23

Tn hiu v h thng
Momoh-Jimoh Eyiomika Salami
International Islamic University of Malaysia
Rolf Johansson
Lund Institute of Technology
Kam Leang
University of Washington
Qingze Zou
University of Washington
Santosh Devasia
University of Washington
C. Nelson Dorny
University of Pennsylvania
23.1 Tn hiu thi gian lin tc v ri rc ............................ 1
23.2 Bin i z v cc h thng s ..................................... 23
23.3 Cc m hnh khng gian - trng thi thi gian ri rc v lin tc ....... 31
23.4 Hm truyn v bin i Laplace ................................ 41
23.1 Tn hiu thi gian lin tc v ri rc
Cc tn hiu l cc bin vt l hoc cc i lng, o c cc vng khc nhau ca mt h, biu din cc thng tin mong
mun. Trong thc t, c rt nhiu loi tn hiu. Tn hiu in dng dng hoc p l i lng o c d dng nht, v vy cn
dng cc u o v cc b chuyn i bin i cc i lng khng phi l tn hiu in thnh cc tn hiu in. Cc tn hiu
ny cn phi c x l bng cc phng php xp x thu c cc kt qu mong mun. Mt vi phng php biu din tn
hiu ph hp vi vic x l tn hiu c min thi gian v tn s s c m t trong mc di.
Phn loi tn hiu [1-4]
Cc tn hiu c phn loi thnh cc tn hiu thi gian lin tc (CT) hoc cc tn hiu thi gian ri rc (DT), mi loi ny li
c th phn thnh cc tn hiu xc nh hoc ngu nhin. Mt tn hiu xc nh lun c th biu din c dng ton hc, trong
khi , thi im xy ra hoc gi tr ca mt tn hiu ngu nhin khng th on trc c. Mt tn hiu thi gian lin tc, x(t),
c mt gi tr ng vi mi gi tr thi gian t, trong khi mt tn hiu thi gian ri rc x(n), s ch c gi tr cc im ri rc, l
cc gi tr nguyn n.
1
S tay C in t
HNH 23.1 Mt vi lp tn hiu: (a) Tn hiu tng t thi gian lin tc, (b) D liu c trch mu, (c) Tn hiu s, (d) Tn
hiu ngu nhin
HNH 23.2 Cc tn hiu c chu k: (a) Thi gian lin tc (CT), (b) Thi gian ri rc (DT)
Gn vi cc tn hiu CT v DT l cc tn hiu tng t v s tng ng. Nu bin ca mt tn hiu c th nhn c gi
tr bt k trong mt di lin tc th n l mt tn hiu tng t. Mt khc, bin ca mt tn hiu s ch c th c mt s gii
hn cc gi tr cc im ri rc. Cc v d ca cc tn hiu thi gian lin tc, thi gian ri rc s v ngu nhin c ch ra trn
hnh 23.1. Cc tn hiu xc nh c phn thnh hai loi chnh, l cc tn hiu c chu k v cc tn hiu khng c chu k. Mt
tn hiu c chu k s c cng gi tr cc thi im cch nhau mt chu k T, tc l x(t) tha mn mi quan h x(t)=x(t+T),
-<t<. Mt v d ca tn hiu thi gian lin tc c chu k l sng sin vi dng x(t)=A sin( t+ ) trong l pha tnh theo
radian, = 2 F l tn s tnh theo radian/giy, v F l tn s tnh theo Hz. Ch rng di tn s ca cc tn hiu sin tng t
l -<F<. Mt tn hiu thi gian ri rc c chu k c m t bi x(n)=x(n+N), -<n< trong N l chu k. Mt v d ca
tn hiu loi ny l sng sin x(t)= A sin(2 rn+ ), -<n< trong r l tn s tn hiu trn tn s trch mu v c cc gi tr
trong di
1 1
2 2
r . Cc mu trch ca cc tn hiu sin c tn s thuc di ny l duy nht v ring bit. Tuy nhin cc tn hiu
sin DT c cc tn s c phn bit bi bi nguyn ca 2 l ging nhau. V d v cc tn hiu sin DT v tng t c ch ra
trong hnh 23.2.
Mt tn hiu xc nh bt k khng c chu k c gi l tn hiu khng tun hon. Cc tn hiu hnh sin tt dn v cc tn
hiu suy gim theo hm m l cc v d ph bin ca cc tn hiu khng theo chu k. i vi mt vi ng dng, c th c ch
phn loi cc tn hiu theo lng cng sut hoc nng lng ca chng. Nng lng tng trn ton di ( ) , t
ca mt tn
hiu CT c a ra bi:
2
/ 2
/ 2
lim ( )
T
T T
E x t dt

(23.1)
v nng lng trung bnh c nh ngha nh sau:
2
/ 2
/ 2
1
lim ( )
T
T T
P x t dt
T

]

]
]

(23.2)
Do vy, x(t) l tn hiu nng lng nu v ch nu 0<E<, iu ny c ngha rng P=0. Tng t, x(t) l tn hiu cng sut
nu v ch nu 0<P<, chng t E=. V vy mt tn hiu khng tha mn mt trong hai nh ngha trn s khng phi l tn
hiu nng lng hoc cng sut. Cc nh ngha cng c p dng cho cc tn hiu DT ch tr php tch phn trong cc cng
thc (23.1) v (23.2) s c thay th bng php tng. Ni chung, cc tn hiu c chu k tn ti mi thi im v c hiu l
c nng lng v hn. Tuy nhin, chng c cng sut trung bnh hu hn v vy chng l cc tn hiu cng sut. Mt khc, cc
tn hiu c gii hn trong mt khong hu hn l cc tn hiu nng lng. Vic phn loi mt tn hiu thnh tn hiu nng
lng hu hn, cng sut hu hn hoc khng phi nng lng cng nh cng sut l quan trng chn c cch phn tch
ph hp vi n.
Cc hm c bit
Cc hm c bit thng c dng cho vic m hnh ha tn hiu, nhm n gin ha cc php phn tch chng.
Hm xung n v (Unit Impulse)
Hm xung hoc hm delta l m hnh ton biu din cc hin tng vt l xy ra trong mt khong thi gian rt nh;
Khong thi gian ny c th c gi thit bng 0. Hm delta ny khng phi l hm ton hc theo ngha thng thng; ng
hn, n l hm phn b hoc hm suy rng. V vy hm xung c th c m t bi tc dng ca n ln hm th (t), l:
( ) ( ) (0) t t dt
+

(23.3)
2
Tn hiu v h thng
vi iu kin: (t) lin tc t=0. Cng thc ny ch ra tnh cht thay i ca hm delta. Biu ca hm delta c ch ra
trong hnh 23.3(a). Bng 23.1 ch ra cc thuc tnh iu khin ca hm delta.
BNG 23.1 Cc tnh cht ca hm delta
Tnh cht Biu din ton
Trch mu
( ) ( ) ( ) x t t a dt x a
+

Dch
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x t t a x a t a
Cn chnh
1
( )
b
at b t
a a

| `
t t

. ,
Tch chp
( ) * ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x t t a x t a d x t a
+

HNH 23.3 Cc hm c bit: (a) xung, (b) nhy, (c) dc, (d) parabol
Hm nhy n v (Unit Step)
Hm nhy n v thng dng phn tch ton hc cc tn hiu CT. iu ny c m t trong hnh 23.3(b), v c
nh ngha nh:
1 0
( )
0 0
t
u t
t
>

'
<

(23.4)
Hm signum nhn c t hm nhy bng cch:
sgn( ) 2 ( ) 1 t u t
Hm dc (Ramp)
Tch phn (23.4) s nhn c hm dc nh ch ra trong hnh 23.3(c). Hm dc r(t) c biu din nh sau:
, 0
( )
0, 0
t t
r t
t

'
<

(23.5)
Hn na, tch phn r(t) s nhn c tn hiu parabol c dng:
2
, 0
( )
2
0, 0
t
t
a t
t

'

<

(23.6)
3
S tay C in t
iu ny c m t trong hnh 23.3(d).
Cc tn hiu thi gian lin tc c bn
Hnh 23.4 ch ra mt vi tn hiu c bn thng gp trong phn tch tn hiu. Mt vi trong s tn hiu c th nhn c
trc tip t cc hm c bit c m t trn. V d, tn hiu xung ch nht n v t - /2 n /2 c th c biu din
nh sau:
( )
2 2
t u t u t
| ` | `
+

. , . ,
(23.7)
v iu ny c m t trong hnh 23.4(a).
HNH 23.4 Biu din cc hm CT c bn: (a) xung ch nht, (b) xung tam gic, (c) hm sin c
Hm tam gic k hiu l (t), c nh ngha nh sau:
1 , 1
( )
0, cn li
t t
t
t
<

'

(23.8)
S dng nh l tch chp, c bn n trong mc Phn tch cc tn hiu thi gian lin tc, c th thy rng:
( ) ( ) * ( ) t t t
Tn hiu sin c c nh ngha nh sau:
sin( )
, 0
sin ( )
1, 0
t
t
c t
t
t

'

(23.9)
C tn hiu tam gic v sin c u c ch ra trong hnh 23.4(b) v 23.4(c),
Cc tn hiu thi gian ri rc c bn
Chui mu n v k hiu l (n), c nh ngha nh sau:
1, 0
( )
0, khc
n
n
n

'

N c gi l chui xung n v hoc hm delta Kronecker. Cc tnh cht ca chui mu n v tng t nh ca (t) v
chng c biu din nh sau:
( ) ( ) ( )
n
x n n m x m

4
Tn hiu v h thng
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x n n m x m n m
( )
b
an b n
a

| `
t t

. ,
( ) * ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n
x n n m x r n r m x n m

Ch rng tnh cht scaling ch c p dng khi c a v b/a l cc s nguyn. Hai tn hiu c bn khc cng thng c
dng phn tch l tn hiu nhy n v v dc n v. Chui nhy n v u(n), c nh ngha l:
1, 0
( )
0, 0
n
u n
n

'
<

(23.10)
trong khi tn hiu dc n v k hiu l r(n), c a ra bi:
, 0
( )
0, 0
n n
r n
n

'
<

Ba chui trn c quan h vi nhau nh sau:

( ) ( ) ( 1) n k u n k u n k
( ) ( )
n
m
u n n m

( ) ( ) * ( 1) r n u n u n
Hnh 23.5 biu din cc chui DT trn.
HNH 23.5 Biu din ca cc tn hiu DT c bn: (a) chui xung n v, (b) chui nhy n v, (c) chui dc
Phn tch cc tn hiu thi gian lin tc
Cc php tnh c bn i vi cc tn hiu
C mt s php tnh quan trng thng c thc hin i vi cc tn hiu hiu c cc c trng ca chng hoc cc
hin tng vt l sinh ra chng. Ba php tnh chung nht l: dch (shifting), chia t l thi gian (time scaling), v nh x
(reflection). Cc v d v cc php tnh ny c minh ha trong hnh 23.6, trong x(t) c biu din nh sau:
1, 1 3
( ) 3, 3 6
0, t khc
t t
x t t
+

<
'

5
S tay C in t
Tch chp v tng quan [2]
Mc d tch chp thng lin quan ti vic nghin cu cc h thng, nhng i khi php tnh ny cng c th cn trong phn
tch cc tn hiu nhn c t mt h thng vt l. Tch chp ca hai tn hiu thi gian lin tc x(t) v y(t) s nhn c z(t),
trong :
( ) ( ) * ( ) ( ) ( ) z t x t y t x y t d

(23.11)
Tch chp khng b gii hn trong min thi gian v n cng c dng xc nh ph tn s lin quan ti tch ca hai tn
hiu thi gian. Hm tng quan cho gia x(t) v y(t) k hiu l Rxy(t), c nh ngha nh sau:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) *( )
xy
R t x t y t x y t d

(23.12)
Khc vi tch chp, y khng c php nh x. Ngoi ra, tr t l tham s o ging nhau gia hai tn hiu . Nu x(t)
= y(t), th (23.12) s m t hm t tng quan. Mt s tnh cht ca cc hm tng quan s c a ra trong bng 23.2.
C hai tch phn ca tch chp v tng quan u c th p dng cho cc tn hiu nng lng cng nh cng sut. Vi cc tn
hiu cng sut, tch phn nhn c trn chu k T v kt qu c cn chnh bi 1/T. Phn tch tng quan l quan trng tnh
mt ph nng lng cho cc tn hiu ngn, v mt ph cng sut cho c cc tn hiu c chu k v cc tn hiu ngu nhin.
BNG 23.2 Cc tnh cht ca hm tng quan
Tnh cht T tng quan Tng quan cho
Chn/sp li (Even / Reorder) ( ) ( )
xx xx
R t R t ( ) ( )
xy yx
R t R t
Gii hn trn (0) ( )
xx xx
R R t
, cho mi t ( ) (0) (0)
xy xx yy
R t R R
HNH 23.6 Cc php tnh c bn ca tn hiu: (a) Tn hiu gc, (b) Php cn chnh, (c) Php dch, (d) Php nh x
Phn tch Fourier ca cc tn hiu CT
y chng ti mi ch bn ti cc phng php phn tch min thi gian tn hiu CT. Php tch phn tch chp c quan
tm c bit v n c th c dng nghin cu cch mt tn hiu c sa i ging nh n s i qua mt h thng. Cng
cn phi xem xt cc phng php phn tch min tn s v phn tch tch chp c th l kh. Hn na, cng thc ca tch chp
l da trn s biu din cc tn hiu bng cc hm c dch i. Trong nhiu ng dng, phng php phn tch trong min
tn s s thch hp hn chn mt tp cc hm trc giao nh cc tn hiu c bn v phng php ny s lm gim phc tp
ca tnh ton s cng nh s a ra mt cch biu din bng ha cho cc thnh phn tn s ca tn hiu cho.
Cc hm trc giao c bn [2, 3]
S thun li v mt ton hc nu biu din cc tn hiu bt k nh mt tng c hiu chnh ca cc sng trc giao, dn
ti php phn tch tn hiu c n gin ha rt nhiu, cng nh ch ra s ging nhau c bn gia cc tn hiu v vect. Xt
mt tp hm c bn (t), i = 0, 1, 2,. c gi l trc giao trn khong (t1, t2) nu:
2
1
*
( ) ( ) ( )
t
m k k
t
t t dt E m k

(23.13)
6
Tn hiu v h thng
trong
*
(t) l lin hp phc ca tn hiu . Nu Ek bng n v vi mi gi tr ca k, th (t) l mt tp trc giao. D dng
xp x tn hiu cho bng mt tp thch hp cc hm trc giao, iu ny s dn n sai lch ti thiu gia tn hiu thc v xp
x ca n. V vy, mt tn hiu cho x(t) vi nng lng hu hn trn khong t1 < t < t2 c th c biu din nh sau:
( ) ( )
k k
k
x t c t

(23.14)
Trong
2
1
*
( ) ( ) , 0, 1, 2, ...
t
k k
t
c x t t dt k t t

Phng trnh ny c gi l chui Fourier suy rng ca x(t), cc hng s ck, k = 0, 1, 2,, c gi l cc h s ca chui
Fourier tng ng vi tp trc giao {(t)}.
K hiu M s hng u tin trong cng thc (23.14) l
( ) x t
, th hm sai lch s l:
*
0
( ) ( ) ( )
M
M k k
k
e t x t c t

(23.15)
Tnh cng sut trung bnh ca hm sai lch ny v t cc o hm ca n tng ng vi ck ti 0 s nhn c mt tp ti u
{ck} gim thiu sai lch nng lng. Nu
( ) ( )
lim
m
x t x t

th cc hm c bn c ni l y , c ngha l nng lng sai

lch bng 0. Vi cc tn hiu c chu k, khong thi gian (t1, t2) bng chu k T ca tn hiu. Ngoi ra, n(t) = exp{jn0} thng
c chn nh tp ca cc hm c bn vi n = 0, 1, 2, v 0=2/T. Cc phng php tnh cc h s ca chui Fourier c
xem xt tip sau y.
Chui Fourier ly tha phc
Cho tn hiu x(t) tha mn x(t) = x(t + T) v tha mn cc iu kin Dirichlet sau [3]:
1. x(t) l c kh nng tch phn tuyt i trn chu k ca n, c ngha l:
1
1
( )
t T
t
x t dt
+
<

2. S cc i v cc tiu ca x(t) mi chu k l hu hn,

3. S cc im gin on ca x(t) trong mi chu k l hu hn, th x(t) c th c trin khai nh sau:
0 0
( ) , 2
o
jk t
k
k
x t c e f

(23.16)
Trong :
1
1
1
( )
o
t T
jk t
k
t
c x t e dt
T

+

(23.17)
vi mi gi tr t1.
Cc h s ck c gi l cc h s ca chui Fourier phc ca tn hiu x(t), ni chung, chng c th l cc s phc.
HNH 23.7 Tn hiu ch nht c chu k v cc h s ca chui Fourier ca n
Cc iu kin Dirichlet ch l iu kin tn ti khai trin Fourier. Vn c th nhn c khai trin Fourier ca cc tn
hiu khng tha mn cc iu kin ny. Cc h s ca chui Fourier phc c th c xc nh bng nh gi trc tip tch phn
trong (23.17) hoc bng cch dng phng php ly vi phn x(t), cho mt s lng ln no , a ra mt dy xung. C hai
phng php xc nh ck ny s c minh ha di.
7
S tay C in t
Xt cc tn hiu c chu k c ch ra trong hnh 23.7, chng c th c biu din nh sau:
1
( )
n
t nT
x t
T

| `


. ,

Thay vo cng thc (23.17) chng ta c:

0
0
/ 2
2
/ 2
/ 2
2
/ 2
0
0 0
1
( )
1
1
sin( )
sin ( )
T
j kf t
k
T
T
j kf t
T
c x t e dt
T
e dt
T
k f
k
f c kf

V vy:
0
2
0 0
( ) sin ( )
j kf t
n
x t f c kf e

Biu ph bin v pha ca cc h s ca chui Fourier phc c ch ra trong hnh 23.7(b) vi /T thay i.
Tnh cc h s ca chui Fourier phc ca tn hiu c ch ra trn hnh 23.8(a) bng cch dng phng php vi phn. Tn
hiu ny c trin khai theo cng thc (23.16). Ly vi phn cng thc ny 2 ln theo t s nhn c:
0
2 2
0
( ) ( 2 )
j kf t
k
k
x t j kf c e

HNH 23.8 Minh ha phng php vi phn tnh h s ca chui Fourier
N c th c vit nh sau:
0
2
( )
j kf t
k
k
x t e

Hnh 23.8(c) ch ra kt qu ca php vi phn x(t). Ch rng nu tn hiu c chu k th o hm ca n cng c chu k. iu
ny c ngha rng k l h s ca chui Fourier phc ca x(t) v c th c tnh t:
0
/ 2
2
/ 2
1
( )
T
j kf t
k
T
x t e dt
T

trong :
( ) 2 2 ( )
2 2
A T T
x t t t t
T

] | ` | `
+ +
]
. , . , ]
8
Tn hiu v h thng
V vy:
2 2 0
0
2
8 sin ( 2 )
2
k k
kTf A
j f k c
T


| `


. ,
C ngha l:
2 2
2
, l
0, cn li
k
A
k
c
k

'

v
/ 2
0
/ 2
1
( )
2
T
T
A
c x t dt
T

Phng php xc nh ck ny d hn phng php trc tip.

