Introduction of dbms-1

File Management System:
A file system (or filesystem) is an abstraction to store, retrieve and update a set of files. The term also
identifies the data structures specified by some of those abstractions, which are designed to organize
multiple files as a single stream
The file system manages access to the data and the metadata of the files, and manages the available space
of the device(s) which contain it.
A filename (or file name) is used to identify a storage location in the file system. Most file systems have
restrictions on the length of filenames.
DIRECTORIES
File systems typically have directories (also called folders) which allow the user to group files into
separate collections.
DBMS Functions
1. Data dictionary management. The DBMS stores definitions of the data elements and their
relationships (metadata) in a data dictionary. In turn, all programs that access the data in the
database work through the DBMS. The DBMS uses the data dictionary to look up the required
data component structures and relationships,
2. Data storage management. The DBMS creates and manages the complex structures required for
data storage, thus relieving you from the difficult task of defining and programming the physical
data characteristics
3. Security management. The DBMS creates a security system that enforces user security and data
privacy. Security rules determine which users can access the database, which data items each user
can access, and which data operations (read, add, delete, or modify) the user can perform
4. Multiuser access control. To provide data integrity and data consistency, the DBMS uses
sophisticated algorithms to ensure that multiple users can access the database concurrently without
compromising the integrity of the database
5. Backup and recovery management. The DBMS provides backup and data recovery to ensure
data safety and integrity. Current DBMS systems provide special utilities that allow the DBA to
perform routine and special backup and restore procedures
6. Data integrity management. The DBMS promotes and enforces integrity rules, thus minimizing
data redundancy and maximizing data consistency
Example The database is organized as five files:
• The STUDENT file stores data of each student

• The COURSE file stores contain data on each course.
• The SECTION stores the information about sections in a particular course.
• The GRADE file stores the grades which students receive in the various sections
• The TUTOR file contains information about each professor.
To define DBMS: We need to specify the structure of the records of each file by defining the different
types of data elements to be stored in each record.
Characteristics of DBMS
Here are the characteristics and properties of Database Management System:
• Provides security and removes redundancy

• Self-describing nature of a database system
• Insulation between programs and data abstraction
• Support of multiple views of the data
• Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing
• It f ollows the ACID concept ( Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability).
• DBMS supports multi-user environment that allows users to access and manipulate data in
parallel.
DBMS vs. Flat File

DBMS Flat File Management System
Multi-user access It does not support multi-user access
Design to fulfill the need for small and large businesses It is only limited to smaller DBMS system.
Remove redundancy Redundancy issues
Expensive. But in the long term Total Cost of Ownership

It’s cheaper
is cheap
Easy to implement complicated transactions No support for complicated transactions
Users of DBMS
Following are the various category of users of DBMS
Component Name Task
The Application programmers write programs in various

Application Programmers
programming languages to interact with databases.
Database Admin is responsible for managing the entire DBMS

Database Administrators
system. He/She is called Database admin or DBA.
The end users are the people who interact with the database
End-Users management system. They conduct various operations on
database like retrieving, updating, deleting, etc.
DBMS Three Level Architecture Diagram

This architecture has three levels:
1. External level
2. Conceptual level
3. Internal level
1. External level
It is also called view level. The reason this level is called “view” is because several
users can view their desired data from this level which is internally fetched from
database with the help of conceptual and internal level mapping.
The user doesn’t need to know the database schema details such as data structure,
table definition etc. user is only concerned about data which is what returned back to
the view level after it has been fetched from database (present at the internal level).
External level is the “top level” of the Three Level DBMS Architecture.
2. Conceptual level
It is also called logical level. The whole design of the database such as relationship
among data, schema of data etc. are described in this level.
Database constraints and security are also implemented in this level of architecture.
This level is maintained by DBA (database administrator).
3. Internal level
This level is also known as physical level. This level describes how the data is actually
stored in the storage devices. This level is also responsible for allocating space to the
data. This is the lowest level of the architecture.
Data Abstraction in DBMS

Database sys]]]ems are made-up of complex data structures. To ease the user
interaction with database, the developers hide internal irrelevant details from
users. This process of hiding irrelevant details from user is called data abstraction.
We have three levels of abstraction:

Physical level: This is the lowest level of data abstraction. It describes how data is
actually stored in database. You can get the complex data structure details at this level.
Logical level: This is the middle level of 3-level data abstraction architecture. It
describes what data is stored in database.
View level: Highest level of data abstraction. This level describes the user interaction
with database system.
Entity
An entity can be a real-world object, that can be easily identifiable. For example, in a school
database, students, teachers, classes, and courses offered can be considered as entities. All
these entities have some attributes or properties that give them their identity.
Attributes
Entities are represented by means of their properties, called attributes. All attributes have
values. For example, a student entity may have name, class, and age as attributes.
Types of Attributes
• Simple attribute − Simple attributes are atomic values, which cannot be divided further.
For example, a student's phone number is an atomic value of 10 digits.
• Composite attribute − Composite attributes are made of more than one simple attribute.
For example, a student's complete name may have first_name and last_name.
• Derived attribute − Derived attributes are the attributes that do not exist in the physical
database, but their values are derived from other attributes present in the database. For
example, average_salary in a department should not be saved directly in the database,
instead it can be derived. For another example, age can be derived from data_of_birth.
• Single-value attribute − Single-value attributes contain single value. For example −

Social_Security_Number.
• Multi-value attribute − Multi-value attributes may contain more than one values. For
example, a person can have more than one phone number, email_address, etc.
Relationship
The association among entities is called a relationship. For example, an employee works_at a
department, a student enrolls in a course. Here, Works_at and Enrolls are called relationships.
Relationship Set
A set of relationships of similar type is called a relationship set. Like entities, a relationship too
can have attributes. These attributes are called descriptive attributes.
Degree of Relationship
The number of participating entities in a relationship defines the degree of the relationship.
• Binary = degree 2
• Ternary = degree 3
• n-ary = degree
Mapping Cardinalities
Cardinality defines the number of entities in one entity set, which can be associated with the
number of entities of other set via relationship set.
• One-to-one − One entity from entity set A can be associated with at most one entity of
entity set B and vice versa.
• One-to-many − One entity from entity set A can be associated with more than one entities
of entity set B however an entity from entity set B, can be associated with at most one
entity.
• Many-to-one − More than one entities from entity set A can be associated with at most
one entity of entity set B, however an entity from entity set B can be associated with more
than one entity from entity set A.
• Many-to-many − One entity from A can be associated with more than one entity from B
and vice versa.
Entity
Entities are represented by means of rectangles. Rectangles are named with the entity set they
represent.
Attributes
Attributes are the properties of entities. Attributes are represented by means of ellipses. Every
ellipse represents one attribute and is directly connected to its entity (rectangle).
If the attributes are composite, they are further divided in a tree like structure. Every node is
then connected to its attribute. That is, composite attributes are represented by ellipses that are
connected with an ellipse.
Multivalued attributes are depicted by double ellipse.

Derived attributes are depicted by dashed ellipse.
Relationship
Relationships are represented by diamond-shaped box. Name of the relationship is written
inside the diamond-box. All the entities (rectangles) participating in a relationship, are connected
to it by a line.
Binary Relationship and Cardinality
A relationship where two entities are participating is called a binary relationship. Cardinality is
the number of instance of an entity from a relation that can be associated with the relation.
• One-to-one − When only one instance of an entity is associated with the relationship, it
is marked as '1:1'. The following image reflects that only one instance of each entity
should be associated with the relationship. It depicts one-to-one relationship.
• One-to-many − When more than one instance of an entity is associated with a
relationship, it is marked as '1:N'. The following image reflects that only one instance of
entity on the left and more than one instance of an entity on the right can be associated
with the relationship. It depicts one-to-many relationship.
• Many-to-one − When more than one instance of entity is associated with the relationship,
it is marked as 'N:1'. The following image reflects that more than one instance of an entity
on the left and only one instance of an entity on the right can be associated with the
relationship. It depicts many-to-one relationship.
• Many-to-many − The following image reflects that more than one instance of an entity
on the left and more than one instance of an entity on the right can be associated with the
relationship. It depicts many-to-many relationship.
Participation Constraints
• Total Participation − Each entity is involved in the relationship. Total participation is
represented by double lines.
• Partial participation − Not all entities are involved in the relationship. Partial participation
is represented by single lines.
Why to Learn SQL?
SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer language for storing, manipulating and
retrieving data stored in a relational database.
SQL is the standard language for Relational Database System. All the Relational Database
Management Systems (RDMS) like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, and SQL Server use
SQL as their standard database language.
Also, they are using different dialects, such as −
• MS SQL Server using T-SQL,

