AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
◦ Yatra—inspired by the lewd escapades of the deity Krishna, as told
I. INDIAN LITERATURE
a. Most literary forms and works in Indian literature incorporate
philosophical and religious concepts. Often, these works are viewed
as extensions of Hindu teachings.
b. Considered to be the oldest Hindu writings, the Vedas (meaning
“knowledge” in Sanskrit) are a collection of sacred books written in
Sanskrit. There are four Vedas:
◦ Rig Veda (“knowledge of the verses”)—a collection of 1,028
sacred hymns and is divided into ten books called Mandalas
◦ Yajur Veda (“knowledge of the sacrifice”)—a handbook for priests
in the performance of sacrificial rituals
◦ Sama Veda (“knowledge of the melodies”)—a collection of chants
and melodies drawn from the Rig Veda and are to be sung during
worship
◦ Atharva Veda (“knowledge of the fire priest”)—a collection of
charms, spells, and hymns, largely outside of the scope of worship
and Vedic sacrifice
c. Mahabharata and Ramayana are two great Sanskrit epics in Indian
literature.
d. Mahabharata, whose authorship is traditionally attributed to Vyasa,
is composed of about one hundred thousand couplets divided into
eighteen sections, making it longer than Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey
combined. Mahabharata focuses on the conflict between the Pandava
and the Kaurava princes.
e. Ramayana, written by the poet Valmiki, contains twenty-four
thousand couplets divided into seven books. It centers on the life and
adventures of the couple Ramachandra and Sita.
f. The origins of the Indian drama were attributed to the Hindu deities.
Brahma, the creator, is believed to have created drama to please the
deities; Shiva, the destroyer, introduced dance; and Vishnu, the
preserver, introduced the four types of drama.
g. Four types of ancient Indian drama:
◦ Nataka—inspired by the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana; the
highest form of drama
◦ Prakaranas—inspired by the daily life of mortals, including their
virtues and weaknesses
◦ Prahsanas—inspired by the lower castes’ ridicule of the upper class
by the traveling bards
h. Bhavabhuti, Harsha, and Kalidasa were renowned Sanskrit writers.
i. Kalidasa wrote Abhijñanashakuntala, or simply Shakuntala. It is a
play about the love story of Shakuntala and King Dushyanta from
the epic Mahabharata. Sir William Jones translated it to English.
j. Bhavabhuti was known for his three plays: Mahaviracharita,
Malatimadhava, and Uttararamacharita.
k. Harsha was an Indian emperor and a poet. He wrote Nā gā nanda,
Priyadarśikā , and Ratnā valī.
l. Some of the notable contemporary authors of Indian literature
include Arundhati Roy and Rabindranath Tagore. Roy was known
for her famous novel, The God of Small Things (1997). It won the
Man Booker Prize for Fiction in 1997. Meanwhile, Tagore was
awarded with the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913. Some of his
remarkable works include Mā nasī (1890), Chitrā ṅ gadā (Chitra,
1892), and Sonā r Tarī (The Golden Boat, 1894).
II. THAI LITERATURE
a. The earliest form of Thai literature existed during the Sukhothai
period (from the thirteenth to the fourteenth century). These works
were carved in stones, providing descriptions of how life was back
then. The Ram Khamhaeng is distinguished among these stone
inscriptions, written by King Ram Khamhaeng himself, which is
about the economic condition of the kingdom during his rule.
b. During the Ayutthaya period (1351−1767), written verses emerged,
focusing on religion, history, and romance, among others. Some
examples include “Maha chat” (“The Great Birth”), “Lilit Yuan
phai” (“The Defeat of the Yuan”), and “Lilit phra Lo” (“The Story of
Prince Lo”).
c. The renaissance of Thai literature began during King Narai’s reign
(1656−1688). The royal court recognized writers, and various
writing genres developed, such as nirat poems. These poems focus
on “journeying, separating, and love-longing” (David Smyth,
Encyclopaedia Britannica). One of the noteworthy works is “Nirat
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 khlong kamsuan” (“A Mournful Journey”) by Si Prat, a personal
account of the author’s journey into exile.
d. When Thailand recovered from the defeat it suffered from
Myanmar’s Hsinbyushin (1767), significant literary texts were
rewritten, such as Ramakien, Thailand’s national epic based on
Ramayana; Sunthorn Phu’s Phra Aphai Mani; and Khun Chang
Khun Phaen, an epic based on amorous and military feats (Smyth,
Encyclopedia Britannica).
