
state. Sorne critics maintain that thc school syste m should not be <levotcd solely
either to elitist standards or to market considcrations but should providc a
ch oice between (and idcally a mix ture of) thc academic/liberal tradition, th c
techni cal and th e vocational. Thc lack of adcquatc vocational/technical c<luca-
tion and training is still crcating serious probkms for employc rs in industry and
manufacturing who complain that th cy are unablc to tind competcntly trained
staff to fill vacancies. Th c futurc of British c<lucation and cmploymcnt may well
depend on how reforms and ncw cducation al institutions l'unction and how
th <:.y are perceived by teachcrs, parcnts, studcnts and cmployers. Howcvcr, th e
performances of sorne of them continuc to be criticizeJ nn socia1 é.rnd cduca-
tional grounds. Oth cr Titi cs arguc that th c British c<luca tional sy.stcm (at school
and high cr levels) is too div rse and that thcrc shou1<l be more simplificd and
inclusive structures and study plans.
Th e school debate in Britain oftcn rcvcals polarizc<l points of vi ·w an<l
strong reactions to both Labour and Conservativc policics, as rcv -a lcd in an
Ipsos MORI poll for th e trae.le unions NASUWT an<l Unison in April 201 O.
Whcn asked if more schools in th e futurc should be run by prívate compa-
nies, rcligious groups, charities or groups of parcnts rather than thc LE/\s, 44
per cent consider<:.d this a baJ idea and 24 per cent a good idea . The majority
(62 p cr cent) thought that local authoriti s are bcst placed to run schooL. Th ese
repli s are in strong contrast to both rece nt Labour mea.s ures aimcd at divcr-
sity of school typcs and Conservative plans for sponsorcd 'free schools' outsidc
LEA control, but fund cd by th e state and run by a vari ety of groups. Howcwr,
sorne ficrce critics in th e 2015 General Election ca mpaign thought th at too
many free schools wcre b cing created at grcat expe nse in arcas whcrc th crc was
no educational need for them and which havc becomc isolatcJ statc-fundcd
independen ts.
However, despite the responses to school c<lucation an<l performance in thc
last decade, 54 per cent of respondents to thc above poli thought that state <.:~du-
cation was generally good -ompared with 19 pcr -cnt who thought that it was
poor. Sorne 79 per cent of parents thought that their own childrcn's schools wcre
good and 65 per cent rcga rdcd the schools attended b y children of relations and
Ed uca ti on 315
.,
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friends as good . If a local authority wa failing to d liver good standards of edu-
catton, respondents considered that the government (37 per centJ and th local
authority (26 pcr cent) are responsible for addr--ssing th e failings, cvcn when
schools are directly run by other organizations. When asked if parcnts should he
asked to pay additional fees for thcir childr c:, n's ducation to supplcmcnt funJing
from tax "s, 18 per cent supported the idea but sorne G4 pn cent opposcJ it.
Dcspitc thc fact that this poli was commissioncd by traJc unions, rcspon-
dcnts' rcplics in<licated a traditional response to schoolin g anJ local direction of
cducation by LEAs, which may be wi<lcly supportcd. lt might also suggcst that
they wantcd ccrtai nty, control and stability in thcir chj}Jrcn 's schools rathn
than constant change an<l nccd for diversity on thc part of central govL-rnmcnt.
However, other critics argue that structura l changcs anJ constanl rcasscss-
mcnt of thc school syst ' m makc littlc diffcrcn c' to performance. Thcy main-
tain that thcrc is a crisis in the status of thc tcaching prolcssion which must
íirst be addressed anJ rcrn 'dicd. Thcy fi:cl that only an incrcasc in status and
a move to attra 't tak·nted graduatcs to th ' profrssion will providc thc quality
of tcaching that basically drivcs succcss in a schoo l. lt is argw·d that tcachcr
quality and rctcntion of good tca chcrs should be thc priority for politicians and
cc.l ucationalists.
G iwn thc allcgcd slatc of currcnt British cJucation, and sorne of tlw c ur-
rcnt ·fierre dehatcs on thc tcaching profr,ssion , it is intcrcsting to consid<.·r tlw
rcs ults of n.:> cL'nt polls. British Social Altitudes in its 201 ()- 17 surwy l<nmd th.1t
53 pcr cent of rcspondcnts had a grcat Jcal ol" rcsrwct for teaclwrs and 1~) pn
ce nt had sorne. Eighty pcr cent of respotH.knts reportee.! at lcast somt· co n 11-
dcncc in th e British school systcm; 83 pcr cent saiJ that statc schools t<.:ach
young pcoplc hasic ski lls (rcading, writing, maths) 'well ' or 'vny wt-11'; (>0 pcr
cent said that sccon<lary schools hring out studcnts' natural ahilitics wcll or vcry
wcll; 47 pcr cent said that srhools prepare studcnts W<.' 11 or vcry wL· II for work;
87 pcr ce nt said that it was csscntial or vcry important that school s airn to hclp
young pcoplc <lcvelop ski lls and knowkdgc rcquircd for gl'tting a good joh; .1nd
74 pcr cent thought that schools should shan· n ..sponsih ility with parcnts and
car 'rs l"or a child's personal and socia l dcvclopmcnt.
Exercises
Briefly define and examine the following terms, commenting on their
significance in British life:
Fu rther read i ng
Abercrombie, N., Warde, A. , Deem, R., Penna, S., Soothill, K., Urry, J. and Walby, S.
(2000) Contemporary British Society, Oxford : Polity Press, Chapter 14.
2 Chitty, C. (1992) The Education System Transformed, London : Baseline Books
3 Chitty, C. and Benyon, J. (2009) Education Policy in Britain, London : Palgrave Macmillan
4 Jones, K. (2002) Education in Britain : 1944 to the Present, Oxford : Polity Press
5 Lawton, D. (2004) Education and Labour Party ldeologies 1900-2001 and Beyond, Lon-
don : Routledge/Falmer
6 Ryan, A. (l 999) Liberal Anxieties and Liberal Education, London : Profile Books
7 Tomlinson, S. (2005) Education in a Post-Welfare Society, Maidenhead : Open University
Press
8 Walden, G . ( 1996) We Should Know Better: Solving the Education Crisis, London : Fourth
Estate
Websites
Department for Education and Skills : www.dfes.gov.uk
The Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference (HMC) : www.hmc.org .uk/ and also www.
hmc.org .uk/hmc-schools
Education 317
.,
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lndependent education : www.isis .org .uk
The Times Higher Education Supplement: www.thes .co .uk
The Times Educational Supplement: www.tes .co .uk
Scottish Executive : www.scotland.gov.uk
National Assembly for Wales : www.wales .gov.uk
Northern lreland Assembly : www.niassembly.gov.uk
Office for Stondards in Education : www.ofsted .gov.uk
National Curriculum (England) : www.gov.uk/nationol-curriculum
Student finance : www.gov.uk/student-finance/overview
ll
The media
■ Attitudes to th e m edia
■ [xercises
■ further reading
■ \Mihsites
The media
This chapter cxamjncs the historical d velopment of thc British m edia and cur-
rcnt debat · about them . Thcy have long bccn an important part of British life
and inc1u<le communication systcms by which people are informcd, cducated
and cntcrtaincd. The tcrm has hi toricaily refe rrcd to th e print industries (the
press or ncwspapers, magazines and books) and hroadcasting ( radio and tcrrcs-
trial, cable, and satcllite television). Thesc systems have overlapped with each
other and with othcr m edia forms such as film , theatrc, records, discs and video.
Thcy are protitable busjncsscs and clos ly connect<::.d to advcrtising, corporate
sponsorship, commerce and industry.
Thc British media have evolve<l frorn simple mctho<ls of production, <listri-
bution and co mmunication to their contemporary advanced technologics. For
example, cabl e and satellite telcvision cxpandcd quickly from the mi<l-twcnti-
eth ccn tury and most media forrn s h ave since been aHcctc<l by clectronic devcl-
opments and th e national switch-over fro m analogw.: to di gital transmission in
2012 .
Thc Internet, online and Jigital communication systcms, smartphones, tab-
lcts and cornputers have bccom e <lominant media forces an<l have challeng ,d
th ' more traditional forms. Thcy are also a crtJcial part of busin ess, education,
politi cs, publishing, ncws and entertainment. They covcr homes, places of husi-
ness and leisure activitics, and th eir influence is powerful an<l an in evitabl e part
of daily life.
An Office for National Statistics (ONS) survey in 2018 drcw att 'ntion
to th ese changes. lt found that 90 per cent of hous -holds in Great Britain ha<l
Internet access. 13roadband Internet with a variety of fibre optic or c_ablc con-
ncctions was the most popular type and uscd by 98 p er ce nt of hou scholcls.
Eighty-six p er cent of adults used th e Intern et at least w ' 'kly in 2018 and daily
0
use has doubl d since 2006. Mobilcs and smartphoncs are thc most popular
dcvices used to ac -ess thc Intcrn t, 77 per cent of adults uscd thc lntern et 'on
th e go' and email remains th e most common Inte rnet activity. ln 2018, 78 pcr
cent of all adults bought goods or scrviccs onlin ' and older adults showcJ th e
largest increase in online shopping. Online banking increascd to 69 p ' r cent,
N etflix use grew to 46 per cent and watching videos on YouTube rcachcd 62 r 'r
cent. Social networking media, such as Twittcr, Facebook, Linkedin, lnstagram,
WhatsApp and blogging, beca me popular forms of daily communication among
a mixed generational demographic. Within the UK in 2017, 66 p er cent of agc
groups engaged in social networking, such as 96 per cent for thosc 1 G-24, 88
per cent of thosc 25- 34 and 83 per cent for those b etween 35-44. But despitc
The media 321
.,
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thc claims of such markets to be comp titivc an<l scrvice-oriented, thc.r ~ are
complaints about their quality, covcrage and influe nce.
Th e effects of these technological and cultural dcvclopmcnts w -re rcportcd
in an Ofcom study in 2017, which illustratcd th e changcs in mc<lia usag ' among
generations. Tee nagers and childrcn watched a thir<l lcss broadcast TV on tra-
ditional sets than they had in 201 O, as the shift to <ligital viewing and thc risc
of serviccs such as Netflix and Amazon incr ased. Childrcn (4 to 15 ycars oldJ
watched 101 minutes of traditional broa<lcast TV a <lay in 2016, whik 16-
to 24-yea r-ol<ls watched l 14 minut s, lcss than th c average oldcr vicw T who
w.;itchcd 212 minutes a <lay. The ovcr-65s/under-65 pcnsioncrs watchcd 344
minutes a <lay ofTV viewing.
Anoth cr m edia dev ,lopment has bccn th e popularity of on-dcmanJ TV,
such as BBC iPlaycr (thc BBC repeat scrviccJ and ITV Playcr, or Nctflix and
Amazon. The BBC has incrcased its childrcn's TV bu<lget an<l supports cxisting
chil<lrcn's channels, CBBC and Cikcbics. ft has moved its youth channd BBC
3 TV online anJ incrcascd invcstmcnt in iPlayer to match ,rnJicnn· d 'mand
and digital rivals. The corporations occupy a crow<lcd markct whilc trying to
preserve their idcntiti es.
Radical changc also has its cornrncrcial, artisti - and social prohll'ms.
Ofcorn's 2016 report into British broadcasting found dissatisfaction with tek-
vision programm cs. Thrcc in ten (29 pcr cent) vicwcrs kit that programllll'
quality had dctcriorated. Therc wcrc too rnany repca ts, littll varil'ty, trivial ity
anda lack of quality. O]Jcr adults (aged 55 and ovcr) tended to kcl that TV
prograrnmc standards had worsencd in thc past 12 rnonths.
British childre n between 11 and 15 watch lcss 'liVl'' tckvision cach day
than thcir parents. Half of them watch vidLo clips onlinc at kast once a WtTk,
·omparcd with 20 p er ce nt of adults. Th(' popularity oF clips has en ated a
ncw fashion for video bloggcrs who ca n altract largc numhns of Follow<..' rs and
advertising revenuc. Ofrorn research also showc<l thc cxtcnt to which young
peoplc are using social media such as Facchook, Whats/\pp and lnstagram to
co mmunicatc with each other. This in ·rcasc in onlinc activity has raiscd sak·ty
conccrns as young peopl are incrcasingly affectc<l by online inHucnc.Ts. Yct
cfhxtivc controls by the media industries and rcgulators are alkgLdly lacking.
Histnrically, print media such as ncwspa¡wrs and magazincs wcrc oft<..'n thc
only source of ncws. J\.s th c m edia cxpandcJ in thc twe nticth cc ntury, n ·ws
production was still a central s rvi cc an<l survcys showcd that ()~) pcr ce nt of
Britons obtaincd thcir Jaily ncws from tekvision, 20 pcr cent from print ncws-
papcrs and 11 per cent from radio. Thcsc 1-igurcs havc changcd in reccnt years
a, Inte rnet usagc has grown, print ncws papcr sa les and advcrtising incomc hc1vc
dcclined, an<l free onlinc ncws sites were attractive. R adcrs had rcactcd to
ncwspapt'r owners' introduction of subscription charges for th eir onlinc ncws
sitcs and rival free online news sites wer effective competitors. A Te ·hdigcst
survcy in 2009 found that 74 per cent of rcspondents would react by trying to
The me d i a
find another free site, 8 per cent would use free headlin es only and 5 pcr cent
would pay to continue reading the site.
According to a 2018 Ofcom report, N ews Consumption in the UK, tel evi-
sion is the most-uscd platform for news by UK adults (79 p cr ce nt), followed
by the Internet (64 pcr cent), radio (44 p er cent) and newspapers (40 p . . r cent).
But the Internet i. th e most popular platform among l 6-24s (82 p r cent) and
ethnic minority groups (73 pcr cent). BBC One is the most-used television
n ews so urce ( 62 p er cent of ad ults ), followcd by ITV ( 41 p ·r cent) an<l Face-
book (33 p "r ent). Changing media habits mean that many peoplc ar' using
varied sources of ncws and information, somctimes simultan ously with other
elcctronic d "vices and somctimes concentrating on short summari s rather than
in-dcpth analyscs. Critics arguc that this variety of choice i. th e futurc format
of news pr ~se ntation.
Thc mc<lia continuc to provoke debates an<l complaints ahout what is
socially and morally permiss ibl e in th cir co ntcnt an<l methods. Oucstions are
aske<l about the role of a<lvertising an<l sponsorship; thc quality of th ser-
vi ces providcd at a time of rapidly cx pan<ling and <livcrsin "<l media outlets;
th c allege<l dang "r of thc conccntratcd owncrship of media resources; media
influence on politi cs; legal rcstraints upon m ,Jia 'frec<lorn of cxprcssion'; th e
potcntial abuse of media power and intluencc; bias an<l manipulation; and thc
rcsponsibility of thc m dia to indivi<luals and socicty. Aftcr a series of phon e
hackings and othcr press abuses thc ·ontinuing British debate in r ---ccnt years
has bccn whether the pr ss (and th c media in general) shoul<l be more tightly
controllcd an<l by whom.
Th e print media (n ewspapers and magazin es) bcga n to el ' velop in the eigh-
tccnth century. Initially, a wide circulation was hin<lcre<l by transportation and
<listribution probl ' ms, illiteracy, go vcrnment liccnsing an<l cens~r. hip restric-
tions. But, ovcr the last 200 years an expandcd educational systcm, th e abolition
of government control, d vdopments in print techn ology and I3ritain 's small
physical size have climü1ated thcse diff-iculti C's and cr ' atcd a free, outspoken and
often controversia} print media.
