Criminality

Crime

A crime is an act or omission punishable by a state or civil legal system. It may be defined as
the unlawful violation of law, especially in order to achieve a criminal purpose. The state has
the right to punish wrongdoing, which may be done either civilly or criminally. While every
society has criminal laws, not every offense can be considered a crime. For example, not all
speeding tickets are crimes because they do not represent harm to anyone else and do not
have a criminal intent behind them. Thus, most legal systems require that the accused person
exhibit mens rea (a guilty mind) and have committed the actus reus (the physical
requirement). Motive is generally irrelevant in determining whether or not an offense is
considered a crime; however, motive can be taken into account for certain offenses such as
murder or theft. Crime, a serious offense, is usually distinguished from other acts that are
considered less serious. In civil law jurisdictions, crimes are categorized as either "crimes
against persons" or "crimes against property." Crimes are also distinguished from
contraventions, which are minor offenses. A crime can be differentiated into two categories: a
major offense and a trivial breach of the law. The common law world had a distinction
between crime (grave) and misdemeanour (slight). Another distinction is between malum in
se, or ‘bad in themselves’ or they are malum prohibitum, or ‘bad because prohibited’ - being
against public policy (The People's Law Dictionary, 2019).

crime. (n.d.). The Free Dictionary. https://legal-

dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/crime
crime against humanity. (n.d.). TheFreeDictionary.com. Retrieved September
18, 2022, from
https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/crime+against+humanit
y

The most serious violations of legality and law and order entail criminal punishment. (For
example, Soviet criminal law defines a crime as an act or omission that transgresses against
the Soviet social or state system; the socialist economic system; socialist property; the
person; citizens' political, labor, property, and other rights; as well as any other act against
socialist law and order.) A crime is a violation of the law that harms society, usually through
willful actions. Crimes reflect the political and moral views of the ruling classes in a particular
society, and therefore crimes are class categories. In one society, certain human actions are
considered socially dangerous and criminal; in another, they are not. For example, war
propaganda and racial equality violations are considered crimes in some countries but not
others. In a socialist society free of class antagonisms, the concept of crime encompasses
truly dangerous acts that conflict with the interests of the overwhelming majority of society
members.
Crimes and other violations are distinguished by the nature and degree of danger they
present to society. Crimes are punishable by law; other offenses, such as petty theft or minor
speculation, may be punished with administrative or disciplinary measures rather than
criminal punishment. Only a concrete act (or omission) may present a social danger because it
can cause harm or create a threat of harm. Inasmuch as both actual harming legally protected
interests and the creation of real threats are socially dangerous acts, criminal punishment is
warranted for both a crime committed and criminal activity not carried through despite the
guilty person's intention (i.e., preparation and attempt). Criminal actions, such as deserting
someone in danger, illegally keeping or carrying a weapon, and illegally practicing medicine,
are often considered crimes regardless of their actual results.

The elements of a crime include a specific object, an objective aspect and a subjective aspect.
All of these elements characterize the social danger of a criminal act. The object of the crime
is considered important in some instances (for example, in crimes against the social and state
systems and against human life) and is considered not so important in other instances. In
some instances, it is sufficient for any transgression against an object to represent a serious
social danger; in other instances, it is necessary for special conditions to be present for such
acts to be classified as criminal. For example, criminal acts that cause substantial harm (such
as negligent storage of a firearm) are considered more serious than other types of criminal
acts. Other objective criteria of social danger include the consequences of the crime, how it
was committed, and in some instances, where it was committed. For instance, premeditated
murder is considered more serious if committed with unusual cruelty.

Because guilt is an essential element in the equation of crime, it is important to assess the
subjective aspect of the crime. For example, premeditation can be considered a form of guilt
for murder, but not for causing death through negligence. The nature of crime is determined
by its purpose; speculation will always be considered criminal if done for gain.

