Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 817–823

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Seismic characteristics of a reef carbonate reservoir and implications

for hydrocarbon exploration in deepwater of the Qiongdongnan
Basin, northern South China Sea
Shiguo Wu a, d, *, Shengqiang Yuan a, b, Gongcheng Zhang c, Yubo Ma a, b, Lijun Mi e, Ning Xu f
a
Key Laboratory of Marine Geology and Environment, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Naihai Road, Qingdao 266071, PR China
b
Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, PR China
c
CNOOC Research Center, Beijing 100027, PR China
d
China University of Petroleum, Qingdao 266555, PR China
e
Exploration Department of CNOOC China Ltd, BeQing 100010, China
f
China National Oil and Gas Exploration and Development Corporation, Beijing 100034, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Our analysis of approximately 40,000 km of multichannel 2-D seismic data, reef oil-field seismic data,
Received 21 October 2007 and data from several boreholes led to the identification of two areas of reef carbonate reservoirs in
Received in revised form 3 April 2008 deepwater areas (water depth  500 m) of the Qiongdongnan Basin (QDNB), northern South China Sea.
Accepted 7 April 2008
High-resolution sequence stratigraphic analysis revealed that the transgressive and highstand system
Available online 10 May 2008
tracts of the mid-Miocene Meishan Formation in the Beijiao and Ledong–Lingshui Depressions developed
reef carbonates. The seismic features of the reef carbonates in these two areas include chaotic bedding,
Keywords:
intermittent internal reflections, chaotic or blank reflections, mounded reflections, and apparent
Qiongdongnan Basin (QDNB)
Deepwater hydrocarbons
amplitude anomalies, similar to the seismic characteristics of the LH11-1 reef reservoir in the Dongsha
Sequence stratigraphy Uplift and Island Reef of the Salawati Basin, Indonesia, which house large oil fields. The impedance values
Reef carbonate of reefs in the Beijiao and Ledong–Lingshui Depressions are 8000–9000 g/cc  m/s. Impedance sections
Seismic attributes reveal that the impedance of the LH11-1 reef reservoir in the northern South China Sea is 8000–
10000 g/cc  m/s, whereas that of pure limestone in BD23-1-1 is >10000 g/cc  m/s. The mid-Miocene
paleogeography of the Beijiao Depression was dominated by offshore and neritic environments, with
only part of the southern Beijiao uplift emergent at that time. The input of terrigenous sediments was
relatively minor in this area, meaning that terrigenous source areas were insignificant in terms of the
Beijiao Depression; reef carbonates were probably widely distributed throughout the depression, as with
the Ledong–Lingshui Depression. The combined geological and geophysical data indicate that shelf
margin atolls were well developed in the Beijiao Depression, as in the Ledong–Lingshui Depression
where small-scale patch or pinnacle reefs developed. These reef carbonates are promising reservoirs,
representing important targets for deepwater hydrocarbon exploration.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Marginal reef carbonate facies in offshore areas have been
confirmed as important deepwater oil–gas reservoirs (Sarg, 1988
Sattler et al., 2004; Zampetti et al., 2004). Qiongdongnan Basin
(QDNB) is a large rift basin developed at the margin of the northern
South China Sea (NSCS). Development of the basin was controlled
by rifting and sustained seafloor spreading within the South China
* Corresponding author. Key Laboratory of Marine Geology and Environment,
Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Naihai Road, Qingdao
266071, PR China. Tel./fax: þ86 532 82 898 544.
E-mail address: swu@ms.qdio.ac.cn (S. Wu).
Sea. The first 2-D seismic survey in the QDNB was performed in
1970s, marking the commencement of exploration in this area. The
study area covers 20,000 km2, and we used data from nearly
40,000 km of 2-D seismic lines and four wells. This paper docu-
ments the geological and geophysical characteristics of reef car-
bonate facies in deepwater areas of the QDNB.
There exist differing opinions regarding the conditions of reef
development in the QDNB. Many geologists argue about the exis-
tence of carbonate reservoirs in the basin: some believe that large-
scale reef development took place in the mid-Miocene (the Meishan
Formation) (Chen and Hu, 1987; Jin and Pang, 1998; Qiu and Chen,
1999; Qiu and Gong, 1999; Qiu and Wang, 2001; Liu, 2003; Sattler
et al., 2004; Wei et al., 2005, 2006). However, drilling has failed to
reveal any evidence of a large-scale reef reservoir in shallow-water

