Statistical information and development can be traced back from Population – It is the totality of all the actual objects
ual objects of a certain class under
ancient times. People compiled statistical data with regard to all sorts of
things such as agricultural crops, taxes, athletic events, commerce and trade.
As time went by, statistical work has continued to have a marked influence
on the activities of mankind in a wider scope from describing important
features of the data to analyzing them.
Active researches and statisticians during the past 400 years or so:
Englishman John Graunt – in 1662 observed that percentages of deaths from
suicides, accidents and various diseases remained remarkable constant
throughout the years.
Abraham de Moivre – he discovered the equation of the normal distribution
in 1773.
Carl Gauss – he made the derivation from study of errors in repeated
measurements which he called it Gaussian distribution.
Sir Francis Galton (1822 – 1911) and Karl Pearson (1857 – 1936) – They
developed the theory of regression and correlation.
Adolf Quelet – a Belgian, he is the Father of Modern Statistics.
- He established a commission for statistics which
became a model for many organizations of statisticians.
William S. Gosset – developed the small – sample theory and further
developed by Sir Ronald Fisher in the 20th century.
Statistics has evolved rapidly and is now applied in many fields.
Today statistics is a necessity in studies and researches. Some of the most
important subject areas which make use of statistical theory and techniques
are as follows:
Automatic Data Processing – Construction, operation and use of high speed
computing and data processing equipment.
Biology – Research and experimentation in life processes of plants and
animals promote growth or prolong life.
Business – Production, distribution, sale of merchandise, auditing and
accounting procedures.
Demography – Composition, distribution, growth of human population birth,
death, migration rates, social economic standing of population.
Economics – Production, resources, trade, labor force, consumers and
procedures’ responses to products and price changing, advertising system
and distribution.
Education – Teaching – learning processes. Measurement and evaluation,
educational studies, enrollment, management and finance
Engineering – Design and test performance, quality control.
Government – Taxes and wages, material resources, movement of
population, election.
Health – Public health program, hospitalization, problems of medical care,
occurrence and cost of diseases, accidents and handicaps.
Insurance – Mortality, morbidity, and accident rates of the population, rates
of premiums for property and insurance program.
Medicine – Causes, diagnoses, treatment and prevention of communicable
and non – communicable diseases.
Psychology – Intelligence tests, aptitudes, personality traits and attitudes,
creation of scales and measuring instruments.
Research and Statistics – Probability, statistical theories and methods.
Social Sciences – Social systems and social welfare, behavior patterns of
groups of people.
Sports – Points made out of so many attempts from the field or foul from the
line such as in basketball, football, etc.
Statistics can be used for many purposes. As the activities and
functions of the various fields of endeavor become more and more
complicated, the greater the need for the use of statistics. Statistics is the
tool for measuring the empirical world.
Uses of Statistics
1. Statistics can give a precise description of data.
2. Statistics can predict the outcome of experiment or the behavior
of an individual.
3. Statistics can be used to test a hypothesis.
Statistics - Is the plural form of the word statistics.
- It has the same meaning as the Latin word datum which means a
fact or information. (The plural form of datum is data).
- Can refer to the mere tabulation of numeric information as in
reports of stock, market transactions, or to the body of
techniques used in processing or analyzing data.
- The broader meaning of statistics is the science of collecting,
organizing, presenting, analyzing and interpreting numerical
data.
- The focal point of modern statistical analysis is decision making.
Statistician – is also used in several ways. It can be a person who simply
collects information or one who prepares analyses or interpretations.
Statistics can be organized into descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
Descriptive Statistics – is concerned with collecting, organizing, presenting
and analyzing numerical data. It is used to present and analyze information in
a convenient, usable and understandable form.
Inferential Statistics – also called statistical inference or inductive statistics.
Its main concern is to analyze the organized data leading to prediction or
inferences.
consideration. It is a complete set of individuals, objects or measurements
having some common observable characteristics.
Sample – It is a finite number of objects selected from the population.
Parameter – It is the characteristics of a population which is measurable.
Variables and Data
Statistical data or information can be gathered through different ways such
as interviewing people, observing or inspecting items, using questionnaires
and checklists.
Variable – It is a characteristic or phenomenon which may take on different
values. It varies from one person or thing to another.
Data – Are the raw materials which the statistician works. Data can be found
through surveys, experiments, numerical records, and other modes of
research.
2 kinds of Variables
1. Quantitative Variables – are further classified as either discrete or
continuous. A discrete variable is a variable whose values can be
counted using integral values such as number of enrollees, drop-
outs and number of employees. A continuous variable is a
variable that can assume any numerical value over an interval or
intervals. Examples are: height, weight, temperature and time.
2. Qualitative Variables – are the non-numerical values.
Scales of Measurement of Data
Assigning a numerical value to a variable is a process called
measurement.
1. Nominal Data – uses numbers for the purpose of identifying in a
group or category. Example: Religion
2. Ordinal Data – it connote ranking or inequalities. In this type of
data, the numbers represents “greater than” or “less than”
measurements, such as preferences or rankings. Example:
“Excellent is higher than satisfactory”.
3. Interval Data – does not only include “greater than” and “less
than” relationship, but also has a limit of measurement that
permits us to describe how much more or less one object
possesses than another. Example: we can say 91° is colder than
150° .
4. Ratio Data – similar to interval data, but has an absolute zero and
multiples are meaningful. Example: Election vote.
Data are needed whenever we undertake studies or researches. They
have been used to undertake particular problems or to provide a basis with
certain decisions is generated.
Two types of Data:
1. Primary Data
- Are collected directly by the researcher himself.
2. Secondary Data
- Are information taken from published or
unpublished materials previously gathered by
other researchers or agencies such as book,
newspapers, magazines, journals, published and
unpublished theses and dissertations.
Methods of Collection of Data
The methods of collecting data are:
1. Direct interview method. This is a personal communication with
the individual you want to interview.
2. Indirect or questionnaires method. This is done by sending
questionnaires to the person from whom you would like to get
the information.
3. Registration. Utilizing existing records is registration.
4. Observation. This can be done directly or indirectly.
5. Experiment. This is done by making or conducting scientific
inquiry.
Primary data collection can be more effective and informative if given
the necessary preparation and planning.
Sampling techniques
1. Simple Random Sampling – lottery method. The items are picked
out for sample and random. Each respondent has an equal chance
of being selected.
2. Statistical Sampling – This procedure divides the population into
subgroups called strata. Classify the population into two or three
strata, and then get a sample from each.
3. Systematic Sampling – the items are chosen from the population
at uniform intervals of time, space or order of occurrence.
4. Cluster Sampling – Each number of a cluster possesses the same
characteristics of interest to the researcher as the other clusters,
and then you are to choose at random as much cluster as you
need for your sample group.
 5. Convenient Sampling – use results that are available at the time
of testing. In few cases results from this sampling may turn good
but in other cases they may be seriously biased.