Th e growth of literacy aftcr 1870 proviJcd th e owncrs of th ' print m 'dia
with an increased market . Newspapers and magazincs, which had previously
been limited to the middle and upper classes, reached a widcr rcadcrship. They
were used for news and information, but also for protit and cntertainmcnt.
Media ownership, ncw print formats and tinan cially rcwarding advertising
increased in the compctitive atmosphcre of th e late nincternth and carly tw<.: .n-
tieth centurics. Own crs also rca lizcd that p olitical and social influcnce, and the
The media
National newspapers
National ncwspapers are thosc which are rnostly publishcd from Londo n ( with
sorne regional versions) and are availablc in ali parts of Britain on thc samc
day1 including Sun<lays. Many are still <lclivc rcd dir et to th c home from local
newsagcnts. Good intc rnal distribution systems e nahlc<l a national press to
dcvelop and onlin c copies of newspapcrs now otkr updated ncws anJ immcdi-
ate availability cvcrywhcrc.
R · gional ncw lcttc rs and news papcrs appeared in th c sixtccnth ccntury1
and th c first titl e<l London newspapcr, Corante (thc Daily Courant), was pub-
bshcd in 1G21. Th c first l3ritish ncwspapcrs with a limited national circulation
appeared in thc carly cightec nth e ' ntury and wcrr followcJ hy others, sud1 a
The Times ( 1785), thc Observer ( l 791) and thc Sunday Times ( 1822). Most of
thcsc w ' 1-C 'quality' papcrs, catering for a relativcly small, cdu catcd rn;-irb: t ata
time of mass illitc racy.
In thc ninctcc·nth c-cntury, thc growth and divcrsc co mposítíon of th e pop-
ulation co ndition cd thc typcs ni" newspapcr that wcrc produ ccJ. Thc f-irst 'pop-
ular' natinnal papcrs wcrc dclihc ratcly printcJ on Sun<lays, among tlwm tlw
News qf th.e World ( 1843) and the Peuple ( 1881 ). Th cy wcrT incxpcnsíve ami
aimed at thc cxpanding an<l inncas in gly litc ratc working class. In l 8~)h, /\lfrc·d
Harmsworth rroduccd thc Daíly Maíl, which was targctl'<l at thc lowcr middlc
class as an alternativc to thc 'qu ality ' dailics. Harmsworth thcn puhlisht'd thc
Oaily Mirror in 1~)03 for the working-dass ' popul ar' markct. Both the M rúl and
thc> M ·irror wcrc soon sclling more than a million co pies a Jay.
Thc carly twcnticth cc ntury was the era of mass-circulation p;:1 pers and of
owncrs ( descrihcJ as press harons) like 1-I armsworth anJ /\rthur Pca rso n. Thc-rc·
was fi ercc compctition hctwcc n th c m as th cy fought for higgcr sharcs of the
markct. Pear so n's Mornini l lerald (latcr thc Daily Express) was crcatl'd in 1~)()()
to compete with th <: Da:ily Mail for lowcr miJdlt·-class re adcrs.
Th c Da-ily Mirror was th c largest-selling national Jaily in thc carly twrnti-
eth century. It supportcd th c new Lahour Party and was dcsign ed for quick and
easy rcading by thc industrial and incrcasingly políti ·izcd working cl<1ss. Thc'
Daíly l leral.d (1911) also. upported thc l.abour Party, until in 1~)()4 it was solJ,
was re namcd the Sun anJ dcvcloped Jiffc rcnt political an<l news t'mphascs.
The compctition hetwccn thc Sun and Mírror ·ontinucs today, with each aim-
in g for a biggcr share of th c rnass daily markct. Battks are still fought bctwcen
dorninant proprietors, sincc ncwspapcr owncrship is conccntratc<l in a fcw largc
publishing groups1 such as Rupert Mur<loch's News UK (which has largc media
holdin gs in Britain1 Australia and the USJ\) and Trinity Mirror.
The me di a
PLATE 11 . 1News UK (publisher of The Times and The Sun) printing plant at Broxbourne, near
Enfield, North London . News UK (formerly News lnternational) moved its printing operation
to Broxbourne from Wapping in centra l London in 201 O. © John Stillwell - WPA Pool/Getty
lmages
Thc succcss of th e earl y popular prcss was due to growing litcracy; a dcsirc
for knowledgc an<l information (as w ell as cntertainmc nt) on th ' part of th
working class; and in creasc<l political aware ness among workcrs causcd by th e
rise of th e Labour Party. Newspaper ownc rs profüed by thc hugc markct, but
th cy also sati -fi c<l dcman<l . Thc price and conte nt of mass papcrs rcllectcd
lowcr middle- and working-class rca<lerships and tastes. This -mph asis attracted
a consid ' rabl , amount of consumer adv 'rtising, and own crs werc able to pro-
dun pap ' rs ch eaply with thc aid of mo<lcrn printing m ethods anJ a nationwide
distributi o n nctwork.
Thc circulation of national papcrs rose rapidly, with 5.5 million <l aily sales
by 19 20. By 1973 th esc h ad increasc<l to ] 7 million . Howevc r, ncwspapcrs had
to cope tirst with competition from radi o and film and latc r from tclcvision .
Although th cy have survived, th crc has b een a continuin g declin e sincc th e
19 70s in sales and numbcrs of national and othcr newspapers as th ey fa cc pres-
sure from thc Internet, mobilc phon es and tablet . For exampl c, th c main British
nati onal newspapers in 2018 ha<l avera ge circulation sales o !" sorne 5.4 mil1ion
on weekdays (clown from 7.4 million in 2014) and 4.1 million on Sundays
(clown from 8.9 million on 2014).
Th national press in Britain in 2018 co nsisted of te n main daily morning
papers and eight main Sunday papc rs, after more papers had closed clown. It is
The media
in effcct a London press, because many national newspapcrs have thcir bases
in th e capital, although editions of sorne nationals are now published outside
London, in Europe and the USA. Most of the m us ,d to b e located in the arca
around Fl eet Strect in central London, but ali havc now moved to othcr parts
of th e ca pital or offices outside London . Th esc movcs were duc to high prop-
crty r ~nts, comp ' tition b etween papcrs and opposition from tradc unions to
th e introduction of new printing t cchnology. Print m edia have also had to cope
with thc expense of newsprint, d clin es in advcrtising revcnu c, rising produc-
tion anJ labour costs, and compctition from othcr rn dia outkts, such as the
Intern et .
Hcavy labour costs wcrc du " to thc ovcrstaffing an<l r 'stri ·tive practi ·es of
thc tradc unions. Owncrs were forccd into new ways of in creasing proJuctivity
whilc cutting costs. Regional owners outsi<le Lon<lon, as in Nottingham with
its main papc r The Nottingham Evening Post, ha<l pion eerc<l thc movc mcnt of
newspapcrs and mé-lgazincs into th c ncw print technology, and London ncwspa-
pcrs wcr' ohligc-'d to follow in order to survive.
Thc use of c:omputcrs mea nt that journalists' 'copy' could he printc<l
Jire ·tly, without having to use th e tra<litional intcrmcJiatc an<l lcngthy ' hot-
mctal' typcsl'tting by printt rs. This gavc owncrs tlcxibility in thcir printing and
distribution methods and lower pro<lu ction costs. It allowcd thcm to t'sc.:apc
from tradc-union dominann:. anJ thc conccntration of th c industry in I .o ndon .
But it also res ultc<l in job losscs, tradc-union opposition anJ industrial ac:tion,
such as mass pickcting.
Ncw cquipmcnt, improveJ distribution mcthods an<l cuts in lahour ami
production costs had incrcascJ th e profitability of thc print industries to sorne
cxtc nt. Dcspite th c attraction oF othcr m edia, th ey still havc a rnnsidnablc
prese nce. Thc business is vcry ·ompctitivc anJ papcrs can sufkr frnm a varicty
of probl ~m s. Howt:.ver, th c hjgh risks involvcd havc not stoppcd th c introduc-
tion of n<:w ncwspapers. For cxamplc, th c quality national daj)y, th1..' lndepen-
dent bega n publi ·ation in 1986 and survivcd dcspitc c irculation loss<..'S until it
-losc<l print opcration in 2016. It continued onlinc-only and its Sunday prinl
c<lition also closcJ. Thc co ncise, compa<:t-siz1..J i from th1..· lndeperulent own-
ership appcarcd in 2010 until sold to .Johnson Pr 'SS in 201 (). Th e hest-sclling
Sunday N ews of the World which was founJcJ in 1843, was dosc·<l by N ·ws lJK
in 2011 Jue to tclcphon ' hacking anJ invasion oF privacy scanJals. On 2U Fch-
ruary 2012 'J'he Sun un Sunday was laun -hcd to replacc thc News of the Wor/11,
with som' of its formcr journalists, a nc w typefac1..· in 2013, huta rcduc ,J c ir-
culatjon in 2018 oF 1,286,859.
Most national p apc rs are usually tcrm<.:'<l e ithe r 'quality' or 'popul ar' (tah-
loid) <lcpcnding on thcir dith.~renccs in ·ontent. Othcrs ar calle<l 'mid-markct'
an<l fall b ctw ecn these two cxtrcm s (set. Table 11.1 ). The qualities (such as
The 'J'imes) rcport national and international n ws in d epth and analysc c:ur-
re nt c vcnts and th e arts in editorials an<l articles. Sorne critics argue, howc vcr,
Th e media
that their content has be '11 dumbed clown (trivializcd) and th eir fcatures havc
beco mc ovcrly tren<ly and down-markct. Th e populars (such as the Sun) deal
with f ~w 'hard news' stories, tend to be superficial in th eir treatment of eve nts,
and it is fclt that much of their material is sensationaliz ' d . It i · argued that
populars are not instructive, or concerned with raising th e criti cal consciousness
of thcir readers. Yct owners and editors reply that th ir readcrships demand
particular stylcs, interests and attitudes. 'Mid-market ' papcr., such as th e Daily
Mail and Express, cater for intermediate group .
Qualitics and populars werc also historically <listinguish e<l by th eir format.
Populars wcrc tabloid or small-sheet while qualitics werc broa<lsh ect (largc-
sheet). Th.is distin ction has disappeared in rccent years as more broa<lsheets
The med i a 327
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.
TABLE 11.1 Main national print newspapers (average circulation 2018)
Popular dailies
Daily Mirror 1903 583 , 192 Trinity Mirror
The Sun 1964 1,545,594 NewsUK
Daily Star 1978 391 ,998 Northern and Shell
Mid-market dailies
DailyMail 1896 1,343,142 Daily Mail Trust
Daily Express 1900 364,721 Northern and Shell
Quality dailies
The Times 1785 440,558 NewsUK
The Guardian 1821 156,714 Scott Trust Limited
The Daily Telegraph 1855 385,346 Press Holdings
Financia/ Times 1888 189,579 Pearson PLC
2010 265,949 Johnston Press
Popular Sundays
The People 1881 193,846 Trinity Mirror
Sunday Mirror 1963 506,866 Trinity Mirror
The Sun on Sunday 2012 1,286,859 NewsUK
Mid-market Sundays
Sunday Mail 1982 l , 106,067 General Trust Ltd
Sunday Express 1918 309,958 Northern and Shell
Ouality Sundays
The Observer 1791 176,845 Scott Trust Limited
The Sunday Times 1822 739,845 NewsUK
The Sunday 1961 298,720 Press Holding
Telegraph
Source: Adapted from Audit Bureau of Daily Circulations, 2017
h avc bccom e ta hl o id, 'rnm pact' (T hc Times ) or ' Bc rlin er' (t lw Guanlian ) in
fo rm at. On ly th c Financial Times a nd t hc Du ily 'l'ele!!,raph are still h roa dsh cl'ts.
TotaJ sales of po pular papers on wcckd ays and Sund ay.s t'Xe<..'cd th osc of t hc
qu ali t ics. Fourtcc n of t hc p apcrs in '111ble 11.1 havc lost sorne cin:ulation sincc
2009 an d t hc rcst havc ga in e<l slightl y. 'Jhe Sun on Sunrlay, w hi ch cfh:diw ly
replacc<l t hc ddú nct News of th.e Wurltl in 201 2, c:1<.:hi cvcd t hc hi ghcst Sund ay
circul atio n in 2018, ca rricJ on th c b ·st-sclling tra diti o ns of t hc lattn papt' r,
h ut its sales are now dccli nin g. Q ualitics are more cxpens ivc th an p opul ars and
carry up-ma rk -•t ad vcrtising that gencratcs csscn ti al nnancc. T he popul ars carry
kss advcrtisin g anJ cat er fo r m ore J ow n-m arkct m aterial. H owcvcr, ali forrn s
of prin t advcrtisin g revcnu e have decl in ,J in profitability and m arkct sh arc in
rcccnt yca rs.
Th e m ed i a
an e-cdition with free subscription, mobil e ph one platform links, digital ser-
vices, a television station and increased fin ancia! spon sorship and e wncrship.
There are also about a hundrcd other local weekli es, <laili es and evcning papers
of various sizes and types which appcar in the Greater London <listricts.
Quality daily regional papers, such as The Scotsman ( Edinburgh ), the
G lasgow Herald, th e Western Mail ( Cardifíl and the Yorkshire Post [Leeds),
have historically had gooJ reputations and attract sales outsidc th eir specific
regions. Other Scottish papers are the Daily Record, thc popular Sunday Mail
(Glasgo w) and th e Sunday Post (Dundee ). North ern lrish papers include the
Belfast-based Belfast Telegraph and the N ews Letter, an<l others whi ch serve the
diffcrcnt scctarian communitié's. But man y have suffcrcd from J e -rcasing sales
and circulation.
The re has been a growth of othcr 'free ncwspapcrs' throughout Britain,
such as the tabloid d aily Metro with a circulation of 1, 4 7G,95G in Lon<lon in
November 2017 (whi ch is widcly availablc in urhan areas throughout thc rnun-
try - Monday to Friday mornin gs - such as buses, shop\ train stations, airports,
hospitals and strcet stalls, and has an onlin e scrvi e<.~). Whik growth of ncw
free papcrs seem s to be slackenin g, sorne 650 of th em, such as th c Manchester
Metro N ews :md thc Glaswegian, are publish ed weekl y on a local hasis and are
hn anced by local advertising, to such an cxtcnt th at ncws is oftcn outw 'ighcd
by the adverti sem ents. It is cstimated that th ey have a total weckly circulation
of sorne 29 million . They are oftcn dclivcr - . J Jircct to ho mes, as wcll as b eing
widely available elsewhere. Howcvcr, likc thc national papns, the regional , free
and local press has been severely aHected b y thc rccc nt Jownturn in advertising
rcvcnuc, on whi -hit is <lependent for survival.
It is argued th at ethnic minorities are still undcrreprese nted in thc Brit-
ish media. H owcve1~ thcir communiti es do produce sorne 70 ncwspapers and
m agazines, which are increasing in number, are avail ahl e nationally in thc larger
citics and are improving in quality. Sorne, such as Muslim m agazim's, are becom-
ing more mainstrcam in an attcmpt to appeal to a youn gcr Muslirt_1 and wider
non-Muslim audience. There is a wide ran gc of publicati ons ·for .Jcwish, Asían,
Afro-Caribbean, Chin cse and Arabic rea<lcrs, publishcd on a daily or (more
commonly) peri odie basis, such as the Asian Times and Afro-Carihbean papcrs
su ch as th e Gleaner (found ed in 19 51), the Vó'ice, N ew N atüm and Caribbean
Times. A largc recent immigration from Eastern Europc an<l th c widcr EU has
created more ethni c communities and rcsultcd in publication s in Polish, Latvian
anJ Rumanian, as we11 as existin g French, Spanish, Itali an and Ge rman media .
