WORLDWIDE SERVICE peony sl 1 aa Beet OWERSEAS. \OPERATONS ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS ‘To begin our discussion of electrical fundamentals lets consider something familiar such as a flash~ light, This breaks down to three components: a battery, a lamp and a switch, 2 CELLS T a z Figure 1. A Circuit Diagram of a Flashlight. When the switch is closed the lamp lights, if all components are good. ‘What is our source of power to light the lamp? It is the battery. What kind of power lights the lamp ? It is electric power, or d-c electric power. ‘Most flashlights use dry cells and our sketch illus- trates the common method of identifying the cells. ‘The symbol for a battery is =. Figure 2, The Symbol for a Battery Showing Its Polarity, ‘The longer line in the symbol. represents the posi- tive terminal. Wa good cell has 1 1/2 volts what is the voltage used in the circuit of Fig. 1? Since there are 2 cells of 1 1/2 volts each we have a total of 3 volts, What differences can you think of when comparing the car battery to flashlight cells ? 1 - Car battery much larger and heavier 2 - Car battery has acid and water or wet cell versus dry cell 3 - Car battery can take more load 4 - Car battery is rechargeable ~ Car battery has 2-volt cells versus dry cell of 1 1/2 volt. © 1972 General Electric Co. E4 "GENERAL ELECTRIC TECHNICAL SERVICES C0, INC. Flashlight cells are used to power the motors in childrens toys. A typical circuit is similar to the flashlamp circuit. ay ee Figure 3, A Simple Battery-Motor Circuit, ‘To run the motor we need voltage and current, We know that 2 cells give an electric pressure of 3 volts and the motor will run much slower on one cell or 11/2 volts. The power developed by the motor will be less and so will the current. AN ANALOGY BETWEEN ELECTRICAL AND BY! TERM! Now, current is mentioned for the first time and to get a feeling for current lets compare an elec- trie motor and a hydraulic motor. WATER FLOW cuimmewr WW TSELeC FLOW vavve] woroR ow moos QW oe a ; PUMP: oe TURBINE Figure 4, Comparison of a Hydraulic and Elec trical System. COMPARISON OF HYDRAULIC AND Bi Tr Hydraulic Electric Pump Corresponds to. Generator Valve eI ‘Switch Pressure ” EMF or Voltage Liquid flow ie Current Pipes 7 Wires Hydraulie motor ” Electric motorELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS VOLTAGE From this analogy it is seen that the electric pres- sure is measured in volts and algo is kmown as po- tential, electromotive force (EMF). The greater the water pressure the faster the hydraulic motor spins and, Ukewise, the greater the potential the faster the motor shaft turns. It water pressure is behind the water to force it, through the pipes, what forces the flow of electric current through wires? Voltage! Since we define voltage as the electric pressure or electrical force ina circuit, then voltage is the pressure which forces current to flow in a cireult, CURRENT We know water flows in pipes when the valve is open, but how do we measure the rate of flow ? Jn gallons per minute, or cu. ft. /min., or liters permin., etc, How do we measure the flow of electric current ? ‘The unit of current is the ampere and since it is the rate of flow it also is a quantity per unit of tim@ sich as gallons per min. for water. We say 50 or 100 amperes and can deal with elec- tric current quite nicely. The actual definition is difficult to grasp and becomes involved, but just to show that current is a measurement or rate of flow here is a shortened version. An ampere is the current which in one second of flow through solution of silver nitrate will deposit 00118 gram of silver on a collector plate of opposite polarity. RESISTANCE, Returning to our hydraulic analogy, if our hydrau- lie motor is running nicely and the pipe is squeezed almost shut, what happens ? iD Restricting Flow in a Hydraulic System. Figure 