e. In the twentieth century, translated works of Western texts
dominated the literary scene (e.g., works of Marie Corelli, Arthur
Conan Doyle, Anthony Hope). Series stories surfaced by the mid-
1920s, chiefly focusing on “rich girl meets poor boy” narratives, or
vice versa, which usually have a happy ending.
f. Notable works such as Akatdamkoeng Raphiphat’s Lakhon haeng
chiwit (The Circus Life), Siburapha’s Songkhram chiwit (The War
of Life), and K. Surangkhanang’s Ying khon chua(The Prostitute)
were examples of narratives that tackle social issues, which
blossomed
during the latter part of the 1920s.
g. By the 1940s, writers were producing works influenced by social
realism. These works commonly reflect social injustice. Meanwhile,
freedom of speech was suppressed from the 1950s to the 1960s,
which was considered as a “dark age” of Thai literature. Escapist
fiction, one that allows the reader to escape his everyday reality, was
the only literary genre to have survived. It was also referred to as
“stagnant water literature.” The most successful among these
escapist writers was Khamsing Srinawk, who, under the pen name
Lao Kham Hom, wrote the masterpiece, Fa bo kan (The Politician
and Other Stories), which was able to conceal the true nature of the
reality it was trying to portray but managed to deliver a transgressive
message. In 1992, the award for National Artist of Thailand was
bestowed on Khamsing Srinawk.
h. Social realism was rediscovered in the late 1960s, paving the way for
“literature for life.” This movement played a significant role in
helping to overthrow the military government in 1973.
i. Chart Korbjitti proved to be successful among his contemporaries in
terms of commercial and artistic accomplishments. His notable
works include Chon trork (The End of the Road, 1980) and Kham
phiphaksa (The Judgment, 1982).
III. INDONESIAN LITERATURE
a. Indonesian literature is composed of oral and written works. Modern
Indonesian literature was characterized by works with Western
influences, which have emerged in the twentieth century.
b. Prose narratives vary and are influenced by Indian literature and
those of the neighboring countries. They usually focus on “beast
fables,” legends, riddles, adventure stories, and more.
c. Texts were written in various languages, chiefly in Javanese and
Malay.
d. Early Javanese literature works existed between the ninth and the
tenth century CE. Prose and poems were prevalent, which merely
served as varieties of the famous Indian epics, Mahabharata and
Ramayana. Moreover, the Javanese adapted the Sanskrit court poetry
and developed it as their own.
e. The onset of Dutch colonization from the eighteenth to the
nineteenth century led to the decrease in Javanese and Malay works.
f. The nationalist movement and the development of Bahasa Indonesia
as the national language were associated with modern Indonesian
literature.
g. Some of the modern writers include Muhammad Yamin, Abdul
Muis, Chairil Anwar, and Pramoedya Ananta Toer.
h. When Suharto rose to power in 1965, the government ordered
censorship and suspended the freedom of expression in literary
works. The situation of the writers eased when he resigned in 1998.
IV. CHINESE LITERATURE
a. literary forms that have emerged during the Tang dynasty (AD 618–
960).
b. Chinese literature, especially poetry, flourished during the Tang
dynasty.
c. Lüshi (“regulated verse”) was a rigid alternative to gushi. It is
composed of eight lines with five to seven characters. In addition, it
follows a certain format: the first two lines should focus on the
exposition. As the theme progresses, the structure (body, second, and
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 third couplets) should be parallel; the conclusion should be apparent
in the final couplet. (Gushi means “ancient style poetry,” which has a
lesser metrical limitation and a more extensive rhyme than yuefu;
yuefu refers to poems based on folk-ballad tradition. The term yuefu
means “music bureau,” which Emperor Wudi established to collect
songs and their scores “for ceremonial occasions in court.”)
d. Jueju (“severed sentence”) is a concise form of lüshi. Instead of eight
lines, it is composed of a quatrain. It maintains the tonal quality of
lüshi but removes either the first or the last four lines.
