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Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study
of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification). It is
primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic
rocks. Stratigraphy has three related subfields:
lithostratigraphy (lithologic stratigraphy), biostratigraphy
(biologic stratigraphy), and chronostratigraphy (stratigraphy
by age).
The Permian through Jurassic strata

Historical development of the Colorado Plateau area of

southeastern Utah demonstrate the
principles of stratigraphy.
Catholic priest Nicholas
Steno established the
theoretical basis for stratigraphy when he introduced the law of
superposition, the principle of original horizontality and the
principle of lateral continuity in a 1669 work on the
fossilization of organic remains in layers of sediment.

The first practical large-scale application of stratigraphy was by

William Smith in the 1790s and early 19th century. Known as
Engraving from William Smith's
the "Father of English geology",[1] Smith recognized the
monograph on identifying strata
significance of strata or rock layering and the importance of
based on fossils
fossil markers for correlating strata; he created the first
geologic map of England. Other influential applications of
stratigraphy in the early 19th century were by Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, who
studied the geology of the region around Paris.

Lithostratigraphy
Variation in rock units, most obviously displayed as visible
layering, is due to physical contrasts in rock type (lithology).
This variation can occur vertically as layering (bedding), or
laterally, and reflects changes in environments of deposition
(known as facies change). These variations provide a
lithostratigraphy or lithologic stratigraphy of the rock unit. Key
Strata in Cafayate (Argentina)
concepts in stratigraphy involve understanding how certain
geometric relationships between rock layers arise and what
these geometries imply about their original depositional
environment. The basic concept in stratigraphy, called the law
of superposition, states: in an undeformed stratigraphic
sequence, the oldest strata occur at the base of the sequence.

Chemostratigraphy studies the changes in the relative

proportions of trace elements and isotopes within and between
lithologic units. Carbon and oxygen isotope ratios vary with
time, and researchers can use those to map subtle changes that
Chalk layers in Cyprus, showing
occurred in the paleoenvironment. This has led to the
sedimentary layering
specialized field of isotopic stratigraphy.

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Cyclostratigraphy documents the often cyclic changes in the relative proportions of minerals
(particularly carbonates), grain size, thickness of sediment layers (varves) and fossil diversity with
time, related to seasonal or longer term changes in palaeoclimates.

Biostratigraphy
Biostratigraphy or paleontologic stratigraphy is based on fossil evidence in the rock layers. Strata
from widespread locations containing the same fossil fauna and flora are said to be correlatable in
time. Biologic stratigraphy was based on William Smith's principle of faunal succession, which
predated, and was one of the first and most powerful lines of evidence for, biological evolution. It
provides strong evidence for the formation (speciation) and extinction of species. The geologic time
scale was developed during the 19th century, based on the evidence of biologic stratigraphy and
faunal succession. This timescale remained a relative scale until the development of radiometric
dating, which was based on an absolute time framework, leading to the development of
chronostratigraphy.

One important development is the Vail curve, which attempts to define a global historical sea-level
curve according to inferences from worldwide stratigraphic patterns. Stratigraphy is also
commonly used to delineate the nature and extent of hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir rocks, seals,
and traps of petroleum geology.

Chronostratigraphy
Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that places an absolute age, rather than a relative
age on rock strata. The branch is concerned with deriving geochronological data for rock units,
both directly and inferentially, so that a sequence of time-relative events that created the rocks
formation can be derived. The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to place dates on the sequence
of deposition of all rocks within a geological region, and then to every region, and by extension to
provide an entire geologic record of the Earth.

A gap or missing strata in the geological record of an area is called a stratigraphic hiatus. This may
be the result of a halt in the deposition of sediment. Alternatively, the gap may be due to removal
by erosion, in which case it may be called a stratigraphic vacuity.[2][3] It is called a hiatus because
deposition was on hold for a period of time.[4] A physical gap may represent both a period of non-
deposition and a period of erosion.[3] A geologic fault may cause the appearance of a hiatus.[5]

Magnetostratigraphy

Magnetostratigraphy is a chronostratigraphic technique used to date sedimentary and volcanic

sequences. The method works by collecting oriented samples at measured intervals throughout a
section. The samples are analyzed to determine their detrital remanent magnetism (DRM), that is,
the polarity of Earth's magnetic field at the time a stratum was deposited. For sedimentary rocks
this is possible because, as they fall through the water column, very fine-grained magnetic minerals
(<  17  μm) behave like tiny compasses, orienting themselves with Earth's magnetic field. Upon
burial, that orientation is preserved. For volcanic rocks, magnetic minerals, which form in the
melt, orient themselves with the ambient magnetic field, and are fixed in place upon crystallization
of the lava.