• Oracle using PL/SQL,
• MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQLetc.
Applications of SQL
As mentioned before, SQL is one of the most widely used query language over the databases.
I'm going to list few of them here:
• Allows users to access data in the relational database management systems.
• Allows users to describe the data.
• Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate that data.
• Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-compilers.
• Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.
• Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
• Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views.
SQL Process
When you are executing an SQL command for any RDBMS, the system determines the best
way to carry out your request and SQL engine figures out how to interpret the task.
There are various components included in this process.
These components are −
• Query Dispatcher
• Optimization Engines
• Classic Query Engine
• SQL Query Engine, etc.
A classic query engine handles all the non-SQL queries, but a SQL query engine won't handle
logical files.
Following is a simple diagram showing the SQL Architecture −
1. You can check the available databases as shown below
SQL> SHOW DATABASES;
+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| information_schema |
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
| mysql |
| orig |
| test |
+--------------------+
2. The basic syntax of the CREATE TABLE statement

CREATE TABLE table_name(
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);
3. The basic syntax of this DROP TABLE statement
DROP TABLE table_name;
4. There are two basic syntaxes of the INSERT INTO statement which are
shown below.
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (column1, column2, column3,...columnN)

VALUES ( value2, value3,...valueN);
5. The basic syntax of the SELECT statement with the WHERE clause is as
shown below.
SELECT column1, column2, columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]
Ex---
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Ex---
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000;

----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+----------+
6. The basic syntax of the AND operator with a WHERE clause

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition1] AND [condition2]...AND [conditionN];
---+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000 AND age < 25;
+----+-------+----------+
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
7. The basic syntax of the OR operator with a WHERE clause

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition1] OR [condition2]...OR [conditionN]
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000 OR age < 25;
+----+----------+----------+
+----+----------+----------+
| 3 | kaushik | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+----------+
8. The basic syntax of the UPDATE query with a WHERE clause
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2...., columnN = valueN
WHERE [condition];
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS
SET ADDRESS = 'Pune'
WHERE ID = 6;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | Pune | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS
SET ADDRESS = 'Pune', SALARY = 1000.00;
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Pune | 1000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
9. The basic syntax of the ORDER BY clause which would be used to sort the result in
an ascending or descending order is as follows
SELECT column-list
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]
[ORDER BY column1, column2, .. columnN] [ASC | DESC];
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
ORDER BY NAME, SALARY;
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
ORDER BY NAME DESC;
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
10. The basic syntax of the DELETE query with the WHERE clause
DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE [condition];
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ID = 6;
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The SQL UNION clause/operator is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT
statements without returning any duplicate rows.
To use this UNION clause, each SELECT statement must have
• The same number of columns selected

• The same number of column expressions
• The same data type and
• Have them in the same order
Syntax
The basic syntax of a UNION clause is as follows −
SELECT column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]
UNION

[WHERE condition]
Here, the given condition could be any given expression based on your requirement.
Example
Consider the following two tables.
Table 1 − CUSTOMERS Table is as follows.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2 − ORDERS Table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as follows −
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
UNION
SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;
This would produce the following result −
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 1 | Ramesh | NULL | NULL |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | NULL | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | NULL | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | NULL | NULL |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
The UNION ALL Clause

The UNION ALL operator is used to combine the results of two SELECT statements including
duplicate rows.
The same rules that apply to the UNION clause will apply to the UNION ALL operator.
Syntax
The basic syntax of the UNION ALL is as follows.
[WHERE condition]
UNION ALL

[WHERE condition]
Example
Consider the following two tables,
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2 − ORDERS table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
UNION ALL
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
The SQL UNION clause/operator is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT
statements without returning any duplicate rows.
To use this UNION clause, each SELECT statement must have
• The same number of columns selected

• The same number of column expressions
• The same data type and
• Have them in the same order
But they need not have to be in the same length.
Syntax
The basic syntax of a UNION clause is as follows −
[WHERE condition]
UNION

[WHERE condition]
Example
Consider the following two tables.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2 − ORDERS Table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
UNION
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
The UNION ALL Clause

The UNION ALL operator is used to combine the results of two SELECT statements including
duplicate rows.
The same rules that apply to the UNION clause will apply to the UNION ALL operator.
Syntax
The basic syntax of the UNION ALL is as follows.
[WHERE condition]
UNION ALL