e. Ci is a song-like poem, or lyric poem, with uneven lengths of lines. It
has rhythmic and tonal patterns that are musical in nature. Ordinary
people were the first to sing a ci, but it was popularized by
professional women singers during the Tang dynasty. Li Yu, the last
ruler of Nan, was the greatest among ci poets.
f. Bianwen is a combination of prose and poetry, retelling Buddha’s
life. It was believed to be the earliest form of vernacular prose, as
Buddhist missionaries employed a manner of storytelling using a
common language that was understood by everyone to channel their
messages.
g. Han Yu led the movement that encouraged writers to look up to
Zhou philosophers and Han authors as models for writing in prose,
instead of complying with the limitations of pianwen(“parallel
prose”). The reform was liberating, leading to a modern style of
prose writing wherein writers can freely create texts in various
lengths and patterns. Some important authors of this mode include
Liu Zongyan, Shen Yazhi, and Bai Xingjian. (Pianwen is
characterized by unconventional structure and balanced but
nonrhyming patterns. It was generally used in addressing religious
issues or philosophical arguments.)
h. Some of the notable writers during this period include Wang Wei,
Du Fu, and Li Bai. Du Fu’s famous works include “Bingqu xing”
(“The Ballad of the Army Carts”) and “Liren xing” (“The Beautiful
Woman”).
i. Below are examples of Li Bai’s poems, as translated by the
celebrated American poet Ezra Pound.
Taking Leave of a Friend
Blue mountains to the north of the walls,
White river winding about them;
Here we must make separation
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass.
Mind like a floating wide cloud,
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances Who
bow over their clasped hands at a distance. Our
horses neigh to each others as we are departing.
j. Confucian Literature
i. Confucian literature was considered as the earliest form of
literature, which has existed even before the Qin dynasty.
Some texts were attributed to Confucius himself, while some
were regarded as those of his followers. The two most
important texts of the Confucian literature include the Five
Classics or Wujing and The Analects. The Analects are a
collection of sayings and/or teachings of Confucius, his
contemporaries, and followers.
1. The Five Classics contain the norms of Chinese
society.
◦ Shijing (“Classic of Poetry”) is the earliest
collection of poetry, comprising roughly three
hundred poems.
◦ Yijing (“Book of Changes”) is an ancient
divination text that existed during the Zhou
dynasty. The writers of the Warring States
period attempted to explain the world and its
moral principles through the commentaries
found in additional sections of the text.
◦ Shujing (“Book of Documents”) is a
compilation of the ancient history of China,
whichincludes philosophies and recollections
of the great deeds of the rulers.
◦ Liji (“Book of Rites”) is a collection of texts
about ethics in rituals, music, education, etc.
Itwas written during the Warring States
period. Dai De and his nephew Dai Sheng
compiled the chapters of the texts.
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 ◦ Chunqiu (“Spring and Autumn Annals”) is a Wa ga mi yo ni furu I spent my days in the
chronological history of the state of Lu. It Nagame seshi ma ni world
contains monthly narrations of important —Ono no Komachi And the long rains were
events during the rule of the twelve leaders of falling
Lu. —Translated by Donald Keene

f. Haiku is a traditional Japanese poem that gained recognition during

V. JAPANESE LITERATURE the Edo or Tokugawaperiod (1603–1868). It is a short verse
a. The Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters) and Nihon shoki composed of three lines with five, seven, and five syllables,
(Chronicles of Japan) comprise the oldest written documents about respectively, making a total of seventeen syllables. Haiku, unlike
the history of Japan. Consisting of three books, Kojiki (completed in conventional Western poetry that focus heavily on rhythm and meter,
AD 712) is a compilation of myths about the origins of the islands of depends on the melodic syllable count and ignores rhyme. Its
Japan, and of the genealogy of the imperial family. Nihon shoki subjects are often about the essence of life, a feeling or an emotion,
(completed in AD 720), a collection of thirty books written in and the beauty of nature. Kigo is an important element of a haiku. It
Chinese, contains the complete existing historical records of Japan, is a word or a phrase that indicates the season a haiku is written.
chronicling the reigns of emperors of Japan from the earliest times to g. Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694), a Japanese poet in the seventeenth
AD 697. century, was consideredthe greatest master of the haiku. Other great
b. The oldest existing anthology of Japanese poetry, Man’yō shū haiku poets include Yosa Buson (1716–1783) and Kobayashi Issa
(Collection of a Myriad Leaves), was produced during the Asuka and (1763–1827).