0264-8172/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2008.04.008
818 S. Wu et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 817–823
areas of the basin. This may reflect the narrow width of the conti-
nental shelf in this area and its proximity to land, making it prone to
disturbance and blanketing by terrigenous sediments (Fan, 1996;
Qiu and Chen, 1999; Qiu and Gong, 1999). Given this lack of success
in finding a reef reservoir, it is important to also consider deepwater
areas far away from continental source areas.
The approaches of sequence stratigraphy and geophysical
inversion have been combined in previous studies that sought
to predict the locations of carbonate reservoirs in specific envi-
ronments (King, 1972; Erlich et al., 1990; Mayall et al., 1997;
Kusumastuti et al., 2002; Zampetti et al., 2004). In the present
study, we first analyzed the stratigraphy and seismic facies of the
basin, and then identified favorable carbonate rock provinces as
potential reservoirs. We then undertook a paleogeographic study of
the area and an inversion of seismic data. Finally, we identified the
reef-development characteristics of the study area, combined
the seismic facies with the geophysical attributes of carbonate
sequences, and compared our findings with those obtained for
typical reefs from other locations.
2. Geological setting
Qiongdongnan Basin lies in the west part of northern South
China Sea. The deepwater area of the QDNB is located in the
southern part of the basin, where the present water depth is at least
200 m. The basin is bounded to the west by the Red River Fault and
the Yinggehai Basin, to the east by the Pearl River Mouth Basin, and
to the south by the Xisha Rise. The deepwater area of the basin
includes the Ledong–Lingshui, Beijiao, and Songnan–Baodao
Depressions, and the Beijiao Uplift (Fig. 1). The features of the
deepwater area are typical of passive continental margins, with
a two-layered structure consisting of a lower syn-rift sequence and
upper post-rift sequence (Taylor and Hayes, 1980). Seismic reflector
T60 is a breakup unconformity that divides the upper and lower
megasequences. The upper sequence is characteristic of post-rift
thermal subsidence, containing few fractures, whereas the lower
sequence records syn-rift tectonics, marked by well-developed
fault systems and half-graben basins.
The syn-rift sequences in the deepwater area of the QDNB in-
clude the Lingtou, Yacheng, and Lingshui Formations, consisting of
Fig. 1. Structural units of the Qiongdongnan Basin. (1) Songnan–Baodao Depression, (2) Ledong–Lingshui Depression, (3) Beijiao Depression, (4) West Beijiao Rise, (5) East Beijiao
Rise, and (6) South Beijiao Rise.
lacustrine, coal-bearing transitional and epicontinental sedimen-
tary facies (Qiu and Gong, 1999) cut by well-developed fault sys-
tems. The main source rocks formed during rifting. Post-rift drift
sequences consist of Neogene–Quaternary marine terrigenous
detritus and carbonate deposits, including the Miocene Sanya,
Meishan, and Huangliu Formations, the Pliocene Yinggehai For-
mation, and Quaternary Ledong Formation, all devoid of syn-
depositional fault systems.
The key factors that control the growth and development of
coral are water temperature, salinity, water depth, water turbidity,
concentration of dissolved oxygen, substrate, and water dynamics
(waves and streams) (Wei et al., 2006). Suitable conditions for coral
growth and reef development are as follows: temperature of 23–
27  C, salinity of 30–40&, water depth of <50 m, clear water, and
good light penetration for photosynthesis. It is clear that the QDNB
meets most of these criteria in Miocene (Sun and Esteban, 1994).
The conditions of the deepwater area of the mid-Miocene QDNB
were suitable for reef growth. Modern carbonate deposits are dis-
tributed mainly between 30 S and 30 N, under tropical to sub-
tropical conditions (Sun and Esteban, 1994). The deepwater area of
the QDNB that was suitable for reef development during the mid-
Miocene was located on a shelf margin platform, with only a minor
input of detrital terrigenous material due to its distance from the
source area.
3. Cenozoic sequence stratigraphy
Eight sequences have been recognized based on drilling results,
and eight seismic reflectors (T20, T30, T40, T50, T60, T70, T80, and
Tg) have been confirmed from synthetic seismograms (Table 1; Figs.
2 and 3). The reflectors divide the Cenozoic strata into eight for-
mations: the Ledong, Yinggehai, Huangliu, Meishan, Sanya, Ling-
shui, Yacheng, and Lingtou (Figs. 2 and 3). Reflector T60 is a regional
unconformity that divides the entire stratigraphy into syn-rift and
post-rift sequences (Wang et al., 1998; Wei et al., 2001). The
sequence boundaries in the basin are either unconformities or
marked by relatively conformable successions (Vail, 1987). Each
sequence is recognized by its external form and internal seismic
facies, which are also important indicators in identifying reefs on
seismic profiles.
 S. Wu et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 817–823 819