A person who commits acts that are dangerous to another person, for instance, when that
person is dependent on the other person or his or her parents for support, may be held
criminally responsible for these actions. In some cases, an act is deemed criminal because it
was committed by a person previously held administratively responsible for similar acts or a
person to whom social pressure may not have been applied because of the circumstances of
the case. The identity of the guilty person is also important in determining the degree of
social danger associated with certain types of crimes. For example, abortion performed by a
non-medical professional can be considered more dangerous than illegal abortions performed
by doctors and failure to provide assistance is considered graver if committed by someone
responsible for looking after the victim. A person may be held responsible for a crime without
being legally guilty of committing it. This is called “criminal liability”, and it applies to
individuals who have reached the age of 16 before the crime was committed (for certain types
of crimes whose social danger is understandable at an earlier age—for example murder, rape,
or malicious hooliganism). Only mentally healthy, sane persons can commit crimes.
Crimes are not any socially dangerous acts, but only those defined as illegal under existing
criminal law and prohibited on pain of punishment. In the USSR, general grounds and
conditions of criminal liability are defined in the Basic Principles of Criminal Legislation of the
USSR and Union Republics of 1958. Each union republic has its own criminal code containing a
detailed list of acts considered crimes. Responsibility for a crime follows from this code, only if
one's acts contain the elements of the crime as defined by law, and one may be held liable
only for crimes whose elements have been established in one's acts. Analogy is not permitted
in criminal law.

The law provides certain defense mechanisms, such as self-defense and necessity, which
allow an individual who has committed a crime to be released from liability. These
mechanisms stem from the fact that, after time has passed and social danger has dissipated,
the act is no longer socially dangerous even though illegality remains. The law also contains
provisions for release from liability when changed circumstances make the act committed by
someone no longer socially dangerous.

The law provides certain defense mechanisms, such as self-defense and necessity, which
allow an individual who has committed a crime to be released from liability. These
mechanisms stem from the fact that, after time has passed and social danger has dissipated,
the act is no longer socially dangerous even though illegality remains. The law also contains
provisions for release from liability when changed circumstances make the act committed by
someone no longer socially dangerous.
Piontkovskii, A. A. Uchenie o  prestuplenii po  sovetskomu ugolovnomu pravu. [Moscow, 1961.]

Crime is a social phenomenon that has historical roots. A crime can be defined as all criminal
offenses committed during a certain period. In practice, however, because of latent
criminality, crime refers to the offenses detected within a given area (district, city, region).
The term "crime" is also used to denote crimes committed by people belonging to a particular
population group (for example juvenile crime). Crime is a social problem, not an individual
one. It stems from material and ideological conditions of human existence, and changes over
time with those conditions. Marxist scholars have shown that crime is a product of social
phenomena, not an innate trait; it cannot be eradicated through imprisonment alone.

Criminologists have always taken into account the effects of individual psychological traits,
but the traits that are important in this respect evolve and change under the influence of living
conditions and education. Germany also experienced an increase during that same period 4
times faster than population growth rate. During this time period Japan showed an increase
of 20 percent which was 15 times faster than population growth rate. In the Federal Republic
of Germany, crime grew by 23 percent, or 4 times the rate of population growth. Japan
showed a 20 percent increase in crime, which was 15 times the rate of population growth.
According to statistics provided by the Council of Europe, juvenile crime increased 400
percent in Belgium, 180 percent in France, 77 percent in the Federal Republic of Germany and
85 percent in Scotland. These figures indicate that crime is rooted in the very foundation of
capitalism; any attempts to solve this problem within an exploitative society are doomed to
failure."

socialism as a system. In communist societies, the root causes of crime have been eliminated,
and for the first time in history, there are increasing prospects to do away with crime as a
social phenomena. Due to socialism's "birthmarks" from the previous society, both
economically and morally, there is still crime today. The root causes of crime are relics from
the past that continue to permeate various facets of social life, as well as people's
consciousness, psyche, and daily lives. These causes are residual and fundamentally foreign to
communist society, despite the fact that they are social occurrences.