Chui Fourier cho cc tn hiu thc
3
Mt tn hiu thi gian thc x(t) tha mn cc iu kin Dirichlet c th trin khai theo cc bc sau. Trong cng thc (23.17),
thay k bng k, chng ta nhn c:
1 1
0 0
1 1
*
2 2 *
1 1
( ) ( )
t T t T
j kf t j kf t
k k
t t
c x t e dt x t e dt c
T T

+ +

]

]
]

(23.18)
iu ny c ngha l vi cc tn hiu thc, cc h s m v dng l lin hp phc vi nhau. Vi cc tn hiu nh vy, /ck/ c
i xng chn v <ck c i xng l vi k=0. K hiu ck=(akjbk)/2, th ck=(ak+jb)/2, v vy
2 2
0 0
0 0
2 2
2 2
j kf t j kf t
j kf t j kf t k k k k
k k
a jb a jb
c e c e e e

+
+ +
v c0 l thc v c nh ngha l c0=a0/2, nn chng ta c th vit
0
0 0
1
( ) [ cos(2 ) sin(2 )]
2
k k
k
a
x t a kf t b kf t

+ +

(23.19)
Cng thc ny ch ng cho tn hiu thc c chu k x(t), v c gi l khai trin Fourier lng gic. V:
1
0
1
1
1
2
0 0
1
( )
2
1
( )[cos(2 ) sin(2 )]
t T
j kf t k k
k
t
t T
t
a jb
c x t e dt
T
x t kf t j kf t dt
T

(23.20)
nn:
1
1
0
2
( ) cos(2 )
t T
k
t
a x t kf t dt
T

+

(23.21a)
1
1
0
2
( ) sin(2 )
t T
k
t
b x t kf t dt
T

+

(23.21b)
v:
1
1
0
2
( )
t T
t
a x t dt
T
+

Phng php th ba khai trin Fourier cho cc tn hiu thc c a ra bi:

0 0
1
( ) cos(2 )
k k
k
x t c c kf t

+ +

(23.22)
BNG 23.3 Cc iu kin i xng ca chui Fourier
Kiu i xng H s ca chui Fourier thc H s ca chui Fourier phc Ghi ch
i xng chn
x(t)=x(-t)
/ 2
0
0
4
( ) (2 )
T
k
a x t cos kf t dt
T

1
2
k k
c a
Pha ca ck l 0
hoc
9
S tay C in t
bk = 0 ck c gi tr thc
i xng l
x(t)=-x(-t)
ak = 0
/ 2
0
0
4
( ) sin(2
T
k
b x t kf tdt
T

ck c cc gi tr o Pha ca ck l
/2 hoc
- /2
i xng chn na sng
( )
2
T
x t x t
| `
+

. ,
a2k v b2k c th c gi tr khc 0
nhng a2k+1=0, b2k+1=0
2
2 1
0
0
k
k
c
c
+

i xng l na sng a2k+1 v b2k+1 c th c gi tr

khc 0 nhng a2k=0, b2k=0
2
2 1
0
0
k
k
c
c
+

BNG 23.4 Cc tnh cht ca chui Furier

Tnh cht M t tn hiu Cc h s ca chui Furier
Tuyn tnh ( ) ( ) ax t by t +
; a, b l hng s
k k
a b +
Nhn ( ) ( ) x t y t *
k k

Tch chp ( ) * ( ) x t y t
k k

Quan h Parseval
1
1
2
1
( )
t T
t
x t dt
T
+

2
k
k

Dch theo thi gian

( ) x t t
0
2 j f
k
e

t
Vi phn
( )
n
n
d
x t
dt
0
( 2 )
n
k
j kf
Tch phn
( )
T
x d

1
0 0
( 2 ) , 0
k
j kf

Trong c0 l thnh phn mt chiu (DC), ck v k biu din bin v gc pha ca thnh phn iu ha th k tng ng.
Cng thc (23.22) c gi l dng iu ha ca khai trin Fourier ca x(t). Cc tham s ck v k lin quan vi ak v bk nh sau:
2 2 1 0
0
, , tan
2
k
k k k k
k
a b
c c a b
a

+
Cc tnh cht ca chui Fourier [1, 4]
Hiu tnh i xng ca tn hiu c th n gin ha vic tnh ton cc h s Fourier phc ca n. C nhiu dng i xng
c chng minh, m mt s kiu i xng quan trng thng gp trong phn tch tn hiu l:
i xng chn x(t)= x(t)
i xng l x(t)= x(t)
i xng l na sng x(t)= x(t+T/2)
nh hng ca tnh i xng ti vic tnh ton chui fourier c ch ra trong bng 23.3. Cc tnh cht khc ca chui
Fourier c tm tt trong bng 23.4, trong k and k l cc h s phc ca chui Fourier ca x(t) v y(t) tng ng.
Bin i Fourier
Phng php tn s phn tch cc tn hiu thi gian CT c biu din trong mc trc. Mt phng php khc c gi
l Bin i Fourier, c dng phn tch cc tn hiu khng c chu k. S khai trin ca bin i Fourier c da trn cc
cng thc (23.16) v (23.17). Thay (23.17) vo (23.16) s c:
0 0
/ 2
2 2
/ 2
1
( ) ( )
T
j kf j kf t
T
k
x t x e d e
T

| `

. ,

(23.33)
Cho T , th 1/T df, kf0 f, v cng thc (23.23) tr thnh:
2
( ) ( )
j kft
X f x t e dt

(23.24a)
10
Tn hiu v h thng
v
2
( ) ( )
j ft
x t X f e df

(23.24b)
Cc tnh cht ca bin i Fourier [5, 6]
Mt s tnh cht c bn ca bin i Fourier thng c dng trong phn tch tn hiu c a ra trong bng 23.5.
Cp bin i Fourier ca cc tn hiu c bn sau cng thng c dng phn tch tn hiu:
( ) K K f
1
sgn( ) t
j f

1 1
( ) ( )
2 2
u t f
j f

+
0 0 0
1 1
cos(2 ) ( ) ( )
2 2
f t f f f f + +
xc nh bin i Fourier ca mt tn hiu c chu k cn thc hin mt th tc gm hai bc. Nu x(t) l mt tn hiu c
chu k vi chu k T, th x(t) c th c khai trin Fourier nh sau:
0
2
0
1
( ) ,
j f t
k
k
x t c e f
T

(23.25)
p dng tnh cht tuyn tnh vi cng thc ny s c:
0
( ) ( )
k
k
X f c f kf

(23.26)
l bin i Fourier ca tn hiu x(t) c chu k bt k. Cng thc (23.26) gii thch s khc nhau gia ph tn s c a ra bi
php phn tch Fourier v mt ph bin c a ra bi php bin i Fourier. Do , ph tn s l mt cch biu din (ri
rc) ca ck i vi kf0, trong khi mt ph bin l cch biu din lin tc ca ph mt bin , m trong trng hp ny
n c dng xung, ng hn l s.
BNG 23.5 Cc tnh cht ca bin i Fourier
Tnh cht M t tn hiu Bin i Fourier
Tuyn tnh ( ) ( ) ax t by t +
; a, b l hng s
( ) ( ) aX f bY f +
Chn v l ( ) ( ) x t x t
( ) ( ) x t x t
0
( ) 2 ( ) cos(2 ) X f x t ft dt

Dch thi gian ( ) x t

0
( ) 2 ( ) sin(2 ) X f x t ft dt

Cn chnh thi gian ( ) x at

2
( )
j f
e X f

o thi gian ( ) x t 1 f
X
a a
| `

. ,
i ngu ( ) X t
*
( ) X f
Tch chp thi gian ( ) ( ) x t y t ( ) x f
Tch chp tn s ( ) ( ) x t y t ( ) ( ) X f Y f
iu bin 0
2
( )
j f t
x t e

( ) * ( ) X f Y f
Vi phn thi gian
( )
n
n
d
x t
dt
0
( ) X f f
Vi phn tn s
( )
n
t x t ( 2 ) ( )
n
j f X f
11
S tay C in t
Tch phn
( ) x d

1 1
( ) (0) ( )
2 2
X f X f
j f

+
Tng quan
( ) ( ) ( )
xy
R y t x t dt

( ) ( ) Y f X f
Quan h Parseval
2
( ) x t dt

2
( ) X f df

Tng t bin i Fourier ca mt dy xung c dng:

( ) ( )
n
p t t nT

(23.27)
l:
1 1
( ) ( ),
s s
k
P f f kF F
T T

(23.28)
Mt ph nng lng v cng sut [6]
Gi thit x(t) l mt tn hiu khng c chu k c bin i Fourier l X( f ), th nng lng ca n s l:
2 2
(0) ( ) ( )
xx
E R x t dt X f df




(23.29)
y l thuyt Parseval v n ch ra rng nguyn l bo tn nng lng theo thi gian v tn s l ng. Ph bin X(f) c
th c biu din l:
( ) ( ) ( ) X f X f X f
v k hiu
2
( ) ( )
xx
S f X f
th nng lng tng ca tn hiu s l:
( )
xx
E S f df

(23.30)
Trong Sxx(f) biu din s phn b ca nng lng tn hiu nh mt hm ca tn s. Sxx(f) c gi l mt ph nng
lng ca tn hiu nng lng hu hn x(t).
Xt mt tn hiu c chu k x(t) c hm t tng quan l:
/ 2
4
/ 2
1
( ) lim ( ) ( )
T
xx
T x
R x t x t dt
T

Th,
/ 2
2
/ 2
1
(0) lim ( )
T
xx
T T
R x t dt
T

(23.31)
l cng sut ca tn hiu. Ging nh vi cc tn hiu nng lng, nh ngha Sxx(f) l bin i Fourier ca Rxx() th
(0) ( )
xx xx
P R S f df

(23.32)
v Sxx(f) c gi l mt ph cng sut ca tn hiu c chu k x(t).
Trong nhiu trng hp thc t, cng cn phi phn tch cc tn hiu ngu nhin tnh. Tnh cht ca cc tn hiu nh vy c
th c suy ra t cc hm tng quan ca chng. V d: hm t tng quan xx() ca mt tn hiu ngu nhin tnh s gim ti
0 khi tng v cc trng hp tr nn khng tng quan vi khong thi gian ln. V vy, xx() = xx() v tn ti bin i
Fourier.
Do vy chng ta c th vit:
(0) ( )
xx xx
f df

(23.33)
Trong xx(f) v xx(0) tng ng biu din mt ph cng sut v cng sut trung bnh ca mt qu trnh ngu nhin.
Cc tn hiu thi gian lin tc c trch mu
12
Tn hiu v h thng
Cc tn hiu thi gian ri rc (DT) xut hin mt cch t nhin hoc bng cch trch mu cc tn hiu thi gian lin tc (CT);
tuy nhin, dng sau thng gp trong thc t hn. Trong trng hp ny, tn hiu s c nh dng t mt tn hiu CT qua
qu trnh bin i tng t-s. Phn u tin ca qu trnh ny l trch mu tn hiu tng t, iu c ngha l bin i x(t)
thnh x(nTs), trong Ts l chu k trch mu v nghch o ca n l Fs = 1/Ts, l tn s trch mu tnh theo s mu trch/giy.
Tn s trch mu phi c chn thch hp trnh mo ph (aliasing), theo cch chc chn rng x(t) c th c khi phc
t cc mu trch ca n. hiu bit thm v th tc ny, chng ta s kho st qu trnh trch mu min tn s.
HNH 23.9 Qu trnh trch mu xung l tng: (a) tn hiu thi gian lin tc gii hn (bandlimited) v bin i Fourier ca n,
(b) dy xung v ph ca n, (c) tn hiu c trch mu v ph ca n
Trch mu xung [6-9]
Xt qu trnh trch mu xung l tng c ch ra trn hnh 23.9, trong x(t) c trch mu bng cch dng mt chui
xung p(t), v vy
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
s s s s
n n
x t x t p t x t t nT x nT t nT




(23.34)
S khc nhau chnh gia xs(t) v x(nTs) l xs(t) bn cht l tn hiu CT vi cc gi tr 0 tr ti cc gi tr nguyn ca Ts, trong
khi x(nTs) l mu trch ca x(t), l kt qu ca vic trch mu xung.
Bin i Fourier ca cng thc (23.34) s cho
( ) ( ) * ( ) ( )
s s s
k
X f X f P f F X f F

(23.35)
trong X(f) l ph ca x(t).
Nhn thy rng Xs(f) bao gm mt phin bn ca X(f) c hiu chnh v c lp li mt cch tun hon vi chu k Fs.
Nh ch ra trong hnh 23.9(c), hin nhin rng khi
s M M
F F F
th s khng c s chng nhau ca ph, v tn hiu x(t) c th
c khi phc hon ton t xs(t). Tuy nhin, nu
s M M
F F F <
th cc bn ti to ca X(f) s chng ln nhau, dn ti ph b
mo v v vy c th khng khi phc c x(t) t phin bn mu trch ca n. V vy, khi phc c x(t) t cc mu trch
ca n, th tn s trch mu phi l:
s M M
F F F
c ngha l:
2
s M
F F
y c gi l nh l trch mu Nyquist. Tn s trch mu ti thiu
2
s M
F F
c gi l tn s Nyquist. Vic trch mu
mt tn hiu tn s nh hn tn s Nyquist s dn n mo ph c gi l mo aliasing. Ngoi ra, vic trch mu mt tn hiu
tn s Nyquist nh nht c ngha rng mt b lc thng thp l tng (LPF) vi mt h s 1/Fs v tn s ct Fc c th c
dng khi phc ph ban u ca n, trong FM Fc Fs -FM.
Gi s chng ta mun khi phc x(t) t cc mu trch ca n. Gi thit rng X(f) l ph ca x(nTs), khng c mo aliasing,
nh ch ra trong hnh 23.9(c). Nh vy:
13
S tay C in t
1
( ),
2
( )
0,
2
s
s
a
s
F
X f f
F
X f
F
f

'

>

(23.36)
ch rng:
2
( ) ( )
s
j fT
a s
X f x nT e

(23.37)
v vy bin i ngc Fourier s l:
/ 2
2 ( )
/ 2
1
( ) ( )
sin[ ( ) / ]
( )
( ) /
s
s
s
F
j f t nT
a s
F
n
s
s s
s
n
s s
x t x nT e df
F
t nT T
x nT
t nT T

(23.38)
y l cng thc khi phc x(t) t cc mu trch ca n. iu c ngha l x(t) c to ra bng cch nhn hm c
dch mt cch thch hp g(t) = sinc(tFs) vi cc mu trch tng ng ca x(nTs).
Vic trch mu thc t [8-10]
Bn lun trn v vic trch mu da trn cc m hnh trch mu xung c chu k l tng v ni suy di gii hn. Trong thc
t, Cc tn hiu CT khng c gii hn di mt cch chnh xc nh cc tn hiu xung v cc b lc thng thp l tng khng
tn ti. Hnh 23.10 biu din s khi bin cc tn hiu thi gian lin tc thnh dng ri rc. Tn hiu thi gian lin tc u
tin c lc, trch mu, lng t ha, v cui cng c m ha thnh cc t c di hu hn c gi l cc bit b. B lc
c gi l lc chng mo aliasing (AAF), l mt b lc thng thp gii hn rng di ca tn hiu vo ti Fs /2 trc khi
trch mu loi mo aliasing. Trong thc t b lc ny c cc c tnh khng l tng, v vy n phi c thit k a ra
suy gim cc tn s trn tn s Nyquist, thng ti mc khng th pht hin c bi b bin i tng t s (ADC).
HNH 23.10 Trch mu thc cc tn hiu thi gian lin tc
Cc tn hiu lc c a n ADC bin i thnh tn hiu DT. ADC c sn mt mch trch mu hot ng vi tc
trch mu Fs; tuy nhin, hm trch mu c rng hu hn tri vi vic trch mu xung bn trn. Php trch mu c th c
m hnh ha bng b trch mu xung c rng hu hn c ch ra trong hnh 23.11(b), trong cng trch mu s m vi
trong s Ts giy v ngn mch trong phn cn li ca khong trch mu. y p(t) c biu din nh sau:
( )
s
n
t nT
p t

| `


. ,

n c th c khai trin chui Fourier nh sau:

2
( )
s
j kf t
k
n
p t c e

trong :
sin
k
s s
c c k
T T
| `

. ,
Bin i Fourier ca cc tn hiu trch mu c th c vit nh sau:
( ) ( )
s k s
n
X f c X f kF

Ch rng ck khng phi l hng s trong biu thc ny (tri vi vic trch mu xung) v gi tr ca n ph thuc vo s cc
iu ha (k) cng nh chu k /Ts. Tn hiu ri rc theo thi gian, x(nTs), c cp ti b lng t ha m mi mu trch
c bin i thnh mt trong cc tp hu hn gn nht ca cc gi tr quy nh, l
( ) ( ( ))
s
x n Q x nT
, trong
( ) x n
l mu
14
Tn hiu v h thng
c lng t. Qu trnh lng t c ch ra trong hnh 23.11(d) cho b bin i tng t-s trch v gi mu bc 0 (ADC),
trong Li l k hiu mc lng t v l bc lng t. Sai s lng t (hoc l n) ca qu trnh ny l:
( )
2 2
i s i
L x nT L