Table 1
Sequence stratigraphy of the Qiongdongnan Basin (the Lingtou and Yacheng Formations are the major source rocks in the basin).

Chronostratigraphy Seismic reflector Age (Ma) Reservoir Structural and fill data

System Series Formation

Quaternary Pleistocene Ledong T20 1.9 Submarine Passive continental Period of Shelf–slope system
fan wedge margin post-rifting
Neogene Pliocene Yinggehai T30 5.5 Submarine fan
Miocene Upper Huangliu T40 10.5 Reef turbidite Open neritic and bathyal
slope fan
Middle Meishan T50 15.5 Incised valley
channel-fill fan
Lower Sanya T60 23.3 Fan delta
Paleogene Oligocene Lingshui T70 29.3 Fan delta Intercontinental rift Period of Offshore and neritic
Yacheng T80 35.4 Fan delta rifting fill Partition offshore
and neritic
Ecocene Lingtou T100 Fan delta Intracontinental rift Rifted lacustrine basin
Pre-Tertiary

The syn-rift period consists of the Lingtou, Yacheng, and Ling-
shui formations, and the tectonic movement was the dominant
control factor on sedimentation. The Lingtou Formation is a non-
marine lacustrine facies, indicating the initial period of the syn-rift
period, and is one of the main source rocks within the QDNB (Zhong
et al., 2004; He et al., 2006). The Yacheng Formation represents the
late periods of syn-rift tectonics, when offshore and neritic sedi-
mentary systems developed, and represent the major part of the
basin fill. The Lingshui Formation was deposited at the end of the
syn-rift period within a semi-closed marine sedimentary system,
and is an important reservoir within the QDNB.
Post-rift sequences include the Ledong, Yinggehai, Huangliu,
Meishan, and Sanya Formations. The Miocene was an important
period for the growth of reefs in the QDNB, especially during
transgressive and highstand system tracts. Miocene strata consist
of the Sanya Formation (23.3–15.5 Ma), Meishan Formation (15.5–
10.5 Ma), and Huangliu Formation (10.5–5.5 Ma). The continental
shelf system of the NSCS developed above reflector T60, and it is
evident on seismic profiles across the deepwater region that the
thickness of strata increases from the shelf-to-slope (Figs. 2 and 3).
The shelf-to-slope system was active from 10.5 Ma (T40), meaning
that the Sanya and Meishan Formations formed in open neritic
and bathyal environments, whereas the Ledong, Yinggehai, and
Huangliu Formations belong to the shelf- to-slope system (Table 1).
The Miocene sequence can be divided into system tracts iden-
tified from seismic profiles. Transgressive and highstand system
tracts in the sequence of Meishan Formation were favorable envi-
ronments for the development of reef carbonate, as recorded in
other sequence stratigraphy studies (Handford and Loucks, 1993).
The Sanya Formation contains neritic clastic facies of submarine
fans and reef growth, while the Huangliu Formation is dominated
by neritic to abyssal terrigenous facies that serve as a good seal for
the potential Miocene reef oil field.
4. Characteristics of reef carbonate
4.1. Seismic reflection characteristics
Drilling reveals that carbonate rocks are abundant within the
QDNB deepwater area, where geological conditions favored
the development of carbonates during the Miocene in the NSCS.
The LH11-1 reservoir beneath the Dongsha Rise (Pearl River Mouth
Basin) is a 60-m thick reef carbonate reservoir with reserves of 164
million tons, making it the largest offshore oil field in China (Sattler
et al., 2004). There exist 200-m thick limestones and dolomites,
along with interbedded mudstone, sandstone, and phosphorous, in
the early Miocene Zhujiang Formation and mid-Miocene Hanjiang
Formation, as found in well QH36-2-1 drilled into the Shenhu Rise,
Pearl River Basin. In addition, more than 60 m of biolithite within
the Zhujiang Formation was encountered in well BD23-1-1 upon
the southwest margin of the Shenhu Rise, Pearl River Basin (Liu and
Feng, 2001). Well Ya 21-1-4 in the eastern neritic part of the basin
revealed >60-m thick limestones of the Sanya Formation, as well as
discontinuous limestone of the Meishan Formation. Several hun-
dred meters of reef layers have also been reported from boreholes
Xiyong-1 and Xiyong-2 upon the Xisha Rise (Fig. 1; Zhang et al.,
1989; Xu and Wang, 1999).