Nara periods (AD 538–794). Man’yō shū is a collection of more than h. Here are some examples of famous haikus:
4,500 poems, in twenty volumes, written in various forms and furu ike ya The quiet pond
lengths. kawazu tobikomu A frog leaps in,
c. The Kokin Wakashū or Kokinshū (Collection of Ancient and mizu no oto The sound of the water.
Modern Poems), is a collection of 1,111 poems completed in AD —Matsuo Bashō —Translated by Edward
905 during the Heian period (AD 794–1185). Seidensticker
d. Most literary works in the Heian period were dominated by noble
women and their culture. Lady Murasaki Shikibu wrote Genji yuki tokete The snow is melting
monogatari (The Tale of Genji), which was considered to be the mura ippai no and the village is flooded
world’s first novel. Sei Shō nagon, another famous court lady, wrote kodomo kana with children.
the Makura nososhi (The Pillow Book), which was a detailed record —Kobayashi Issa —Translated by
of life at the Japanese imperial court. Robert Hass
e. Tanka (“short song”) is a five-line poem with thirty-one syllables
and follows a 5–7–5–7–7 pattern. Ono no Komachi, one of Japan’s i. Japanese traditional theater is chiefly characterized by movement
greatest female poets of the Heian period, was renowned for her and dance. Two of themost popular forms of traditional Japanese
poems in tanka form. Here is an example: theater are the Noh and the Kabuki.
Hana no iro wa The flowers withered j. Noh
Utsurinikeri na Their color faded away
Itazura ni While meaninglessly
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• Noh is the oldest existing form of Japanese theater, having started
in the fourteenth century. It was a combination of dance, music, and
drama.
• It is characterized by the slow movement of the characters, poetic
dialogues, and a monotonous tone.
• The main plot varies from legends/mythologies to historical events
to current events.
• Noh characters wear costumes that are heavy, colorful, and have
intricate details/designs, among others. The main character of the
play, shite, wears a mask. The mask tells the audience what role or
character the shite was trying to portray. Below are the following
characters in Noh theater (note that these roles are all portrayed by
men):
◦ shite—leading character; portrays a demon, deity, spirit, living
man, etc.
◦ waki—supporting character; portrays a samurai, monk, etc.
◦ hayashi—musicians; provide musical accompaniment for the act
◦ jiutai—the narrators; assist the shite in narrating the story
◦ koken—stage crew; assist the performers
• Zeami Motokiyo, a playwright, popularized Noh during the
Muromachi period (1333−1573). Along with his father, Kan’ami,
they were noted as the founders of Noh theater.
• There are six types of Noh plays:
◦ kami (“god”)—sacred stories about deities
◦ shura mono (“battle play”)—warrior stories
◦ katsura mono (“woman play”)—a woman is the central character of
the story
◦ gendai mono (“present-day play”)—narratives are modern and
realistic
◦ kyojo mono (“madwoman play”)—stories involving loss of a child
that led to theprotagonist’s insanity
◦ kichiku (“demon”)—features beasts or evil creatures
• Some of the notable Noh plays include Kan’ami’s Matsukaze
(Wind in the Pines); Zeami Motokiyo’s Kakyō (The Mirror of the
Flower), Sandō (The Three Ways), Takasago, and Izutsu(The Well
Head); and Komparu Zechiku’s Yō kihi.
• Some of the famous Noh playwrights include Komparu Zenpō ,
Komparu Zenchiku, andKanze Kojiro Nobumitsu.
• The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) listed Nôgaku Theater, which covers Noh
and Kyôgen, as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible
Heritage of Humanity in 2001. (Kyôgen is a comical piece
performed during intervals in a Noh play.)
k. Kabuki
• Kabuki originated in Kyoto. It is a combination of singing,
dancing, and acting. It is known for the actors’ exaggerated manner
of presentation.
• The actors wear white makeup with odd details, big and peculiar
wigs, and elaborate costumes.
• The main plot usually includes historical events, conspiracies, and
moral issues, among others. Another distinct feature of Kabuki is
that the characters only perform a part of an entire story. Thus,
members of the audience are encouraged to read about the story first
before watching a show.
• There were three early variants of Kabuki, namely onna kabuki,
wakashū kabuki, andyaro kabuki.