5. ‘The restriction in the pipe causes a drop in pres- Sure and the motor slows down. 2 ‘To maintain the same flow through the smaller opening would require more pressure, If our pressure is fixed, we lose flow. Also, what flow that does pass the squeezed section will be at lower pressure on the motor side. Can you explain further ? In a word we have intro- duced friction or resistance and water flow is im- peded. Expressed mathematically, if the pressure is raised the flow will increase or flow, F a P where F = gpm flow P = PSI pressure If flow is impeded by great resistance then we know the greater the resistance the less the flow or ftow, Fa L, where R=Resitance to fow or tet so flow, F=2. This is a simple expression which says flow increases with pressure and decreases as resistance becomes greater. A similar situation could develop in the electric circuit. Figure 6, Restricting Flow in an Electrical System. ‘Suppose the wire from switch to motor was re- placed with a very small wire of high resistance. Just as in the hydraulic system the current flow is reduced and electric pressure at the motor is less. ‘The motor will run slower and have less power, OHMS LAW ‘There is an electrical law, that relates current, voltage, and resistance, As we might expect, it looks like the one for the hydraulic system. E oe ele This equation can be rearranged. (When your wife changes the furniture in your home it is still the, same furniture, but the room looks different. } E4ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS For example: 1k orE=R ‘Try these circuits, How much current flows, R60. FIXED RESISTOR 1-8-2 21/2 Ampin meter, #10 Hey R502 E dR =Ry+Ry =10+50 2 2 72%q - 22-2 amp D.C. POWER ‘A 100 watt bulb is brighter and gives more light than a 10 watt lamp. Being brighter means it is more powerful or draws more power and makes it reasonable to assume that if we can see one bulb is more powerful than another, then there must be some way to measure the power and put figures on it. E4 Ina D.C, circuit such as this ‘The two electrical quantities we can measure are the current, I, and the voltage V. ‘This means that current and voltage are the two factors involved in power measurement, The rela~ tionship is P=VxI where P= Watts V = Volts T = Amperes Wwe find V = 125, and I = 0.8 amp then the lamp power rating is P= VI= 125 x 0.8 = 100 Watts, ‘This 1s the rate at which the lamp consumes elec- tric energy. : ‘There are three general equations for power and they are: 1-P=ExI 2-P=2R 3-P=B/R. To assure ourselves that these three expressions are equivalent let's do some substituting. Start ing with P= 1PR, and substituting for I from Ohms Law, P=E/RxIxR=ExL In the third equation substitute for E from Ohms Law: P=EY/R=Ix Rx E/R=EXI ‘Thus we have proved that the three expressions are in fact the same,ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS DC CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS Let's consider this circuit, Ip is current out of generator Ty is current in Ry By is current in Ry What are the values of I, Ig, and Ip? Since Ry = Rg = 100 ohms, both resistors take the same current. That is Ut Ry and Rp wore tbe replaced by a singe eqlv- tient ready whichis donated Ro, whats ie Shine value of Re? at's taco this two ways, Dust tnce 1-Z, then iy «may be writen for this eae. Now, we said before, E = IR or E=lgRe from which Re E 200 200 = 50 ohms. Second ‘The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the resist- ances in the parallel paths. What this means is that for this case 4 1/Re = 1/Ry + 1/R, oF rearranging Rix Ry _100x 100 Re = REERS “Ioeio0 ~80 ohms. Since Re = 50 chms in both mettiods we can trust the rule that RXR, Fo "Ris Ry Im general if two parallel resistors are of equal ‘ohms the net resistance is half the value of one, Quickly then, we can find the generator current Ip from ohms law E _ 200 aL, Obviously, the generator current divides equally, since Rt +R = 100 ohms, Amps 80 ly = Ig =half the generator current Amp, each or ly = iy = 1/2 lp = 1/2 1) Another text gives an equation for the current in Ry which we can use as a check on the above work, tis not necessary to use this equation to solve the parallel circuits. Ry lo Gree 100 Now, these equations are correct, but instead of memorizing them, remember where to look them up in case you ever need them, The important thing is to know: A- The sum of the currents in the legs must equal ‘the generator or total current B - Currents divide inversely or backwards from the ohmic value of the resistance, BAELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS ‘That is, the high ohm resistor draws the smaller current. C ~ The equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit ‘will be less than the value of any resistor in the parallel circuit. Just to goa step further, consider this: ‘As a quick check, 1s Re less than Ry or R? Ry = 2000 ohms Yes, Re = 48.78 ohms is less than Rl * 3) ghar Does the lowest ohmic resistance draw the most current ? ‘Yes, 1y = .10 Amp. leaving 4.0 for Ip, ‘Suppose there are three equal resistances: 200 (6 ri[}iood Re[Jiooa rs[]i002 E4 What do you expect R will be ? Using the reciprocal rule A/Re = 1/Ry + 1/Ry + 1/Ry which may be rewritten as RRR __BARRs Re“ RaRy + RoR > RGM . 100x:100x100 = TooRt0o + + 1.008, 90 6, 8 206 100. 33.3 ohms, etc. SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUITS Let's explore one more circuit, call this resistance circuit ? What would you TOV = To sT08 Ri[]io0 2 es ‘This is a series-parallel circuit, To solve, substitute Re for Rg and Ry. ‘To obtain Re we use RaR3__ 100 x 200 Re = p+ Ry “100+ 200 ~ 65-7 ohms Our circuit now looks like this.ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS ‘The current fy is z 1X Jo = RPT Rg “ors wa-7 “6 amps R, use Ohms Law, E-R or Vy =To Rt =0.6 x 100 = 60 volts, with A+ wrt B, What is drop in Re? Subtract Vj from E. Cale, Vz =E- Vy = 100 - 60 = 40 volts Also, by ohms law, E =IR Note that point "A" is positive because it is tied to Plus of power supply. IMPORTANT Conventional current flow is shown from - to + ine side the source, and from plus to minus outside the source, So, the IR drop (voltage drop) in Ry is plus at""A" with respect to "B", Also "B" is plus with respeet to "C"" since current flows from "B" to "C" ‘The drop across Rg and Rg are the same value, DC CIRCUIT ELEMENTS Before going further, take a look at some elec- trical symbols. 2 rixeo resistor oF 10 onMS ADJUSTABLE RESISTOR SLIDE TYPE TOTAL 1S 50 OHMS aed SET AT 10 OHMS 5 RHEOSTAT OF 100 0 1009-4 VARIABLE RESISTOR OF 100 2 XS ALWAYS USE THIS JUMPER, WHY ? ows AGL * pucosrar oF 100 ons too @ ‘The arrow means as shaft is turned clockwise the slider S approaches the "B" end of rheostat for maximum resistance. Sometimes we want clockwise rotation of shaft to decrease resistance which can be done either of these ways. Keep in mind that arrow specifies that rheostat mob is turned clockwise to decrease the resist- ance in spite of the arrow really pointing counter- clockwise. This is a drawing convenience to keep elementary or schematic drawings from compli- cated wiring crossovers, ete. 7 — _INDUCTANCE BUT NO COIL Is v PERFECT SO IT HAS SOME RESISTANCE oR SS oR PL car KH rixeo capacitance, cono-carra’ Rok variance caracitor Like the inductor, capacitors are not perfect and may leak so we can show a leakage path through the capacitor as a resistance shunted around C, TT ® ‘Most capacitors have such a high leakage resist ance that we can assume that the resistor branch of the circuit is open and omit it from the drawing. ‘These are the electrical elements with which we deal, but there is a special case of rheostats with three terminals called potentiometers. E4ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS oo ‘These are useful in selecting the voltage we may want to.use, such as: ay becky Later we can see that there is a pitfall in using a potentiometer if some precautions are not taken. ‘What is the current in this cireuit ? 