Fig. 2. Seismic profile across the Ledong–Lingshui Depression (line A–A0 in Fig. 1). The seismic reflectors are labeled T20, T30, T40, T50, T60, T70, T80, and Tg. The stratigraphic
framework is described in Table 1.
820 S. Wu et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 817–823

Fig. 3. Seismic profile across the Songnan–Baodao Depression (line B–B0 in Fig. 1). The seismic reflectors are labeled (from top to bottom) T20, T30, T40, T50, T60, T70, T80, and Tg.
The stratigraphic framework is described in Table 1.

The reef carbonate is a carbonate platform where growing reef
surround or cover it. It is characterized on seismic profiles by
chaotic bedding, intermittent internal reflections, chaotic or blank
reflections, mounded reflections, and apparent amplitude anom-
alies (Sattler et al., 2004; Yu et al., 2005). Seismic profiles across
the LH11-1 reef oil field reveal that the main reservoir is located
within the early Miocene Zhujiang Formation reef reservoir of
the Pearl River Basin, which exhibits high amplitude and dis-
continuous layers; marine shale of the mid-Miocene Zhuhai
Formation served as the main seal to the reservoir (Fig. 4a; Yue
et al., 2005).
The Miocene Meishan and Sanya Formations are regarded to
represent ideal conditions for the development of large-scale reef
complexes (Chen and Hu, 1987; Wei et al., 2005). The seismic re-
flection features of these formations are similar to those of the reef
reservoir within the LH11-1 oil field (Sattler et al., 2004). To study
reef development and distribution within the two target forma-
tions, we divided them into a lowstand system tract (LST), trans-
gressive system tract (TST), and highstand system tract (HST), and
analyzed the seismic characteristics of the three types of tracts. The
Beijiao and Ledong–Lingshui Depressions are characterized by high
amplitude, lack of continuity and low frequency, and chaotic or
mounded seismic facies (Fig. 4b).
A >60-m thick pure biolithite was drilled in the Zhujiang For-
mation at well BD23-1-1 on the southern margin of the Shenhu
Rise (equivalent to the Meishan Formation within the Qiongdon-
gnan Basin). This unit shows strong reflections and amplitude, and
high continuity in seismography (Fig. 4c). The core drilled at this
site revealed a compact, barren reef (Liu and Feng, 2001), different
in character from the reservoir reef rocks.
The seismic profiles across the Ledong–Lingshui Depression
contain features similar to those of typical patch reefs within the
Meishan Formation (Fig. 4d). Based on this finding, and in combi-
nation with the geologic background of this area, we deduce the
existence of patch reefs or pinnacle reefs in the Ledong–Lingshui
Depression. The deeper zones within the depression contain
smaller deepwater carbonate buildups with mound configurations
and high amplitudes (Erlich et al., 1990).