Sorn e of th e cthnic papers are resili ent and cnthusiastic, sorne qui ckl y Jis-
appear and most lack -finan cia] support. Man y h avc inadcc¡uatc publishin g sitcs
and sales. They struggle to attract advertising from thc prívate sector and rcl y
for thd r income from thc covcr pri -e and from local and national govcrnment
advcrtisin g. Yet Sky Media/Ethnic Media Sales (EMS) in 2017 suggestc<l a
potenti al market. Census fi gures indica te th at 14 per cent of th e UK populati on
Th e med i a 331
.,
A~
~T
id ntify a an ethnic minority (28 pcr c nt of all 16-34s) and sp nt up to 50
per ce nt of th ir TV viewing tim e wat hing thni channels. Whilc 77 pcr cent
of British Asians f el that mainstream advertising has no relevan cL to th cm , 70
<:.thni c newspapers and magazines wcrc produ ·ed in 2013 for UK readcrs in this
growing market . According to EMS, G7 p e r ·cnt of Asian TV vicw ' rs r 'ad J\sian
news papcrs or magazines and 96 p er ce nt of ethnic press writcrs are cthnic,
w hile 94 p ' f ce nt of mainstream journalists, hy contrast, are whitc. EMS also
rcportc<l in 2013 that A ian and A fri ca n communities in Britain cxpcricncc<l
fast growth in mobil ' onlinc usage; th' mínimum numbcr of mohilc phones
own · d by J\sian households is thrcc; and G7 pcr · 'nt of Asian groups rcgularly
us mohilc phoncs.
Scien.tist. The Times publishes influcntial weekly magazines, such as the Educa-
tional Supplement and the Higher (cducation supplemcnt). The lighter side of
th e market is catered for by periodicals su -h as Prívate Eye, which satirizcs the
shortcomings of British society.
Critics question the survival of magazin es and their relationship with
advertising, and on lin e activity is important. Advcrtising revenue from print
versions is crucial for the survival of most magazin es which might not ·urvive
the loss of income if they stopped thcir print versions and moved compl tely
online. It is diflicult for web-only pub1ishing formats to create a web-and-print
model 1 although sorne blogs and special interest websitcs are successful. Con-
sumer magazines and pcriodicals are struggling but in 2012 most of th e maga-
zine market was still plint.
The BBC
Thc BBC is based at N ew Broadcasting House in central London, with centres
throughout the UK providing regional nctworks for radio and television. lt was
334 The media
creatcd by Royal Charter and has a Trust that is responsiblc for supervising
programrn es and that comprises trustccs who are appointed by thc Crown on
the advice of governm nt ministcr. and constitute an independcnt lement
within the organization of the BBC organization. The trust chooses the dircctor-
gcncral, who controls the daily operations of thc BBC. Th e BBC leadership has
recently been criti cized for its handling of histori e sca n<lals and managcment
proccdurc. , such as salary structures in its workforcc.
Thc BBC is financed by a grant from Parliam ' nt, which comes from the
sale of t lcvi ion licences (f.5 .1 billion in 2013- 14) . These are payablc by any-
one who owns a tdcvision set an<l are relativdy low in international tcrms
(f.l 45.50 annually for a co1our set and [49 for bla ck an<l whitc in 201 O). Th
BBC ad<litionally receives incomc from selling its programmcs and services
abroad through its comm ercial arm Worldwi<lc Ltd, which generates a quartcr
of BBC rcvcnuc. It also bcnefits from th e sal , of a programme guide ( Radio
Times], books, magazin es, videos and DVDs.
Th , f3BC is undcr prcssure from govcrnm ' nt an<l critics. It has strugglcd
to maintain its position as a publi c servi ce broadcaster, fundcd by thc li cencc
fee, at a time of competition from indepcn<lcnt rivals. Interna] rcorganization
and cost- ·utting led to a slimmcr organiz.ati on, but it is reoar<lcd by its criti cs as
ovcrstaffed with too m any posts in managcmcnt. lt has <lcvdopc<l altcrnative
forms of fundin g, such as subscription and pay scrviccs and must inclu<lc inde-
p cn<lcnt productions in its television offcrings. Frc4u ·nt <le man<ls for rc-cvalua-
tion of th ' liccncc fce. raise questions ahout thc futurc of th e BBC.
Th c BBC's cx tcrnal scrvices, whi ch consist of radio broadca sts in English
(World S rvi ce) and 42 othcr languages abroaJ, wcrc founded in 1932 and
sincc 2014 havc been fun<l e<l by th c BBC. Thcsc havc a r 'putation for objcctivc
news reporting and programmes. Th e BBC a1so bcga n transmittin g commcr-
cially fund ed te1evision channels in 1991 by cable to Europc and by satcllitc
links to Africa and Asia. Today, BBC Ncws is an intcrnational 24-hour n 'WS and
TV information channcl. It has tht. largcst staff an<l audicncc (74 million wcckly
vicwcrs in more than 200 countrics worldwidc ) of any BBC tclevision scrvic '. lt
is owncd, opcrated and fund .d by thc BB C's commercial arm.
Th e BBC is not a tate orga nization, controlled by thc go vernment. How-
evcr, it is not as in<lependent of politi cal pressures as many in Britain and ovcr-
sca, assurnc. Its charter has to be r ' ncwc<l by Parliamcnt and govcrnm ' nt ca n,
and does, interve ne in the showing of programmes whi ch are allcgcd to be con-
troversia! or against the public interest. The l3BC trustees, although indcpendent,
are government appointees. Govcrnments can also ex<::.rt pressurc upon th c BBC
when the licence fee comes up for renewal by Parliamcnt. Thc BBC tries to
be neutral in political matters, to such an cxtcnt that all political partics have
cornplained that it is prejudiced against thcm, bcing cithcr too liberal/critical or
too conscrvativc. The majar parties have equal right to broadcast short party
political units on the BBC and independent television , usually at election times.
The media
obligations to quality anJ c rcativity in ordcr to j ustify thc lic -ncc 1-<.~c.
Th -re has been r 'guiar criticism about th . , allcged kvels of sex, vulga-rity,
violcncc and bad languagc on British telcvision and radio gcncrally, and vc-n
bcforc the 'watershcd' of 9 p.m. in the evcnings when young childrcn may he
watching. Sorne groups and in<lividuals have attemptc<l to reform and intlucncc
th ' kind of programmes that are shown. J\cademi c rcscarch ha<l J ' ni ,J a media
influcncc on au<lie nccs, but sorne critics now suggcst that individuals can in fact
be morally harmed by the co ntc.nt, imagcs1 b chaviour and spcech of particular
te! -vision and radio programmes, which can be rapidly imitateJ, parti cularly by
childrcn.
Prcvious Conservative govcrnmcnt. considered that violcnce, scx and
obs ·cnity on tclevision did affect and dc-s nsitive viewcrs and could cncour-
agc copycat bchaviour. Attcmpts have bccn madc to 'clean up' te! vision, and
Ofcom now monitors programmcs, examines complaints, establish es codes of
conduct for thc broad ·asting organizations and has tightc ncd its rules con-
ccrning invasion of privacy by broadcasters. Howcvcr, polls and survcys havc
Th e m edia
suggested that Britons are becoming more pcrmissive about th e portrayal of sex
and different lifestyles in the media if this is releva nt to a plot, and evcn more
accepting if it occurs outside a family context on ad ult chann els, video and films.
There continucs to be an 'cntcrtainment ' and 'information ' expansion in
.Britain whcrc online production compani es fight to attract vicwcrs and adver-
tising revenue. But critics query whethcr this means more genuin e media choice
or declining quality. Digital broadcastin g has increas d tclcvision chann =-1s and
transformed sorne media into interactive forces that combine thc Internet and
p ersonalized strcaming (such as Nctflix) and programming in on e package.
Broadcastcrs risk losing audienccs and revenuc as more pcoplc switch bctween
difle rent forms as an alternative to traditional tclcvision p rogra mmes.
Based on research by lpsos MORI, thc BBC reported in March 2018 that
young pco plc spend more time watching Netflix than BRC tclcvision, induding
its rcpcat functio n iPlayer. lt is argued that this shift in vicwing habits qucstions
the long-term rclcvancc of thc BBC fund c<l by li ce n ·e fees. Nettlix chargcs sub-
scribcrs a monthly tee for on-demand acccss to its contcnt archive of tilms and
programmes, which became operative in Britain in 2012. Rcscarch showed that
while Britons aged 16 to 34 spend about two hours a wcck with th e BB C, ITV
.-m<l Netflix, thosc in thc 16- 24 age brackct wat ·h more Nettli x str ·'a min g ofiers
than the BBC tdev ision scrviccs providc.
lpsos MORI rcscarch also rcrortcd that thc BBC's radio n 'twork has also
been overtaken b y music str 'aming scrviccs, such as Spotify and Appl c Music.
The last threc months of 2017 rcvcalc<l that p eopl e agcd 15-34 listcncd to
more hours of strcamed music a wcek than BBC of-fers. Th c I3BC wants more
digital opcrations, to greatly in crcasc th e iPlayer attraction, anJ to provide more
apps.
may b e hcld responsiblc. There are current debates about whether th e strict
English libd law and their appli cation should be rclaxe<l b cause thcy rnay
inhibit frccdorn of cxprcssion .
L gislation by a previous Labour government has had considerable m edia
implications. Th e Human Iüghts Act (l 998) is a two-edged sword in tcrms of
free exprcssion. On th c one hand, it supposedly allows thc media greatcr free-
dom of expression to comm nt on matters of public intcrcst and importance.
On the other, it allows individuals to complain and claim compcnsation if they
feel that thcir indivi<lual ri ght and privacy havc bccn infringed (for cxa mple,
by thc m edia).
This situation was cxemplitied by the so-calkd 'Hacked-Off' campaign in
2005 whcn individuals maintain ed that their phonc voiccmails had bcrn hackcd
(brok n into) and th eir privacy invaded by thc rr ' SS and oth cr . Criminal trials
followed against joumalists, prcss managers and the poli ce, sorne of whom were
found gui1ty. Eventually, '/'he N ews of the World ncwspaper, which was impli-
cated, was doscd <lown by its propri etor, Rupert Murdoch, in July 2011 and
th c Lt.veson Inquiry into the practiccs and ethi cs of th e prcss began in Novcm-
ber 2011. A report by Lord Justic Lcvcson was publishc<l in Novembcr 2012
with proposals for closcr control ovcr thc pr<::'ss. Th e govcrnmcnt wantcd a lcgis-
lative undcrpinning of th e press, and a Royal C hartcr on rcgulation oF th ' prcss
was grantcd by th e Privy Council in O ctober 2013, dcspite legal challcngcs by
newspaper publishers. Th c lattcr wanted self-r 'gulation and set up thc unrccog-
ni zcd prcss-fundcd Independcnt Press Stan<lar<ls Organization (IPSO) in 2014,
which consists of most British newspap ''fS. lt is an indcpcn<lcnt rcgulator of
thc n wspaper and magazine industry to promote journalistic stan<lar<ls an<l to
support m emb rs of the public in th eir complaints that thc E<litors' Codc of
Practice has bccn broachcd. Anoth r bo<ly, lmprcss, was approvcd by th e Prcss
Recognition Panel (PRP), but represcnts only sorne 25 spccia list publication s
financed by prívate in<livi<luals. The resulting situation is complcx, th 'r ' is con-
flict between the media bodies, and therc wcr -' demands in 2018 for anothcr
enquiry into m edia action. Thc debate continucs on th frecdo~, in<l 'pcn<lcnc<:'
and sclf-regulation of th e prcss and th e impli cd thr at of governmcntal action
against thc press. It sccm s that th e prcss will have to a ~t strongly on allcgations
of prcss abuse. Otherwise state action could b (' invokcd .
The Levcson Inqui ry arguably preserves th ~ unsteady institution al powcr
relationship betwccn newspaper propri ' tors, politicians, governme nt an<l th c
policc. Th e Media Reform Coalition conclude<l in Novcmber 2013 that thc out-
come of th e Levcson Jnquiry illustrates th e ways in whi ·h chan gc and rcform
opcrate in Britain:
action taken to limit the size and influcnce of the largest media outlets.
H owcvcr, it does seem that, for now, corporate m edia interests havc
outmancuvered those tighting for mcaningful change ... Th crc is no
reason to think that anything has changed since the [ Leveson] report
was publishcd and it will take action far beyond that of a publi c inquiry
to tacklc the problems that [Levcson] raiscd .. . and th at still wait to be
adequately addrc. sed .
PLATE 11.3 The worldwide headquarters of the BBC at New Broadcasting House, Portland
Place, London , underwent major renovation and rebui lding which was completed in 2012-
13 . © David A Eastley/A lamy Stock Photo
also scem to be careful not to trcad on too many toes, hccausc thcrc are always
competing m edia souro~s that are willing to publish th e facts.
A furth er conccrn about limitations on m edia freedom has b een thc cxtcnt
to which advcrtiscrs might dictate policy and content whcn thcy pl ac, th cü
products. The qucstion of advertisers' influence is complex anJ might toda y be
more applicable to th e mass-consumer markets of radio, television and social
media than the press. Advcrtiscrs dealing with thc prcss are m ore conccrncd
with the type or status of readers rather than with th eir numbers. Arguably, th e
media have not succumbed in a substantial dcgree to the dircct manipulations
of advertisin g agencies, in spite of their dcpendence upon advcrtising revenuc.
Opinion p olls suggest that most British peoplc havc traditionally tended to sec
the media for what they are and have no great illusions about th em . Respon-
dents are generally sceptical of the press and journalists ( who frequently appear
at the b ottom oflists of trustworthy professionals), are suspicious of the content
of newspapers and televi ion and do not believe that they present all sides of a
question fairly.
The media
Th ere are also conflicting views about whethcr thc media play a dominant
p art in intlucncing public opinion on political and socia] m atters. Thc ldt-wing
view assumcs that they do and consequ ently disapprovcs of th c allcgc<l 70 per
cent right-wing bias in the British m edia. But, whilc sorne peoplc may have th cir
attitud ~s dircctly shaped in these ways, it is argued that man y rcadcrs and vicw-
crs havc alrcady made up th eir own minds and r ·act aga inst any blatan t attcm pts
at indo -trination. On sorne occasions (su ch as clcctions ), thc m edia ma y appcar
to havc an cff-ect on public opi nion and may stress what th cy scc as th eir intlu-
encc ('It's 'J'he Sun Wot Wun lt' ran a Sun h eadlin on 11 April 1992 ahn that
year's General Election). But it is also likdy that thc m edi a may mcdy follow
what th cy frel are popular trends anc.l ch anging política] and social vicws amo ng
thc puhlic, rather than th ' mselves bcing the insti gators of ncw ideas.
Man y pcnple r Hect a popular cultural tradition in Britain and h avc karncd
to rcad bctwcc n th e lin es of thc m ·dia and are co nditionc<l ca rl y in lit<..' ' not to
bclicvc cverythin g you rcad in the papcrs', or hear 'on thc tclly'. Sincc tclcvision
in particular is often accuscd of bein g c ith c r right-wing or lcft-wing, dqw nJing
on which government is in power, it would sccm that thl British pl'o pk are
rcceiving cnough information of varying 4uality from ali si<lcs of thc politi ca l
sp ectrum . ln practicc, most pco plc sccm to makl' up th ·ir own minds, obj cct Lo
having politics and oth cr conccrns 'thrust <lown th c ir throats' and many Lakc a
tircd ( and ofre n cynica l) attitudc to such mattc rs.