< < +
HNH 23.11 Cc tn hiu trch mu xung vi rng hu hn v ph ca n: (a) Tn hiu c di gii hn v ph ca n, (b)
Chui xung c rng hu hn v bin i Furier ca n, (c) Tn hiu trch mu v ph ca n, (d) Qu trnh lng t ha.
HNH 23.12 Qu trnh bin i s-tng t
15
HNH 23.13 p ng tn s ca b
lc khi phc l tng
S tay C in t
T nhng nghin cu tnh cho thy cng sut nhiu c tm thy l
2
/12 W. Hiu sut ca ADC l t s ca cng sut
tn hiu vi cng sut nhiu, v c gi l cng sut ca tn hiu vi nhiu ca php lng t ha c biu din theo
decibel(dB) nh sau:
( ) 1.76 6.02 SQNR dB b +
Bin i s-tng t [8-12]
Vic khi phc tn hiu tng t t dng trch mu ca n gn ging vi vic lc thng thp ca tn hiu c trch mu.
Hnh 23.12 ch ra mt tn hiu tng t c th c khi phc bng cch y cc khe gia cc mu trch v vic gi gi tr
hin thi khng i ti khi mu trch tip theo c nhn nh th no. Xt mt b lc khi phc l tng vi mt hm p ng
xung h(t), th p ng ca n s l:
( ) ( ) ( )
s s
n
y t x nT h t nT

Ly bin i Fourier ca cng thc ny s c:

( ) ( ) ( ) Y f H f X f
trong X(f) l ph tun hon ca x(nTs) nh ch ra trong hnh 23.13 v h(t)=sinc(Fst). Ch rng h(t) l khng nhn qu; v vy
n khng th c dng cho cc ng dng thi gian thc. Hn na v h(t) khng b gii hn v thi gian, nn mt s v hn cc
p ng xung cn phi c dng ni suy gia cc gi tr nhn c cc kt qu chnh xc. Do vy vic chn cc b lc v
d nh b gi bc 0 (bc thang), bc 1, hoc cc b gi bc phn s c s dng trong thc t. Tuy nhin, b lc khi phc
kiu bc thang nhn chung l n gin nht v c s dng rng ri nht trong thc t.
HNH 23.14 (a) Khi phc kiu bc thang min tn s, (b) Kt qu ca vic khi phc bc thang min tn s
p ng xung ca b lc ny c a ra nh ho(t)=u(t)u(tTs) v n phi c mt khong Ts giy y vo khe h gia
cc mu. V vy, trong thc t b lc ny s to ra mt xp x bc thang vi tn hiu tng t gc. p ng tn s ca b lc l:
sin( ( )
( )
s
j fT s
o
s
f T
H f T e
fT

Tuy nhin u ra ca b lc khi phc bc thang trn hn dng trch mu ca n, xem hnh 23.14(a), n s cha cc thnh
phn tn s cao khng thc do cc bc nhy t ngt cc mc bc thang nh cc gi tr trch mu khc nhau c xem xt.
Ngoi ra vic gi mi mt xung ca x(nTs) bi Ts giy s m u mt s thay i v thi gian ca Ts/2 ti tn hiu ra. Tuy nhin,
tr thi gian ny hu nh khng c tc dng ln cht lng ca tn hiu ra. Hnh 23.14(b) s so snh cc ph tn hiu trc v sau
b lc khi phc kiu bc thang. Ch rng ph u ra b mo khng ng k do cc c tnh khng l tng ca Ho(f) v cc
phin bn b lm mo v suy gim ca X(f) gi nguyn v tr cch u nhau cc bi khc khng ca Fs. Cc bn sao ca
cc ph c th b xa bng cch dng mt b lc khng nh.
8,11,12
Thc cht b lc khng nh s lm trn tn hiu ra ca b
lc khi phc bc thang nh minh ha trong hnh 23.15.
16
Tn hiu v h thng
HNH 23.15 (a) Khi phc ca tn hiu tng t, (b) hiu qu ca lc khng nh sau.
Phn tch tn s ca cc tn hiu thi gian ri rc
Phn tch cc tn hiu thi gian ri rc (DT) trong min tn s tng t nh phn tch cc tn hiu thi gian lin tc (CT).
Nh trong phn tch tn hiu CT, cc phng php phn tch ph thuc vo kiu tn hiu. Phn tch tn hiu DT khng c chu k
s c xem xt trc.
Bin i Fourier ca cc tn hiu thi gian ri rc [6-8]
Vic phn tch mt tn hiu DT khng c chu k thnh cc thnh phn tn s c tin hnh bng cch dng bin i Fourier
ri rc (DTFT). Do , DTFT ca x(n) s c a ra bi:
2
( ) ( )
j fn
n
X f x n e

(23.39)
Khng ging bin i Fourier ca cc tn hiu tng t, X(f) l tn hiu tun hon vi chu k Fs; v vy, di tn s ca mt tn
hiu DT l duy nht trn khong tn s (Fs/2, Fs/2) hoc, tng ng (0, Fs). Ch rng cng thc (23.39) phi l tng tuyt
i X(f) tn ti, c ngha rng:
( )
n
x n

<

Nu ph ca mt tn hiu tn ti th chng ta c th tm thy tn hiu t ph ca n thng qua DTFT ngc. DTFT ngc ca
X(f) c a ra nh sau:
/ 2
2
/ 2
1
( ) ( )
s
s
F
j fn
F
x n X f e df
F

Cc tnh cht ca DTFT ca mt tn hiu DT c ch ra trong bng 23.6.

Vi cc tn hiu DT, tch chp ca hai chui x(n) and y(n) c biu din nh sau:
( ) * ( ) ( ) ( )
m
x n y n x m y n m

(23.40)
trong khi hm tng quan cho ca x(n) v y(n) c a ra bi:
17
S tay C in t
*
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
xy
m
R n x n y n x m y m n

Khi x(n)=y(n), th t tng quan ca x(n) l:

*
( ) ( ) ( )
xx
m
R n x m x m n

BNG 23.6 Cc tnh cht ca DTFT

Tnh cht M t tn hiu Min tn s
i xng chn (tn hiu thc)
1
( ) { ( ) ( )}
2
e
x n x n x n + ( ) ( ) cos(2 )
e e
n
X f x n nf

i xng l (tn hiu thc)
1
( ) { ( ) ( )}
2
o
x n x n x n ( ) ( ) sin(2 )
o o
n
X f x n nf

Tuyn tnh ( ) ( ) ax n by n + ( ) ( ) aX f bY f +
Dch thi gian ( ) x n m
2
( )
j fm
e X f

o thi gian ( ) x n ( ) X f
Tch chp ( ) ( ) x n y n ( ) ( ) X f Y f
Tng quan ( ) ( ) ( )
xy
R n x n y n ( ) ( ) ( )
xy
S f X f Y f
Quan h Wiener-Khinchine ( )
xx
R n ( )
xx
S f
Dch tn s 0
2
( )
j f n
e x n

0
( ) X f f
iu bin
0
( ) cos(2 ) x n nf
0 0
1
{ ( ) ( )}
2
X f f X f f + +
Nhn ( ) ( ) x n y n 1
( ) ( )
s
F
s
X Y f d
F

Vi phn trong min tn s ( ) nx n ( )

2
j dX f
df
Sai khc trong min thi gian ( ) ( 1) x n x n
2
(1 ) ( )
j f
e X f

Tng
( )
n
m
x m

2
(0) ( )
( )
2 (1 )
s
s
j f
m
F X X f
f mF
e

Lin hp phc
( ) x n
*
( ) X f
Quan h Parseval
( ) ( )
n
x n y n

1
( ) ( )
s
F
s
X f Y f df
F

Bng cch loi php nh x (cho php tch chp), th cc th tc tnh tch chp v tng quan l nh nhau. V vy hiu qu
tnh ton s cao hn khi dng cng mt thut ton nh gi c hai hm. t c iu ny, th mt trong cc chui c
nh x (ch cho phn tch tng quan) c dn ra bi php tch chp, l:
( ) ( ) * *( )
xy
R n x n y n
v
*
( ) ( ) * ( )
xx
R n x n x n
Nng lng ca mt tn hiu khng tun hon c tnh t:
2 *
( ) ( ) ( )
n n
E x n x n x n




18
Tn hiu v h thng
Thay th (23.40) vo cng thc trn s nhn c:
2
1 1
( ) ( )
s s
xx
F F
s s
E X f df S f df
F F


(23.41)
Biu thc ny lin quan n s phn b nng lng ca mt tn hiu khng tun hon theo tn s. i lng /X(f )/
2
c gi
l mt ph nng lng ca x(n). DTFT ca mt vi tn hiu thng gp c ch ra trong bng 23.7.
BNG 23.7 DTFT ca mt s tn hiu ph bin
( ) x n
Biu din trong min tn s,
( ) X f

( ) n 1
, A n < <
1
( ),
s s s
k
AF f mF F
T

( ) u n
2
1
( )
2 1
s
s
j f
k
F
f kF
e

2 1
n
q
| `

+
. ,
sin[(2 1) ]
sin( )
q f
f

+
n
q
| `

. ,
2
2
sin ( )
sin ( )
fq
q f

sgn( ) n
2
2
1
j f
e

( )
n
u n
2
1
, 1
1
j f
e

<

2
2
1
, 1
1 2 cos(2 ) f

<
+
( )
n
n u n
( )
2
2
2
, 1
1
j f
j f
e
e

<

( )
n
e u n

2
2 2
, 0
(1 )
j f
j f
e
e

>

n
e

2
2
1
, 0
1 2 cos(2 )
e
e f e

>
+
0
2 j f n
e

0
( )
s s
k
F f f kF

0
cos(2 ) f n +
0 0
( ) ( )
2
j j s
s s
k
F
e f f kF e f f kF

+ + + +

sin(2 )
c
f n
n

2
c
f
f
| `

. ,
Chui Fourier ri rc [6-8]
Gi s x(n) l tn hiu DT tun hon vi chu k N, th c th nhn c khai trin chui Fourier ri rc (DFS) theo mt kiu
tng t vi vic tnh chui Fourier phc cho cc tn hiu CT. Hm trc giao c s ca DFS l
-n 2 /
N
W
j N
e

v vy vic phn
tch x(n) thnh tng ca N iu ha di dng hm m phc c biu din nh sau:
1 1
2 /
0 0
( )
N N
j kn N kn
k k N
k k
x n c e c W

(23.42)
19
S tay C in t
Trong ck l cc h s ca chui Fourier ri rc. Nhn c hai v ca (23.42) vi
mn
N
W , ly tng trn ton chu k v s dng
c s lp lun rng:
1
( )
0
,
0,
N
n k m
N
k
N k m
W
k m

'

s dn n:
1
0
1
( ) , 0,1, 2, ...., 1
N
kn
k N
n
c x n W k N
N

(23.43)
BNG 23.8 Cc tnh cht ca chui Furier ri rc
Tnh cht M t tn hiu Cc h s ca chui Furier ri rc
Tuyn tnh
0
( )
Q
m m
m
x n

,
0
Q
m m k
m
c

Dch thi gian ( ) x n m

km
k N
c W
o thi gian ( ) x n
k
c

iu bin
( )
mn
N
x n W

k m
c

( ) x n
thc
( ) x n
k k
c c

( )
e
x n
l tn hiu DT chn
( )
e
x n Re( ) ck
( )
o
x n
l tn hiu DT l
0
( ) x n {Im( )}
k
j c
Cc h s DFS {ck} s m t x(n) trong min tn s do ck tng ng l ph bin v pha ca thnh phn iu ha th k. Ch
rng {ck} l mt chui tun hon vi chu k c bn l N, c ngha l ck = ck+N. V vy, cc mu lin tip N ca tn hiu hoc
cc h s DFS ca n s m t y tn hiu min thi gian hoc tn s.
Nh ch ra trong bng 23.8, cc tnh cht ca DFS l gn ging ca DTFT. Mt trong nhng li th chnh ca DFS so vi
DTFT l vic thay th tng v hn trong DTFT bng mt tng hu hn trong DFS v vy cho php tnh DFS v nghch o ca
DFS bng my tnh s.
Xt mt tn hiu DT tun hon vi chu k N, nng lng trung bnh ca n l:
1
2
0
1
( )
N
n
P x n
N

(23.44)
Thay cng thc (23.42) vo (23.44) s c:
1 1 1 1
2
* *
0 0 0 0
1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
N N N N
kn
k N k
n n n k
P x n x n x n c W c
N N


| `


. ,

(23.45)
y chnh l quan h Parseval cho cc tn hiu tun hon DT n ch ra rng nng lng trung bnh ca x(n) l tng nng
lng iu ha. Do vy chui |ck|
2
l mt ph nng lng, s miu t s phn b ca nng lng nh mt hm ca tn s.
Bin i Fourier ri rc [6, 8, 13]
Bin i Fourier ri rc (DFT) l mt phng php quan trng v v cng mnh phn tch cc tn hiu DT. Tri vi
DTFT, DFT c th c p dng cho cc chui di hu hn v s a ra ph ri rc di hu hn. V vy php bin i ny ph
hp vi cc tnh ton s v n thch hp dng trong cc phn cng s. Kt qu l DFT tr thnh mt cng c rt thng
dng phn tch cc dng sng hoc d liu khc nhau sinh ra theo nhiu nguyn tc.
DFT l php nh x ca chui x(n) vi N mu, vo N chui X(k) khc trong min tn s, l:
1
0
( ) ( ) , 0,1, ...., 1
N
kn
N
n
X k x n W k N

(23.46)
BNG 23.9 Cc tnh cht ca DFT
Tnh cht M t tn hiu Bin i Furier ri rc
Tuyn tnh
0
( )
Q
m m
m
a x n

0
( )
Q
m m
m
a X k

20
Tn hiu v h thng
Dch vng [( ) mod ] x n m N
( )
km
N
W X k
iu bin
( )
qn
N
W x n

[( ) mod ] X k q N
o thi gian
[ mod ] x n N

( ) x k

Lin hp phc
( ) x n

[ mod ] X k N

Tch chp vng

[ ]
1
0
( ) ( ) mod
N
m
x m y n m N

( ) ( ) X k Y k
Nhn ( ) ( ) x n y n
1
0
1
( ) [( ) mod ]
N
m
X m Y k m N
N

Quan h Parseval
1
0
( ) ( )
N
k
x n y n

1
*
0
1
( ) ( )
N
k
X k Y k
N

Phn thc ca tn hiu Re{ ( )} x n 1

{ ( ) ( )}
2
X k X N k

+
Phn o ca tn hiu Im{ ( )} j x n 1
{ ( ) ( )}
2
X k X N k

Chn phc
1
( ) { ( ) ( )}
2
ce
x n x n x N n

+
( )
R
X k
L phc
1
( ) { ( ) ( )}
2
co
x n x n x N n

( )
I
jX k
Tn hiu thc bt k ( ) x n
( ) ( ) X k X N k

( ) ( )
R R
X k X N k
( ) ( )
I I
X k X N k
( ) ( ) X k X N k
( ) ( ) X k X N k
X(k) c gi l iu ha th k v n tn ti vi iu kin tt c cc mu ca x(n) c gii hn. khi phc x(n) t X(k)
chng ta cn thc hin php bin i ngc. V vy bin i Fourier ri rc ngc (IDFT) ca X(k) c nh ngha nh sau:
1
0
1
( ) ( ) , 0,1, ..., 1
N
kn
N
n
x n X k W n N
N

(23.47)
DFT v DFS l cc khi nim khc nhau, DFS ch c th p dng vi cc tn hiu tun hon trong khi DFT li gi thit rng
tn hiu l tun hon, c ngha l c mt ca s c hu ca tn hiu khng tun hon nu c phn tch bng phng php DFT.
H s cn chnh cng c th c p dng vi phng trnh tng hp cho php DFT trong khi n c dng trong phng trnh
phn tch trong php phn tch DFS. C h s cn chnh cng c p dng trong phng trnh tng hp cho php bin i DFT,
trong khi n c dng trong phng trnh phn tch ca phn tch DFS.
Cc tnh cht ca DFT cng tng t nh ca DFS v DTFT c ch ra trong bng 23.9.
Khi tnh ton DFT cn ch : php dch vng c th c xem nh vic cun mt phn ca chui ra ngoi ca 0 ti N - 1
ti pha trc ca chui, tc l x[(-n) mod N] l tng ng vi x(N - n).
Nh kt qu ca php dch vng, tch chp tuyn tnh nhn c bi cng thc (23.40) l khc tch chp vng c a ra
trong bng 23.9, v vy:
1 1
0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) [( ] mod ] [( ] mod ] ( )
N N
N
m m
x n y n x m y n m N x n m N y m




y x[(n - m)mod N] l phin bn nh x v dch vng ca x(n). Tuy nhin, bng vic chn xp x gi tr ca N, c tch chp
vng v tuyn tnh c th l nh nhau. V vy, nu cc tn hiu x(n) v y(n) tng ng ca on N1 v N2 th tch chp vng v
tuyn tnh l nh nhau min l N N1 + N2 - 1.
Tng quan vng c th c thc hin bi tch chp vng v tng quan cho ca hai chui x(n) v y(n) c th c biu
din nh sau:
21
S tay C in t
*
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [( ) mod ]
xy N N
R n x n y n x n y n N
T phng trnh (23.46) v (23.47), thy rng tnh cc h s DFT cn N2 php nhn phc v N(N - 1) php cng phc.
iu ny c th l gnh nng cho my tnh nu N rt ln. Cc bin i Fourier nhanh l cc kiu thut ton khc c pht
trin tng tc tnh cc h s DFT. Ngi c c th tham kho nhiu sch c bn ti vic pht trin cc dng khc nhau
ca thut ton FFT.
7,8
C th ch ra rng s php tnh yu cu i vi thut ton FFT l hng s (N.log2 N). Do vy, khi lng
tnh gim khi thut ton FFT c s dng tnh DFT.
Nhn xt v vic x l DFT ca cc tn hiu
Zero Padding [6, 8]
Dng FFT tnh cc h s DFT s phi chu mt s rng buc vi gi tr N, v d N c th l mt ly tha ca 2 vi thut
ton FFT c s 2. Tch chp vng cng l mt gii php rc ri. Zero-padding l mt k thut gii quyt cc tnh hung trn,
zero-padding c dng hoc lm tng di chui n mc m thut ton FFT c s 2 c th c dng hoc chc chn
rng c hai tch chp tuyn tnh v vng l nh nhau. Ngoi ra, th tc ny cng c dng a ra cch biu din ph tn hiu
tt hn v phn gii tn s ca cc mu trch FFT s gim khi N tng.
Cc nguyn nhn ca sai s [8, 10]
Ph ca tn hiu c trch mu bao gm ph tng t c lp li cc bi nguyn ca tn s trch mu. S chng ln
nhau ca ph ca tn hiu tng t vi cc phin bn c dch i ca n dn n mo aliasing. Trong thc t, cc sai s qu
ng do mo aliasing c ti thiu ha bi hoc l vic tng t s trch mu hoc lc trc tn hiu b i cc thnh phn
ph tn s cao. Cc nguyn nhn khc ca sai s trong qu trnh x l DFT cc tn hiu l s lt ph (spectral leakage). l
do dng mt ca s cht mt tn hiu di v hn nhn c mt d liu c di hu hn cho vic x l DFT. Vic phn tch
tn hiu vi hm ca s theo thi gian tng ng vi vic nhn chp ph ca tn hiu c trch mu vi ph ca ca s
trong min tn s. Gi s rng ca s khng tng ng vi bi nguyn ca cc chu k ca tt c cc thnh phn tn s ca
mt tn hiu thi gian ri rc, th mt thnh phn tn s n s trn (r) vo vng tn s khc trong DFT ca d liu b cht.
Hin tng ny s dn n s mo ph v s kh xc nh c hai tn s lin k nhau trong mt tn hiu. phn gii ca ph
tr nn tt hn nu rng ca s tng, hoc chn mt hm ca s vi cc vu hai bn l thp. Hiu ng hng ro (picket-
fence) s xut hin do ch mt s hu hn im tn s ca mt ph tn s lin tc c a ra bi DFT. V vy c th mt nh
ca mt thnh phn tn s no trong mt tn hiu do n b t gia hai im tn s lin k nhau trong ph. Do phn gii tn
s f = Fs/N, nn vn ny c th c gim nh bng cch tng s im N ca DFT, trong khi duy tr cng tc trch mu,
dn n c nhiu mu hn trong DFT hoc chn phng php zero-padding.
Chn tham s DFT [6]
Chu k trch mu, Ts, phn gii tn s, f, v di DFT, N, l ba tham s phi c ch ra khi thc hin php x l tn
hiu DFT. V Fs = N. f = 1/Ts, nn cc tham s ny lin quan vi nhau theo f = 1/NTs. Nu k hiu Tx l di ca tn hiu
c trch mu, th Tx = MTs. V vy, s khng c mo ph nu N M = Tx/Ts. Tng t s khng c mo ph nu:
1 1 1 1
s s x
f
T NT MT T