[WHERE condition]
Example
Consider the following two tables,
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2 − ORDERS table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
UNION ALL
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
PL/SQL Scalar Data Types and Subtypes
PL/SQL Data Types and Subtypes come under the following categories −
S.No Date Type & Description
1 Numeric
Numeric values on which arithmetic operations are performed.
Character
2
Alphanumeric values that represent single characters or strings of characters.
Boolean
3
Logical values on which logical operations are performed.
Datetime
4
Dates and times.
PL/SQL provides subtypes of data types. For example, the data type NUMBER has a subtype
called INTEGER.
PL/SQL Numeric Data Types and Subtypes
Following table lists out the PL/SQL pre-defined numeric data types and their sub-types −
S.No Data Type & Description
1 PLS_INTEGER
Signed integer in range -2,147,483,648 through 2,147,483,647, represented in 32 bits
BINARY_INTEGER
2
Signed integer in range -2,147,483,648 through 2,147,483,647, represented in 32 bits
NUMBER(prec, scale)
5 Fixed-point or floating-point number with absolute value in range 1E-130 to (but not
including) 1.0E126. A NUMBER variable can also represent 0
DEC(prec, scale)
6
ANSI specific fixed-point type with maximum precision of 38 decimal digits
DECIMAL(prec, scale)
7
IBM specific fixed-point type with maximum precision of 38 decimal digits
NUMERIC(pre, secale)
8
Floating type with maximum precision of 38 decimal digits
DOUBLE PRECISION
9 ANSI specific floating-point type with maximum precision of 126 binary digits
(approximately 38 decimal digits)
FLOAT
10 ANSI and IBM specific floating-point type with maximum precision of 126 binary digits
(approximately 38 decimal digits)
INT
11
ANSI specific integer type with maximum precision of 38 decimal digits
INTEGER
12
ANSI and IBM specific integer type with maximum precision of 38 decimal digits
SMALLINT
13
ANSI and IBM specific integer type with maximum precision of 38 decimal digits
REAL
14 Floating-point type with maximum precision of 63 binary digits (approximately 18 decimal
digits)
For Example
DECLARE
num1 INTEGER;
num2 REAL;
num3 DOUBLE PRECISION;
BEGIN
null;
END;
/
Arithmetic Operators
Following table shows all the arithmetic operators supported by PL/SQL. Let us
assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 5, then −
Show Examples
Operator Description Example
+ Adds two operands A + B will give 15
- Subtracts second operand from the first A - B will give 5
* Multiplies both operands A * B will give 50
/ Divides numerator by de-numerator A / B will give 2
** Exponentiation operator, raises one operand to the power of A ** B will give

other 100000
Relational Operators
Relational operators compare two expressions or values and return a Boolean result. Following
table shows all the relational operators supported by PL/SQL. Let us assume variable A holds
10 and variable B holds 20, then −
Show Examples
Operator Description Example
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes then (A = B) is not
=
condition becomes true. true.
!=
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are (A != B) is
<>
not equal then condition becomes true. true.
~=
Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right (A > B) is not
>
operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.
Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right (A < B) is true.
<
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the (A >= B) is not
>=
value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.
Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value (A <= B) is
<=
of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true
Logical Operators
Following table shows the Logical operators supported by PL/SQL. All these operators work on
Boolean operands and produce Boolean results. Let us assume variable A holds true
and variable B holds false, then −
Show Examples
Operator Description Examples
Called the logical AND operator. If both the operands are true then (A and B) is
and
condition becomes true. false.
Called the logical OR Operator. If any of the two operands is true (A or B) is

or
then condition becomes true. true.
Called the logical NOT Operator. Used to reverse the logical state of not (A and B)
not its operand. If a condition is true then Logical NOT operator will is true.
make it false.
PL/SQL Operator Precedence

Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an expression. This affects how an
expression is evaluated. Certain operators have higher precedence than others; for example,
the multiplication operator has higher precedence than the addition operator.
For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator * has higher
precedence than +, so it first gets multiplied with 3*2 and then adds into 7.
Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table, those with the
lowest appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher precedence operators will be
evaluated first.
The precedence of operators goes as follows: =, <, >, <=, >=, <>, !=, ~=, ^=, IS NULL, LIKE,
BETWEEN, IN.
Show Examples
Operator Operation
** Exponentiation
+, - identity, negation
*, / multiplication, division
+, -, || addition, subtraction, concatenation
Comparison
NOT logical negation
AND Conjunction
OR Inclusion
Following is the general form of a typical conditional (i.e., decision making) structure found in
most of the programming languages −
PL/SQL programming language provides following types of decision-making statements. Click
the following links to check their detail.
S.No Statement & Description
IF - THEN statement
1
The IF statement associates a condition with a sequence of statements enclosed by the
keywords THEN and END IF. If the condition is true, the statements get executed and if
the condition is false or NULL then the IF statement does nothing.
IF-THEN-ELSE statement
IF statement adds the keyword ELSE followed by an alternative sequence of statement.
2
If the condition is false or NULL, then only the alternative sequence of statements get
executed. It ensures that either of the sequence of statements is executed.
IF-THEN-ELSIF statement
3
It allows you to choose between several alternatives.
Case statement
Like the IF statement, the CASE statement selects one sequence of statements to
execute.
4
However, to select the sequence, the CASE statement uses a selector rather than multiple
Boolean expressions. A selector is an expression whose value is used to select one of
several alternatives.
Searched CASE statement