PLATE 11.4 Photographers and the press wai ti ng outside the Lindo Wing of St Mary's Hospi-
tal , London after the Duchess of Cambridge gave birth to Prince George on 23 July 20 13 . ©
Peter Macdiarmid/Getty lmages
The m e di o
Exercises
Briefly explain and examine the following terms, commenting on their
significance in British life:
I
media circulation newsagents compacts'
press tabloid ' free newspapers' ' hot meta l'
advertising broadsheet Prívate Eye libel
Fleet Street the Sun ownership sub judice
The Times John Reith Rupert Murdoch BBC 2
TV licence fee Ofcom World Service dubbing
lpso mid-market Channel4 duopoly
terrestrial digital Virgin Med ia Classic FM
tablets Leveson lnquiry press freedom BBC News
Further reading
Bignell, J. , Lacey, S. and Macmu rraugh-Cavanagh, M.K . (2000) British Television Drama:
Post, Present and Future, London : Macmillan/Palgrave
The media
2 Branston, G . and Stafford, R. (20 l O) The Media Students Book, London : Routledge
3 Briggs, A. and Cobley, O . (2002) The Media: An lntroduction, London : Pearson Longman
4 Broadcasters' Audience Research Board (BARB) (May 2018) The Viewing Report, London :
BARB Co .
5 The Communications Market (2014), London : Ofcom
6 Curran , J. and Gurevitch, M . (20 l O) Mass Media and Society, London : Bloom sbury
Acodemic
7 Curran, J. ond Sea ton, J. (2016) Power without Responsibility: Press, Broadcasting and
the Internet in Britain , Routledge : London
8 Franklin, B. (200 l) British Television Policy: A Reader, London : Routledge
9 O ' Sullivan , T., Dutton, B. and Rayner, P. (2003) Studying the Media: An lntroduction,
London : Bloomsbury Academic
l O Seaton , J., Petley, J. and Gaber, l. (2005) Culture Wars : The Media and the British Left,
Edinburgh : Edinburgh Un iversity Press
l l Stokes, J. and Reading , A. (ed s) ( 1999) The Media in Britain : Current Debates and Devel-
opments, London : Palgrove/Macmi llan
12 UK Audience Attitudes to the Broadcast Media : A Summary of Findings (20 17), London :
Ofcom
13 Wedell, G . and Luckham , B. (2001) Television at the Crossroads, London : Palgrave Macmillan
14 Understanding Attitudes to the Broadcast Media, (2013) London : Ofcom
15 Wiseman, O . (2014) Speakers Cornered: Twenty-First Century Britain 's Culture of Silence,
London: New Culture Forum
Websites
Department of Culture, Media and Sport: www.culture .gov.uk
British Broadcasting Corporotion (BBC) : www.bbc .co .uk
BARB : www.BARB .Co. UK
ITV l : www.itv.com
Channel Four: www.channel4 .com
Channel Five : www.channel5 .co .uk
Office of Communications (Ofcom) : www.ofcom .gov.uk
The Press Association : www.pad .press .net
lndependent Press Standards Organization : www.co .uk/lPSO
The Times : www.the-times.co .uk
The Guard ian : www.gua rdian .co .uk
The Daily Telegraph : www.telegraph .co .uk
Leveson lnquiry: www.media reform.org.uk/blog/year-leveson-press-power-still-control https://the
guardian .com/media/2017 /aug/06/can-you-trust-mainstream-media?
12
Leisure, sport
and the arts
■ Lcisurc activities
■ Sport
■ Th ' arts
■ Exercises
■ Further reading
■ Websites
.,
'°~ 350 Lei su re , sp o rt and t he arts
.:.T
The prcceding chapters have examined in stitutional building blocks and thcir
distinctive cultures, which comprise British civilization. This chaptcr considers
how lcisure pastimes, sports and the arts in Britain are represented; how th ey
contribute to a whole way of lifc; and how they are fond ed by state, voluntary
and prívate contributions, and through their own pro-fits.
Th e diversity of lite in contemporary Britain is retlectcd in the ways thc
British organize such activities. They revea] different cultural habits, rath cr
than one unif-ied image, and are divided between parti -ipatory and spectator
pastimcs, which show varying degr -es of active and passive cngagement. Thcy
are also associatcd with national identities, iconic institutions, mass participa-
tion and minority interests. They may be intlucn ·ed by social class, gov ' rn-
ment f-inan cial aid, a changing national cconomy, pe rso nal disposablc inco mc,
th ' exp ens - of activities and eyuipment, and the pressures on lcisure time in a
work-oriented socicty.
According to the authors of a poll-based book (Jacobs and Worccster, We
British, Weidcnfcld & Nicolson 1990: 124), 'the variety of available leisurc,
arts and sporting activitics disproves thc criticism that Britain is a oun.try of
philistines who pr -fe r se.cond-ratc entertainment to th e best'. Yet th ere havc
bcen many reccnt complaints about a 'dumbing-<lown' of British cultural lifr in
tdcvision programmes, films, the arts, literature, music and ducation; declining
standards in sports and physical exercise, which havc b en co nnectcd to an
increase in adult and child obesity; and <leer ascd participation in and attcn-
dance at leisure events. Such criti cism and observations are not ncw. They w r "
also ornrnon in the ninetcenth ce ntury whcn the working and middlc classcs
were expanding rapidly and contrasts bctwcen high an<l low cultur -'s wcre com-
m entcd upon by critics, writers and artists.
Although public opinion polis in the 1990s and early 2000s indicatc<l that
Britain's leisure industries were relativdy hcalthy, a financial cri~is and rccession in
2007- 1O scriously affected rnany individuals and businesses. Pcople r -'duce<l th eir
free-time activities because of stagnant wagcs; stayed at home rather than going
out to socialize in pubs, bars and restaurants; 'staycations' Qargcr numbers of thc
population holidaying in Britain rather than abroad) bccame popular; consum 'r
purchascs of hom e entertainmcnt ele -tronic cq uipment, ncwspapers an<l maga-
zines declincd because of th eir cost; there was less personal disposable incomc; an<l
many people budgcted more carefolly. While the national economy had improvc<l
by 2017, indivi<luals still expc1ienccd f-inancial difficulties and low wages.
Le isure , spor t an d the a rts
Evolving social pursuits and pastimes h ave implications for thc largL~r socil'ty.
Much lcisure time in Britain was histori cally spe nt within thc family home and
th ere was a separa tion of individual s from th e widcr social contcxt. Cra<lu ally,
as th e population grew, there was grcatt'r mixing bctwccn individuals outside
th c Family. Although sorn e home activitics still rc m ain important, many pas-
tim es now involve dcvdopcd te -hnology and commc rcializcd husincsscs, which
are part oF a largcr public markct in which produccrs try to attract and max-
imizc consumcrs and sales. But this dcwlopmc nt has also lcd partl y to more
individual activitics he ing cnjoyed hy young peoplc within th c home ami its
private spaces.
A..cccss to lcisurc, sports and arts activiti cs is unev cnly Ji strihutcd in Lh c
population, bccausc it is dcpc nJcnt upon purchasing powcr, opportunity and
availability. Exdusionary factors opcrate against sorne individuals and groups,
such as lack of <li sposablc income, thc influcncc of class, disadvantagcd back-
grounds, ina<lcquatc knowlcdgc of availablc activitics, poor (or non-l'Xistrnt)
musical and arts tcaching in schools, cost of cquipm c nt, thc pri cc of tickcts,
shortagc of time in busy liv 'S, and fr,wc r rcsourccs. This fragrrwntation ironi ca lly
can crcate its own div crsc and altcrnativ' forms oF culture which, as in thc past,
may h ecom c m ainstrca m.
Thc distribution of lcisurc, sports and th c arts havc rccc ntly appcarcd in
discussions on how social 'culture' o r 'capital' is dcfined and applicd. Th c crc-
ative industries that servi ·e th e 'leisurc market' (such as cin e ma, thcatrc, pub-
lishing, music and th c pcrforming arts) are an important part of Britain 's social
and cconomic lite. T'hcy gcnerate substantial amounts of rcvcnuc and cxport
carnings which contribute to th e gross domestic product (GDPL cmploy many
p eopl e and havc an influe ntial value at home an<l abroaJ. Yet, parti cipation in
th c m is dccrcasing as in comc declines and cntcrtainmcnt vcnucs closc. Qucs-
tions arise as to how and why sorne sectors of socicty benefit from cultural pro-
ccsses and othcrs do not, and h ow finan cc and support may b e raised for kisurc,
sports and arts activities.
352 Lci su r e , spor t and the arts
Leisure activities
Leisurc activitics in thc country's pre-industrial p ~riod, apart from som ' high
cultural interests exclusive to the urban, m -' tropolitan elite, were for most of
th e population largely conditione<l by the rural and agricultura! nature of Brit-
ish lite. Settlcm<::.nts wcr<::. isolated, and transport and roads wcrc cith er poor or
non-existcnt. Peoplc were rcstricted to thcir homes and villagcs and obliged
to crcate their own entertainm E' nts. Sorne werc home- or family-based, whilc
larger participatory an<l spectator activitics, such as sports an<l scasonal cvcnts,
wcre enjoycd by thc larger community. Thcy might also involvc itincra nt pl ay-
ers, who travell ed the countryside and provideJ alternativc entertainme nts,
such as drama and musical pcrformances.
Improved transport and road con<litions from the cighteenth -entury
onwards cnabled the rural population to travcl to neighbouring towns whcrc
thcy took advantagc of a variety of amuscments and wider social opportunities.
Spectator and parti cipatory activitics increas -d with thc industrialization of the
ninctee nth century, as more of thc population movc<l to the towns an<l citi es
Le i sure , sport a nd the arts
and as th ·atrcs, co ncerts, music halls and sports dcveloped and bccam e availahlc
to more pcople. The establishment of road an<l railway systcms and th forma-
tion of bus and train companies initiatcd th c pattern of chea p one-day trips
around th c country an<l parti cularly family holidays at th e scasidc, whi ch w ' re
to grow into thc mass charter and pa -kagc tours of conte mporary Britain. Th c
arrival of radio, film. and television in th c ea rly twcnticth - ·ntury re ·ult ,J in a
hugdy ex pandcd profossional e ntc rtainmcnts industry serví ·cd hy n w th ea trcs
and cinemas, with th e emcrgin g BBC radio and tcl vision chann els bccoming a
fulcrum for th e wholc family. Thc variety of offcrings and l ·vcls of participation
in crcased again drarnatically from th c 1960 · and coinód ·d with mor ' leisurc
tim ·, grcater disposahle in coml , th e wcakcning of 'high' and 'low ' cultural har-
ri ers and an -'x plosion of 'popular ·ulturc', parti cularly in musi c, thcatrc and
literaturc. This was followcd by a robust ·xprcssion of 'youth culture' focusing
on musi c, crafts, art, thcatre, foshion, photography and digital dcvclopmcnts in
the late twcnticth and ca rly twcnty-iirst ccnturi cs. 1n ali th csc changcs, thc mix-
tur ·, of participatory, spcctator, homc-hascJ, individual and comnwrcial kisurc
activiti 'S and traditions hav' continucd.
Many contc mporary pursuits havc thcir roots in thc c ultural anJ social
b haviour of th c past, induding boxing, wrcstling, cricket, foothall anJ a rangc
of othcr sports. Dan cing, amateur thcatrc and musical cvc nts Wl'IT focal rarts of
rural lifc for all cl asscs anJ wcrc ol"tc n associatcd with th c ch,rnging agricultura!
scason s. Th c traJitions of hunting, shooting anJ fishin g havc long hl'l' n rrac-
ti sed in British rnuntry lifr (not on ly by th c aristocrncy), as havc hlood srorts,
such as dog and cock fighting anJ bcar baiting, whi ch ar ' now ilkgal. Howcv ·1~
organi z . . J bctting on illcgal c.log anJ othn animal lights docs co ntinuc toe.lay in
sedud ,J locations.
A foaturc of contcmporary Britain is thc ·ontinuing attL'rnpt to stop sorne
kinds of rural activitics such as fishing anJ fox hunting, as wcll as rnlls (organizcJ,
humane ki1ling) of <leer and hadgcrs. Activists havc hccomL' more asscrtiw in thcir
objections to and campaigns against what th cy scc as thc crm·lty nf many rurnl
traditions and th c co ntainmcnt of th c animal rorulation, as wcll as in tlwir orpo-
sition to the use of animals in comm ' rcial anJ rncdical Lxpuimcnts. For cxarnrk,
a MOR! poll in 1997 showcd that two-thirds of rcspondcnts favourcd a rnmplctc
ban on fox hunting with horses an<l <logs. Although thc countrysidc lohhy orposcd
such action 1 fc.)x hunting was bann c<l first in ScotlanJ anJ thrn in England and
Wales in 2004. l ,ater polls found that support for thc fox-hunting ban had follen
by a halt; with an increasc in n:.spondcnts who said thcy were neutral on thc issuc.
Apathy about fox hunting has grown an<l support to ovcrturn th e ban appcarcd to
have increascd with th ' allcged ncr<l to control thc growth of thc fox population .
Howeve1~ a MORI pol1 in Deccmbcr 2017 commissioned by thc animal
wdfarc charity th e Leaguc .Against Cruel Sports rcporte<l that 85 pcr ce nt
of re. ponde nts thought that fox hunting should not b e made legal again.
Othcr rcsults opposed <leer hunting (87 per cent), harc hunting and co ursing
(90 per cent), dog fighting (99 p er cent) and badger baiting (94 p er cent).
Leisure , sp or t and t he arts
Thc British to<lay enjoy a variety of cultural, sporting and 1cisure activities
and more people have more free tim . The growing problem is how to organize
the work/life balance. Most workers havc at least four we ,ks' holiday a year, in
addition to publi breaks such as Christmas, Eastcr and bank holidays (days off
work), although Britain has fewer such holidays than other Europea n countrics.
The growing numbcr of pensioners (sorne of whom are reasonably affl uent) has
created an economica lly rcwanhng lcisure markct which ben 'nts both the cldcrly
and service companies. Un mploymcnt also mcans that sorne groups of pcople
have more nh1rccd fre time (if not always the financcs to njoy it in foil) .
Consumcr patterns and leisure activities havc also changcd and coinci<lcd
with part-time and shift working and high cr income for many of thosc in work.
T here is a demand for public faci lities such as cinemas, shops, supcrmarkets,
restaurants and leisure scrvices to be open and available for longer, more conve-
nicnt, periods during thc week and at weekends. But such activities can suffer
when there is an cconomic downturn anda 1ack of incomc to generatc cxpan sion.
Th e 2007-10 rcccssion s ·riously restri -ted Britons' ability to cnjoy and
afford leisure opportuni ties, and visits to pubs and restaurants are still in decline.
But parts of th economy havc slowly improvec.t and dcsp ite wagc stagnation,
th e most popular pastim s rcma:in social or home-bascd (see Table 12.1 ). Thcse
activitics reflect rclatively onsistent and continuing patterns of hchaviour.