◦ onna kabuki (“women’s kabuki”)—It was described as an
erotic performance of the actors,associating it with
prostitution. It was banned in 1629.
◦ wakashū kabuki (“young men’s kabuki”)—Young boys
replaced women.
In 1652, it was banned due to widespread homosexuality.
◦ yaro kabuki (“male’s kabuki”)—It had an all-male cast.
This variant endures up to thepresent day.
• Actors who play male roles are called tachiyaku, whereas others
who play female roles arecalled onnagata.
• There are three main types of Kabuki theater:
◦ jidaimono (“historical play”)—It is a play that chiefly
depicts samurai battles. It is usuallyset in a period before the
Tokugawa shogunate.
◦ sewamono (“domestic play”)—It portrays the life of the
common people of the Edo period.
◦ shosagato (“dance play”)—It refers to the dance-drama
performed by the onnagata.
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 • Some of the notable Kabuki plays include Chū shingura (The
Treasury of Loyal Retainers; adapted into film as 47 Ronin);
Okamoto Kidō ’s Banshō Sarayashiki; and Takeda Izumo I, Miyoshi
Shôraku, Takeda Izumo II, and Namiki Sôsuke’s Sugawara denju
tenarai kagami(Sugawara and the Secrets of Calligraphy).
• Some of the famous Kabuki playwrights include Kawatake
Mokuami and Chikamatsu Monzaemon.
• In 2005, UNESCO named the Kabuki Theater as one of the
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
l. Japanese Modern Literature (from 1898 to present)
• Some of the notable writers of modern Japanese literature include
Mori Ō gai, Natsume Sō seki, Ryū nosuke Akutagawa, Yasunari
Kawabata, Jun’ichirō Tanizaki, Haruki Murakami, and Ryū
Murakami.
• Former Harvard professor Jay Rubin translated Akutagawa’s
famous work Rashomon andOther Stories (1915), which was
published by Penguin in 2006. The 1950 film adaptation ofAkira
Kurosawa, Rashomon, was based on “Rashomon” and “Yabu no
naka” (“In a Grove,”1921). The Akutagawa Prize, a tribute to
Akutagawa, was established in 1935, which was asprestigious as the
Naoki Prize.
• In 1968, Yasunari Kawabata won a Nobel Peace Prize in Literature.
His famous novel, Yukiguni (Snow Country, 1948), was a striking
collaboration of a haiku and a novel. Below is an excerpt of Snow
Country. A house was burning while onlookers gathered to watch.
What do you think is the significance of the “Milky Way” in this
passage? Does it suggest the season of the year? What can you infer
with the Milky Way moving in the opposite direction of the smoke?
The sparks spread off into the Milky Way, and Shimamura was
pulled up with them. As the smoke drifted away, the Milky Way
seemed to dip and flow in the opposite direction. Occasionally a
pump missed the roof, and the end of its line of water wavered and
turned to a faint white mist, as though lighted by the Milky Way.
VI. AFRICAN LITERATURE
a. Africa’s traditional literature is oral in nature. Its oral literature
includes proverbs, songs, hymns, myths, dramas, and riddles.
b. Oral literature is dependent on storytellers. According to Harold
Scheub, “storytelling is a sensory union of image and idea, a
recreating of the past in terms of the present” (“The nature of
storytelling,” Encyclopaedia Britannica). He added that the
storyteller uses both realistic and fantasy images to describe the
present life and to embody the culture.
c. Riddles
• A riddle refers to a confusing question posed as a problem that has
to be guessed or answered. Besides its entertainment and social
functions, riddles are somehow educational in nature, as they train
children to think quickly and logically.
• Like a proverb, a riddle is brief and concise. It also serves as a
means to say something without explicitly stating it.
• Some riddles are composed of a word or a phrase that implies that
the answer is based on the sound it produces. See examples below:
◦ Sengsekede (Answer: “You cannot put a needle on a rock.”)
—The term sengsekederefers to and/or suggests the sound a
needle makes when it falls into the ground.
◦ Aa (Answer: “The old man drank a little milk in the dry
season.”)—The sound that a man produces while quenching
his thirst with milk.
• Sometimes, a riddle is composed of only a word. See examples
below:
◦ Invincible (Answer: the wind)
◦ Innumerable (Answer: grass)
• There are riddles that do not really “ask” but need a response. Refer
to the example below:
◦ Over there smoke goes up, over there smoke goes up.