Fig. 4. Seismic profiles of representative reef carbonates in different areas. (a) Profile across the LH11-1 field; (b) profile across the Beijiao Depression; (c) profile across well BD23-1-1;
and (d) profile across the Ledong–Lingshui Depression.
 S. Wu et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 817–823
4.2. Sedimentary facies
High-resolution sequence stratigraphic analysis reveals that
bioherms occurred in TST and HST of the Meishan Formation. Fig. 5
provides an HST sedimentary facies map of the Meishan Formation,
which also shows the reef and carbonate platform distribution of
HST Meishan Formation. The depocenter of the Meishan Formation
was located in the northeast of its distribution. The southern Beijiao
Uplift was part of an area of denudation (Fig. 5). The sedimentary
facies of HST reveal that the southern part of the uplift was not
strongly disturbed by terrigenous material because of the northern
deepwater, the depth of the depression, and the presence of the
Xisha Rise to the south of the uplift. The Xisha Rise has been the site
of large-scale reef development from the Miocene until the present
day, meaning that the environment surrounding the Beijiao Uplift
experienced favorable conditions for the growth of large bioherms
during Miocene period.
4.3. Seismic attributes
The seismic attributes and acoustic impedance of the reef car-
bonates within the Beijiao and Ledong–Lingshui Depressions are
highly similar to those of the proven oil- and gas-bearing bioherm
within the LH11-1 oil field (Fig. 6a). Seismic inversion is an
important method in determining rock properties such as imped-
ance and porosity (Huuse and Feary, 2005), and has been suc-
cessfully applied to sandstone reservoirs; however, erroneous
results have been obtained when applied to carbonate reservoirs
(Cerepi et al., 2003). Therefore, in the present study we employed
the constrained sparse spike inversion method (Mu, 2005) in
evaluating rock properties, subsequently comparing them with the
properties of rocks in other carbonate oil fields, such as the LH11-1
field. The seismic profile across the LH11-1 oil field shows clear
high-amplitude anomalies (Fig. 6a) and discontinuous and chaotic
reflections within the bioherm, with relatively continuous high-
amplitude anomalies above and below, indicative of dense rock
strata.
Fig. 5. Sedimentary facies of the highstand system tract for the Meishan Formation in the deepwater area of the Qiongdongnan Basin.
821
The acoustic amplitude values of the reef carbonate in the
Beijiao and Ledong–Lingshui Depressions indicate a stronger
anomaly than that expected for a layer of pure limestone, which can
be recognized based on high amplitude and good continuity; there
exists only one obvious high-amplitude layer within well BD23-1-1
(Fig. 6b). This type of limestone is generally characterized by low
porosity, resulting in poor reservoir potential (Liu and Feng,
2001). In contrast, the profile across the Beijiao Depression
(Fig. 6c) reveals similar seismic attributes to those of the LH11-1
bioherm: a lack of continuity, high amplitude, and chaotic
reflections. The seismic attributes of typical bioherms in the
Ledong–Lingshui Depression are different from those of the
LH11-1 oil field, which has a smaller area of scattered high-am-
plitude anomalies in the lower uplift zone, perhaps indicating
a patch reef or pinnacle reef (Fig. 6c, d). In terms of the absolute
acoustic impedance of these three areas, the dense limestone in
well BD23-1-1 recorded values of >10000 g/cc  m/s, higher than
the values of 8000–10000 g/cc  m/s in the LH11-1 oil field and
8000–9000 g/cc  m/s in the Beijiao Depression.
5. Discussion
5.1. Paleogeography and bioherm sedimentary model
The central South China Sea basin opened during the period 32–
17 Ma (Taylor and Hayes, 1980). The spreading of South China Sea
have been ceased and the QDNB entered post-rift thermal sub-
sidence in Meishan period (15.5–10.5 Ma). The scale and thickness of
deposition decreased during this period. The northern part of the
Beijiao Depression was a deepwater environment at this time, barely
reached by terrigenous material. Therefore, the clastic material in
the basin was probably derived from the Indo-China Peninsular or
the Xisha Rise. The amount of debris was minor, with most being bio-
clastic. During the Meishan period, the ancient Hainan Island could
have provided small amounts of terrigenous material to neritic parts
of the northern QDNB. In other words, continental material is
unlikely to have bypassed the Ledong–Lingshui Depression and
822 S. Wu et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 817–823

Fig. 6. Attribute profiles of representative reef carbonates from different areas. (a) Profile across the LH11-1 oil field; (b) profile across Well BD23-1-1; (c) profile across the Beijiao
Depression; and (d) profile across the Ledong–Lingshui Depression.