Summation, denoted by Σ (sigma), is defined as

Where 1 and n are called the lower and upper limits respectively. Activity 1.1

Note: x1 is read as “x sub 1”. Answer the following activities:

If x1 = 3, x2 = 4, x3 = 2, x4 = 6 and x5 = 1
The following exercises illustrate the use of summation: y1 = -2, y2 = 1, y3 = 5, y4 = -1 and y5 = 7

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

4.

4. =

Examples:
If x1 = 5, x2 = 3, x3 = 4, x4 = 1 and x5 = 2 5.
y1 = -1, y2 = 2, y3 = -2, y4 = 1 and y5 = o

6.
1.

7.
2.

3.

8.

9.

4. 10.

Properties of Summation

1.
Another solution: Where c is constant

Examples:

5.
 2.

b.
Solution b.1

Examples:

If

Solution b.2

a.
Solution a.1

Solution a.2

4.
It means that we add the values of xs to obtain a sum and
then to square the sum.

Examples:

If
b.
a.
Solution b.1

b.
Solution b.2

3. 5.
It means that we square each of the number and add them
Examples: (squares).

Examples:
If
If
a.

a.
Solution a.1

b.

Solution a.2
Activity 2.1 readily perceived. The process is tedious especially if the raw data are
numerous. The stem-and-leaf display gives a good overall impression of the
Given: data.

Evaluate the following operations, using the properties of summation:
Example: A nationwide travel agency offers special rates for package tours
during summer. To economize spending for the advertisement only certain
age group of people will be sent brochures for attraction. The agency gets to
previous passenger customers from its files and groups them according to
ages. Only those age groups with least people are sent brochures. The
following data are the ages of the previous customers:

59 50 52 38 80 62 77 56
1. = 60 61 58 62 51 36 54 18
71 54 44 52 26 63 58 56
41 34 61 50 60 53 62 62
2. = 53 43 63 71 65 79 45 66

1. Setting up an array from the largest to the smallest

80 66 62 60 56 53 50 38
3. =
79 65 62 60 56 52 45 36
77 63 62 59 54 52 44 34
71 63 61 58 54 51 43 26
4. =
71 62 61 58 53 50 41 18