Cc tham s x l DFT mt tn hiu lin tc c trch mu cn phi c chn cn thn trnh mo ph do aliasing
hoc do vic cht d liu. Gi s mt ca s vi rng Tx giy v rng tn hiu c rng di cc i l B Hz th da trn l
thuyt trch mu chng ta s c aliasing khng ng k nu Fs = 1/Ts 2B. trnh s r ph do vic cht t ngt d liu,
phn gii tn s c chn phi tha mn 1/ f = T Tx. Do vy mo ph do aliasing v r ph c th trnh c nu di ca
DFT c chn tha mn N = Fs / f 2BTx.
Ti liu tham kho
[1] Soliman, S.S., and Srinath, M.D., Continuous and Discrete Signals and Systems, Prentice-Hall, 1998.
[2] OFlynn, M., and Moriarty, E., Linear Systems: Time Domain and Transform Analysis, Wiley, 1987.
[3] Lathi, B.P., Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Oxford University Press, Third Edition, 1998.
[4] Proakis, J.G., and Salehi, M., Communication Systems Engineering, Prentice-Hall, 1994.
[5] Taylor, F.J., Principles of Signals and Systems, McGraw-Hill, 1994.
[6] Carlson, G.E., Signal and Linear System Analysis, Wiley, Second Edition, 1998.
[7] Proakis, J.G., and Manolakis, D.G., Digital Signal Processing: Principles, Algorithms, and Applications, Prentice-Hall,
1996.
[8] Oppenheim, A.V., and Schafer, R.W., with Buck, J.R., Discrete-Time Signal Processing, Prentice-Hall, Second Edition,
1999.
[9] Houts, R.C., Signal Analysis in Linear Systems, Saunders College Publishing, 1991.
22
Tn hiu v h thng
[10] Ziemer, R.E., Tranter, W.H., and Fannin, D.R., Signals and Systems: Continuous and Discrete, MacMillan Publishing
Company, Third Edition, 1993.
[11] Orfanidis, S.J., Introduction to Signal Processing, Prentice-Hall, 1996.
[12] Haykin, S., and Veen, B.V., Signals and Systems, Wiley, 1999.
[13] Taylor, F., and Mellot, J., Hands-On Digital Signal Processing, McGraw-Hill, 1998.
23.2 Bin i z v cc h thng s
Rolf Johansson
Mt h thng s (hoc h thi gian ri rc hoc h d liu c trch mu) l mt thit b nh b iu khin s hoc b lc
s, tng qut hn l mt h thng c d kin cho mt s thc hin trn my tnh s v thng cng vi mt vi tng tc tun
hon vi mi trng v cng vi mt phng php lun h tr phn tch v thit k. iu quan trng khi m hnh ha v phn
tch l cc thut ton hi t, v d, cc phng trnh sai phn ca d liu vo - ra - v bin i z l quan trng gii quyt ca
cc vn nh vy.
Bin i z hin ang c dng phn tch cc h thi gian tuyn tnh bt bin v ri rc ha cc tn hiu thi gian - v d,
cho iu khin hoc lc s - v c th c so snh vi bin i Laplace c dng phn tch cc h thng v cc tn hiu
thi gian lin tc, mt thuc tnh c ch l tch chp ca hai tn hiu thi gian l tng ng vi vic nhn cc bin i z tng
ng ca chng. Bin i z l quan trng m t mt h thi gian tuyn tnh bt bin theo cc v tr cc - khng ca n, hm
truyn, v s Bode ca n, v p ng ca n ti cc thay i ln ca cc tn hiu. Ngoi ra, n s a ra cc mi quan h
quan trng gia cc thuc tnh thi gian v ph ca tn hiu. Bin i z thng xut hin khi phn tch cc phng trnh sai phn
c dng nhiu trong k thut v ton ng dng.
Bin i z
Bin i z ca chui {
k
x
+

c nh ngha nh hm to sau:
( ) { }
k
k
k
X z x x z

Z
(23.48)
trong bin z c bn cht ca php dch v trc, sao cho:
1
{ } { } ( )
k k
x z x zX z
+
Z Z
(23.49)
Bin i z l chui ly tha v hn theo bin phc z
-1
trong {xk} l cc h s ca chui. Bi v bin i z l chui ly tha
v hn nn n ch tn ti vi cc gi tr ca z chui ny hi t v min hi t ca X(z) l mt tp z sao cho X(z) nhn mt gi
tr hu hn. iu kin tn ti bin i z l s hi t ca chui ly tha.

<

k
k
k
x z
(23.50)
Min hi t cho mt tn hiu hu hn l ton b mt phng z tr z = 0 v z = . Cho mt chui v hn mt pha {
0
k
k
x

, mt
s r thng c th c tm thy sao cho chui ly tha hi t vi
z r >
. Khi , bin i ngc c th nhn c nh sau:
1
1
( )
2

k
k
x X z z dz
i
(23.51)
Trong ng cong ca tch phn s bao tt c cc im k d ca X(z). Trong thc t, l mt qu trnh chun s dng
cc kt qu dng bng; Mt vi cp bin i z chun c th thy trong bng 23.10.
Cc h thng s v d liu ri rc
Vic trch mu tun hon cc tn hiu v vic tnh ton tip theo hoc lu gi cc kt qu yu cu my tnh nh gi cho vic
trch mu v x l cc chui s kt qu. Mt bin o c x(t) c th s dng ch nh l cc quan st theo chu k ca x(t) c
trch mu theo khong thi gian T (chu k trch mu). Chui mu c th c biu din nh sau:
{ } , ( ) ...., 1, 0,1, 2, ...
k k
x x x kT k

(23.52)
v iu quan trng l phi bit chc rng chui mu biu din ph hp bin gc x(t); xem hnh 23.16. vic trch mu l l
tng, yu cu khong cch trch mu phi rt ngn v hm trch mu phi c biu din bng mt chui cc xung ngn v hn
(t) (xung Dirac). V vy, hm thi gian trch mu c biu din nh sau:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

T
k
x t x t T t kT x t t
(23.53)
23
S tay C in t
( ) ( )

T
k
t T t kT
(23.54)
BNG 23.10 Cc tnh cht ca bin i z
Bin i z ({ }) ( )
k
f F z Z
Tch chp ({ }) ({ }) ({ })
k k k k
f g f g Z Z Z
({ }) ({ }) ({ })
k k k k
f g f g Z Z Z
Dch trc
1
({ }) ({ }) ( )
k k
f z f zF z
+
Z Z
Dch sau
1
1
({ }) ({ }) ( )
k k
f f z F z

Z Z
Tuyn tnh ({ }) ({ }) ({ })
k k k k
af bg a f b g + + Z Z Z
Nhn
1
({ }) ( )
k
k
a f F a z

Z
Gi tr cui
1
1
lim lim(1 ) ( )
k
k k
f z F z

Gi tr u
0
lim ( )
z
f F z

Min thi gian Bin i z

Xung
1, 0
{ } 1,
0, 0
k k
k
z C
k



'

Z
Hm bc
0, 0
( ) , 1
1, 0 1
k k
k z
z
k z

<
>
'

Z
Hm dc
2
( ) , 1
( 1)
k k
z
x k X z z
z
>

Hm m
( ) ,
k
k k
z
x a X z z a
z a
>

Hm sin
2
sin
sin ( ) , 1
2 cos 1
k k
z
x k X z z
z z

>
+

HNH 23.16 Tn hiu thi gian lin tc x(t) v thit b trch mu a ra chui mu {xk}.
v trong chu k trch mu T c nhn ln chc chn rng trung bnh trn mt chu k trch mu ca bin gc x v tn
hiu trch mu x

tng ng l cng ln. Mt ng dng trc tip ca bin ri rc x

(t) theo cng thc (23.53) s chng t
rng ph ca x

lin quan ti bin i z, X(z) nh sau:

( ) { ( ) ( ) exp( ) ( )

i T
T k
k
X i F x t t Tk x i kT TX e
(23.55)
R rng rng, bin gc x(t) v d liu trch mu l khng ging ht nhau, v v vy cn phi xem xt cc hiu ng mo ca
vic ri rc ha. Xt ph ca tn hiu trch mu x
(t) nhn c bi bin i Fourier:
( ) { ( )} { ( )}* { ( )}
T
X i F x t F x t F t


(23.56)
trong :
2 /
2
{ ( )} ( )
2

| `


. ,
T T
k
T
F t k
T

(23.57)
24
Tn hiu v h thng
sao cho:
2
( ) { ( )}* ( )}

] | `

]
. , ]

{
T
k
X i x t t X i k
T
F F
(23.58)
Do , bin i Fourier X ca bin c trch mu l m rng tun hon ca ph gc X(i) dc theo trc tn s vi mt chu
k bng tn s trch mu s =2/T. Mt kt qu quan trng da trn nhn xt ny l thuyt trch mu Shannon pht biu rng
bin thi gian lin tc x(t) c th c khi phc li t cc mu trch nu v ch nu tn s trch mu t nht bng hai ln tn s
cao nht m vi n X(i) khc khng. V vy bin gc x(t) c th c khi phc l:
sin ( )
( )
( )

k
k
t kT
T
x t x
t kT
T
(23.59)
Cng thc (23.59) c gi l php ni suy Shannon, thng c trch dn mc d n ch ng vi cc chui d liu di v
hn v yu cu mt b lc khng nhn qu khi phc tn hiu thi gian lin tc x(t) theo php tnh thi gian thc. Tn s
n=s/2= /T c gi l tn s Nyquist v ch ra gii hn trn ca vic trch mu nhiu t do. Mt ph khc khng khng
thuc gii hn ny s dn n s giao thoa gia tn s trch mu v tn hiu c trch mu (aliasing); xem hnh 23.17.
HNH 23.17 Biu din aliasing xut hin trong khi trch mu mt tn hiu sin x(t)=sin2 .0.9t tn s trch mu thiu, 1 Hz
(chu k trch mu T = 1) ( th trn). Tn hiu c trch mu s b mo aliasing cc thnh phn chnh ca n ging nh tn
hiu x(t)=sin2 .0.1t c trch mu vi cng tc ( th di).
Bin i Fourier ri rc
Xt mt chui di hu hn {
1
0
N
k
k
x

bng 0 bn ngoi khong 0k N - 1. c lng bin i z, X(z) ti N im cch u

nhau trn ng trn n v [ ] exp( ) exp (2 / )
k
z i T i NT kT
vi k = 0, 1,, N - 1 s xc nh Bin i Fourier ri rc
(DFT) ca tn hiu x vi chu k trch mu h v N php o:
1
0
{ ( )} exp( ) ( )

k
N
i T
k l k
l
X DFT x kT x i lT X e
(23.60)
Ch rng bin i fourier ri rc ch c xc nh cc im tn s ri rc
2
, 0,1,...., 1

k
k k N
NT
(23.61)
25
S tay C in t
trong thc t, bin i fourier ri rc phng theo bin i fourier v bin i z cho cc yu cu thc t ca cc php o l hu
hn. Cc tnh cht tng t u c gi nguyn i vi bin i Laplace ri rc vi z=exp(sT), trong s l bin ca bin i
Laplace.
Hm truyn
Xt h thi gian tuyn tnh ri rc vi chui vo {uk} (chui kch) v chui ra {yk} (chui p ng). S ph thuc ca ca tn
hiu u ra ca mt h tuyn tnh c c trng bi phng trnh tch chp v bin i z ca n,
0
, ..., 1, 0,1, 2,...
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

+ +
+

k
k m k m k k m m k
m m
y h u v h u v k
Y z H z U z V z
(23.62)
trong chui {vk} tng ng vi mt vi u vo ca sai s v nhiu ngoi v vi
( ) { }, ( ) { }, ( ) { } Y z y U z u V z v Z Z Z
l
tn hiu u ra v cc tn hiu u vo. Hm trng {
0
( )
k
k
h kT h

bng 0 vi k m v theo thuyt nhn qu c gi l p ng

xung ca h thng s (so snh vi p ng xung ca h thi gian lin tc). p ng xung v bin i z ca n, hm truyn xung:
0
( ) { ( )}

k
k
k
H z h kT h z Z
(23.63)
xc nh p ng ca h i vi u vo U(z); xem hnh 23.18.
HNH 23.18 S khi c quan h hm truyn c gi thit l H(z) gia u vo U(z), nhiu V(z), hm trung gian X(z), v u
ra Y(z)
Hm truyn xung H(z) c xc nh bi t s:
( )
( )
( )

X z
H z
U z
(23.64)
v quy nh quan h gia u vo v u ra min tn s ca h thng. c bit s Bode c c lng bi
( ) H z
v arg
H(z) cho z=exp(i kT) v vi
/
k n
T <
, tc l khi H(z) c c lng bi cc im tn s ti tn s Nyquist n dc
theo ng trn n v.
Cc h khng gian - trng thi
Cch biu din quan h vo - ra bng cc hm truyn gi l biu din khng gian - trng thi. Xt phng trnh khng gian -
trng thi ri rc, th nguyn hu hn vi mt vector trng thi
n
k
x R , mt u vo
p
k
u R v cc quan st
m
k
y R .
1
0,1...
+
+

'
+

k k k
k k k
x x u
k
y Cx Du
(23.65)
vi hm truyn xung:
1
( ) ( )

+ H z C zI D (23.66)
v bin u ra:
0
0
( ) ( ) ( )

k k
k
Y z C z x H z U z
(23.67)
trong cc hiu ng c th ca iu kin u x0 s xut hin nh s hng u tin. Ch rng cc iu kin u x0 c th thy
nh cc hiu ng thc ca u vo trong khong thi gian (-, 0).
Cc h thng s c m t bng cc phng trnh sai phn (cc m hnh ARMAX)
Mt lp quan trng ca cc qu trnh ngu nhin khng dng l lp m trong mt vi p ng xc nh i vi mt u
vo ngoi v mt qu trnh ngu nhin dng l c tnh cht xp chng. iu l thch hp, v d khi u vo khng th c
26
Tn hiu v h thng
m t mt cch hiu qu bi mt vi phn b xc sut. Mt m hnh ri rc c th c a ra theo dng mt phng trnh sai
phn vi mt tn hiu vo {uk} thng c xem nh bit.
1 1 1 1 1 1
.... ....