Instigation by criminal elements, the disruptive influence of propaganda for the "Western
lifestyle," alcoholism, and the negative influence of the family or milieu (instilling an alien
ideology, setting a poor example) are typically the causes that result in the commission of
specific types of crimes. The impact of World War II, which denied many children and
teenagers a typical family upbringing, was detrimental to the crime situation. There are many
contributing factors to crime, in addition to the motivations that drive a person to commit
crimes: lack of supervision and alienation from the group at work or school; deficiencies in
educational work; improper organization of cultural leisure activities at a person's place of
residence, employment, or study; allowing minor transgressions of social norms to continue.
unpunished; failure to show proper concern for working and living conditions and for involving
members of a specific collective in study and social life; failure to address the issue of student
dropouts in specific schools; shortcomings in the work of state agencies and the public to
detect and eradicate sources of negative influences and to maintain law and order; and
shortcomings in record keeping and in protecting state and public property.

In a socialist society, the primary method of fighting crime is prevention. Crime prevention is a
multifaceted social activity that takes place in a variety of social contexts and at various levels.
On a societal level, all initiatives conducted to advance the socialist state on the economic,
political, intellectual, legal, organizational, and other fronts include crime prevention. These
actions might be taken in the USSR, for instance, to continuously improve the material well-
being of the working class, further democratize the government, encourage mass social
activism, advance education and culture, cultivate communist morality, and counter the
impact of bourgeois ideology. All of these methods contribute to the battle against crime by
establishing circumstances that make crime impossible.

In particular, criminological crime prevention entails steps that are specifically designed to get
rid of the factors and circumstances that encourage the conduct of various crimes. These
include reducing the production of alcoholic beverages with a high alcohol content, funding
initiatives to strengthen the protection and supervision of socialist property, utilizing the
media to combat antisocial beliefs and behaviors, explaining Soviet laws to raise legal
awareness among citizens, addressing flaws in institutions and businesses that have
encouraged criminal activity, and enhancing the structure and effectiveness of law
enforcement. In the fight against crime, it is crucial to improve the law and get rid of the
factors that encourage criminal activity. Criminalistics measures to prevent crime include the
use of technology to accomplish so, including the deployment of automatic security systems,
technical measures to safeguard documents against forgery, and increased reliance on
scientific ways of detecting signs of crime.

According to the type of crime and criminal behavior (mercenary, violent, negligent,
recidivist), in the various social contexts where moral development occurs and situations
occur that affect a person's behavior (family, school, work, everyday life, and leisure), in
various social groups (minors, young people), and in various economic sectors (trade,
transport, construction), which have specific needs, criminological crime prevention is carried
out along several lines. In addition, with full consideration for the unique characteristics of the
crimes committed there, criminological crime prevention also focuses on certain republics,
oblasts, and economic regions.

In the entire system of crime prevention, individual prevention—which involves adapting

socialist and unique criminological procedures to the individual—is crucial.

Legal means to investigate crimes include locating and exposing offenders, punishing them,
and providing them with rehabilitation and reeducation. Although legal sanctions are used
against those who have previously broken the law, their societal relevance rests in both
targeted and all-encompassing crime prevention. Constructing criminal liability in law for
particular socially dangerous acts and enforcing the liability when the law is broken constitute
a special type influence on both the individual who committed the crime and the larger group
of people who understand that there is no escape from punishment for breaking the law.
Some forms of criminal punishment do away with the factors that encourage crime. These
include excluding a person from adverse situations and relationships, denying them access to
material possessions, and forbidding them from partaking in a specific activity. A suspect's
custody, the choice of a restraint technique, and the investigator's and the court's obligation
to recognize and address the situations and factors that contribute to the crime being
committed are all critical components of prevention. Compulsory drug and alcohol rehab
programs, as well as mandatory education programs for juvenile offenders, all contribute to
reducing crime. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia®. (2013).

crime. (n.d.). The Free Dictionary. Retrieved September 18, 2022, from
https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/crime

Community

any group of social ties that exist within particular limits, regions, or domains. The phrase has
both descriptive and prescriptive implications in academic and public usage (as used by
sociologists and geologists). It may be used to describe social connections that occur in locally
operative social groups or neighborhoods, or it may be used to describe more conceptual,
ideological connections. The phrase "a sense of community" or "community spirit" are only a
couple of examples of how the term is frequently used in popular culture to refer to anything
nice. It is obvious that the term has normative and ideological connotations in addition to
being descriptive. Prescriptive uses of the term have frequently been reinforced in sociological
discourse. Some sociologists have believed that community is essential to meeting human
needs and fostering social interaction, following a legacy of 19th-century romanticism.
Though not entirely present in sociological theory of the 20th century, this tradition was
notably prevalent in the 19th century.