2. An array from the smallest to the largest

5. =
18 41 50 53 58 61 62 71
26 43 51 54 58 61 63 71
34 44 52 54 59 62 63 77
6. =
36 45 52 56 60 62 65 79
38 50 53 56 60 62 66 80

7. =
3. Setting up into stem-and-leaf diagram

8. = 1 8
2 6
3 4 6 8
4 1 3 4 5
9.
5 0 0 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 6 6 8 8 9
6 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 5 6
7 1 1 7 9
10. 8 0

Presentation of Data:
Presentation of data also needs planning and presentation. If data are
properly and interestingly presented, the benefits will not only go to the
readers or users but also to the statistician who will make the analysis and
interpretation of data gathered.
Setting up the data into stem-and-leaf diagram, the number (raw
datum) is broken in tens and unit digits. The unit digits are tallied together
whose values share with the tens digit. Each row represents a stem position
and each digit to the right of a vertical line is a leaf.
Activity 3.1

Forms of data presentation: 1. Consider the ages of 25 HRM students of SCAS

1. Textual form
2. Tabular form 18 17 17 17 17
3. Graphical form 20 18 18 17 17
Textual Form: 19 21 19 18 18

In the textual form, the data are incorporated in the text report. In 19 22 20 18 18
the tabular form, the data are presented in rows and columns. When large 17 19 18 19 19
sets of data are to be presented, the graphics form is utilized for an “easy to
digest” information. This comes in graphs and diagrams.
a. Arrange from lowest to highest
b. Arrange from highest to lowest
Stem and Leaf Diagram: c. Use the stem-and-leaf display of the given data

Raw data are data collected in an investigation and they are not Activity 3.2
organized systematically. Raw data that are presented in the form of a
frequency distribution are called group data. Discuss the following problems:

Two methods of organizing raw data: 1. The English teacher has 20 complimentary tickets to a stage play.
1. Setting up an array
She is planning to distribute those tickets to her class of size 50.
2. Stem-and-leaf diagram
What sampling method will the teacher apply so as to distribute
An ordering of the observations from smallest to the largest or vice
those tickets without being accused of favoritism?
versa is an array. It has advantages because the low and high values can be
 2. There are 100 boxes of dolls to be inspected by a quality control
31 33 49 37 31 23
employee of a company. If he wants to select 5% of the total dolls
45 21 44 22 28 48
manufactured and with the assurance that each box would be
24 20 41 16 35 34
inspected, what sampling design would you advise?
17 30 27 19 11 29
Another way of presenting raw data is the frequency table. When the
data are arranged in tabular form by the frequencies, the table is called
frequency table. The arrangement itself is called a frequency distribution.

Three steps in constructing a frequency distribution

1. Deciding on a set of groupings called classes

2. Sorting or tallying the data into classes
3. Counting the number of tallies in each class called class
frequencies

Rules in the Construction of Frequency Distribution

1. Find the range of the given data. Range is the difference between the
highest observed value and the lowest observed number.
Range = HOV – LOV

2. Solve for the class interval.

3. Prepare the class interval and class frequency columns.

4. To convert a frequency distribution to a relative frequency distribution

divides each class frequency by the total number of frequency. The
relative frequencies must total 1.

5. To convert a relative frequency distribution to percentage distribution,

the decimal point of the relative frequencies will be moved two places to
the right and affix the percent sign.

Each category or class has two limits – a lower stated class limit and an
upper stated class limit.

Class Boundaries – lower and upper class boundaries. It is obtained by

adding the upper limit of one class and the lower limit of the next class
and then dividing by 2.

Class Midpoint – is the midpoint of a class. It is determined by going

halfway between the stated class limits or the class boundaries. To
obtain the class mark, the lower and upper stated class limits or class
boundaries are added and the sum is divided by two.

Examples:

1. Construct a frequency distribution for the given data below:

80 66 62 60 56 53 50
79 65 62 60 56 52 45
77 63 62 59 54 52 44
71 63 61 58 54 51 43
71 62 61 58 53 50 41

a. Range = 80 – 18 = 62

Range
b. class interval=
10
Relative Frequency – (f /n)

Percentage - relative frequencies will be moved two places to the right and
affix the percent sign.

Activity 4.1

1. Construct a frequency distribution for the ages of 25 HM students

of URS

26 19 24 28 19
20 18 18 21 23
19 21 19 18 18
19 22 20 25 25
24 19 18 19 19

2. Construct a frequency distribution that shows the scores of 30 students

in a 50-item mathematics quiz.

30 34 50 44 46 33