+ + + + + + + L
k k n k n k n k n k k n k n
y a y a y b u b u w c w c w
(23.68)
Bin i z ca phng trnh (23.68) l:
1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

+ A z Y z B z U z C z W z (23.69)
trong :
1 1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
( ) 1
( ) 1
( ) 1



+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
L
L
L
n
n
n
n
n
n
A z a z a z
B z b z b z
C z c z c z
(23.70)
Cc m hnh ngu nhin bao gm a thc A, theo phng trnh (23.69) v (23.70) c bit n nh cc m hnh
autoregressive (AR) v cc m hnh bao gm a thc C c bit n nh cc m hnh moving-average (MA), trong khi, a
thc B xc nh cc hiu ng ca u vo ngoi (X). Ch rng s hng moving average y l mt vi li do khng c s hn
ch cc h s phi cng vo 1 hoc cc h s khng m. Mt cch m t khc l p ng xung hu hn (finite impulse
response) hoc b lc tt c cc im khng (allzero filter).
V vy m hnh y ca phng trnh (23.69) l mt m hnh auto regressive moving average vi tn hiu u vo ngoi
(ARMAX) v hm truyn xung ca n H(z)=B(z
-1
)/A(z
-1
) l n nh nu v ch nu cc cc - tc l cc s phc z1,, zn l nghim
ca phng trnh A(z
-1
) = 0 l hon ton nm trong ng trn n v, tc l |zi| < 1. Cc im khng ca h thng - tc l cc
s phc z1,, zn l nghim ca phng trnh B(z
-1
) =0 c th nhn gi tr bt k m khng xut hin bt k s mt n nh no,
mc d thch hp hn nhn cc im khng nm bn trong ng trn n v, tc l |zi| < 1 (minimum-phase zeros). Do tuyn
tnh, {yk} c th phn thnh mt qu trnh xc nh hon ton {xk} v mt qu trnh ngu nhin hon ton {vk}:
1 1
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )


+
' '
+

k k k
y x v A z X z B z U z
Y z X z V z
A z V z C z W z
(23.71)
Kiu phn tch ca phng trnh (23.71) tch cc qu trnh xc nh v cc qu trnh ngu nhin c gi l Wold
decomposition.
D bo v khi phc
Xt cc vn d bo trc d bc ca tn hiu ra khi tn hiu u ra {yk} c to bi m hnh ARMA,
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

A z Y z C z W z (3.72)
m m hnh ny c iu khin bi n trng trung bnh khng {wk} vi covariance {
2
i j w ij
w w E
. Ni cch khc, gi thit
rng cc quan st {yk}thu c ti thi im hin ti, cn phi d bo trc d bc u ra nh th no l ti u? Gi thit rng
a thc A(z
-1
) v C(z
-1
) l nguyn t vi nhau v khng c im khng vi |z| 1. Khai trin a thc C theo phng trnh
Diophantine
1 1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
d
C z A z F z z G z

+
(23.73)
trong :
1 1
1
1 1
0 1
( ) 1 , 1
( ) , max( 1, )


+ + +
+ + +
L
L
nF
nF
nG
nG G A c
F z f z f z nF d
G z g g z g z n n n d
(23.74)
Biu din ca z
-1
nh l ton t dch li (backward shift operator) v s dng cc phng trnh (23.72) v (23.73) cho php
nhn c:
1
1
1
( )
( )
( )

+ +
+
k d k d k
G z
y F z w y
C z
(23.75)
K hiu cc b d bo tuyn tnh d bc l y
k
+d da trn thng tin thu c ti thi im k. V s hng trung
bnh-khng
1
( )
k d
F z w

+
ca phng trnh (23.75) l khng th d bo c ti thi im k, nn hon ton c th xut b d
bo d bc nh sau:
1
1
( )

( )
+

k d
k k
G z
y y
C z
(23.76)
27
S tay C in t
Sai s d bo tha mn:
1 1 1 1
1 1
1
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )

+ + +

+

+

+


k d k d k d k
d
k k d
k d
y y
G z A z F z z G z
y y
C z C z
F z w
(23.77)
K hiu
{ }
k
E F
l k vng ton hc c iu kin i vi thng tin o c thi im k. K vng ton hc v hip
phng sai ca vic d bo d bc lin quan n thng tin thu c thi im k l:
1
2 1 2
2
1 1 1 1
2 2 2
1
{ } { ( ) } 0
{( ) } {[ ( ) ] }
{( ) }
(1 ) 0

+ + +

+ + +
+ + +


+ + +
+ + +
L
L
k d k k d k k d k
k d k d k d k
k d k d d k k
nF w
y y F z w
y y F z w
w f w f w
f f
E E
E E
E F
k k
F F
F F
(23.78)
Suy ra rng b d bo ca phng trnh (23.76) l khch quan v rng sai s d bo ch ph thuc vo tng lai, cc thnh
phn nhiu khng d bo c. D dng ch ra rng b d bo ca phng trnh (23.76) s t c gii hn thp ca phng
trnh (23.78) v rng b d bo ca phng trnh (23.76) l ti u theo ngha phng sai ca sai s d bo l ti thiu.
V d 23.1 - B d bo ti u cho m hnh bc nht
Xt m hnh ARMA bc nht
1 1 1 1 k k k k
y a y w c w
+ +
+ +
(23.79)
Phng sai ca b d bo trc mt bc l:
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2
1 1 1
{( ) } {( ) } { }
{( ) }
+ + + +
+
+ +
+ +
k k k k k k k k k k k
k k k w w k k
y y y a y c w w
y a y c w
E F E F E F
E F
(23.80)
B d bo ti u tha mn gii hn thp ca phng trnh (23.80) nhn c t phng trnh (23.80) l:
1 1 1

+
+
o
k k k k
y a y c w
(23.81)
rt tic l khng th thc hin n bi v w
k
khng th o c. V vy, chui n {w
k
} c thay th bi mt
vi hm ca bin quan st c {y
k
}. Mt b d bo tuyn tnh c chn theo phng trnh (23.76) l:
1
1
1 1
1 1
1
( )

( ) 1
+

+
k
k k k
c a G z
y y y
C z c z
(23.82)
B lc Kalman
Xt m hnh khng gian trng thi tuyn tnh
1
,
,
+
+
+

n
k k k k
m
k k k k
x x v x
y Cx w y
(23.83)
trong {v
k
} v {w
k
} c gi thit l cc qu trnh n trng trung bnh-khng c lp vi cc covariance

v
w
tng
ng. Gi thit rng {y
k
} l o c v rng mong mun d bo{x
k
} t cc php o {y
k
}. a ra b d bo trng thi:
1 1 1
1
( ),
,
+

n
k k k k k k k k k
m
k k k k
x x K y y x
y Cx y
(23.84)
B d bo ca phng trnh (23.84) c cng ma trn ng lc vi m hnh khng gian trng thi ca phng trnh
(101.83), v ngoi ra c mt s hng hiu chnh
( )
k k k
K y y
vi mt h s K
k
c chn. Sai s d bo l:
1 1 1

+ + +
%
k k k k k
x x x
(23.85)
Cc ng lc ca sai s d bo l:
1
( )
+
+ % %
k
k k k k k
x K C x v K w
(23.86)
28
Tn hiu v h thng
Sai s d bo trung bnh b khng ch bi phng trnh quy:
1
{ } ( ) { }
+
% %
k k k
x K C x E E
(23.87)
v sai s trung bnh bnh phng ca sai s d bo b khng ch bi:
1 1
{ } {[ ) ][( ) ] }
( ) { }( )
+ +
+ +
+ +
% % % %
%%
T T
k k k k k k k k k k k k
T T
k k k k v k w k
x x K C x v K w K C x v K w
K C x x K C K K
E E
E
(23.88)
Nu chng ta k hiu:
{ }, + %%
T T
k k k k w k
P x x Q CP C E (23.89)
th phng trnh (23.88) c n gin thnh:
1 +
+ +
T T T T T
k k k k k k v k k k
P P K CP P C K K Q K (23.90)
Bng cch bnh phng ton b cc s hng cha K
k
chng ta s nhn c:
1 1 1
1
( ) ( )

+
+ +
T T T T T T
k k v k k k k k k k k k k
P P P C Q CP K P C Q Q K P C Q (23.91)
trong ch s hng cui cng ph thuc vo Kk. Vic ti gin P
k+1 c th c thc hin bng cch chn K
k
sao cho na
dng ca K
k
l s hng ph thuc trong phng trnh (23.91) bin mt. V vy P
k+1 t c gii hn thp
ca n vi:
1
( )

+
T T
k k w k
K P C CP C (23.92)
v b lc Kalman (hoc b lc KalmanBucy) s c dng:
1 1
1
1
1
1
( )
, ( )
( )
+

+

+
+ +
k k k k k k k
T T
k k k w k k k
T T T T
k k v k w k k
x x K y y
y Cx K P C CP C
P P PC CP C CP
(23.93)
l b d bo ti u theo ngha sai s bnh phng trung bnh (phng trnh (23.88)) l ti thiu theo mi bc.
V d 23.2B lc Kalman cho mt H bc nht
Xt m hnh khng gian trng thi:
1
0.95 ,
+
+ +
k k k k k k
x x v y x w
(23.94)
Trong {v
k
} v {w
k
} l cc qu trnh n trng trung bnh-khng vi cc covariance {
2
1
k
v E
v {
2
1
k
w E
tng ng.
Cc b lc Kalman s c dng:
1 1 1
2 2
2
1
0.95 ( )
0.95
1
0.95
0.95 1
1
+
+

+
+
+
k k k k k k k k
k
k
k
k
k k
k
x x K x y
P
K
P
P
P P
P
(23.95)
Kt qu ca s thc hin nh vy c ch ra trong hnh 23.19.
29
S tay C in t
HNH 23.19 B lc Kalman c dng d bo trc mt bc x
k+1 trong phng trnh (23.94). Bin quan st c {y
k
},
trng thi {x
k
} v trng thi d bo c {

k
x%
, variance c tnh c {P
k
} v {K
k
}, v sai s d bo c ch ra trong 100
bc thc hin ca qu trnh ngu nhin. (Source: Johansson, R. 1993. System Modeling and Identification. Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)
nh ngha cc khi nim
M hnh Autoregressive (AR): Mt chui thi gian t li bc n c nh ngha bng
1
w
n
k m k m k
m
y a y

. Chui {w
k
} thng c gi thit bao gm cc bin ngu nhin phn b
trung bnh khng ging nhau w
k
.
M hnh Autoregressive moving average (ARMA): Mt chui thi gian trung bnh t
li bc n c nh ngha bng
1 0
n n
k m k m m k m
m m
y a y c w


+

. Chui {w
k
} thng c gi thit bao gm cc bin ngu
nhin phn b trung bnh khng ging nhau w
k
.
Bin i Laplace ri rc: Bin i Laplace ri rc l mt bn sao ca bin i Laplace p dng cho
cc tn hiu v cc h ri rc. Bin i Laplace ri rc nhn c t bin i z bng cch thay th z exp(sT), trong
T l chu k trch mu.
Qu trnh moving average (MA): Mt chui thi gian trung bnh dch bc n c nh ngha
0
n
k m k m
m
y c w

. Chui {w
k
} thng c gi thit bao gm cc bin ngu nhin phn b trung
bnh-khng ging nhau w
k
.
M hnh Rational: AR, MA, ARMA, and ARMAX c gi chung l m hnh hu t.
Chui thi gian: chui ca bin ngu nhin {y
k
}, trong k thuc tp cc s nguyn dng v m.
Bin i z: Mt hm to c p dng vi cc chui d liu v c c tnh nh mt hm ca bin phc z theo tn s.
Ti liu tham kho
[1] Box, G. E. P. and Jenkins, G. M. 1970. Time Series Analysis: Forecasting and Control. Holden-Day, San Francisco, CA.
[2] Hurewicz, W. 1947. Filters and servo systems with pulsed data. In Theory of Servomechanisms, H. M. James, N. B.
Nichols, and R. S. Philips, eds., McGraw-Hill, New York.
[3] Jenkins, G. M. and Watts, D. G. 1968. Spectral Analysis and Its Applications. Holden-Day, San Francisco, CA.
[4] Johansson, R. 1993. System Modeling and Identification. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Jury, E. I. 1956. Synthesis
and critical study of sampled-data control systems. AIEE Trans. 75: 141151.
30
Tn hiu v h thng
[5] Kalman, R. E. and Bertram, J. E. 1958. General synthesis procedure for computer control of single and multi-loop linear
systems. Trans. AIEE. 77: 602609.
[6] Kolmogorov, A. N. 1939. Sur linterpolation et extrapolation des suites stationnaires. C. R. Acad. Sci. 208: 20432045.
[7] Ragazzini, J. R. and Zadeh, L. A. 1952. The analysis of sampled-data systems. AIEE Trans. 71:225234. Tsypkin, Y. Z.
1950. Theory of discontinuous control. Avtomatika i Telemekhanika. Vol. 5.
[8] Wiener, N. 1949. Extrapolation, Interpolation and Smoothing of Stationary Time Series with Engineering Applications.
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Thng tin b sung
Cc kt qu l thuyt gn y lin quan n cc ng dng ca cc h c servo v radar [Hurewicz, 1947]. Tsypkin [1950]
gii thiu bin i Laplace ri rc v nh ngha bin i z i xng c gii thiu bi Ragazzini v Zadeh [1952] vi cc
pht trin hn na bi Jury [1956]. Nhiu l thuyt d bo c o c pht trin bi Kolmogorov [1939] v Wiener [1949]
trong khi cc phng php khng gian - trng thi t c cc tin b bi Kalman and Bertram [1958]. Cc sch gio khoa
u tin v phn tch chui thi gian v phn tch ph c cung cp bi Box v Jenkins [1970] v Jenkins v Watts [1968].
Cc bo co chi tit v phn tch chui tn hiu thi gian v bin i z v vic ng dng chng x l tn hiu c tm thy
trong:
Oppenheim, A. V. and Schafer, R. W. 1989. Discrete-Time Signal Processing. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ.
Proakis, J. G. and Manolakis, D. G. 1989. Introduction to Digital Signal Processing. Maxwell MacMillan Int.
Ed., New York.
Cc l thuyt v phn tch chui tn hiu thi gian v vic ng dng n iu khin thi gian ri rc thy c trong:
strm, K. J. and Wittenmark, B. 1990. Computer-Controlled Systems, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ.
L thuyt v phn tch chui thi gian v phng php lun xc nh v lm cho hp logic cc m hnh thi gian
ri rc v cc kha cnh khc ca vic nhn dng h thng tm c trong:
Johansson, R. 1993. System Modeling and Identification. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Cc ti liu tt kho st cc nghin cu hin thi l:
IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control
IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing
Cc v d cho cc ng dng x l tn hiu l:
Cadzow, J. A. 1990. Signal processing via least-squares error modeling. IEEE ASSP Magazine. 7:1231, October.
Schroeder, M. R. 1984. Linear prediction, entropy, and signal analysis. IEEE ASSP Magazine. 1:311, July.
23.3 Cc m hnh khng gian - trng thi thi gian ri rc v lin tc
Kam Leang, Qingze Zou, and Santosh Devasia
Gii thiu
Trong mc ny chng ti s gii thiu vic m hnh ha cc h thi gian lin tc v ri rc s dng phng php khng gian
- trng thi. Phng php khng gian trng thi l phng php s dng mt tp cc phng trnh vi phn bc nht biu din
ng x ca mt h thng trong min thi gian. Phng php khng gian trng thi c mt thun li hn cc phng php min
tn s nh l phng php hm truyn: c th c dng m hnh ha cc h thng tuyn tnh, phi tuyn, bin i theo thi
gian v a bin, trong phng php hm truyn l ph hp vi cc h tuyn tnh bt bin theo thi gian (LTI) [1, Chapter 3].
Ngoi ra, cc m hnh c biu din dng khng gian - trng thi bc nht trong min thi gian c th d dng c gii
quyt bng my tnh s hoc b vi x l lm cho phng php ny hon ton c ch thit k v iu khin cc h c in t
hin i. Hn na, c rt nhiu phn mm my tnh nh MATLAB [2], khai thc cc li th ca dng khng gian - trng thi
phn tch v gii quyt cc vn ca bi ton thit k. V vy phng php khng gian - trng thi c th c dng
nghin cu ng x v thun tin khi thit k c h thi gian lin tc v ri rc, cc nguyn tc c bn ca n l tiu im ca
mc ny.
Sau y, chng ta bt u bng mt v d: M hnh ha mt c cu chp hnh p gm v dng v d trong sut mc ny.
Khi nim trng thi ca h c a ra v chng ta s gii thch phng trnh khng gian trng thi ca cc h tuyn tnh v
trnh by cch gii n. Ch tuyn tnh ha cc h khng tuyn tnh c cp mt cch ngn gn. Mi quan h gia cc m
hnh min thi gian v m hnh min tn s c bn lun v mt th tc nhn c m hnh khng gian - trng thi bng
cch dng d liu thc nghim ca min tn s (p ng tn s) cng c trnh by. Mc ny c kt thc bng mt bn lun
v vic m hnh ha khng gian - trng thi thi gian ri rc v nhng nhn xt kt lun. Cc lnh ca MATLAB cng c dn
ra.
31
S tay C in t
Trng thi v khng gian - trng thi
M hnh v d ca mt c cu chp hnh p gm
Chng ta bt u bng vic m hnh ha c cu chp hnh p gm (piezoceramic actuator) l mt h c in t v d. Khi
mt in p c t vo mt vt liu p gm th kch thc ca n s thay i. S thay i kch thc ny c th c dng
nh v chnh xc mt i tng hoc mt cng c (v d nh mt u o), v vy to ra cc c cu chp hnh p gm ph hp
cho nhiu ng dng rng ri khc nhau. V d nh kh nng nh v vi chnh xc nano, cc c cu chp hnh p gm tr
thnh l tng i vi cng ngh nano ang ni ln. c bit, mt c cu chp hnh piezo-tube c dng trong cc knh hin vi
d qut (scanning probe microscopes - SPMs, xem hnh 23.20) nh v chnh xc mt u d cho c kh chnh xc c nano,
sa b mt, v thu thp cc nh ca cc vt nh [3]. Cc u d c th c t trong h ta x,y v z vi mi dch chuyn
c iu khin bi mt ngun in p c lp ( V
x
(t), V
y
(t), v V
z
(t)). Vic qut u d c thc hin song song i vi b
mt mu, dc theo trc x v y; S dch chuyn ca trc x cho php u d dch chuyn thng ng vi b mt mu. Mt m hnh
ton chnh xc ca cc ng lc ca c cu chp hnh piezo-tube c yu cu phn tch v thit k cc h SPM. Mt ngi
thit k c th khai thc thng tin bit ca h thng t m hnh ca n ci to hoc ti u mt thit k sao cho vic xy
dng nhanh hn v cc SPMA tin cy hn. V d mt phng php c thc hin thnh cng l phng php iu khin o
(inversion-based), tm cc u vo c yu cu t c s hiu chnh chnh xc bng vic o m hnh h thng [3].
Phng php ny lm vic tt nht khi cc ng lc ca h c hiu v m t tt. Ni chung, vic phn tch v thit k cc h
thng iu khin cng yu cu mt m hnh h thng. V vy phn tch v thit k, n l quyt nh nhn c mt m
hnh ton chnh xc m t ng x ca mt h thng. Vic m hnh ha h piezo-tube v d c xt di.
HNH 23.20 Cc thnh phn chnh ca mt knh hin vi qut u d (SPM) c dng phn tch b mt, bao gm c cu
chp hnh piezo-tube, u d, v mu. The main components of a scanning probe microscope (SPM) used for surface analysis,
which includes the piezo-tube actuator, the probe tip, and the sample. Cu hnh ca u d v mu tng vi cc trc ta (x,
y, v z) c phng to trong hnh.
HNH 23.21: (a) M hnh tp trung n gin ca c cu chp hnh piezo-tube dc theo trc z bao gm mt
khi lng, mt l so v mt gim chn [4]. Hng dng ca z c ch ra bi mi tn v du + . (b) Cc lc tc
dng ln khi lng (s vt t do)
M hnh n gin ca c cu chp hnh Piezo-Tube
32
Tn hiu v h thng
Chng ta s m hnh ha cc ng lc ca c cu chp hnh piezo-tube dc theo trc z trong u vo l in p cp V
z
(t)
v u ra ca h thng l dch chuyn ca u d z(t). Chng ta bt u vic m hnh ha bng vic n gin ha h thng nh
l mt khi lng c tch ra, mt l xo l tng, v mt gim chn nh ch ra trn hnh 23.21 (a). Ton b khi lng ca
piezo-tube c dn vo phn t khi lng m, p ng n hi ca piezo-tube c m hnh ha l mt l xo, v s gim chn
ca cu trc trong piezo-tube c m hnh ha nh mt gim chn hoc mt phn t ma st dnh (cc m hnh nh vy c
xem l cc m hnh tp trung (lumped model) [4]). Mt quan h ton hc gia in p cp V
z
(t) v dch chuyn ca u d z(t)
c th nhn c bng cch dng cc nh lut vt l. p dng nh lut th 2 ca Newton (tng ca cc lc ngoi t ln mt
vt bng tch ca khi lng m ca n vi gia tc
( ) z t &&
) chng ta c th vit phng trnh chuyn ng nh sau:
( ) ( )