Watching TV 91
2 Spending time with friends/family 89
3 Listening to music 79
4 Shopping 78
5 Eating out at restaurants 76
6 Internet/ emailing 75
7 Days out or visits to places 73
8 Reading 72
9 Sport/ exerci se 59
10 Going to the cinema 53
11 Going to pubs/bars/ clubs 52
12 Gardening 50
13 Theatre/ music concerts 43
14 Visiting historie sites 41
15 DIY (do-it-yourself) 39
16 Visiting museums/gal leries 37
17 Playing computer games 28
18 Arts a nd crafts 23
19 Playing a musical instrument 9
Source: Adapted from Department for Culture, Media and Sport - Taking Part - Statistical Release
2017.
Leisure, sport an d t he arts
The Off-ice for National Statistics (ONS) 20 l 7, found that thc major1ty
of lcisurc time for both mcn and women was spent on mass m edia such a.
watching TV or list ·'ning to music. ílut mcn spcnt more time on sports, hobbies
and computcr games than womeni who wcrc more attracted to social activitics.
Th · ovcr-GSs cnjoyed more lcisure time than 25- 34-ycar olds. Peo plc in skillcd
prnfossions spent thc lcast time on lci. urc, comparcd with thosc in sales and
custom ~r scrviccs. Leisurc activitics werc high 'St for thosc in the south-cast of
England and lowcst for thosc in North ern Irclan<l.
ONS statistics on family houschold cxp 'TIScs and living costs showcJ that
thc third highcst category of spcn<ling was rccrcation an<l culture. Historica lly,
th er "' had b ee n incrcasing rates oHamily cxpcnditun~from l ~)77 until the crcdit
crisi in 2006, but spcnding pattcrns -hangcd ovcr time, hccaus ' of grcatcr dis-
posablc incomc in sorne pc riods and rising c:osts in othcrs.
A 2013 ONS list of wcckly rccrcation an<l cultural cx pcn<litun.' indudc<l,
in dcscc nding ·ost, pa kagc holi<lays, lJK <1n<l abroac.l (35 pn n nt); rcncational
anc.l cultural scrviccs, suc:h as sports admissions, lcisurc class fccs, cinema, thc-
atre an<l museum tickcts, TV liccnccs and subscriptions, and cquiprncnt hirc
(29 per cent); recrcational itl'rrlS and cquir,mcnt ( l G pcr crnt); ncwsp;-1pcrs,
books and stationcry (8 pcr cent); audio-visual, rhotographic and inforrnalion
PLATE 12. 1 Drinking outside the White Horse pub, Soho, London . Soho has long been a pop-
ular orea for pubs, clubs, exotic entertainment, restaurants and theatre which have a ppea led
to a wide variety of people. lts d ub ious image has often been bohemia n, eccentric and raff-
ish . © Kev in Foy/Shutterstock
Le is u re , sp ort and the art s
proccssing equipmcnt (8 per cent); and recreation and culture durables, such as
television sets, computers and other electronic cquipment (3 per cent).
Despite rec ssion and other socioeconomic problems such a inequality
of in come and status, the 2013 ONS poll indicatcd that Britain overall is a
relatively affluent society and spends a significant part of personal in ·orne on
lcisure activities. More Britons participate in a widc variety of availablc pas-
times, somctim s with surprising priorities. For xampl<:., dcspitc th e effects
and influence of the digital age, reading, although decl ining in recent years,
compares favourably with the most popular habits such as watching tcl vision
or playing music.
However, there havc bee n significant 1--isure changcs in recent years.
According to FCOM statistics 2018, spending by main tckvision channels such
as th BBC, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5 on ncw UK-made TV programmes
fell to a 20-ycar low and indicated that people are watch ing less tclevision.
Average daily broadcast viewing of tclevision decreased by 9 minutes in 2017
and by 38 minutes since 2012. In 2018, according to tind ·' r. ·om, the figure was
22 hours a wcek, not including stream in g scrvices. l3ut more than 1O million
homes have subscription view-on-demand s rvices such as N ctflix, Amazon
Prime and Now TV.
Thcse figures illustrate the competitivc shift within thc UK television
indu. try due to the risc of global Internet media companics and to the chang-
ing habits and prefercnce of UK au<li -nccs. More choi ·e for viewers has lcd
to competition for vicwers in an increasingly fragmcntcd TV market. While
broad ·ast TV has dcclined, but remains popular among sorne groups, vicwing
among 16-34-year-olds is moving online and streaming services subscriptions
are bigger than traditional pay television. This marks a major shift in the UK's
leisure and viewing habits. In 2018, 28 .3 million homes in the UK had a tele-
vision set.
Watching tdevision is still a common leisure activity, wheth er individ-
ually or among family and friends and is a popular activi_ty for age groups
from 35 upwards. The continuing attraction of television as a popular enter-
tainmcnt m edium rnay be due to the greater quality pro<luction offered by
digital telcvision after the transfer frorn analogue in October 2012.This gives a
greater choic of channels, interactive alternativcs, DVDs, ~treaming and high
definition (HD) wide screens. But teenagers and young adults aged 15-24 are
th e most frequent cinema goers, although as a tirst choice the gr at majority
listen to music.
Polls show, as expected, differences in agc group usage when comparing the
16-24 age group with those aged 65 and over. Certain activities are cited lcss fre-
quently as age increases, such as listening to music; Internet usage and emailing;
sport and exercise; going out to pubs, clubs and bars; and going to the cinema.
Thc British spen<l sorne two-thirds of thcir spare time using electronic
equipment. A largc amount of money is spent on items such as television
Leisur e , spo r t and the arts 357
sets, subscriptions to satcllitc tcl ev ision and cabl e t elevision, radio equip-
ment, videos, ·omputers, DVD cquipment an<l DVDs (although thc lattc r
are going out of fashion). There were 48 .8 million Internet uscrs in 2009
and 58 per cent of adults had accessed it at sorne tim e. By 201 O, increasing
numbers of homes and businesses wcre using high-sp ee<l broadband fibre
optic conn ections and more p eople were usi ng thc Internet in prefcrence
to tel evision, but man y peopl e still do not have adequatc broa<lband acccs,.
Film streaming on the Internet via companies such as Netflix an<l Spotify is
becoming increasingly popular, as w ell as catch-up scrvices such as th e BBC's
iPlayer, although sorne prcfcr to watch on a television screcn rather than
phon es or co mputers.
In th ese exa mples, th e hom e is still thc chicf place for family and individual
entertainmcnt and poses compctition to other activities outsi<lc thc home, such
as the cinema, sports and thcatrc. Lcisure activities for both males and fcmalcs
exclusively within the home include listcning to th e radio or music; watch-
ing television; studying; rcading books and newspapers; rcl axing; convcrsation;
entertaining; hobbies; computcr and tablet use; gaming; and tcxting.
Despitc thc competition from telcvision, thc cinema, d ectronic media and
busy lives, rca<ling still appcars to be an important leisurc activity for sorne
p eople of all agcs. It ca rne cighth in a list of 19 with 72 pcr ce nt of al1 p eople
over 16 in Britain in the 2017 DCMS survey, which was a small declin e from
previous years. Oth er polls, such as thc Booktrust charity, indicatc that while
large minorities of people have negativc attitudcs towar<ls readin g, substantial
sections of th e population are more positivc.
There is a large variety of books and magazincs in all li clds to ca ter for a11
tastes and intcrcsts. In 201 G, according to Statista, British hook sales improvcd
to 195 mi Ilion anJ sales amounted to an incrcasc uf l4.8 billion ( Publish ers
Association ). Exports were strong, particularly with aca<lcmic and rescarch
publish ers, and the biggest cxport market is Europe. But e-books continued to
decline. The best-sell-ing books are romances, thrillers, modern popular nove ls,
detective stories, science fiction, children's books and works uf advcnture and
history. Classic literature is not wi<lcly reaJ, although sales of older novels can
still benefit from adaptations on television. Thc tic-in of books (of all types )
with videos, DVDs and television series can be lucrative, although th e DVD
market is dcclining. Book publishing in the UK is in transition with sorne phys-
ical book sales and audio readers increasing and other categories decreasing.
Do-it-yourse1f hobbies (DIY), such as house painting, decorating and gar-
dening, were once very popular and home repairs and improvements amounte<l
to a large ítem in the total household bu<lget. But there was a big decrease in
2015, with hig national rctail supply shops closing clown as p eople buy and shop
online. Until the recession, the number of restaurants had increased and the prac-
tice of eating out was popular, with expenditure on restaurants and hotcls being
a significant part of the houschold budget. But fashions and tastcs havc changcd
Le i su r e , sport an d the arts
anJ many restaurants have closcJ in recent years. This has b een attributed to
wage stagnation and a decreasing interest in restaurant culture. However, th ere
are a variety of 'ethnic' restaurants (particu]arly In<lian, Chinese, Italian and
French) in British high streets and fast-food outl ets serving pizza, hamburgers,
kebabs, chicken and fish and chips. Th e quality of food in British restaurants is
still vcry variable, although many havc improved, and the variety and number of
avai1able cuisines has increased. Chefs have gained television ex posure ancl raised
an awareness of many varieties of foo<l among the general public.
Visiting the pub is still a signiticant part of British life and leisure. Sorne
seven out of ten adults visit pubs and one-third go once or more a wcck. But
PLATE 12.3 The resort of Benidorm on Spain's Costa Blanca has long been a favourite des-
tination for British tourists . lt helped to open up mass tou rism a nd the package hol iday p he-
no menon to the British . © Geoffrey Robinson/S hutterstock
and, until the rec ssion led to stagnant wages for many workcrs, the cost. ABTA
travel spccialists in 2017 foun<l that 13 pcr c nt of British pcoplc took no holi-
days at all; 30 per cent spent th eir holidays only in th e UK; 15 pcr cent travell ed
only abroad; and 42 p er cent combine<l UK and ovcrscas visits. ONS figures
(Table 12.2.) reportcd that in 2016 th ere wcrc 70.8 million vi~its ovcrscas by
UK residents (an in crease of 8 pcr cent since 2015). They spent [43.8 billion on
overseas visits in 201 G, 12 per cent more than in 2015. Th e füst tivc countrics
in th e table amounted to 49 p r cent of all UK visits abroa<l anJ 46 per c ' nt
of total sp cnd . It is ironic that so man y Britons chose to spend th eir holidays in
Europe whcn a majority latcr votcd to leavc thc EU Wide restrictions on travcl
within Europe may apply on cxit.
Many l:'. uropean tourists also chose to visit the UK. At a time of incrcased
reciprocal tourism , therc wcre 37.6 million visits by overseas rcsidcnts to
thc lJK in 2016, 4 per cent more than in 2015. Th ey spcnt [22.5 billion on
their UK visits in 2016, 2 per cent more than in 2015 (Table 12.3). London
attractcd 19.1 million overnight visits in 2016, but other citics outsidc Lon-
don also reccived many visitors, such as Edinburgh (l . 7 million ), Manch stcr
Leisure , s p o r t a nd t he arts
Spain 14.7
France 8.5
ltaly 4.0
Republic of lreland 3.7
USA 3 .6
Portugal 2 .8
Netherlands 2.8
Germany 2.7
Greece 2.5
Poland 2.4
Source: adopted from lnternotional Possenger Survey (IPS), ONS, 2016
TABLE 12.3 Leading countries visiting the UK: visits and spending, 2016
France 11 16
USA 9 7
Germany 9 6
Republic of lreland 8 5
Spain 6 5
Netherlands 5 4
ltaly 5 4
Poland 5 4
Belgium 3 3
Australia 3 3
Source: lnternational Possenger Survey (IPS) , ONS, 2016
( º1.2 mili ion) an<l Birmingham (1. 1 millionJ. Travcl rcstriction s ma y also apply
to Europ 'ans after Brexit.
Holi<lays rcgularly account for th e first major leisure choi ce in Britain. ílut
a <lcclining numbcr of Britons takc their holidays in thc UK itsclf; wh ' JT thc
south-west English coastal resorts and Scotland are vcry popular in summ cr.
But largcr numbcrs now also go abroad in winter or summer or hoth, an<l thc
gr 'at <lays of th c British scaside resorts have declined. According to ONS an<l
Th · lntcrnational Passcngcr Survey, th e number of long holidays takcn abroa<l
by th c British decreased in the recession by 15 p er cent from 45.5 million visits
in 2008 to 38 .5 million in 2009, the lowest since 2000. Spain, Francc, Italy,
Leisure , sport and the arts
Portugal and Greece tend to be thc main attractions for these holidaymakers,
who buy relatively cheap package tours. Yet thc British seem to have become
more adventurous and 25 p er cent now travcl widely outside Europe to Asia,
Africa, South America and the US on a variety of holidays. Large numbers of
UK residents also travel to visit relatives an<l friends worldwide.
The 2007-10 recession altered these patterns to som degree, with more
people taking th eir holidays in Britain. Domestic holiday tourism grew by 12
per cent from 75 million trips visits within th e UK in 2008 to 84 million in
2009 . Holi<lay visits abroad decreased by 15 per cent from 45.5 million visits
in 2008 to 38.5 mil1ion in 2009 . The pattern of ovcrseas travel for Britons has
recovercd in recent ycars, with Spain re maining th e most popular dcstination
for UK rcsidcnts going abroad on holiday. The lrish Republic is a popular dcsti-
nation for British residents travelling overseas to visit fricnds and relatives. UK
rcsidents aged 45 to 54 tend to take the rnost holiday visits abroad. It remains
to be seen whcther Britain's exit from the EU will seriously affect travcl plans
in Europe.
In more normal times, many British p eople prefcr to organize th eir own
holidays and make use of the good air and sea communications betwecn Britain
and th e continent. In Britain itself; difterent forms of traditional holiday still
exist, from 'bed and brcakfast' ata seaside boarding house, to hotcls c~f varying
quality, caravan sitcs and camping (the latter at 1O per cent of total holidays) or
increasingly th cmed, upmarket and trendy stays at spas and expensivc hotcls.
lncreascd car ownership has allowed greater travel possibilities, with day trips in
l3ritain for examplc amounting to 51 pcr cent of total holidays in 2009. To<lay,
more than seven out of ten houscholJs havc th e use of at least one car and 27
per cent havc two or more.
Sport
There is a wide varicty of sports in contcmporary Britain, which ca ter ·for large
numbers of spectators and active participants (the latter at different levels of
ability and organization). Polling organizations, such as Mintel, forth er divide
these into individual/kecp-fit sports (e.g. gym work and swimming); team/
competitive sports (e.g. football and cricket) ; racquet sports played with an
implem ent (e.g. tcnnis and squash); and outdoor/alternative sport (e.g. hiking
and fishing). Sorne of th ese sports have distinctive origins and were historically
minority, exclusive or class-based (such as yachting and the contrasting codes
of rugby union and rugby league), while others appcal now to majority tastes
(like football and swimming). The number of people actively participating in
sports increased in the l 990s. This coincidcd with a greater awareness of health
needs and the importance of exercise, particularly when many Britons werc
overweight or obese. Weight remains an issue and fitn ess campaigns attempt to
Leisure , sport and the arts 363
.,
A~
;T
increasc an awarcness of the bendits of health and cxercis for all age groups.
Howeve1~ sorne po11s such as Mintcl, suggest that while playing , port is wi<lely
supportcd at both participatory and spectator levels, indjvidual fitncss-focused
sports ar more favoured than team or outdoor a1ternatives. lt is argucd that the
sports participation markct in 2016 consisted of thos' regular participants who
contributc<l most of th e f3.9 billion estimatcd as being spcnt on taking part, but
was having <liffic ulty in rctaining playcrs with more casual intcrcsts.