(Response: “Over there they mourn over a chief, over there
they mourn over a poor man.”)
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 • A riddle employs various literary devices such as imagery,
repetition, analogy, onomatopoeia, allusion, and metaphor, among
others.
• Other examples of riddles:
◦ Always cooked before it’s scraped; always cooked before
it’s eaten. (Answer: a fish)
◦ The little chap who plays the typewriter (Answer: tongue)
◦ Little things that defeat us (Answer: mosquitoes)
d. Lyric poetry
• Lyric poetry is the most common form of poetry in sub-Saharan
Africa. Lyrical poems are characterized by their song-like qualities
such as rhythm and tone.
• The reciting or singing of lyrical poems is performed during
weddings, funerals, and puberty—mostly “rites of passage”
occasions.
• The subjects of lyrical poems vary. These may be animals, people,
current issues, etc.
• Most songs in Africa are antiphonal in form. Antiphonal singing
means that two singers, or choirs, are singing alternately. It is
performed by a cantor (“soloist”) and a chorus. The cantor plays an
important role during the performance, as he or she decides when to
start and end a song.
• Most song techniques employ a “call and response” pattern.
(AFRICA POEM BY DAVID DOPE)
e. Prose
• Prose narratives center on people, animals, histories, etc. For
animal narratives, the plot usually focuses on large animals tricked
by smaller ones. Another plot focuses on an attacker (e.g., snake or
crocodile) that is trying to deceive its rescuer or savior (e.g., child,
white man, rat) but is instead outsmarted by a third character (e.g.,
hare, jackal, spider). The third character foils the attacker into a trap.
• Meanwhile, there are also narratives about a hero, portrayed by a
young boy or an animal, who acquires precious things through trade,
exchange, and refusal to fight unless his wish was granted (Finnegan,
p. 329). In the end, the hero achieves his utmost desires. In other
versions of this story, there are odd twists, such as the hero losing his
precious things and starting back at zero.
• Some stories, although they differ in characters, motifs/themes, and
tone, have similar plots. Such is the case with “The Vulture and the
Hen” and “The Finch, the Eagle, and the Hen.” Both stories explain
why birds of prey (i.e., eagle, vulture) snatch chicks from the mother
hen. Long ago, the mother hen owed these birds. They then took her
chicks as payment. Read the excerpts below:
The Vulture and the Hen
(The excerpt below is from C. Cagnolo’s “Kikuyu tales,” lifted from
Finnegan’s Oral Literature in Africa.)
One day the hen thought of borrowing a razor from the
vulture, to shave the little ones. The shaving was already much
overdue, but it couldn’t be helped, because she had no razor, and was
depending on the kindness of her neighbours. So the hen went to see
the vulture and said: ‘Dear vulture, I should like to borrow your
razor; mine was lost months ago. My little ones are looking very
ugly, and also very untidy, with their long unkempt hair overgrown.’
The vulture listened to the hen with great concern and, after a
short silence, said: ‘Dear hen, I cannot refuse you this favour.
Tomorrow perhaps I might need your help as well, and we must help
each other. However, you must remember one thing. You know what
that razor means to me. I have no other income except the rent of
that razor; that is to say, that razor is my field, whence I get my daily
food. I do not intend to ask you any fee as I do with others; but
please be careful to return it to me, as soon as you have finished your
shaving.’
‘Thank you, brother vulture, I quite understand what you say,
and I am very grateful to you. I’ll bring it back very soon.’
The hen was very glad of the favour, and as soon as she
arrived home, made arrangements to be shaved by another woman.
The following morning, she also shaved her two little ones, so that
the whole family was now shining like the moon. When the work
was over, instead of immediately returning the razor to the owner,
she put it in a leather purse, which was hanging in a corner of the
hut.
The days passed and passed away like the water under the
bridge, but the hen never thought again of returning the razor to the
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vulture. She forgot it completely. The vulture grew impatient, and
deeply resented in his heart the unkindness, nay, the ingratitude of
the hen.
Pressed by necessity, he decided to go personally to the hen
and demand his razor.
The Finch, the Eagle, and the Hen
(The excerpt below was lifted from Finnegan’s Oral Literature in
Africa, which she has also recorded.)