&&
i
i
F t mz t
(23.96)
nh ch ra trong hnh 23.21(b) (s vt t do), c 3 lc ngoi tc ng ln piezotube. u tin, lc c to bi l xo c gi
thit l tng ng vi dch chuyn ca u d, c ngha l:
( ) ( )
s
F t kz t
(23.97)
trong k l hng s l xo vi n v [N/m] theo h SI. Th hai, lc gim chn c xem l tng ng vi vn tc ca
u d ( ) z t
&
& , c ngha l:
( ) ( ) &
D
F t cz t
(23.98)
trong c l h s ma st dnh vi n v l [Ns/m] theo SI. Th ba, l sc cng trong vt liu p gm tng ng vi
in p cp V
z
(t) [5], v theo nh lut Hook th ng sut cn bng vi sc cng . V vy, lc F
p
(t) (ng sut nhn vi
din tch thit din) cn bng vi in p cp V
z
(t), tc l:
( ) ( )
P z
F t bV t
(23.99)
trong b l hng s vi n v l [N/V] theo SI. Vit li phng trnh (23.96) theo ba lc ngoi th phng trnh tr
thnh:
3
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

+ + +

& &&
i s D P z
i
F t F t F t F t kz t cz t bV t mz t
(23.100)
c gi l m hnh khi lng - l xo - gim chn. Ch rng quan h gia in p vo V
z
(t) v dch chuyn z(t) ca u
d (tc l m hnh ng lc hc) l phng trnh vi phn bc hai. p ng ca u d (dch chuyn ca khi lng m) i vi
in p V
z
(t) c th nhn c trong min tn s bng cch dng phng php bin i Laplace [6, Chng 2, mc 5]; tuy nhin
phng php khng gian - trng thi c th c dng nhn c li gii trc tip trong min thi gian. Trong cc mc cn
li, phng php khng gian trng thi m hnh ha s c biu din v m hnh khi lng - l xo - gim chn ca c
cu chp hnh piezo-tube s c ly lm v d.
Cc trng thi ca mt h thng
Chng ta bt u bng vic a ra khi nim trng thi l c s cho phng php khng gian - trng thi. Ni chung, mt
trng thi c th c nh ngha nh sau:
Trng thi x(t0) ca mt h ng ti thi im t0 l mt tp cc bin m cng vi u vo u(t), vi
0
t t
, xc nh ng x
ca h vi tt c
0
t t
[7, Chng 2, mc 1.1].
C s ca nh ngha ny l cho rng trng thi s phn nh cu hnh hin thi ca mt h thng. V vy k c ca mt h
ng c gi trong cc bin trng thi thi im hin thi t0 (c gi l iu kin u), v ng x trong tng lai ca mt h
ng c xc nh bi iu kin u x(t0) v u vo u(t), vi
0
t t
. Trng thi ca mt h c th c vit nh sau:
1
2
( )
( )
( )
( )
]
]
]

]
]
]
M
n
x t
x t
x t
x t
(23.101)
trong n l s ca cc trng thi.
1
Mt tp bt k cc bin tha mn nh ngha trn c th l mt trng thi ng, v vy
trng thi khng phi l duy nht [8, Chapter 2, section 2].
V d
Cc bin trng thi m t h khi lng - l xo - gim chn c th c chn l v tr z(t) v vn tc
( ) z t &
ca khi lng.
Chng ta c th vit vc t trng thi l:
1
V tp ti thiu cc trng thi c yu cu m t mt h (s thc hin ti thiu), c th thy trong [7, Chng 7].
33
S tay C in t
1
2
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
] ]

] ]
] ]
&
x t z t
x t
x t z t
(23.102)
Trong s ca cc trng thi l hai (n 2). Nu v tr z(t) v vn tc
( ) z t &
ca khi lng l bit thi im t0, cng vi
in p V
z
(t) c nh ngha cho
0
t t
, th ng x trong tng lai ca h thng (tc l trng thi x(t)) c th c xc nh
bng cch gii phng trnh vi phn (23.100).
Phng trnh khng gian trng thi tuyn tnh v li gii
Cho mt h tuyn tnh, s tin trin ca cc trng thi ca h theo thi gian c th c m t bng tp cc phng trnh vi
phn tuyn tnh bc nht sau:
1
1 11 1 1 11 1 1
2
2 21 1 2 21 1 2
1 1 1 1
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
& L L
& L L
M
& L L
n n p p
n n p p
n
n n nn n n np p
dx t
x t a t x t a t x t b t u t b t u t
dt
dx t
x t a t x t a t x t b t u t b t u t
dt
dx t
x t a t x t a t x t b t u t b t u
dt
) t
(23.103)
trong n l s trng thi (hoc bc ca h) v p l s u vo.
2
nh ngha vct u vo nh sau:
1
2
( )
( )
( )
( )
]
]
]

]
]
]
]
M
p
u t
u t
u t
u t
(23.104)
v vc t trng thi x(t) nh c nh ngha trong phng trnh (23.101), tp cc phng trnh vi phn bc nht nhn c
bng phng trnh (23.103) c th c vit li theo dng ma trn nh sau: [8, Chng 2, mc 2]
11 12 1
11 12 1
21 22 2 21 22 2
1 2 1 2
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
]
]
]
]
]
]
+
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
+
L
L
L L
&
M M O M M M O M
L L
p
n
p n
n n nn n n np
b t b t b t
a t a t a t
b t b t b t a t a t a t
x t x t u t
a t a t a t b t b t b t
A t x t B t u t
(23.105)
trong A(t) l mt ma trn nn v B(t) l mt ma trn np. Cho mt h c xc nh bng q u ra y(t) c gi thit l
mt t hp tuyn tnh ca trng thi x(t) v u vo u(t), chng ta c th vit phng trnh ra nh sau:
11 12 1
11 12 1
21 22 2 21 22 2
1 2
1 2
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
]
]
]
]
]
]
+
]
]
]
]
] ]
]
]
+
L
L
L L
&
M M O M
M M O M
L
L
p
n
n p
q q qn
q q qp
d t d t d t
c t c t c t
c t c t c t d t d t d t
x t x t u t
c t c t c t
d t d t d t
C t x t D t u t
(23.106)
trong C(t) l mt ma trn q n v D(t) l mt ma trn q p. Ni chung, cc ma trn A(t), B(t), C(t), v D(t) l thay i
theo thi gian; tuy nhin, trong chng ny chng ta s ch xt n trng hp bt bin theo thi gian, trong A, B, C, v D l
cc ma trn khng i, khi phng trnh. (23.107) v (23.108) c gi l cc phng trnh trng thi v u ra tuyn tnh bt
bin theo thi gian (LTI),
3

( ) ( ) ( ) x t Ax t Bu t + &
(23.107)
( ) ( ) ( ) y t Cx t Du t +
(23.108)
p ng ca h i vi mt u vo ng dng c th c nh lng bng tin trin ca trng thi x(t) ca h v u ra
y(t). Phng trnh khng gian trng thi (23.107) l tp cc phng trnh vi phn bc nht dng ma trn c th c gii theo
thi gian nhn c iu kin u x(t0) nh sau [8, Chng 3]
2
Nhn c mt phng trnh vi phn bc cao hn, mt tp cc phng trnh vi phn bc nht c th nhn c bng mt th tc c bit nh vic gim
bc nht nh trnh by trong [9].
3
Li gii chi tit ca cc phng trnh tuyn tnh khng n nh theo thi gian c th thy trong [7, Chng 4, mc 5].
34
Tn hiu v h thng
0
0
( ) ( )
0
( ) ( ) ( )

t
A t t A t
t
x t e x t e Bu d
(23.109)
Ch rng li gii (23.109) l tng ca hai s hng: s hng u l kt qu ca iu kin u x(t0) v s hng th hai l kt
qu ca u vo ng dng u(t) gia
0
t t
.
4
Dng phng trnh ra (23.108) v li gii trng thi nhn c bng (23.109),
th u ra y(t) s tr thnh:
0
0
( ) ( )
0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

+ +

t
A t t A t
t
y t Ce x t Ce Bu d Du t
(23.110)
p ng ca h y(t) i vi u vo u(t) c c trng bi cc ma trn ca h (A, B, C, D). V d u ra y(t) s b gii hn
vi mt u vo gii hn bt k nu h n nh v h n nh nu cc phn thc ca tt c gi tr ring ca A nh hn 0 (m
hon ton) [8, Chng 4, mc 4].
5
V d
Vi h khi lng - l xo - gim chn v d, phng trnh khng gian trng thi c th tm c bng cch ly vi phn trng
thi x(t) c xc nh trong phng trnh (23.102) v dng phng trnh chuyn ng (23.100) nhn c:
1 2
1 1 2
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

| ` | ` | ` | ` | ` | `
+ +

. , . , . , . , . , . ,
& &
& && &
z
x t z t x t
k c b k c b
x t z t z t z t V t x t x t u t
m m m m m m
(23.111)
Chng ta chn v tr ca khi lng z(t) l u ra ca h, v vit phng trnh khng gian trng thi v u ra theo dng nhn
c bng cc phng trnh (23.107) v (23.108) nh sau:
0 1 0
( ) ( ) ( )
( / ) ( / ) /
] ]
+
] ]

] ]
& x t x t u t
k m c m b m
(23.112),
[ ] ( ) 1 0 ( ) y t x t
(23.113)
Tuyn tnh ha cc h phi tuyn
Mt dng tng qut ca phng trnh khng gian trng thi (cho cc h phi tuyn) l:
( ) ( , ) x t g x u &
(23.114),
( ) ( , ) y t h x u
(23.115)
trong g v h c th l cc hm phi tuyn.
6
ng x ca cc h phi tuyn l vt khi gii hn ca mc ny; tuy nhin mt bn
lun chi tit c th tm thy [10]. ng x ca mt h phi tuyn c th c xp x bng mt m hnh tuyn tnh ln cn im
cn bng. V vy vic tuyn tnh ha c th n gin ha vic vic phn tch v thit k cc h phi tuyn bi v cc cng c
c pht trin cho cc h tuyn tnh c th c dng vi cc iu kin no [10]. x0 v u0 tr thnh im cn bng v
u vo cn bng nh [10, Chng 1]
0 0
( , ) 0 g x u
(23.116),
0 0 0
( , ) h x u y
(23.117)
Xt cc nhiu nh ca im cn bng
0
( ) ( ) x t x x t +
, u vo
0
( ) ( ) ( ) u t u t u t +
, v u ra
0
( ) ( ) y t y y t +
. Nu nhiu
( ) x t
l nh vi tt c t, th chng ta nhn c phng trnh di bng cch khai trin (23.114) thnh chui Taylor (b qua cc
s hng bc cao ca
( ) x t
v
( ) u t
):
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0
( ) ( ( ), ( ))
( ) ( , ( ) ( )


+ + +

+ +

&
&
&
x x x x
u u u u
x x t g x x t u u t
g g
x t g x u x t u t
x u
(23.118)
Chp nhn rng g(x0, x) 0 chng ta nhn c:
( ) ( ) ( ) x t Ax t Bu t +
&
(23.119)
trong :
4
Lnh ca MATLAB 1sim m phng p ng thi gian ca cc m hnh LTI vid cc u vo bt k.
5
Lnh ca MATLAB eig(A) iu chnh gi tr ring ca ma trn h thng A.
6
Lnh ca MATLAB ode45 c th c dng nhn c li gii s cho phng trnh khng gian trng thi tng qut
35
S tay C in t
0 0
0 0




x x x x
u u u u
g g
A B
x u
(23.120)
Cc ma trn
A
v
B
l Jacobian ti x0 and u0. Phng trnh (23.119) l phng trnh trng thi tuyn tnh v ng vi cc
nhiu nh xung quanh x0 v u0. Kt qu tng t c th nhn c cho
( ) y t
theo u ra t gi tr cn bng y0 nh sau:
( ) ( ) ( ) y t Cx t Du t +
(23.121)
trong :
0 0
0 0




x x x x
u u u u
h h
C D
x u
(23.122)
Quan h gia cc phng trnh trng thi v cc hm truyn
Tnh hm truyn t khng gian trng thi
Quan h vo ra ca h ng trong min tn s c biu din bng mt hm truyn m c th nhn c bng cch thc hin
bin i Laplace ca (23.107) v (23.108) vi cc iu kin u bng khng, nh sau [8, Chng 3, mc 5]:
( ) ( ) ( ), sX s AX s BU s +
(23.123),
( ) ( ) ( ), Y s CX s DU s +
(23.124)
Trong s l bin ca Laplace. Gii (23.123) cho X(s) v thay th vo (23.124), t s ca u ra Y(s) vi u vo U(s) cho
mt h c mt u vo v mt u n (SISO) c th c thy nh sau:
1
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )

Y s
G s C sI A B D
U s
N s
D s
(23.125)
Trong I l mt ma trn ng nht
n n
. Trong phng trnh (23.125), N(s) v D(s) c xem nh l a thc t s v
mu s ca G(s).
7

Tng t phng trnh khng gian trng thi, gii hn ca p ng ra y(t) i vi u vo u(t) c c trng bi cc
nghim ca a thc mu s D(s), tc l cc gi tr ca s lm cho D(s) 0. c bit, u ra y(t) s b gii hn vi bt k u
vo no b gii hn, c ngha l h n nh nu cc phn thc ca tt c cc bin ca D(s) nh hn khng (hon ton m).
8
Ngoi
ra, mt phng php thun tin xc nh n nh m khng cn tm nghim ca D(s) mt cch tng minh l tiu chun
n nh RouthHurwitz [6, Chng 6].
V d
Vi m t khng gian trng thi ca h khi lng l xo - gim chn c xc nh theo cc phng trnh (23.112) v
(23.113) th vic thc hin ca hm truyn bng cch s dng phng trnh (23.125) s l:
[ ]
1
2
1 0 0 1 0
( )
( ) 1 0 [0]
0 1 ( / ) ( / ) / ( )
/
( / ) /

] ] ] ]
+
] ] ] ]

] ] ] ]

+ +
Y s
G s s
k m c m b m U s
b m
s c m s k m
(23.126)
u vo ca h thng c ni vi in p V
z
(t) v u ra l s dch chuyn ca khi lng z(t).
p ng tn s bng cch dng cc hm truyn
Xt mt h n nh vi mt u vo v mt u ra (SISO) c hm truyn G(s). Khi h G(s) c kch bng mt tn hiu vo
dng sin:
( ) sin( ) u t P t
(23.127)
vi bin P v tn s , th p ng ra (sau suy gim qu ) cng s c dng sin:
( ) sin( ) y t MP t +
(23.128)
7
Lnh ca MATLAB ss2tf c th c dng bin i mt thc hin khng gian trng thi thnh mt hm truyn.
8
Lnh ca MATLAB roots(den) c th c dng xc nh nghim ca nh thc m nh thc l cc h s ca D(s).
36
Tn hiu v h thng
vi cng tn s v mt s dch pha [6, Chng 8]. Bin ca tn hiu ra l bin ca tn hiu vo c cn chnh bi M,
gi l h s khuych i cng . H s khuych i cng ny nhn c bng cch ly ln ca G(s) ti s j, tc:
( )
s j
M G s

(23.129)
Thng h s khuych i cng M c biu din theo n v (dB), tc M[dB] 20logM. dch pha l gc
ca G(s) c ly ti s j, tc l:
( )
s j
G s

(23.130)
vi n v . Biu h s khuych i cng M v dch pha i vi tn s l s biu din bng th p ng
tn s (cc biu Bode) ca mt h.
9
Cc biu ny c th nhn c bng thc nghim bng cch o h s khuych i
ln v dch pha gia tn hiu vo v p ng ra ca mt h trn mt di tn s. Ngoi ra, hm truyn ca mt h c th nhn
c t d liu ca p ng tn s thc nghim bng cch dng phn mm thch hp. Trong mc "M hnh ha bng thc
nghim dng p ng tn s", chng ti trnh by phng php ny xc nh m hnh cho mt h dng d liu ca p ng
tn s thc nghim.
Tnh khng gian trng thi t hm truyn
Trong mc Tnh hm truyn t khng gian trng thi, mt m hnh hm truyn nhn c cho mt h theo dng khng
gian-trng thi. Sau y, mt phng php thc hin m hnh khng gian trng thi t mt hm truyn G(s) c trnh by. Cho
mt hm truyn kh thi G(s) ca h SISO c dng:
1
0 1
1
1
( )

+ + +

+ + +
L
L
n n
n
n n
n
b s b s b
G s
s a s a
(23.131)
dng khng gian trng thi kinh in d iu khin c vit theo cc h s ca G(s) l:
1 2 1
1
1 0 0 0 0
( ) 0 1 0 0 ( ) 0 ( )
0 0 1 0 0