Expe nditurc on playing and watching sports, and buying sports eq uipment,
amount to a ·onsi<lcrable part of houschold and individual hudgcts. Yet it is
argucd that Britain has inadcquate sporting faciliti s an<l leisurc ccntr s at rea-
sonable priccs in both thc public and prívate s ctors and that sports participa-
tion and exercise has dedin ed in recent years. 1t is recognizc<l that thl cr -ation
of more facilities can lead to greater national sporting intc rcst and succcss, such
as thc achievcmcnts of th e British cycling tcam at thc Bcijing Olympics (2008),
th e awarding of thc 2012 Olympic Gamt's to London, and thc pcrl"ormances
of British athlctcs in the ~apital's Gam 'S. Howevcr, thc lcgacy of thc lattcr has
not be ·'n as grcat as had bcen anticipatc<l in terms of incrcase<l income an<l the
encourag mcnt of participation in sport. But rcasonablc succcss was achicvt>d
at thc Rio Olympi cs in 2016 an<l at latc r Commonwcalth Gamu; ami Europcan
and World Championships.
Survc-ys on sports and lcisurc participation in Britain revea! <lifh.-rcnt
cmphascs and contrasting rcsults bccause sorne Jea! with th c whok UK anJ
oth crs with th e individual nations. For cxamplc, in .lunc 201 G, a survcy from
Sport England found that the numbcr of pcnpk agcd 1(> and ovcr playing
sport or cngaging in cxercise had fallen sincc thc 2012 London Olympics an<l
15.8 million peopl play sport or CXl'f ·isc at ka. t once a wcck, a drnp oF 0.4
pcr cent sin.ce 2012. Howevc r, this was still l. 7 million more pcoplc partici-
pating in sport than in 2005 . Thc biggcst decline wa, among pcopk from cth-
nic minoritics an<l economically <lcprived groups and fiv e of thc ninc English
rcgions recorded dedin 'S.
Sport England's Active Lives Survey, Octobcr 2017, liskd thc top 15 par-
ticipatory sports activitics by English a<lults ( agcd 1()+) at kast twicc in thc
preceding 28 <lays. Thcsc werc running/jogging with 15 pcr cent of rcspondcnts,
fo11owcd by fitn ess classes (14 pcr cent), gym sessions ( 12 r -r cent), swimming
(11 per ce nt), cxer ·ise machin es (9 pcr cent), climbing or mountain cning (5
per cent), interval scssions (5 p r ·cnt), football (5 pcr cent), wcights s 'ssions
(5 p er cent), gen ric fitn ess training (5 p cr cent), golf (2 pcr cent), ha<lminton
(2 per cent), tennis (2 per c ' nt"), rowing (2 p er cent) and boxing (2 pcr ce nt).
Swimming had droppcd from tirst place and football from third place in thl
2012 list, and thc overall hgurcs show d that of 29 sports, which rangcd from
majority to minority intercsts, nine had an increase and 20 suffered a decl ine.
Thcre are also other individual keep-fit sports, such as cycling, walking, jogging,
aerobics, yoga and Pilates.
Le i su , e, sport and t h e ar ts
Th e above figur 'S produced exarnplcs of physical activity levels for England
in 201 7. Th e in active (30 minutes a week) amounted to 26 p er cent of the total
population; th e fairly active (20-149 minutes a weck) to 14 per e nt; and th e
active ( 150 minut .s a wcck) to 61 per cent. Som what different analyses were
followed for Wal es, Scotland an<l North crn Ircland.
Variou. reasons are given for this apparent <lrop in participation. lt is argued
that thc government has failcd to <lelivcr on th e 2012 O lyrnpic lega ·y through
lack of planning, strategy and fun<ling; peop1c cannot afford or do not have thc
time for sport; therc are insufticicnt resources for local government to repair
faciliti es orto provi<le new emes; minoríty sports are ignored or not encouraged;
and th e negative effccts of th e 2007-1 O recession continue wíth cut. to bu<l-
gets, th ·losure of local government fa cilities and rcduce<l personal incomes.
A furth ' r íssue is the use of iJlegal drugs which has tainted many sports an<l lcd
to thc banning of sports peo plc.
Th e individu al types of outdoor an<l in<loor sports or exercise hav ' also
chang "d compar d with -'a rli cr years, togeth ' r with their popularity. Opinion
polls in th e early 2000s suggcsted that th e most popular and accessibl parti ci-
patory activity tór both men and womcn was walking (inclu<ling rambling an<l
hiking). Billiards/snooker/pool wcrc th e next most popular for mcn, followcd
by cycling, indoor swimrning, football and golf Kecp tit/yoga was th c n xt most
popular sport for women, follow ed by indoor swimming, cychng and s~ookcr/
pool/billíards. Fishing was the most popular country sport for m e n. Sorne of
thcsc have declin ed, despit · governm nt eftórts to incrcasc the exercisc ratcs
and to counter obe:.sity. At the beginning of thc 2000s, publi - and prívate gyms
and indoor activities were vcry popular. But mcmbership has dcclined becau '
of costs, fees, lack of time for parti cipants an<l th e recession, an<l local counciL-
often cannot afford the upkccp of exi ti ng public rcsources or th ' cost of prn-
vidi ng ncw oncs.
In addition to their individual ke p -fit activities, many British peopl are
also kecn follow ers of amateur and professional team/competitive sports and
attcn<l a range of activities. Fans citen show a tribal i<lentity or loyalty with thcir
favourite teams or competitive games (sec Table 12.4 ). Th er is also a rangc of
other popular sports, which attract varying degre ~s of attc ndance and partici-
pation, such as badminton, netball ( women), bask "tball, volleyball, hockey (ice
and ficld), darts, snooker, boxing, athletics, rowing and hockey.
Polls on sport and exercise participation in thc UK suggest that, dcspitc
declin es, consumcrs combine traditional sporting pastimcs with public and
prívate resources. Sorne 38 per cent of respondents say that they u ·e existing
public leisure centr s for a wide rang, of activiti es from swimming, tcnnis an<l
badminton to weights workouts with videos and computer gamcs, whilc 23 p cr
cent exercise at home; 16 per cent ride a bike (bicycle ) outdoors and 14 pcr
cent run or jog outdoors; 9 p r cent attend titness classes (wh ether public or
priva te); 15 p er cent go to private gyms; 6 per cent playcd team sports (football,
Leisure , sport a nd the arts
TABLE 12.4 Most popular sports events (attended) in the UK, 201 8
1 Football (soccer)
2 Rugby football (union/league)
3 Hockey (ice and field)
4 Cricket
5 Speedway
6 Rounders
7 Swimming
8 Tennis
9 Horse racing
1O Boxing
Source: odopted from WorldAtlos.com . Updoted John Misocki, August 2018 . lncludes spectotor and
participotory
netball and hockey_) while 4 pcr cent cnjoycJ water ·ports (surting, sailing and
rowing) . Sorne activities werc rcstricteJ by low incomes, although othcrs, such
as outdoor runnin g, cost littlc. lnt 'r<:: _stingly, 6 per ce nt of aJults sai<l that th cy
used a hcalth and f-itn ess mnhilc app ( 14 pcr ce nt among l 6- 24s), which may
in crcase gn: ater sports participation ratcs in futurc.
A 2018 Eurobaromctl'r rcport frnm th e European Commission , hascd
on survey data from Kantar Puhlic, suggcsts that Europcan lcvcls of physical
activity we rc low. ln thc UK, 13 pcr cent did so r ' gularly, 34 p ' r cent with
sorn e regularity, 16 p c r ce nt sc ldom anJ 37 p cr cent ncve r. This lattcr low
figure has app are<l frcqucntl y in British statistics in reccnt yc ars at aroun<l
30 per cent.
DCMS figures for its Tuking Part survey 20W- l O rcportcd th at 53.4 pcr
cent of adults in England participatcJ in active sport at moJcratc intcnsity for
at least 30 minut -s a wcck, which is thc reco mmcnJcd amount rcquircJ for a
h calth ben fit from sports activity, and 7 per cent of a<lults play sport cvery <lay.
Howcver, th e 2009- 1O ONS Social Trends: Lifestyles ami Social Participutiun
survcys in<li cate<l that 40 per cent of UK a<lults said that lack of time was th e
main reason for not practising sport. Sports participation vari cd widdy by agc,
with thosc aged ] 6- 24 e ngagin g at 75 p cr cent and thosc agcJ ov .r 75 at l 8
pe r ·ent. In co ntrast to adults, 55 per CL'nt of chilJrcn in school ycars 1- 13 in
En gland participateJ in at least thrcc hours of 4uality school physical cdu ·ation
(PE) anJ out-of-s ·hool sport in a typi cal wcck. Th ere was no signiiicant varia-
tion in parti cipation due to deprivation bctw 'en rcgions, or bctw<::. n rural and
urban arcas.
Active sport covers a wi<lc ran ge of a tivities in whi ch participation has
varicd as has thc number of spectators at amateur and professional sporting
evcnts over time. In 2007, British SocialAttitudes reported that 49 per ce nt of
a<lults over 18 had attendcd a sports cvent at least on ce a ycar as a spectator,
Leisur e , spo rt and t he arts
PLATE 12.4 Footba ll Association Cup Final at Wembley Stadium , 19 May 2018 . Eden
Hazard scoring winning goal (a penalty) for Ch el sea ( 1) against Manchester Uníted (O) .
© Chris Brunskil l Ltd/Getty lmages
Footba/1 (Soccer)
Football (soccer) is played at amatem and professional lcvel throughout most of
the year and also at international level. It is a very popular sport in Britain and
today transcends its earlier working-class origins. Thc profcssional game devel -
oped into a largc, fomily-ori cnted organization, but has suffered from stadium
tragedies, crowd viol<'nn·, high ticket priccs, dcclining attendances and finan cia]
Leisure, spor t o nd t he arts
PLATE 12.5 Wembley Stad ium has been the home of Eng lish footba ll since 1923 and a new
stadium built on the fou ndations of the old w a s opened in Spring 2007. lt holds 90,000
spectators and hosts other events such as rugby, A merican footba ll and pop concerts . Sorne
fans prefer the old ground to the new one . © Charles Bowman/Robert Hard ing/Shutterstock
Lei surc, spo rt a nd the arts
situation is due to poor club organization, bad busin ess decisions, hugc salaries
for playcrs, i11flated transfer fees1 fans deserting th eir clubs becaus of high
ticket prices anda recent lack of quality and succes un thc pitch in Britain and
in Europcan and World cup competitions. Football such as the English tcam's
improved p erformance in the 2018 World Cup in Russia bring European and
world competition and huge financial rcwards, but failure results in serious
financia! loss. Wome n's football has b en succcssfol at club and international
levels and is increasingly influential and popular1 but suffers from a lack of
financia) input an<l support.
Rugby
Rugby football is popular and is widely watchcd and playcd, with two forms
of the sport b eing played. Rugby union was once confincd to amateur clubs
and was an cxclusively middle-class and public-school-influcnced game but it 1
b eca me profcssional in 1995 (at least for the top clubs), now covers a wider
social spectrum and rec ived a boost wh en England won thc World Cup in
2003. England's fortuncs and performance ha.ve varied since th n, and Scotland,
Wal es and Ireland h ave also had their ups and <lowns. Rugby lcague is played
by professional tearns, mainly in the north of Engla nd and sti ll tcnds to be a
working-class sport in terms of participation and support. Both types of rugby
are also playcd internationally.
PLATE 12.6 A tra d itional Eng lish cricket match between two vi llages, Chagford and Fen iton ,
at Chagford , Devon , June 2008 . © Christopher Jones/Shutterstock
Le i su re , sp o r t an d 1he arts
Cricket
Cricket is a summer sport in Britain1but the England t cam also plays in th e win-
ter months in Commonwealth countries. 1t is now both an amateur and profcs-
sional game, having started as largely amateur. Th e senior game is professionaJ
and is largcly confin ed to the English county sidcs ( and onc Wclsh county side)
which play in the County Championship. J\ttendance at thc traditional long
threc-day county cri cket matchcs continucs to decline, although onc-day 20-20
games attract large numbers of spcctators and substantial financial backing. It
is felt that th e contcmporary game has lost sorne of its attractivencss as it has
moved in overly profcssional and money-dominated dircctions. It was in danger
of becoming a minority sport. But it regain ed popularity in th c summer of 2005
when England b cat thc visiting Australians in the Ashcs Test Match series and
the short game also achieved success intc rnatíonall y1 with England bccoming
20-20 workl champions in 201 O. Sin cc then, English Test Match cri cket, par-
ticul arly against thc Austrahans in Australia in 2014 1 and 20- 20 matc:h cs have
varicd b ctwcen considerable succcss and -mbarrassing failurcs.
Other sports
Th erc are many othcr indoor and outdoor sports that rdlcct thc <livcrsity of
traditional intc:rcsts in British lifc. J\mong thcsc are golf; horse racing1 hunting,
riding, lishing, shooting, hockey, bowls1 <larts, snookcr1 sailing1 mountain cering1
walking, ice sports, motorcar an<l motor ·ycl e racing and rally driving. Ameri can
football and basketball are incrcasingly popular bcca use of tdc vision cx posure
and are also played in Britain. Thesc sports may be c:ither amateur or profos-
sional1 and spectator- or participator-base<l, with car and motor ·yck competi-
tion s, greyhound ra cing and horse racing being th e most watcht'. d on tdevision,
at ra cecourses and on thc few remaining motor circuits.
PLATE 12.7 Surfing on the Corn ish coast (here Polzeath, Hayle Bay) has attracted growing
numbers of participants, nationa lly and from abroad . © David Hughes/Robert Hard ing/
Shutterstock
Le i s u1 e, sport an d the ar t s
Gambling
Thc profcssional sporting industry is now very lucrativc, and doscly associated
with sponsorship schcmcs, tclevision incorn e, brand merchandizing and sports
sales. Gambling or b etting on sporting and othcr cvcnts has always been a pop-
ular, if somewhat disreputable, pastime in Britain, and is now much more in
th' open, if not total1y acceptable. Bul there havc bccn rcc nt fraud ·ases and
addiction abuse in th e gambling industry, with calls for greater control and cash
limits. Most gambling (through betting shops or bookmakers on thc High Strcct
and online) is associated with horsc and greyhound racing but can involve other
sports, such as football. Weckly football pools (betting on match results") are
popular and can result in large financial wins, although thc traditional appcal
and involvcmcnt havc diminished.
The partial acceptability of gambling in Britain was rdlected in th e estab-
lishment of a National Lottery in 1994. lt is . imilar to lottcries in other co un-
tri es and considerabl e amounts of moncy can be won. Sorne of its income has
fund ed artistic, community, charitable, lcisure and sports activities, which are
in need of financc to survive. It also h elped to finan ce thc London Olympics
in 2012 and to support elite athlctcs. But falling ticket sales and prnfits have
recently mcant that thc lottery coul<l no longer guarantee financia! support for
all its 'good causes '.
A 2016 report for th e Gambling Comrnission founJ that 45 pcr cent of
pcoplc had participated in sorne form of gamhling in 201 S; 15 p cr cent gam-
bled online; 97 per cent of onlinc gamblcrs gamblcd at home; 33 per cent used
a mobile phone or tablet; and 25 p er cent ha<l bct in-play. In terms of attitudes
and problems, 39 per cent of respondents felt that gambling is fair and can be
trusted; O. 7 pcr cent wcre identified as problem gamblers; 5.5 werc identified
as low or moderate risk gamblcrs; an<l 40 per cent thought that gambling is
associated with crime.