The finch, a small bird, once borrowed money from the
eagle’s grandfather. He borrowed that money.
Now the eagle—(he died) leaving his children alone. But he
left a message with them: ‘Your grandfather had money borrowed
from him by the father of the finch.’
Since he (i.e. his family) had lent the money, the (young)
eagle spent a long time looking for the finch. He looked and looked,
but he could not find him.
One day he went and sat down where they pound the rice. He
was sitting there. When he saw the hen standing there, eating the
rice, he asked her:
‘Oh, hen.’
‘Yes?’
‘What are you doing here?’
‘I am getting my food’.
‘Do you know whereabouts the finch is? He’s the one I’m
looking for. He made use of my father’s property. I want him to
return it .... Do you think
I will be able to find the finch?’
‘Yes, you can find him.’
‘Well, how can I find him?’
‘When people get up to go and pound the rice if you go there
and you hide you will find the finch there.’
The eagle got there. He went and hid. The finch alighted and
began to pick at the ground, searching for his food. The eagle
swooped down.
‘Ah! you! What a long time I have spent looking for you.
Now here you are today. Today you will have to give me back the
property your family took.’
‘What?’ asked the finch.
‘Eagle?’ ‘Yes?’
‘Who told you where I was?’
‘The hen.’
‘It was the hen that told you?’
‘Yes.’
‘Oh! dear!’ (said the finch) ‘We have both been having
trouble then. I—ha! I have been looking for the hen here but could
not find her. And all the time you have been looking for me and
could not find me! Since the hen was the reason you found me, that’s
why I am going to give her to you now.’
f. Proverb
• A proverb is a popular saying that expresses obvious truths that are
figurative in nature. It sometimes serves as a reminder or a piece of
advice on how people should lead their lives.
• A proverb represents abstract ideas through concise and figurative
words or phrases. Finnegan remarked, “The literary relevance of
these short sayings is clear. Proverbs are a rich source of imagery
and succinct expression on which more elaborate forms can draw”
(Finnegan, p. 421).
• There are instances in which a particular term, which is meant to
describe a proverb, encompasses other literary forms. For example,
the term mwambi (from Nyanja) not only refers to a proverb but also
refers to a story or a riddle. Olugero (from Ganda) may also mean a
parable or a saying. The term bokolo (from Mongo) covers all poetic
expressions. Mboro(from Limba) also refers to a riddle or a saying.
Tindol (from Fulani) may also refer to a moral story.
• Proverbs are used in almost all occasions.
• Proverbs convey various meanings. They can come off as a piece
of advice, a warning, or an instruction (Finnegan, p. 406). For
example, the proverb “We watch the bird’s neck while he is talking”
has various meanings. According to Finnegan, this proverb could
mean(1) doubting the accuracy of what one is saying; (2) agreeing to
what one will say; and (3) retorting to what one is saying.
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 • Additionally, in Jabo society, proverbs play an important role
during legal proceedings. The more proverbs a person can employ in
his or her speech, the more effective that person is. Proverbs are also
used to fix an altercation or to iron out a misunderstanding.

g. Modern African Literature

• Some of the famous modern African authors include Chinua
Achebe (Nigerian), Wole Soyinka (Nigerian), and Naguib Mahfouz
(Egyptian).
• Mahfouz is a screenplay writer and a novelist. He was awarded
with the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1988. One of his famous works
was the trilogy Al-Thulā thiyyah (The CairoTrilogy): Bayn al-
qaṣrayn (Palace Walk, 1956), Qaṣr al-shawq (Palace of Desire,
1957), and Al-Sukkariyyah (Sugar Street, 1957). The trilogy focused
on the three generations of various families in Cairo, beginning from
the onset of World War I to the end of the military coup in1952,
which dethroned King Farouk.
• Achebe wrote the famous novel Things Fall Apart (1958). It was
followed by No Longer at Ease (1960), a sequel to his critically
acclaimed novel. He was a recipient of the Man BookerInternational
Prize (2007) and the Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize (2010).
• Soyinka was a prominent playwright and activist from Nigeria. He
was a recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1986. Some of his
works include A Dance of the Forests (1963), The Lion and the
Jewel (1963), Jero’s Metamorphosis (1973), and From Zia, with
Love (1992).

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