German sociologists referred to kinship connections that took place inside a shared territory
and were given significance by a common culture. They were distinguished by their intimacy
and longevity. Status was also assigned rather than attained. In contrast, Gesellschaft led
directly to contractual, ad hoc, and impersonal interactions. Such interactions were
calculative and rational rather than emotive since they were competitive and were marked by
secrecy and alienation. Prestige was determined by merit and was thus attained. Tönnies held
the view that societal relationships will grow as a result of the disintegration of
gemeinschaftlich relationships brought about by the dynamics of industrialization and
urbanization. He was worried about what he perceived to be the decline of conventional
society, authority, and sense of belonging. In Tönnies' work, we can discern his implied high
regard for the previous social order as well as his duality toward industrialization and
urbanization. Because of this romanticized interpretation of traditional society, the idea of
community has come to be linked with concepts of social support, intimacy, and security. As a
result, traditional communities have frequently been portrayed as tightly knit and conducive
to collaboration and aid between members. Contrarily, the process of URBANIZATION has
been found to be harmful to communities as well as the concept of "community". However,
major questions have been raised about the validity of any such straightforward link between
urbanization and "loss of community" by research by Young and Willmott (1960) and Gans
(1962).

Community. (n.d.). The Free Dictionary. Retrieved September 18, 2022, from
https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Community
Sociologists have typically been more interested in analyzing the form and caliber of the
human connections sustained by communities than in classifying and defining the structural
and geographic elements of those communities. The investigation of collective action and
cooperative resistance to societal issues has also been a focus of recent sociology (Castells,
1976).

Despite definitional challenges, all communities—real and symbolic—exist within defined

borders or regions and conduct their business there. The purpose of boundaries is to
distinguish social participation from nonmembership. Communities may be perceived as
including some individuals and social groupings while excluding others. Community
boundaries can either be strictly upheld in specific situations (such as in some religious
communities) or they can be flexible and open.

Despite the challenges associated with theorizing about "community" and "communities,"
Worsley (1987) argues that three basic definitions can be found in sociological literature. He
refers to the first as "community as locale." In this context, the term's geographical definition
—"a human settlement within a definite and bounded local territory"—is most closely
interpreted. Second, he asserts that the term "community" has come to mean a "network of
interrelationships" (Stacey, 1969). In this sense, conflict can coexist with mutuality and
reciprocity in community interactions. In the third sense, community can be understood to
refer to a certain kind of social relationship, one that has distinctive characteristics. It implies
that a "community spirit" or "community sentiment" exists.

A group of people having common rights, privileges, or interests, or living in the same place u
nder the same laws and regulations. Collins Discovery Encyclopedia, 1st edition. (2005).

This term has a number of connotations, but when used in everyday speech, it refers to the
human body.

In the civil law, the term "community" refers to political groups or corporations.

In the French legal system, which Louisiana has embraced in this case, Civ. Code, art. 2371,
describes the community as a type of partnership that a man and woman enter into after they
are legally wed. It includes of all profits, over which the husband has legal or equitable
administration and pleasure; the fruits of the husband and wife's reciprocal work and labor;
and any estates they may gain throughout their marriage, whether through gifts made jointly
to them or otherwise. or by transaction, or in any other manner akin to this, even if the
purchase was made in one of the two parties' names and not both. In this scenario, the time
period during which the purchase was made is taken care of alone, not the party who
purchased the item. The debts incurred during the marriage become a component of the
community and must be paid off from the common fund; however, the obligations incurred
before to the marriage are not subject to this requirement.

The community can be classified as either first, conventional, or that which is formed by an
express agreement in the marriage contract itself; by this contract, the legal community may
be modified, as to the proportions which each shall take, or as to the things which shall
compose it. Second, legal, which occurs when the parties do not make this subject the subject
of an express agreement in the marriage contract; when this happens, the legal community is
governed by the law of the domicile they had at the time of marriage.