affected bioherm development in the Beijiao Depression (Fig. 5). The
Indo-China Peninsular could not have supplied large amounts of
debris material to the Beijiao Depression during the Meishan period:
such continental material would have first filled the Ledong–Ling-
shui Depression, which was the center of subsidence at that time,
making it difficult to reach the Beijiao Depression. In contrast, ma-
terial would have been derived from the Xisha Rise, as large-scale
reefs existed at this site until the Quaternary (Zhang et al., 1989; Xu
and Wang, 1999).
Based on our analysis of the seismic facies, sedimentary facies,
provenance, and geophysical features of the study area, we infer
that the Miocene sedimentary environment of the Beijiao and
Ledong–Lingshui Depressions favored bioherm development. The
bioherm in the Ledong–Lingshui Depression was a small patch reef
or pinnacle reef, while that in the Beijiao Depression developed
mainly on the slope and even the central area of the depression, but
not the area of uplift. In terms of sedimentary facies (Fig. 5), the
depression consisted of neritic facies during the Meishan period.
The south uplift part of Beijiao Depression formed before de-
position of the Meishan Formation and was partly denuded during
deposition of the lowstand, transgressive, and highstand system
tracts. The bioherm around the uplift was a shelf margin atoll.
5.2. Schematic model of the reef-type reservoir
The reef carbonate reservoir could become a focus of future
oil exploration in the deepwater area of the QDNB. The two
development periods of source rock in the QDNB are represented by

Fig. 7. Model of hydrocarbon accumulation and transfer within a reef reservoir in the deepwater area of the Qiongdongnan Basin. The Lingtou Formation to Lingshui Formation
(T60–T100) represents the source rock (red area), and the reef developed in the Meishan Formation (T50–T40) could be the reservoir, and Huangliu Formation as the seal. These
yellow arrows are the hydrocarbon migration pathways.
 S. Wu et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 817–823
the Lingtou and Yacheng Formations (Wang and He, 2003). The main
reservoirs within the study region are located in the Lingshui, Sanya,
and Meishan Formations; the Huangliu Formation acts as the
regional seal formation (Fig. 7). Faults, diapers, and unconformity
surfaces were the major migration pathways for oil and gas.
Unconformity surfaces and diapers were especially important during
the Meishan period when faults were largely inactive.
Only a small number of traps have been located in the layers
between the S40 and S60 reflectors (Fig. 7). Given that few clastic
reservoirs are well developed in the Lingshui and Meishan For-
mations, bioherm carbonate reservoirs have become the main
target for deepwater hydrocarbon exploration in this basin. In ad-
dition, the bioherm carbonates in the Beijiao and Ledong–Lingshui
Depressions are large, with excellent reservoir capability and great
potential for the occurrence of accumulated oil and gas. A model of
reef carbonate reservoirs in the deepwater area of the QDNB is
presented in Fig. 7. In the model, the source rock came from the
Yacheng and Lingshui Formations, the oil and gas migrated through
the fault to the reef reservoir, which sealed by the upper deepwater
mud of Huangliu Formation. If had the proper space–time alloca-
tion relationship, there could be a big reef oil (gas) filed in QDNB.
6. Conclusions
(1) The seismic facies of reef carbonates in the deepwater area of
the QDNB are characterized by chaotic bedding, intermittent
internal reflections, chaotic, blank, or mounded reflections, and
apparent high-amplitude anomalies on seismic profiles.
(2) Two mid-Miocene bioherms in the Beijiao and Ledong–
Lingshui Depressions are recognized based on seismic and
drillhole data. Shelf margin atolls are well developed in
the Beijiao Depression; the reefs in the Ledong–Lingshui
Depression are small patch reefs or pinnacle reefs.
(3) The geology and seismic characteristics of the bioherms in the
Beijiao and Ledong–Lingshui Depressions are similar to those
in proven classic areas of reef carbonate oil reservoirs. These
bioherms might therefore become important targets for
hydrocarbon exploration.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the CAS Knowledge Innovation
Program (KZCX2-YW-203), the National Basic Research Program of
China (2007CB411703), the National MLR National Petroleum Re-
source Strategic Target Survey and Evaluation Program, and the
Taishan Scholarship Program of Shandong Province. We are grateful
to Wu Jingfu, Lv Ming, Xu Qiang, Liang Jianshe, Liu Zhibin, He Shi-
bin, and Huang Ruojun of the CNOOC Beijing Research Center for
their constructive suggestions and great assistance. Special thanks
are due to Luiz Gamboa of Petrobras Company for his thoughtful
modifications to the manuscript.
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