A 201 O report found that in a top list of 61 per cent of men (wom en 56)
gambled on the National Lottcry Draw; 25 (25) per ce nt on an altcrnativé lot-
tery; 22 (25) per cent on scratchcards; 9 (1) pcr cent on football pools; 6 ( 11)
p er cent on Bingo; l 6 (l O) per cent on slot machines; 7 (2) on nxed odds betting
terminals; 21 (11) on horse raccs; 8 (2) on dog raccs; 16 (2) on sports betting; 6
(2) cm non-sports betting; and 9 (2) on casino games.
The Guardian newspaper reported in 2014 that 55 per cent of thc lJK
population gambled, clown from 57 per cent in 20l 2, but that pcoplc aged
18- 24 were 5 per cent more likcly to gamble than thcy wcre a year ago in th e
country's 9,128 b etting shops. Its analysis also found that north ern, urban cit-
ies and London boroughs with high levels of un employment bet four times as
much on gambling machines than richer rural areas in southern England with
low r unemployment. The previous Labour government had also controvcr-
sially opened up the possibility for more casinos in sorne big cities, although
Leisure , spor t and the arts
th ere has been 1ittle progress duc to local and national protests. Local gov-
ernment is now ablc to limit the winnings on gambling m achines b ecause of
increase<l addiction to the games. But cases of acutc addiction have resulted in
demands for more rcstrictions.
Sporfing instifufions
Many sports have contributed to institutionalized and iconic fe atures of British
life and provide a ccrtain dcgrce of national identity. For example, Wimbledon
is ten nis; th e Football A ssociation Cup Final is football in Eng]and (at Wcrnb-
ley Stadiurn); St Andrews is golf in Scotland; thc Open Championship is the
major golf tournament held annually at golf courses throughout th c country;
Twickcnham in England, Murrayfi el<l in Scotland, and th e Millcnnium Sta<liurn
in Cardiff; Walcs (known sin e 2016 for sponsorship purposcs as th c Principal-
ity Stadium) are rugby union; Lords Cricket Ground in London is cricket; th c
D crby at Epsom is flat horse racing, the Grand National in Liverpool is stccplc-
chasin g; H cnlcy Regatta is rowing; Cowes Week off the Isle of Wight is yacht-
ing; Royal Ascot is horse racing; and thc British Grand Prix is Formula l motor
racing at Brand's Hatch and other cir -uits. Sorne of th esc sports may appcal
only to -ertain sections of the population, and others may still be cquatcd with
wealth and social position.
Although tobacco sp onso rship of rnost sporting evcnts is now b ann cd ,
sorne peopl e feel that thc profcssionalization and co mmercializa tion oF sport
in Bdtain has tended to wcakcn what is thought to b e the traditional sport-
ing image of th e amateu1~ of fairncss, of gro up loyalty and an ernphasis upnn
playing th e ga me for its own sake. Yct thesc values still exist to sorne <ll grec,
in spite of greater financia! rcwards for professional sport, th c intluc nccs of
sponsorship an<l a<lvcrtising and more cases of unethical b chavio ur in ali sports.
Football, cricket and rugby players, for example, havc b cen accused of ahusive
an<l aggressive behaviour on and off the fi eld .
British governm ents have only rccently takcn an active politi cal interest in
sport. Thcy are now more concern ed to promote sport at all lcvcls and th c re are
Ministcrs for Sport in England, Scotland, Wales and Northcm IrclanJ, who are
supposcd to coordinate sporting activities throughout th e co untry. J\n -arli c r
Lahour govcrnmcnt was concerned to improve sporting facilities in 13ritain
by sctting up sports councils, coll eges, funds and action zoncs, opcrating on a
regional basis. However, nationally fund ed provisions for sport in Britain are
still inadequate and th ere is a lack of professional coaches, capital invcstmcnt
and sporting facilities compared with other co untri cs. Local authority sports
arcas, school sports fi elds and leisure centres, continue to b e sold off-; dcspitc a
Labour government's attempt to focus more moncy on playing fi elds and open
spaces in dcprived areas. The 'legacy' effrct supposedly generated by th e 2012
Olympi c Games does not seem to have had widesprcad positive results, except
Lei sur e , sport and t he arts
for spccific cvcnts such as the Commonw alth Gam es in Glasgow in 20] 4 anJ
the Gold Coast in Australia in 2018.
The sporting notion of 'a hcalthy mind in a healthy body ' has long 6 -' n
a principle of British education. All schools are supposcd to provide physi ca l
recr ation an<l a rcasonablc rangc of sports is usually, if not always, available for
schoolchildren. Schools may play soccer, rugby, tiel<l hockey o r nctball <luring
th . . winter month s, and cricket, tcnnis, swimming and athl ---ti s durin g the sum-
m er. Sorne schools may be better provided with sporting facilities than others
and offcr a widcr ran ge of activitics. There have also b '<:.n govcrnment attempts
to increase titness in childrcn an<l to redu ce childhood obcsity, with marginal
success.
However, th re are complaints from parents that physi ·al education (PE)
dasses, team gam cs and comp titive sports are dcclining in state schools and
that th ere is a lack of profess ionally trained PE tcachcrs. School reorga nization
and the creation of large compr ---hcnsiws have reduced the amount of inter-
school comp - - tition, which used to be a fcaturc of educa tion; sorne left-wing
councils are opposeJ to competitiv activities; there is a shortage of playing
ficlds for many schools; and a lack of - - quipment and coaching facilities. Th e
position is aculé' in inn er-city arcas, and i of concern to th ose parcnts who f ---el
that th cir children are being prcvcntcd from expres ·ing thcir physical natur s.
Thcy maintain that thc statc s hool ystem is failing to provid . . sporting ·provi-
sion for children, with sorne turning to the indepcnd ·' nt sector, whi -h is usually
well provided with sports facilities. As part of its attcmpt to make indepcnde nt
schools justify th "'ir charitable status, govcrnmcnts insist that th ey share sport-
ing facilities with local state ·chools.
Frequent promiscs are made by government to providc more financia} aid
in an attcmpt to improve th ' availability and sta ndards of state school sport.
Othcr organizations and voluntary groups also try to addres thc lack of sport-
ing facilitie. and recent achievem ent in Britain by embracing the notion of
compctition bctw n schoolchildrcn; bringing through promisin g children; and
crcating <latabases of sporting facilities. Nevcrthelcss, it is cstimated that 70 p r
cent of the most talented youngsters drop out of sport b tween th e ages of] 4
and 17, as opposed to thc lower numb rs in other countri cs. But b ctter facilities
in th emselves may not be cnough and critics maintain that sorne schools an<l
local areas have r asonably good provisions already. Oth ers argue that more
pcoplc of all ages should be encouraged to take up sport and that thcr . . should
be greater cooperation between schools and local communities in the use of
facilities an<l coaching.
The arts
The contemporary British 'arts' derive from ancicnt oral, written, spatial and
musical traditions, which have flourish ed successfully for ccnturics and have
Leisure , sp o rl and t he arts
dcvdopcd new forms and styles. Howcver, a currcnt debate in Britain concerns
the condition of the arts in difnc ult cconomic times and whcther th ' ir fonding
should come from public taxation, prívate donors, th . . income of art · busin ess s
or a mixture of sources.
Som of the arts still have an exclusiv image associated with notions of
high ('highbrow' J culture, especially in literaturc, music, painting, sculptun\
crafts, theatre, opera and ballet, which havc usually bee n thc provin cc of thc
urban and privilcged mctropolitan miJJlc and upper classes anJ, so m "times,
thc landcd aristocracy. This attitud · has lcsse ned to sorne <legre' sincc thc S<.." c-
ond World War undcr the ímpetus of incr "ascd educational opportunitics and
the gradual relaxation of social barriers. Th e growth of mass and popular cul-
ture in many fi el<ls has incrcascd thc pote ntial audicncc for a wide r and more
inclusive range of cultural activities, an<l th c availability and scopc of difh.'rc nt
vari ties of th e arts havc spread to greatcr numbers of peopl e. Thcsc activitics
may be amateur or prof ssional and continue a mixture of parti cipatory, spcc-
tator- and home-based entcrtainment.
lt i, also suggestt.d that th c genuine vitality and innovation oF thc é.1rts in
Britain today derive from thc millions of peopl c across thc country who are
engaged in amate ur, and oftcn minority, music, art and th atrc, rath cr than from
thc profcssional and commcrcial arts world. Many towns, wburhs and vill agcs
have amate ur groups, wh ether choirs, music scctions, orchcstras, string quartcts,
pipe b ands, brass bands, chora] groups, ope ra circks or drama/writing clubs.
The~e are also profrssional arts and cultural fe. tivals hcld cach ycar throughout
Britain, many of which ar of a high standard an<l aprcal to di verse tastcs. Thcsc
range from th e Glastonbury (pop/ro ·k) h .'. stival to th ' Glyndehourn c Opera
Festival in East Susscx.
The funding of th c arts in Britain is prcca rious in hoth thc ¡,rivatc and
public scctors. The public sector is <lividcd bctwcc n local authoritics and four
devolvedArts Councils which rcceive grants from ce ntral authoritics and in co nw
from the council tax to fund artistic activitics in thcir arl'aS. Thc amounts vary
between different arcas of the country, and rccipicnts are critici1/,cd for citlwr
spending too much or too little on cultural activitics. Thc n ca tiw industries
thcmsclves, in their many differcnt forms, are a major British in<lustry, which
according to the D e partment for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) in
2017 contributed f9 2 billion to th e British cconomy, employs ahout a million
people and provides many ·ultural cxports. Sorne critics arguc that th c arts
should not depcnd upon subsidies from taxpayers but shoul<l thcmsdv<. s sup-
port their loss-making tdlow artists.
Members of thc devolved Arts Councils in England, Scotland, Walcs ami
North em lreland are appointed by th c Sccrctary of State for Digital, Culture,
Media and Sport. They are rcsponsible for dividing up an annual govcrnml'nl
grant to the arts and the finance has to b e shared among theatres, orch<:.stras,
opera and ballet companies, art galleries, museums and othe r cultural organiza-
tions. Thc division of limited funds has attracted criti cism . Jt m ans that many
374 Leisur e , sport and the arts
artistic institutions are often depcnd nt upon thc prívate sector and indivi<luals
to supply donations, sponsorship and funding to their state and local gov rn-
m ent mon ey, in order to survive and provide a scrvice. However, cultural organi-
zations, both largc and srnall, such as the Royal Opera House ( Covent Carden),
museums and villa.ge musicians, have also received much-need d finan cc from
the National Lottcry.
Theatre
British th eatre can b e lively and innovative and has an intern ational reputation.
Th ere are sorne 300 commercial or profcssional th 'atres, in ad<lition to a large
number of amateur dramatic clubs, fringe and pub th eatres throughout thc
country. London and its suburbs have about 100 theatres, but the dominant
influence is th e capital 's 'West End' . Th e majority of th c West En<l theatres are
commercial in that thcy are orga nized for profit and r ceive no publi - funds.
They provide a rangc of cntcrtainment offerings from musicals to plays and
com edies.
Howeve1~ . orne of the other Lon<lon and regional theatres are subsidi:,.,.ed
from grants suppli d by thc J\rts Counci l, such as thc N ational Th eatrc, thc
Royal Shakespeare Company Cas wcll as at Stratfor<l-upon-Avon) and th c
English Stagc Company. Th ese offcr a varicty of plays from th c classics to mo<l-
ern drama. The subsi<lizcd theatr s in both London aml the regions rcgularly
ask for more state finan cia! aid, which thc governme nt is oftcn loath to giv . The
government subsidy is considerably lcss than that given to most comparabl e
th eatres in co ntinental Europe. But th re is a feel ing in sorne quarters that thcsc
th eatrcs should be mor , compctitivc and commer -ially mind d like the West
End, although Arts Council and local govcrnment grants have bcen cut bccause
of austcrity programmes.
Many of th e th eatres in the rcgions outside London use.el to be repertory
theatrcs, which rneant that th y providcd a specitic numb r of classica] and
ü111ovative plays in a given sea.son, and ha<l a resi<lent thcatrc company andorga-
nization. Th e repcrtory compani es h ad traditionally b n the training gro und
for British actors and actrcsses, which allowcd thcm to learn their craft whil e
working as part of a pcrrnancnt co mpany. Thcir numbers have now grcatly
decreased 1 many havc lost local governm{.:'.nt subsidies and they may facc fur-
ther decline.
Theatres in London and elsewhere have had difficult times in recent ycars
in attracting audicnces and in remaining solvent although thc Wcst End the-
1
atres bring co nsiderable finance into th '-' British cconomy an<l are popular with
tourists. Th ey have had to cope with in creased compctition from alternativc and
new entertainment activities. However commercial thcatrcs in sorn e regional
1
citics are proving popular, offer competition to thc rcmaining repertory th catres
and serve a public dernand for a broadcr range of arts offerings, and actors learn
Leisure , sport a nd the arts
¡
PLATE 12.8 West End
" -... . . commerc ia l theatres
,. , . ... . "
on Shaftesbury
. - ~~
Avenue, regarded as
the centre of London 's
theatreland and
popular with tourists
for the variety of its
4
entertai nment venues .
© Alex Segre/
Shutterstock
groups, and ballet companies such as the Ballet Ramb rt, th e London Festival
Ballet, thc Scottish Th eatre Ballet and th e Royal Ballet, thc latte-r of wh ich oper-
ates in London and Birmingham. A number of contemporary dance companies
have also been formed in recent years, and th e high numbcr of different dance
forms are vcry popular.
Britain has many quality orchestras, although most of them are based in
London, such as th e London Symphony Orchestra, the London Philharmonic
and th e BBC Symphony Orchestra. Thcre are superb regional symphony orchcs-
tras, such as the Hallé in Mancheste,~ th e City of Birmingham Symphony, th e
Ulster Orchestra, th e rrnc National Orchcstra of Wales an<l the Royal Scottish
National Orchestra, along with a number of chamber groups in London and th ,
rcgions. Most opera, ballet and orchestra activities have their greatest appea l in
London and still cater for a minority of thc prnple. More popular forms, su -h
as brass bands, choral singing and light music, once had a large following, but
audiences and participation hav dedin ed. Thc mor exclusive e-ntertainm 'nts
are heavily dep endent upon Arts Counci] subsidies, local government grants and
privatc donation , and critics question whcthcr scarce public funding is appro-
priate for thesc activitics.
Engagement with th e arts is mainly rdlected in participation or atten<lance
figures, and may involve mor than one a ' tivity. /\. DCMS Taking Part sur:'CY of
adults in England, 201G- 17, rcported in Septembcr 2017 that 77 p er cent of
respondents had engagcd with th e arts in on e or more forms.
Thos defin ed by attendance of people in England were events such as
dan ce, opera/operetta, ballet, culturaily specific festivals, video or elcctronic art
event, jazz performance, classical music concert, str et arts, craft cxhibition,
carnivals, pantomime, public art display, art/photography/ culpture exhibition,
play or drama, musicals and othcr livc music eve nts. In terms of livc musi-
cal tastes outside musicals, operas, -lassical concerts an<l jazz performan ces,
DCMS reported the attractions of other styles from rock to ch oral music (se
Tabl e 12.5) in 2015-16. Visits to hcritage si tes, museums, art gallcrics and
libraries also appcarcd in thc list.
Thc most popular participatory art forrns are crafts such a. calligraphy, pot-
tery or jewe1lery, using a computer to crcate original artworks or dance, pho-
tography as an artisti - activity, playing a musical instrument for own pleasure,
painting, drawing, printmaking or sculpture, and textile rafts.