5 The searched CASE statement has no selector, and it's WHEN clauses contain search
conditions that yield Boolean values.
nested IF-THEN-ELSE
6 You can use one IF-THEN or IF-THEN-ELSIF statement inside another IF-THEN or IF-
THEN-ELSIF statement(s).
A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple times and
following is the general form of a loop statement in most of the programming languages −
PL/SQL provides the following types of loop to handle the looping requirements. Click the
following links to check their detail.
S.No Loop Type & Description
PL/SQL Basic LOOP
1 In this loop structure, sequence of statements is enclosed between the LOOP and the
END LOOP statements. At each iteration, the sequence of statements is executed and
then control resumes at the top of the loop.
PL/SQL WHILE LOOP

2 Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is true. It tests the
condition before executing the loop body.
PL/SQL FOR LOOP

3 Execute a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the code that manages
the loop variable.
Nested loops in PL/SQL

4
You can use one or more loop inside any another basic loop, while, or for loop.
Labeling a PL/SQL Loop
PL/SQL loops can be labeled. The label should be enclosed by double angle brackets (<< and
>>) and appear at the beginning of the LOOP statement. The label name can also appear at
the end of the LOOP statement. You may use the label in the EXIT statement to exit from the
loop.
The following program illustrates the concept −
DECLARE
i number(1);
j number(1);
BEGIN
<< outer_loop >>
FOR i IN 1..3 LOOP
<< inner_loop >>
FOR j IN 1..3 LOOP
dbms_output.put_line('i is: '|| i || ' and j is: ' || j);
END loop inner_loop;
END loop outer_loop;
END;
/
When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −
i is: 1 and j is: 1
i is: 1 and j is: 2
i is: 1 and j is: 3
i is: 2 and j is: 1
i is: 2 and j is: 2
i is: 2 and j is: 3
i is: 3 and j is: 1
i is: 3 and j is: 2
i is: 3 and j is: 3
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
The Loop Control Statements

Loop control statements change execution from its normal sequence. When execution leaves
a scope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope are destroyed.
PL/SQL supports the following control statements. Labeling loops also help in taking the control
outside a loop. Click the following links to check their details.
S.No Control Statement & Description
EXIT statement
1
The Exit statement completes the loop and control passes to the statement immediately
after the END LOOP.
2 CONTINUE statement
Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and immediately retest its condition prior
to reiterating.
GOTO statement
3 Transfers control to the labeled statement. Though it is not advised to use the GOTO
statement in your program.
SQL Join statement is used to combine data or rows from two or more tables
based on a common field between them. Different types of Joins are as
follows:
• INNER JOIN
• LEFT JOIN
• RIGHT JOIN
• FULL JOIN
• Student
Student Course
A. INNER JOIN
The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both the tables as long as the
condition is satisfied. This keyword will create the result-set by combining all
rows from both the tables where the condition satisfies
Syntax:
SELECT table1.column1,table1.column2,table2.column1,....
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
Example Queries(INNER JOIN)