Oriented paleomagnetic core samples are collected in the field; mudstones, siltstones, and very
fine-grained sandstones are the preferred lithologies because the magnetic grains are finer and
more likely to orient with the ambient field during deposition. If the ancient magnetic field were

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oriented similar to today's field (North Magnetic Pole near the

North Rotational Pole), the strata would retain a normal
polarity. If the data indicate that the North Magnetic Pole were
near the South Rotational Pole, the strata would exhibit
reversed polarity.

Results of the individual samples are analyzed by removing the

natural remanent magnetization (NRM) to reveal the DRM.
Following statistical analysis, the results are used to generate a
local magnetostratigraphic column that can then be compared Example of magnetostratigraphy.
against the Global Magnetic Polarity Time Scale. Magnetic stripes are the result of
reversals of the Earth's magnetic
This technique is used to date sequences that generally lack poles and seafloor spreading. New
fossils or interbedded igneous rocks. The continuous nature of oceanic crust is magnetized as it
the sampling means that it is also a powerful technique for the forms and then it moves away from
estimation of sediment-accumulation rates. the midocean ridge in both
directions.

See also
Assise
Bed (geology)
Conodont biostratigraphy
Erygmascope (old instrument for studying strata)
Harris matrix
Important publications in stratigraphy
International Commission on Stratigraphy
Key bed
Sedimentary basin analysis
Sequence stratigraphy
Sadler effect
Tectonostratigraphy

References
1. Davies G.L.H. (2007). Whatever is Under the Earth the Geological Society of London 1807–
2007 (https://books.google.com/books?id=8j-nmabapH0C&q=1831+Sedgwick+Smith+Father+
of+English+geology&pg=PA78). London: Geological Society. p. 78. ISBN 978-1862392144.
2. "SEPM Strata" (http://www.sepmstrata.org/Terminology.aspx?id=hiatus). www.sepmstrata.org.
3. Martinsen, O. J. et al. (1999) "Cenozoic development of the Norwegian margin 60–64N:
sequences and sedimentary response to variable basin physiography and tectonic setting" pp.
293–304 In Fleet, A. J. and Boldy, S. A. R. (editors) (1999) Petroleum Geology of Northwest
Europe Geological Society, London, page 295 (https://books.google.com/books?id=YTqHqJfX
wYEC&pg=PA295), ISBN 978-1-86239-039-3
4. Kearey, Philip (2001). Dictionary of Geology (2nd ed.) London, New York, etc.: Penguin
Reference, London, p. 123. ISBN 978-0-14-051494-0.

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5. Chapman, Richard E. (1983) Petroleum Geology Elsevier Scientific, Amsterdam, p. 33 (https://

books.google.com/books?id=I8rXayF_0HIC&pg=PA33), ISBN 978-0-444-42165-4

Further reading
Christopherson, R. W., 2008. Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geography, 7th ed.,
New York: Pearson Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-600598-8
Montenari, M., 2016. Stratigraphy and Timescales (https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Str
atigraphy_Timescales.html?id=xzJQDAAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y), 1st ed., Amsterdam: Academic
Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-811549-7

External links
ICS Subcommission for Stratigraphic Information (http://stratigraphy.science.purdue.edu/index.
html)
University of South Carolina Sequence Stratigraphy Web (http://strata.geol.sc.edu/)
Front Range stratigraphy (http://snobear.colorado.edu/Markw/Mountains/03/week9.html)
International Commission on Stratigraphy (http://www.stratigraphy.org)
University of Georgia (USA) Stratigraphy Lab (http://www.uga.edu/~strata/)
Stratigraphy.net (http://www.stratigraphy.net) A stratigraphic data provider.
Agenames.org (http://www.agenames.org/) A global index of stratigraphic terms

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