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
] +
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
L
L
& L
M M O M M M
L
n n
a a a a
x t x t u t
(23.132)
1 1 0 2 2 0 0 0
( ) [( ) ( ) ( )] ( ) [ ] ( )
n n
y t b a b b a b b a b x t b u t + L
(23.133)
trong s cc trng thi n bng ly tha cao nht ca mu s ca G(s).
10
Th nguyn nh nht c th thc hin
mt h, c gi l thc hin ti thiu, l mt nhn t quan trng cn xem xt khi phn tch v thit k.
11
Cc m hnh vi bc ti
thiu i hi tnh ton t hn khi m phng v thc hin so vi cc m hnh bc cao hn. Cc thng tin v cc dng khng gian -
trng thi kinh in tng ng khc tham kho [7, Chng 4, mc 3 v 4].
HNH 23.22 Mt s thc nghim c dng xc nh p ng tn s ca c cu chp hnh
piezo-tube. Mt cm bin cm ng o dch chuyn ca c cu chp hnh dc theo trc x, v d liu ca p ng tn s t
DSA c dng nh gi m hnh h thng
9
Lnh ca MATLAB bode v biu cho s thay i ca h s khuych i cng v pha ca mt h tuyn tnh
10
Lnh ca MATLAB tf2ss to ra thc hin dng kinh in d iu khin ca hm truyn G(s). Cc lnh c ch khc bao gm ss2tf, zp2tf, v
tf2zp
11
Chi tit v cc thc hin ti thiu cho cc h nhiu u vo, nhiu u ra, c th thy trong [7, Chng 7]
37
S tay C in t
HNH 23.23 Biu thc ca h s khuych i v pha theo tn s ca c cu chp hnh piezo-tube c o dc theo trc x vi
p ng tn s ca m hnh xp chng. ng lin nt biu din d liu thu c bng thc nghim; ng t nt biu din cc
kt qu t m hnh tnh ton.
M hnh ha da vo thc nghim dng p ng tn s
Mt phng php m hnh ha dng d liu ca p ng tn s thu c t thc nghim c biu din trong mc ny.
Dng mt b phn tch tn hiu ng (DSA), p ng tn s ca cc tn hiu ng dc theo trc x ca c cu chp hnh piezo-
tube c o.
12
Mt in p u vo dng sin V
x
(t) vi s bin i tn s gia 10 Hz v 6 kHz c to ra bi mt DSA v
c cp cho h knh hin vi qut u d (SPM) nh ch ra trong hnh 23.22. Bng cch dng mt cm bin cm ng, dch
chuyn x
p
(t) ca piezo-tube dc theo trc x-axis c o v c cp li cho DSA tnh p ng tn s (cc biu M v
theo tn s ). Hnh 23.23 ch ra cc biu Bode nhn c bng DSA gia in p cp V
x
(t) v tn hiu ra y(t) cm ng cm
bin. Mt c tnh ca m hnh h thng t d liu ca p ng tn s c tm thy bng phn mm MATLAB.
13
Hm truyn
gia in p vo V
x
(t) v tn hiu ra y(t) ca cm bin cm ng c tm thy l:
1
5 4 9 3 15 2 18 23
6 4 5 9 4 13 3 17 2 21 25
( )
( )
( )
5.544 10 7.528 10 1.476 10 4.571 10 9.415 10
1.255 10 1.632 10 1.855 10 6.5 10 6.25 10 1.378 10
x
Y s
G s
V s
s s s s
s s s s s s

+ +

+ + + + + +
(23.134)
vi n v V/V. Phng trnh (23.135) c cn chnh bng h s khuych i ca cm bin cm ng (30 /V) v hm
truyn gia in p cp V
x
(t) v dch chuyn thc ca u d piezo-tube x
p
(t) nhn c bng:
2
7 4 11 3 16 2 20 25
6 4 5 9 4 13 3 17 2 21 25
( )
( )
( )
1.663 10 2.258 10 4.427 10 1.371 10 2.825 10
1.255 10 1.632 10 1.855 10 6.5 10 6.25 10 1.378 10

+ +

+ + + + + +
p
x
X s
G s
V s
s s s s
s s s s s s
(23.135)
vi n v /V.
Cn chnh thi gian ca mt m hnh hm truyn
Di y chng ti trnh by mt phng php cn chnh thi gian cho G2(s) t [s] ti [ms]. Chng ti tm tt li tnh
cht cn chnh theo thi gian ca hm truyn Laplace transform c trnh by [1, Chng 3, mc 1.4]. F(s) l hm
truyn Laplace ca f(t), tc l :
( ) ( )
L
f t F s
(23.136)
trong L k hiu ton t ca hm truyn Laplace. By gi, xt mt php cn chnh theo thi gian mi c nh
ngha l

t at trong a l hng s. Hm truyn Laplace ca

( ) ( ) f t f at nhn c bng :
1

( ) ( ) ( )
| `


. ,
L
s
f t f at F F s
a a
(23.137)
Dng cng thc (23.137), chng ta c th gim bt cc h s ca G2(s) bng cch thay i n v thi gian ca c tn hiu
vo u(t) v ra y(t) nh sau:
12
Cc h thng Stanford Research, m hnh SR785
13
Lnh ca MATLAB invfreqs a ra cc h s thc ca t s v mu s ca d liu p ng tn s c xc nh bng thc nghim
38
Tn hiu v h thng

( / ) /
( ) ( / )

( )

( / ) / ( / ) ( )
| `


. ,
Y s a a
Y s Y s a s
G s G
U s a a U s a a U s
(23.138)
V vy, cn chnh li thi gian cho G2(s) t [s] thnh [ms], chng ti chn

0.001 t at t v hm truyn mi
2

( ) G s
c cn chnh li
2 2
0.001

( )
a
s
G s G
a

| `

. ,
tr thnh :
2 2
0.001
2
4 3 4 2 5 7
2 6 5 3 4 4 3 5 2 6 7

( )
(1000 )
16.63 225.8 4.427 10 1.371 10 2.825 10

( )
12.55 1.632 10 1.855 10 6.5 10 6.25 10 1.378 10

| `

. ,

+ +

+ + + + + +
a
s
G s G
a
G s
s s s s
G s
s s s s s s
(23.139)
Ch rng n v thi gian ca tn hiu vo v ra l
2

( ) G s by gi l mili giy! Cc h s ca cc a thc t v mu l nh

hn v dng ny (
2

( ) G s ) s bt xy ra cc li tnh ton do c lm cho cn i hn dng G2(s) phng trnh (23.135).

M hnh khng gian trng thi
Vic thc hin khng gian trng thi cho
2

( ) G s c biu din theo dng kinh in d iu khin (cc phng trnh (23.132) v
(23.133)) nhn c bi:
3 4 5 6 7
1 12.55 1.632 10 1.855 10 6.50 10 6.25 10 1.378 10
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
+ ] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
& x t x t u t
(23.140)
4 5 7
( ) [0 16.63 225.8 4.427 10 1.371 10 2.825 10 ] ( ) y t x t (3.141)
n v thi gian ca phng trnh (23.140) v (23.141) l [ms]. Nu trng thi u thi im t0 bit, th dc theo in p cp
V
x
(t) xc nh vi
0
t t
, ng x tng lai ca h tc l trng thi x(t) v u ra y(t), c th c xc nh t phng trnh
(23.140) v (23.141).
M hnh ha khng gian - trng thi thi gian ri rc
Gii thiu
Vic nghin cu cc h thi gian ri rc l quan trng phn tch v thit k cc h c in t hin i m my tnh s
hoc cc b vi x l nh c s dng ch yu iu khin cc h. Cc my tnh s hoc cc b vi x l a ra hoc thu thp
thng tin ti cc thi im ri rc. V d, tn hiu vo c cung cp bng mt my tnh s kch ng piezo-tube s thay i
ti cc thi im ri rc. Tng t, dch chuyn ca piezo-tube ch c th o c cc thi im danh ngha bng cch dng
cc my tnh s; v vy, so vi mt h thng iu khin thi gian lin tc m cc tn hiu vo thay i lin tc theo thi gian
th tn hiu vo ca mt h thi gian ri rc s thay i mt ln trong mt khong thi gian. Cc h thi gian ri rc nh vy s
c nghin cu tip sau.
Xt mt h thi gian lin tc vi tn hiu vo u(t) v tn hiu ra y(t) nh m t bi cc cng thc (23.107) v (23.108).
Cho mt my tnh hoc b vi x l cung cp tn hiu vo u[k] v o tn hiu ra y[k] nh m t trong hnh 23.24 (cc h vi
cc tn hiu lin tc v ri rc nh vy c gi l cc h trch mu d liu.
39
S tay C in t
HNH 23.24 S khi ca mt h thi gian ri rc vi cc tn hiu c ch ra dng th. Ch rng u[k] u(k.T) v
y[k] y(k.T) , vi k=0,1,2,, v chu k trch mu T c gi thit l hng s
Tn hiu vo u[k] v tn hiu ra y[k] ca h ny l tn hiu ri rc vi u[k] u(k.T) v y[k] y(k.T) vi k 0,1,2, trong
T l chu k trch mu l hng s. Tn hiu vo u[k] c cp cho h lin tc ny l t mt my tnh s hoc b vi x l
v c gi khng i trong khong thi gian T (gi bc khng). Mt b trch mu s thu thp tn hiu ra ca h lin tc mi
khong thi gian T to ra tn hiu ra ri rc y[k]. H ri rc gia tn hiu vo u[k] v tn hiu ra y[k] [11, Chng 1].
14
Biu din tng ng khng gian trng thi ca h thi gian ri rc ca m hnh khng gian trng thi ca h thi gian lin tc
nhn c bng cc phng trnh (23.107) v (23.108) l (Chi tit c th tm thy trong [11, Chng 5, mc 5])
[ 1] [ ] [ ]
D D
x k A x k B u k + +
(23.142)
[ ] [ ] [ ]
D D
y k C x k D u k +
(23.143)
trong
( )
0
, ,

T
AT A
D D D D
A e B e d B C C D D
(23.144)
v cc ma trn C
D
and D
D
khng b thay i bi vic trch mu.
15
M hnh ri rc ny (cc phng trnh (23.142) v
(23.143)) l biu din ca h trch mu d liu ch ra trn hnh 23.24.
Li gii cho cc phng trnh khng gian - trng thi ca h thi gian ri rc
Li gii cho m hnh ri rc (cc phng trnh (23.142) v (23.143)) l
1
1
0
[ ] [0] [ ]

k
k k j
D D D
j
x k A x A B u j
(23.145)
1
1
0
[ ] [0] [ ] [ ]

+ +

k
k k j
D D D
j
y k CA x C A B u j Du k
(23.146)
cho mi bc trch mu k. Chi tit thit lp cng thc c th tm thy [11, Chng 5, mc 3]. p ng trng thi x[k] i
vi tn hiu vo u[k] c c trng bi cc ma trn h thng (A
D
, B
D
,C
D
, D
D
). c bit, tn hiu ra y[k] s b gii hn vi bt
k tn hiu vo u[k] b gii hn nu h l n nh. Mt h dng phng trnh (23.142) l n nh nu ln ca tt c cc gi
tr ring ca A
D
l nh hn n v, tc l, nm trong ng trn n v m tm l gc ca mt phng z [11, Chng 5, mc 6].
Bin i z v mi quan h vi khng gian - trng thi
Quan h vo - ra trong min tn s ca cc h thi gian ri rc c biu din bng mt hm truyn ri rc c gi l bin
i z, c vit theo cc s hng ca bin z [12, Chng 4]. Tng t vi h thi gian lin tc, m hnh mt h ng theo dng
hm truyn ri rc c th c dng trong thit k v iu khin cc h [12, Chng 7]. Nu m hnh h thng l c th dng
hm truyn ri rc th vic thit lp khng gian trng thi c th c thy nh ch ra di. Cho mt h ri rc c m t
bng bin z sau:
1
0 1
1
1
( )
1


+ + +

+ + +
L
L
n
n
n
n
d d z d z
G z
c z c z
(23.147)
Dng khng gian trng thi kinh in d kim sot ca G(z) l
1 2 1
1
1 0 0 0 0
[ 1] 0 1 0 0 [ ] 0 [ ]
0 0 1 0 0

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
] + +
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
L
L
L
M M M M M
L
n n
c c c c
x k x k u t
(23.148)
1 1 0 2 2 0 0 0
[ ] [( ) ( ) ( )] [ ] [ ] [ ] + L
n n
y k d c d d c d d c d x k d u k
(23.149)
S trng thi n tng ng vi ly tha cao nht ca a thc mu s ca G(z). Cc thng tin v cc dng khng gian trng
thi kinh in khc tham kho ti [11, Chng 5, mc 2].
V d
14
Chng ta khng bn vic lng t ha v li ca vic lng t ha. Cacs chi tit xem trong [11, Chng 1, mc 3]
15
Vi m hnh khng gian - trng thi thi gian lin tc (A, B, C, D), lnh ca MATLAB c2d s a ra tng ng thi gian ri rc cho mt chu k trch
mu T
40
Tn hiu v h thng
Xt m hnh khng gian trng thi thi gian lin tc ca h piezo-tube c m t bng phng trnh (23.140) v (23.141).
Mt my tnh s vi tc trch mu 10 kHz (T=1.010
-4
) c dng a ra tn hiu vo iu khin u[k] v o dch chuyn
ca n dc theo trc x (tn hiu ra y[k]). M hnh khng gian trng thi thi gian ri rc vi (AD, BD, CD, v DD) nhn c bng
phng trnh (23.144) l:
5 5 3 2 2
9 4 7 6 6
13 9 4 11 11
0.999 0.163 1.85 65.0 624.5 1377.1
9.99 10 0.999 9.26 10 3.25 10 3.12 10 6.69 10
5.00 10 1.00 10 1 1.08 10 1.04 10 2.30 10
[ 1]
1.67 10 5.00 10 1.00 10 1 2.60 10 5.74 10
4.17






+

x k
18 13 9 4 15
23 18 13 9 4
5
9
13
18
23
27
[ ]
10 1.67 10 5.00 10 1.00 10 1 1.15 10
8.33 10 4.17 10 1.67 10 5.00 10 1.00 10 1
9.99 10
4.99 10
1.67 10
[
4.17 10
8.33 10
1.39 10

]
]
]
]
]
]
]

]
]
]
]
]

]
]

]
+
]

]
]
]

]
x k
u k]
(23.150)
4 5 7
[ ] 0 16.63 225.8 4.427 10 1.371 10 2.825 10 [ ] ]
]
y k x k
(23.151)
Thc hin nhn c bi cc phng trnh (23.150) v (23.151) c tm thy bng cch dng cc lnh c2d ca
MATLAB .
Tm tt
Chng ti trnh by cc cng c ca vic m hnh ha cc h thi gian lin tc v ri rc bng vic dng phng php
khng gian trng thi trong mc ny. Phng php khng gian trng thi m hnh ha l mt k thut mnh phn tch v
thit k cc h c in t ng, v c th nhn c li th ca cc cng c c sn trong cc my tnh s v cc b vi x l. Cc
bn lun v trng thi ca h v khng gian - trng thi c minh ha bng mt h c cu chp hnh piezo-tube. Chng ta
xt vic m hnh ha cc h tuyn tnh, v mt k thut tuyn tnh ha cc h phi tuyn c gii thiu mt cch ngn gn.
p ng tn s ca mt h v mt phng php m hnh ha bng cch dng d liu thc nghim ca p ng tn s c
trnh by. Cc mi quan h gia cc m hnh biu din trong min thi gian v tn s cho c h thi gian lin tc v ri rc
c bn. Ngoi ra, cc chi tit v cc khi nim cp trong mc ny v nhng th lin quan cng c gii thiu ngi
c xem xt, tham kho cho vic nghin cu su hn.
Ti liu tham kho
[1] Franklin, G. F., et al., Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems, 3rd ed., Addison-Wesley, New York, 1994.
[2] Hanselman, D., and Littlefield, B., The Student Edition of Matlab, Version 5, Users Guide, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ, 1997.
[3] Croft, D., et al., Creep, hysteresis, and vibration compensation for piezoactuators: atomic force microscopy application,
ASME J. Dyn. Syst., Meas., Control, 123, 35, 2001.
[4] Dorny, C. N., Understanding Dynamic SystemsApproaches to Modeling, Analysis, and Design, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993.
[5] Locatelli, M., et al., Easy method to characterize a piezoelectric ceramic tube as a displacer, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 59, 4,
1988.
[6] Dorf, R. C., and Bishop, R. H., Modern Control Systems, 9th ed., Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2001.
[7] Chen, T. C., Linear System Theory and Design, Oxford University Press, New York, 1999.
[8] Friedland, B., Control System Design: An Introduction to State-Space Methods, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1986.
[9] Gillis, J. T., State space, in The Control Handbook, Levine, W. S., CRC Press, Salem, MA, 1996, Chap. 5.
[10] Khalil, H. K., Nonlinear Systems, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1996.
[11] Ogata, K., Discrete-Time Control Systems, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995.
[12] Franklin, G. F., et al., Digital Control of Dynamic Systems, 3rd ed., Addison-Wesley, Menlo Park, 1998.
23.4 Hm truyn v bin i Laplace
C. Nelson Dorny
Chng ta hiu c mt cch cn bn mt h qua ng x ca n. V vy, hnh nh trong u ca chng ta v mt h
thng bao gm cc tn hiu p ng in hnh. p ng bc (step response), l ng x khi chng ta bt t ngt h thng, v
41
S tay C in t
vy l mt tn hiu c trng ca h. p ng xung (impulse response) l m t khc ca h thng. Vi mt h c biu din
bng cc phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh, p ng bc n v l tch phn ca p ng xung n v.
Nu ta biu din vi phn theo thi gian (
/ d dt
&
) bng ton t o hm theo thi gian p. Khi chng ta c th k hiu o
hm theo thi gian ca mt tn hiu y bng py, o hm bc hai ca n l p
2
y, tch phn ca n theo thi gian bng (1/p)y v
tng t. K hiu ton t nh vy lm n gin vic biu din cc phng trnh vi phn. Chng ta s dng cm t cc phng
trnh h thng ch tp hp cc phng trnh vi phn xc nh ton b ng x ca cc bin ph thuc xut hin trong cc
phng trnh . Chng ta c th gim mt tp tuyn tnh cc phng trnh ca h thnh mt phng trnh vo-ra n ca h
bng cch loi tr hu ht cc bin ph thuc khi tp . Hm truyn (transfer function) cng vi bin ph thuc l mt biu
thc ton hc cha tt c cc thng tin ct yu th hin trong phng trnh vi phn ca h. Bin i Laplace bin i cc tn hiu
(cc hm thi gian) thnh cc hm ca mt bin tn s phc s = + j . l mt s tng ng mt mt gia mt tn hiu v
bin i Laplace ca n. Chng ta c th tm li c hm thi gian bng php bin i ngc. Bin i Laplace s to ra cc
nh c cc tnh cht thun tin hn cc tnh cht ca cc tn hiu gc. c bit, vi phn theo thi gian mt tn hiu s tng ng
vi vic nhn bin i Laplace ca n vi bin tn s phc s. V vy, php bin i s bin cc phng trnh vi phn h s hng
tuyn tnh thnh cc phng trnh i s tuyn tnh. Vic n gin ha nh vy ca cc php ton min thi gian lm cho bin
i Laplace tr nn c ch. Bin i Laplace cng bin p ng xung ca mt bin h thng thnh hm truyn cho bin . V
vy chng ta c th thy phng trnh vi phn biu din mt h tuyn tnh nh l mt biu thc ca p ng ca h i vi
mt tn hiu vo dng xung.
Cc hm truyn
Cc dch chuyn ca nt x1 v x2 v cc lc nn f1 v f2 bn trong cc nhnh ca m hnh tng th hnh 23.25 lin quan ti
mi ci khc bng phng trnh l xo, phng trnh gim chn, v s cn bng ca cc lc nt 2. Phng trnh ca l xo l f2 =
k(x1 . x2). Phng trnh cho b gim chn l f1 = b(px1 . px2). Vic cn bng cc lc i hi f1 + f2 = mp2x2. Cc phng trnh ny
m t y ng x ca h nu l xo v khi lng khng c tip lc. (Nu khi lng ang chuyn ng v hoc l xo ang
b nn th chng ta c th phi biu din ring r cc trng thi nng lng ban u ca chng m t y cc quan h sau
ny gia cc bin.)
Loi f1 v f2 khi cc phng trnh nhn c phng trnh hot ng:
2
2 1
( ) ( ) mp bp k x bp k x + + +
(23.152)
Phng trnh vi phn ny m t y quan h ca trng thi khng gia x1 v x2. Sp xp li phng trnh (23.152) thnh
dng t s:
2
2
1
+