Thc varicty of th ese activities suggest a significantly vibrant arts scene in
Britain, dcspite decline, lack of interest and financia} rcstraints in sorne tields,
and therc are other amateur and regional cultural forms. Responses to th e arts
can vary over time to refl ect cultural changes, p ersonal taste and economic
conditions.
Generally, fewer adults in England cngage with th e arts three or more times
ayear, compared with more who ngagcd at lcast once, and attendance is greatcr
than participation. Nevertheless, the examples of atten<lance and participatory
Leisure, sp o rt and t he arts
activ ity above suggcst a positivc response to th' arts in Rritain and a rclativcly
imprcssivc sprcad of artistic forms.
Whilc attcndin g thc cinema as a pastimc scorcd 53 pcr cent in tcnth place
in a 2017 DCMS poli, thc history of thc cin ema in Britain has shown a decline
since its e arly days as a vcry popular form of mass cntertainmcnt and from
1946, wh e n total annual visits rcachcd l .G billion. Thc Jomcstic tilm industry
has suffcrcd from a lack of invcstmcnt and govcrnment help, alth ough Brit-
ish films with British actors continued to b e madc abroad and in Britain with
fórcign financia] backing. Sorne govcrnmcnt, British Film In stitutc (BFI) and
National Lottcry fo1an cc has now bccn provided to support British tilm making.
Thc British film in<lustry still produces highly rcgardcJ quahty tilms, although
many f-ilms made in Britain are cither forcign or co-pro<luctions.
In 1960 thcrc wcrc ovcr 3,000 cin <: mas in Britain, but m,rny havc now
either go ne out of business, or ch angcd to othcr activitics such as clubs, dan cing
and bingo. Annual audicnce figures dropp cd from sorne 501 million in 1960 to
193 million in 1970. This decline was hastcneJ by thc arrival of tclevision ami
continued as new forms of home e ntertainmrnt, such as videos, DVDs anJ th e
Internet, added to thc compctition, an<l annual aclm issions sank to 55 million
by 1984 .
However, new screens have been built since 1996. According to th e UK
Cinema Association, there were 801 cinema sites with 4,309 screens situatcd
eith er in single buildings or in multiplexes in 2017. There was an incrcasc in
admissions to 142 million in 2000 and ] 76 million in 2002 before declining
agai n to 168 million in 2016, down 2 pcr cent on 2015, according to th e BFI.
lt reported combined box office film receipts in 2016 off 1.2 billion in thc UK,
down 1 per cent on 2015 .
Lei s ur c , s p o rt a n d the arts
The top four films released at thc UK box office in 2016 w ere UK produc-
tions, including the top title Rogue One: A Star Wars Story with gross receipts
of [66 million . The next three most popular relcases were: Fantastic Beasts and
Where to find 'J'hem (f.55 million), Brídget .Jones's Baby (f48 millionJ and The
Jungle Rook (f 46 million). Six UK film s were in the top 20 films of 2016, down
from eight in 20] S. One was a British indcp cnd cnt film , Absolutely fa.bulous:
The Movi.e, whi ch was based on a very popular television series.
While admissions droppcd in 2016, improved audi en ce figures ovcrall sincc
1984 had b een encouraged by cheaper tickcts, a widcr rangc of tilms (not 1im-
ited to blockbustcrs), responses to competition, an in creasing appeal to youngcr
peoplc, the provision of an alternative leisurc activity within modern surround-
ings, and <levelopme nts such as streaming. Biggcr audicnccs wcre also due partly
to the success of British-bascd films, such as Harry Potter nlms and srnaller
indcp cndcnt films. But more than 30 p er cent of th e popuh1tion do not go to
th e cin e ma, 4 7 p er cent of those aged over 35 n cvcr go at alt and auclicnce sizes
can vary considcrably.
Thc attraction of British popular music incrcascd in Britain and abroad
from th c l 960s, an<l was both an economic and cultural ph cnomcnon. Follow-
ing th c Bcatlt.:s and Rolling Stones, th , dom estic markct for music sales greatly
increased . However, in recent years, critics f-,]t that th crc was a stalcncss .in th e
popular tield which affected mainstream pop genres, hip-hop, rap, avant-garde
and 'ethnic' music alike. Sorne attributed this to commcrcial manipulation,
overly packaged oflcrings and standardized bands, and others to a lack of sub-
stantial and consistcnt talcnt or of memorable tun es and songs. Old-guard pop
stars complained about th e inadcquacy of contcmporary British pop music with
its bland material and eph em eral artists, most of which had <.hfficulty brcak-
ing into thc global (and particularly th c Amcri ·anJ market. M embers of 1990s
bands havc also criti cized moclern pop music as sclf-absorbcd and lacking social
commentary.
However, there has b een a rcccnt rcsurgence in 13ritish popular and rock
music, characterized by single artists, bands an<l son 6rwrite rs, in an cxpanded
dom estic and international following. Th e British Phonographic Industry
reported that there had b een a 9.5 p er cent rise in music consumption in 2017
as demand for music in the UK grew and music sales wcrc at thcir highest for
20 years. Sales of vinyl rccords rose 26.8 p e r cent to 4 million; LPs accountcd
for sorne 1 in 1Ophysical purchases; 68.1 billion digital audio streams were sent
( over half of UK music consumption ); UK acts made up cight of thc top-] O
b est-selling artist albums; and 135.1 million albums or thcir cquivalcnt were
streame<l, purchased or downloaded.
This recovery was generated by the stadium tours and radio, and onlin e
strcarning of artists such as Ed Shecran, Sam Smith, Stormzy, Adele, Littlc Mix,
Rag'n'Bone Man, Ke ndrick Lamar and Liam Gallagh er according to Pe rforming
Le i sur e , sport and t he arts
Rights Socicty (PRS) for Musi c. British songwriters received increased royalty
payme nts in this cxpanding market as the influence of UK music was boosted
ovcrscas. Crucially, payments to artists were strengthened by better busin ess
technology aftcr a pcriod of poor orno control. Arrangements w ere made with
royalty collection socictics, onlinc rcvcnuc was tightened up and streaming ser-
vices, such as Spotify and Appl e Music organize<l effi cie nt sub ·cription schemes.
But PRS reported in 2018 that alth ough its total royalty rcvcnucs had incrcasc<l
12. 7 p er cent to f 717 million, sorne music wcbsitcs werc still not compensating
artists fairly, and piracy and downloading continue.
Most record sales are pop record albums, sales of classical albums havc
incrcased steadily, an<l vinyl or plastic records have seen signifi ca nt growth and
popularity amounting to l in l O in 20] 7, but CD and DVD sales have <lropped.
According to UK Music, th e music industry in 2013 contributed a significant
total value of f3.8 bilhon (up by 9 per cent from D.5 billion in 2012) to the
British e -onomy and had total music exports of f.2.2 billion or 12 .6 per cent of
global sales, accountin g for one in eight of all artist albums sol<l. Polls suggest
that 81 pcr cent of Britnns between 16 and 24 spend th eir leisurc time listcn-
ing to music at lcast once a wcek. However, th e music busin ess rc mains vola-
tik, accounts tór only 1G pcr crnt of thc lJK cntertainmcnt markct and sorne
tcchnology companics frcl that thc industry is not kcepin g up, f-inan cially and
technically, with th c vcry varicJ anJ ·hallcnging structural ways in wh ich music
is bcing uscd today.
Th e rc is a wiJc rangc of musc ums and art gallcries in 13ritain ( l ,8UOL
which provi<le for a varicty of tastes. Most of thcm are tinan ccJ and rnntrnlkJ
by local authoriti es, although sorne are commcrcia l vcntu rcs and oth -rs, such
as national institutions likc t h c British Musc um an<l thc National Calkry in
London, are thc provimT of thc Sccrctary of Statc for Cu lture. Entry to ma n y
of th c publi c muscums and art galkrics is now fn:l' of chargc, aftcr a pcrio<l
wh en e ntran ce fees wc rc lcvicd for som ~ institution s. But muscums anJ élrt
gall eri es are genera ll y fin<ling it di-H-i cult to o¡wratc on limitcd funds anJ are
dcp e nd nt upon local govcrnmcnt gra nts, /\ rts Council subsidies and National
Lott"ry donation s. DCMS survcy statistics in 201 G- 17 1-<.)r England rc portcd
that 52.3 pcr cent of rcspon<le nts ha<l visitc<l a musc um or ga llcry at lcast once
in a 12-rnonth pcriod and the re werc proportional in crcascs in Waks, Scotlan<l
and North e rn Ireland. This annual figure was slightly clown on 2013 but tlw
proportion of adults who had visited a museum or gall ery at least once a month
and at least 3-4 times a year had incrcased signiticantly. Th ese fi gure· rdl cctcd
thc consi<l -- rable popularity in rc cent years of exhibitions such as Mat-isse:
Cut-Outs at Tate Mo<lcm and Vikings: Life and Legend at th e 13ritish Muse urn.
Later ex hihitions havc showcascd Caravaggio, Modigliani, Van Gogh, PicasS<.\
Degas Jrom the Rurrell (the National Gallcry, London, 2018) and Rodín and the
Art of Ancient Greece (th e British Museum, 2018). Special cxhibitions are a
Lei sur e, sp or t and the arts
PLATE 12.9 The M illennium Walkway (from the north to the south bank of the river Thames
in London) and Tate Modern , a very successful gallery and exhibition hall created in 2000
from a disused power station, which special izes in contemporary art. © Andy Lauwers/
Shutterstock
DCMS and ONS stati. tics show that between 2006 and 2010 thcre was a
decr ase in adults over l 6 visiting a public library in En gland from 48 to 39 p er
cent. In 2016- l 7, 34 per cent of adults had used a puhlic library scrvice. This
is significantly lowcr than in 2005-06 (48.2 per cent) , but similar to 2015- lG
(33.4 p er cent and the biggest dccrcascs have been in th e 16-24 age gro up.
Public library us d clined for males and fem ales over the period 2005- 06 to
201 6-17, but in 201 6-17, 38.3 per cent of females used a library omparcd
with 29.6 per cent of males.
An aspect of this declin e is that public libraries run by lo al gov rnment
have b en gradually clo ed clown in recent decades and austerity mcasurcs
to reduce the budget deficit have led to more -losures nationwide. But som -'
libraries are being staffe d by volunteers who preserve sorne services.
Many p eoplc choose to b orrow books from librarics rath cr than huying
them . Fifty-one per cent of the UK populati on have a currt nt library ca rd, but
most of these holders are over 60 years of age. Thc use of library websites has
in creas d to 14.2 per cent of adults but th e decrease in book loans is 4 pcr
1
3 Critically examine the results of polls and surveys in this chapter. What
information do they provide about the cultural lives of the British people?
Further reading
Bailey, P.C. ( 1986) Music Hall: The Business of Pleasure, Milton Keynes : Open University
Press
2 Belfiore, E. and Holdaway, D. (2014) The Future of Cultural Value, University of Warwick :
The Warwick Commission
3 Bennett, A. (2000) Popular Music and Youth Culture: Music, ldentity and Place, London :
Palgrave/Macmillan
4 Christopher, D. (2015) British Culture: An lntroduction, London : Routledge
5 Cunningham, H. ( 1985) 'Leisure' in J. Benson (ed.) The Working Class in England, 1875-
1914, London : Croom Helm
6 Enriching Britain: Culture, Creativity and Growth : The 2015 Report by the Warwick Com-
mission on the Future of Cultural Value, University of Warwick, The Warwick Commission
7 Fowler, D. (2005) Youth Culture in the Twentieth Century, London: Palgrave Macmillan
8 Gray, C. (2000) The Politics of the Arts in Britain, London : Palgrave Macmillan
J. (20 l O) The Cambridge Companion to Modern British
9 Higgins, M ., Smith, C. and Story,
Culture, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Leisure , !> p o , t a nd t he arts
l O Hill , J. (2002) Sport, Leisure and Culture in Twentieth-Century Britain, London : Polgrave
Macmillan
l l Holt, R. and Masan, T. (2000) Sport in Britain 1945-2000, Oxford : Blackwell
12 Jacobs, E. and Worcester, R. (1990) We British : Britain under the MOR/scope, London :
Weidenfeld & Nicolson
13 Monk, C. and Sargeant, A. (2002) British Historical Cinema, London : Routledge
14 Polley, M . ( 1998) Moving the Goalposts : A History of Sport and Society Since 1945,
London : Routledge
15 Rowell , G . ( 1984) The Reperfory Movement: A History of Regional Theatre in Britain,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
16 Sandbrook, D. (2016) The Great British Dream Factory, London : Penguin Books
17 Silva, T. , Elizabeth, B. and Selwood, S. (eds.) (2006) 'Cultural trends : Cu lture, toste and
social division in con temporary Britain ' , special issue of Cultural Trends , vol . 15 nos. 2/3 ,
London : Routledge
18 Statistical Yearbook, 2017, Research and Statistics Unit, London : Briti sh Film lnstitute (BFI)
Webs ites
Department for Culture , Med ia and Sport: www.culture .gov.uk
UK Sport: www.uksport.gov.uk
Sport England : www.english .sports .gov.uk
FA Premiership : www.thefa .com
Rugby Football Union : www.rfu .com
Artsonline : www.artsonline.com
Arts Council (England) : www.artscouncil.org .uk
Arts Council of Wales : www.artswales.org .uk
Scottish Arts Council : www.sac.org .uk
Arts Council of Northern lreland : www.ortscouncil-ni.org
National Lottery Comm ission : www.natlotcomm .gov.uk
BBC : www.bbc .co .uk
Ofcom : www.ofcom .org .uk
lndex
' British Civilization: An lntroduction is an excellent overview of a number of elements which students
will need to know in order to understand Brítish society. lt is well-written, concise, and has attractive
full-colour pictures and illustrations. lt is especially strong on recent developments in British culture.'
Mark Ma rston Norris, Gra ce Colleg e, USA
Thoroughly updated and revised, the ninth edition of the highly regarded British Civilization: An
lntroduction continues to be the ideal textbook on Britain, its country and people, re ligion , politics and
government, international relations, legal system, economy, education, media and culture fo r students of
British studies.
Examining central structural features of British society, the book provides an introduction t o British
civilization that highlights its history of cultural, geographical and human diversity. The book includes :
• expanded discussion of Britain's current política! climate and international relations through an
examination of the 2016 Brexit referendum , the subsequent general election and Brexit
negotiations up to April 2019
• discussion of the ever-shifting economy from a global perspective
• opinion polls and surveys that provide an insight into the attitudes of British people to the conditions
in which they live and operate today
• exercises, questions, and suggestions for further reading and useful websites that stimulate class
discussion and provide a springboard upan which students can develop their own independent study.
John Oakland is former Senior Lecturer in English at the Norwegian University of Science and
Technology and the author (with David Mauk) of American Civilization (2017, now in its seventh edition),
lrish Civilization (2012, with Arthur Aughey), British Civilization: A Student's Dictionary (2003, in its
second edition), and Contemporary Britain (2001 ).
Cover im ages: M anchester sky line showing Media City at Sa lford Quays, with BBC st udios on the rig ht. A new tech nological, educational, media and
broadca sti ng business centre, attempting t o m ove such faciliti es to no rthern Eng la nd and away from the traditional London co ncentration . !f' Pu repix / A la my
Stock Photo; Th eresa May (PM) and Dona ldTusk (Presiden! of t he European Union Council) outside No 10 Downing Street, Londo n. M arch 2018,
where discussio ns o n Britain's pla nned w ithdrawal from the EU were held . © Tommy Lo ndo n / Al am y Stock Photo
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