At the end of a marriage, the effects that make up the community of gains are divided
amongst the heirs in two equal shares. In a another meaning, community is the right that all
men have to make use of the natural laws. John Bouvier.. (1856). 
Community Preparedness Principles

Collaboration: Government must collaborate with community leaders from all sectors for effective
planning and capacity building.

Integration: Non-governmental assets and resources must be fully integrated in government plans,

preparations, and disaster response.

Personal/Organizational Preparedness: Everyone in America must be fully aware, trained, and

practiced on how to prevent, protect, mitigate, prepare for, and respond to all threats and hazards.

Volunteer Service: Citizen activism and volunteer service provides ongoing support for community
safety and critical surge capacity in response and recovery.

In all areas of the homeland security mission space, the United States can never be totally
immune to current and upcoming threats and dangers. Federal, state, municipal, tribal, and
territorial governments, the commercial sector, non-governmental groups, and the American
people all have responsibilities for preparation.

Communities won't always be able to handle every catastrophe; as a result, the federal
government must be ready to respond to natural disasters, physical and cyberattacks, attacks
using weapons of mass destruction, key infrastructure disruptions, and distress signals for
search and rescue. The federal government must be ready to provide long-term recovery aid
to local communities in the wake of disasters. By thoroughly preparing local areas, acting
quickly in times of crisis, and assisting in recovery, the United States can manage emergencies
and lessen the impact to American communities.

DHS. (2019, July 5). Strengthen Preparedness and Resilience. Department of

Homeland Security. https://www.dhs.gov/strengthen-preparedness-and-
resilience

Crime Incidents
All forms of law enforcement authorities must be able to anticipate criminal incidents. This
capability enables law enforcement to both safeguard potential victims and catch offenders.
This skill has grown even more crucial for people in charge of stopping computer threats,
though. While some responses to these attacks are possible, the majority of them necessitate
that warnings of potential attacks be sent out in "cyber time." However, it is crucial that
warnings be as specific as possible in order to prevent systems that are not likely to be under
attack from shutting off essential services to their users. The methods for data-mining
intrusion detection system output to identify attacker preferences is covered in this chapter.
‌Other systems with features that are similar to these found preferences can then be informed
about these preferences.

This strategy has two theoretical underpinnings. Data mining and pattern recognition are the
other, both of which come under the category of cognitive sciences. The decision to select a
certain target is mathematically formulated using judgment analysis. With this formulation, it
is possible to apply clustering to extract the preferences of offenders from the data.

One issue is that this method cannot be used to identify a specific criminal because several
criminals may share the same interests or one criminal may have multiple sets of preferences.
The identified preferences are referred to as representing agents instead. Another issue is
that even while all of the agents are working in the same event space, it's possible that they're
not all selecting targets based on the same feature set. A salience weighting algorithm has
been created in order to identify these agents and their preferences. This technique enables
the finding of the preferences for the features in the environment used by each of the
discovered agents to choose a response to the events brought on by attackers.

Once the agents' preferred targets have been identified, a system for predicting potential
targets can be built using this information. One would use the output of current intrusion
detection systems to build this system. Automated data-mining software would utilize this
information to identify the preferences of the attackers and to alert machines with similar
characteristics. The fact that everything is automatic means that the sites could be informed
in "cyber time."

Criminal Incident - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.).

Www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved September 18, 2022, from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/criminal-
incident

Crime Prevention

The first requirement of justice is prevention, Guidelines for the Prevention of Crime ECOSOC
Resolution: "Crime Prevention comprises strategies and measures that seek to reduce the risk
of crimes occurring, and their potential detrimental effects on individuals and society,
including fear of crime, by intervening to influence their multiple causes."

It takes a multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary, and integrated effort to prevent crime.

"There is clear evidence that well-planned crime prevention measures not only prevent crime
and victimization, but also increase community safety and contribute to sustainable
development of countries," the introduction to the Guidelines for the Prevention of Crime
states.