+ +
x bp k
x mp bp k
(23.153)
Chng ta gi (23.152) l hm truyn t x1 n x2. Hm truyn tp trung ch vo cc php ton hc c trng cho cc quan
h ng x hn l vo cc bn cht c th ca cc bin. (Ch rng hm truyn t v1 n v2 trong v1 = px1 v v2 = px2 l ging
hm truyn nhn c bi phng trnh (23.153).)
Ni chung, gi thit rng y1 v y2 l hai bin lin quan (theo k hiu ton t) bi phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh
2 1
( ) y G p y
(23.154).
Chng ta nh ngha chnh thc hm truyn t y1 ti y2 bng:
2
1
( )
zs
y
G p
y
(23.155)
trong k hiu ZS l trng thi khng. Nu y1 l bin c lp th G(p) l hm truyn vo-ra ca bin y2 v miu t y ng
x ca n do tn hiu vo y1. Chng ta c th xc nh t hm truyn ng x ca h i vi tn hiu ngun v trng thi ban
u bt k.
HNH 23.25 M hnh tng th ca mt h c
Bin i Laplace
Bin i Laplace mt v, L, l ton t tch phn bin mt tn hiu f(t) thnh mt hm phc F(s) c dng nh sau:
0
[ ( )] ( ) ( )

st
f t F s f t e dt L (23.156)
Chng ta gi hm truyn F(s) l bin i Laplace ca tn hiu f(t). Hy tng tng gii hn di 0

ca tch phn l mt
khong thi gian ngay trc t=0. Thng thng, dng k hiu ch thng (f ) biu din dng tn hiu v ch hoa (F) biu
42
Tn hiu v h thng
din bin i Laplace ca n. (mc d chng ta ni y l cc tn hiu thi gian, nhng khng c ci g trong phng trnh
(23.156) yu cu f(t) l mt hm ca thi gian. Hm truyn c th c dng i vi cc hm ca i lng t no .)
Chng ta phi dng bin i Laplace bin i cc tn hiu ca cc h tuyn tnh bt bin theo thi gian. ng x ca mt h
nh vy vi t 0 ch ph thuc vo tn hiu vo vi t 0 v vo trng thi trc ca bin ra ( 0 t

). V vy, khng c ngha
rng bin i Laplace b qua f(t) vi 0 t

< . Qu trnh tm hm thi gian f(t) tng ng vi mt bin i Laplace c th F(s)
c gi l bin i Laplace ngc, v c k hiu l L
-1
. Chng ta cng gi f(t) l bin i Laplace ngc ca F(s). V bin
i Laplace mt v b qua 0 t

< , nn F(s) khng cha thng tin v f(t) vi t<0. V vy, bin i Laplace ngc khng th khi
phc f(t) vi 0 t

. Chng ta phi xt tt c cc tn hiu nh th chng ch c nh ngha vi 0 t

. V vy c mt quan h
mt - mt gia f(t) v F(s). minh ha php bin i Laplace, chng ta tm bin i Laplace ca hm m suy gim
( ) , 0
t
f t e t

. Bin i l :
( )
0
0
( )
0
( )
( )
1
Re[ ]
( )

+

+
>
+ +

s t
t st
t j t
e
F s e e dt
s
e e
s
s s
(23.157)
Chng ta phi yu cu
>
, trong l phn thc ca s, h s m thc hi t ti 0 gii hn trn. ( ln ca h s
m phc gi nguyn l 1 vi tt c t). V vy, bin i Laplace ca hm m suy gim ch c nh ngha vi Re[s] > - . S
hn ch trn min F ny trong mt phng phc s c th so vi s hn ch 0 t

trn min f.
Cc c tnh quan trng ca hm tn s phc 1/(s + ) l tnh trng mt cc n v v tr ca cc , s = - [rad/s]. (Cc ny
xc nh gii hn tri ca min ca mt phng phc s m trn hm truyn 1/(s + ) c xc nh). Cc c tnh quan trng
ca hm thi gian tng ng l tnh suy gim v tc suy gim vi lu tha - [rad/s]. C s tng ng r rng gia cc c
tnh ca f(t) v F(s). Chng ta nn ngh ton b hm phc F tng ng vi ton b tn hiu thi gian f. Nh v d bin i th
hai, t f(t) = (t), xung n v vi khong thi gian rt ngn. N tc ng ti thi im t = 0, ch va vi gii hn thp ca tch
phn Laplace. N c gi tr 0 0 t

. (Bi v chng ta dng 0

nh gii hn di ca tch phn xc nh, nn n khng nh

hng g khi m xung dng t = 0 hoc bt u tng t = 0). Xung ch khng l khng vi 0 t m 1
st
e

V vy bin
i Laplace l
0 0
( ) ( ) ( )(1) 1
st
s t e dt t dt

(23.158)
BNG 23.11 Cc cp bin i Laplace
1
( ) [ ( )], 0 f t F s t

L
( ) [ ( )] F s f t L
( ) t
1
( )
s
u t
1
s
, 1, 2, ...
n
t n
1
!
n
n
s
+
t
e

1
s +
, 1, 2, ...
n t
t e n

1
!
( )
n
n
s
+
+
43
S tay C in t
0
sin( ) t
2 2
0
s
s +
0
cos( ) t
2 2
0
s
s +
sin( )
t
d
e t

2 2
( )
d
d
s

+ +
cos( )
t
d
e t

2 2
( )
d
s
s


+
+ +
Khng cn phi dn ra bin i Laplace cho mi tn hiu m chng ta s dng khi nghin cu h thng. Bng 23.11 a ra
cc bin i cho mt vi dng tn hiu thng gp cc h ng lc.
Cc thuc tnh ca hm truyn
Mt s thuc tnh c ch ca bin i Laplace c tm tt trong bng 23.12. Theo tnh cht o hm, s nhn s tc ng
hon ton ging ton t o hm thi gian, nhng trong min ca cc tn hiu c bin i Laplace. Khi chng ta bin i
Laplace phng trnh cho mt phn t lu gi nng lng nh l khi lng hoc l xo, th tnh cht o hm t ng kt hp
trng thi nng lng ban u ca phn t chnh l gi tr ca bin ti 0 t

.
BNG 23.12 Cc tnh cht ca bin i Laplace
Khuych i [ ( )] ( ) af t aF s L
Cng
1 2 1 2
[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( ) f t f t F s F s + + L
o hm
[ ( )] ( ) (0 ) f t sF s f


&
L
Cc o hm
2
[ ( )] ( ) (0 ) (0 ) f t s F s sf f


&& &
L
Tch phn
0
( )
( )
t
F s
f t dt
s

]
]

L
Tch chp
1 2 1 2
0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
t
f f t d F s F s

]

]
]

L
Gi tr u
0
(0 ) lim ( ) lim ( )
s t
f f t sF s
+
+


Gi tr cui
0
( ) lim ( ) lim ( )
t s
f f t sF s


Tch phn xc nh
0 0
( ) lim ( )
s
f t dt sF s

Suy gim theo hm m

[ ( )] ( )
t
e f t F s

+ L
Suy gim 0
0 0 0
[ ( ) ( ) ( ) 0
t s
s
f t t u t t e F s t

L
Nhn thi gian
( )
[ ( )]
dF s
tf t
ds
L
Chia thi gian
( )
( )
s
f t
F s ds
t

]

]
]

L
Cn chnh thi gian
( / )
[ ( )]
F s a
f at
a
L
Ti nguyn: Dorny, C,N. 1993. Understanding Dynamic Systems. P413. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. With permission.
44
Tn hiu v h thng
Khi chng ta bin i Laplace phng trnh ca h vo - ra ca mt bin ring bit th tnh cht o hm t ng lin kt ton
b trng thi trc ca h. V vy chng ta c th tm thy li gii cho phng trnh ca h m khng cn xc nh cc iu
kin u ( 0 t
+
) - l mt s n gin ng k cho qu trnh gii. V F(s) cha tt c cc thng tin v f(t) vi 0 t

nn c
th tm thy mt vi c trng ca tn hiu f(t) t hm truyn F(s) m khng cn thc hin php bin i Laplace ngc. Cc tnh
cht 7 9 ca bng 23.12 a ra ba trong s cc c trng , gi l gi tr u ( 0 t
+
), gi tr cui (t ), v vng di
dng sng. Cc tnh cht cn li trong bng ch ra nh hng ca cc s thay i khc nhau ca dng tn hiu ln php bin i.
Phng php thng dng tm thy cc bin i ngc l s dng mt bng cc cp bin i. Bng phi c lu gi
trong ti phn mm nh CC, MATLAB, MAPLE, v.v Bng 23.11 chng minh rng cc bin i ca cc tn hiu in hnh ca
cc h t l vi cc a thc ca s. T s ca cc a thc c th c tch thnh tng ca cc phn s ca a thc n gin - qu
trnh c gi khai trin tng phn phn s (the partial-fraction expansion). V vy qu trnh bin i ngc c th c hon
thnh bi mt chng trnh my tnh kt hp vi mt bng tm tt cc bin i.
Bin i v nghim phng trnh h thng
Gi s rng mt ngun ngoi cp mt vn tc c trng v1(t) ti nt 1 ca hnh 23.25. nhn c phng trnh vo - ra
ca h thng lin h vn tc v2 ca nt 2 vi tn hiu vo v1, nhn phng trnh (23.153) vi p v thay th v1 cho px1 v v2 cho px2
. Kt qu l :
( )
2
2 1
( ) ( ) 23.159 mp bp k v bp k v + + +
(23.159)
Hai pha ca phng trnh (23.159) l cc hm ng nht ca thi gian. V vy, cc bin i Laplace ca hai pha ca phng
trnh (23.159) l bng nhau. V bin i Laplace l tuyn tnh (tnh cht 1 v 2 ca bng 23.12) v v cc h s ca phng trnh
vi phn l cc hng s nn bin i Laplace c th c p dng mt cch ring bit cho cc s hng ring bit ca mi pha. Kt
qu l :
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1
[ ( ) (0 ) (0 )] [ ( ) (0 )] ( ) [ ( ) (0 )] ( ) m s V s sv v b sV s v kV s b sV s v kV s

+ + + &
(23.160)
trong cc tnh cht o hm ca bin i Laplace (tnh cht 3 v 4 ca bng 23.12) a ra cc gi tr trc
1
(0 )

,
2
(0 )

, v
2
(0 )

&
ca phng trnh. Theo phng trnh (23.160), xc nh y bin i V2(s) ca ng x v2(t), chng ta phi ch ra
cc gi tr u v V1(s). c th ch ra rng vic ch ra ba gi tr u l tng ng vi vic ch ra cc trng thi nng lng ca
l xo v khi lng. Gi thit rng ngun c lp a ra vn tc khng i v1(t) = vc bt u t = 0. Hm truyn tng ng, bi
mc 2 ca bng 23.11 v tnh cht 1 ca bng 23.12 l V1(s) = vc /s. Thay bin i V1(s) vo phng trnh (23.160) v gii :
2
2 2 1 2
2 2
( ) (0 ) [ (0 ) (0 )] (0 )
( )
( )

+ + + +

+ +
&
c
bs k v msv bs v v ms v
V s
s ms bs k
(23.161)
Chng ta c th tm c dng tn hiu ra v2(t) l mt hm ca cc tham s ca m hnh m, k, b, tham s ca tn hiu ngun
vc, v thng tin ca cc trng thi ban u
1
(0 )

,
2
(0 )

, v
2
(0 )

&
, nhng biu thc ca li gii ny c th l ln xn. Thay
v vy, chng ta hon thin qu trnh gii cho cc s c th m = 2 kg, b = 4 N s/m, k = 10 N/m,
2
2
(0 ) 0 / m s

&
,
1
(0 ) 0 / m s

,
2
(0 ) 1 / m s

, v vc = 1 m/s. Khai trin tng phn phn s ca bin i thun v ngc cng c thc hin
bi mt chng trnh my tnh, l:
2 2 2
1 2 2
( )
( 1) 2
+

+ +
s
V s
s s
(23.162)
2
( ) 1 2 cos(2 ), 0
t
v t e t t

(23.163)
Chng ta c th thu c cc bin i Laplace ca cc phng trnh h thng bt k giai on no ca qu trnh pht trin.
Thm ch, chng ta c th vit cc phng trnh trc tip theo cc bin c bin i nu chng ta mun. Qu trnh kh cc
bin cng c th c thc hin tt trong k hiu ny cng nh k hiu khc. V d, ton t G(p) trong phng trnh (23.154)
biu din mt t s ca cc a thc trong ton t o hm thi gian p. V vy, bin i Laplace phng trnh vi phn (23.154) s
a ra cc gi tr u ca cc o hm y1 v y2 . Nu cc gi tr u ca tt c cc o hm l khng th phng trnh bin i
Laplace l :
2 1
( ) ( ) ( ) Y s G s Y s
(23.164)
trong ton t p trong phng trnh (23.154) c thay bi bin tn s phc s trong phng trnh (23.164). V vy, s l thch
hp xc nh hm truyn trc tip theo cc s hng ca cc tn hiu c bin i Laplace:
2
1
0
( )
( )
( )

PV
Y s
G s
Y s
(23.165)
45
S tay C in t
trong Y1(s) v Y2(s) l cc bin i Laplace ca cc tn hiu y1(t) v y2(t), v k hiu PV = 0 c ngha rng cc gi tr u (
0 t

) ca y1(t) v y2(t) v cc o hm c k ra trn trong mi quan h vi phng trnh (23.164) c t ti khng. nh
ngha min tn s, phng trnh (23.165) l tng ng vi nh ngha min thi gian, phng trnh (23.155).
Cho rng tn hiu vo y1(t) l xung n v (t). Th tn hiu p ng y2(t) l p ng ca xung n v ca h thng. V bin i
Laplace ca xung n v l Y1(s) = (s) = 1, mc 1 ca bng 23.11, phng trnh (23.164) ch ra rng bin i Laplace Y2(s) ca
p ng xung n v l ging ht vi hm truyn ca trng thi khng (c biu din trong min truyn). Hm truyn ca mt
h tuyn tnh c hai cch th hin. C hai cch th hin u tiu biu cho h thng. Trong min tn s, hm truyn G(s) l s
nhn a ra p ng bng vic nhn hm truyn ca ngun - tn hiu nh trong phng trnh (23.164). Trong min thi gian,
chng ta dng mt tn hiu p ng in hnh p ng xung - m t h. Hm truyn G(s) l bin i Laplace ca p ng
c trng .
nh ngha cc khi nim
Tn hiu vo (Input): Mt bin c lp.
Phng trnh h thng vo ra (Inputoutput system equation): Mt phng trnh vi phn m t ng x ca
mt bin ph thuc n nh l mt hm thi gian. Bin ph thuc c xem l u ra ca h thng. Bin (cc bin) c
lp l cc u vo.
Tn hiu ra (Output): Mt bin ph thuc.
Tn hiu (Signal): Mt bin c th quan st; Mt i lng biu l ng x ca mt h thng.
Trng thi (State): Trng thi ca mt h tuyn tnh bc n tng ng vi cc gi tr ca mt bin ph thuc v
n-1 o hm thi gian u tin ca n.
Bt bin theo thi gian (Time invariant): Mt h c th c biu din bng cc phng trnh vi phn vi
cc h s hng.
Trng thi khng (Zero state): l mt trng thi m khi khng c nng lng c lu gi hoc khi tt c
cc bin c gi tr bng khng.
Ti liu tham kho
[1] Franklin, G. F., Powell, J. D., and Emami-Naeini, A. 1994. Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems, 3rd ed., Addison
Wesley, Reading, MA.
[2] Kuo, B. C. 1991. Automatic Control Systems, 6th ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
[3] Nise, N. S. 1992. Control Systems Engineering, Benjamin Cumming, Redwood City, CA.
Cc thng tin b sung
Vic x l ton hc ca cc bin i Laplace mt cch chi tit c trnh by trong Advanced Engineering Mathematics, bi
C. Ray Wylie v Louis C. Barrett. Understanding Dynamic Systems, bi C. Nelson Dorny, p dung cc hm truyn v cc khi
nim lin quan vo cc hon cnh khc nhau. Cc bi bo ca cc tp ch sau s dng cc hm truyn v cc bin i Laplace:
IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. Published monthly by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. Published bimonthly.
Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control. Published quarterly by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers.
46