100/75 100 v{ 1 Simplify this to: Fe Re=RI + RH loo v On 1o+75, =85 OHMS What is the minimum and maximum current in this cireuit ? Minimum current is when Ry is fully clockwise, Ry . E Tain “Ry Ry = Ry + Ry max, + Ry + Ry 100 + 1000 + 50 + 1000 = 2150 ohms Inax “#5 = 0.116 Amps E4 ‘Maximum current is when Ry is full clockwise, Ry =0. E + Ry min, + Ry + Tnin “Rp Re Ra + Ru min. +R + Ry 100 +0 + 50 + 1000 150 ohms 250 Tina “Tipp = 22217 Amp DO CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS This circuit gives us a current range of 0,116 amperes minimum to 0,217 amperes maximum available for our field, IER} and Ry are adjustable like this, FIELD L=5 Hey Rt=1000 OHMS we can adjust the maximum and minimum Umits of the current in the field. ‘What would you call Ri? Ry would be called the maximum Umit adjustable resistor. Here maximum current would be with Ry full counterclockwise or Ry = 0. Tnax “Ee imax “Re Re 31 + Ra + Rr 100 + 0 + 1000 = 1400 chms = #59, = 0.179 Ampere maximum Minimum current also may be checked as above With Rj; fully clockwise or Ryy =1000, E Knin “ae? Re = Ri + Ru max + Ry = 400 + 1000 + 1000 = 2400 250 0.104 Ampere minimum aEELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS VOLTAGE ADDITION Le ae Fad t 6v 7 ‘Re RZ Figure 7 Two Equivalent Circuits, In Fig. 1, the current Tis the same for both cir- cuits as the total voltage is (4V + 2V)= 6V and p-Eo=fE, where Ry =Ry +R + Ry in either circuit the voltages add directly because the polarity of each battery is put into the circuit to push the current in the same direction, and the current lis the same. However, the voltage from point A to Bis 6V in the left hand figure while it is only 2 volts in circuit "B". Since the same current I flows through all the re- sistors the voltage drop in each resistor is the same for each circuit, but the voltage from C to Dis not likely to be the same in the two figures. ‘Therefore, if figure B is simplified to figure A in order to calculate the current, we must return to the configuration of circuit "B" if we are to get the point to point voltage drops. In this circuit the active or current producing voltage is 15V. Figure 8 REVIEW In this section, we have discussed several electri- ‘cal fundamentals. You should now have an under- standing of the following points: 1) Ohms Law E=IR, 1=E/R, R=E/T 2) Series Circuits a) Addition of Resistances Rror eRe ieee 3) Parallel Circuits a) Equivalent resistance is determined by find- ing the reciprocal of the sum of the recipro- cals of each leg 1/Re = 1/Ry + 1/Ry + 1/Rg +. ») In the case of two parallel resistances = Ra “REFRR 4) Series Parallel Circuits a) Equivalent resistance is determined by a ‘combination of 2 and 3 ReeRy Byte yRSSLRS where Ry, Hy et. ace atin setters Ru, REE: 280 fui Comec, 5) Current flows Sree + ance «sores b) From + to - outside a source 6) Yonge atop in a resistor Y'CEMER dine tne ean ) Polarity is in a direction to oppose the flow of current a 7) Common symbols include: a) Fuse b) Resistor ) Capacitor 4) Inductor ) Rheostat 1) Potentiometer: =O -— +e OST eK ie E4ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS INDUCTORS IN SERIES CAPACITORS IN SERIES Add values as was done for resistors in series. Add values as was done for resistors in parallel. ample mh 2mh aH mim of Liat Ly =3mh + 2mh =5 millihenries Tete ey ICTORS IN oi IDCTORS 1 PARALLEL cr INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL Oye ‘td vals 26 was done fr resistors In parle sample: capacrrons IN PARALLEL uy Add values as was done for resistors in series. oe sie ‘ a 3 Ts S _ T*Tysky Cp =Cy+Cy GENERAL @@ ELECTRIC 6)