SELECT StudentCourse.COURSE_ID, Student.NAME, Student.AGE FROM Student
INNER JOIN StudentCourse
ON Student.ROLL_NO = StudentCourse.ROLL_NO;
Output:
B. LEFT JOIN
This join returns all the rows of the table on the left side of the join and matches
rows for the table on the right side of the join. For the rows for which there is no
matching row on the right side, the result-set will contain null. LEFT JOIN is
also known as LEFT OUTER JOIN.
Syntax:
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
Example Queries(LEFT JOIN):
SELECT Student.NAME,StudentCourse.COURSE_ID
FROM Student
LEFT JOIN StudentCourse
ON StudentCourse.ROLL_NO = Student.ROLL_NO;
Output:
RIGHT JOIN
RIGHT JOIN is similar to LEFT JOIN. This join returns all the rows of the table
on the right side of the join and matching rows for the table on the left side of
the join. For the rows for which there is no matching row on the left side, the
result-set will contain null. RIGHT JOIN is also known as RIGHT OUTER JOIN.
Syntax:
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_co
Example Queries(RIGHT JOIN):
FROM Student
RIGHT JOIN StudentCourse
Output:
FULL JOIN
FULL JOIN creates the result-set by combining results of both LEFT JOIN and
RIGHT JOIN. The result-set will contain all the rows from both tables. For the
rows for which there is no matching, the result-set will contain NULL values.
Syntax:
FROM table1
FULL JOIN table2
Example Queries(FULL JOIN):
FROM Student
FULL JOIN StudentCourse
Output:
NAME COURSE_ID
HARSH 1
PRATIK 2
RIYANKA 2
DEEP 3
SAPTARHI 1
DHANRAJ NULL
ROHIT NULL
NIRAJ NULL
NULL 4
NULL 5
NULL 4
Visual Basic is a third-generation event-driven programming language first released by Microsoft in 1991. The final version was
Visual Basic 6.0 before the released of Visual Basic.NET. Visual Basic is a user-friendly programming language designed for
beginners, and it enables anyone to develop GUI window applications easily
You can also perform arithmetic calculations as shown in Example 2.1.2. VB uses * to denote the multiplication operator and / to
denote the division operator. The output is shown in Figure 2.5, where the results are arranged vertically.
Example 2.1.1
Private Sub Form_Load ( )
Form1.show
Print "Welcome to Visual Basic tutorial"
End Sub
Example 2.1.2
Private Sub Form_Activate ( )
Print 20 + 10
Print 20 - 10
Print 20 * 10
Print 20 / 10
End Sub
Handling some of the common Controls
VB6 toolbox that shows the basic controls.

Toolbox
Example
Private Sub Command1_Click()
'To add the values in TextBox1 and TextBox2
Sum = Val(Text1.Text) +Val(Text2.Text)
'To display the answer on label 1
Label1.Caption = Sum
End Sub
Example for Loading Picture
In this program, insert a command button and a picture box. Enter the following code:
Private Sub cmd_LoadPic_Click()
MyPicture.Picture = LoadPicture("C:\Users\admin.DESKTOP-
G1G4HEK\Documents\My
Websites\vbtutor\vb6\images\uranus.jpg")
End Sub
Operators in Visual Basic

…………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………..
Visual Basic Data Types

1. Numeric Data Types
Numeric data types are types of data that consist of numbers that can be computed mathematically with standard operators.
Table Numeric Data Types

Type Storage Range of Values
Byte 1 byte 0 to 255
Integer 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767
Long 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,648
-3.402823E+38 to -1.401298E-45 for negative values 1.401298E-45 to 3.402823E+38 for
Single 4 bytes
positive values.
-1.79769313486232e+308 to -4.94065645841247E-324 for negative values
Double 8 bytes
4.94065645841247E-324 to 1.79769313486232e+308 for positive values.
Currency 8 bytes -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to 922,337,203,685,477.5807
+/- 79,228,162,514,264,337,593,543,950,335 if no decimal is use +/-
Decimal 12 bytes
7.9228162514264337593543950335 (28 decimal places).
5.1.2 Non-numeric Data Types
Nonnumeric data types are data that cannot be manipulated mathematically. Non-numeric data comprises string data types, date
data types, boolean data types that store only two values (true or false), object data type and Variant data type .They are summarized
in Table
Table: Nonnumeric Data Types
Data Type Storage Range
String(fixed length) Length of string 1 to 65,400 characters
String(variable Length + 10
0 to 2 billion characters
length) bytes
January 1, 100 to December 31,
Date 8 bytes
9999
Boolean 2 bytes True or False
Object 4 bytes Any embedded object
Variant(numeric) 16 bytes Any value as large as Double
Variant(text) Length+22 bytes Same as variable-length string
Variable Names
The following are the rules when naming the variables in Visual Basic
• It must be less than 255 characters

• No spacing is allowed
• It must not begin with a number
• Period is not permitted
• Cannot use exclamation mark (!), or the characters @, &, $, #
• Cannot repeat names within the same level of scope.
Examples of valid and invalid variable names are displayed in Table
Table : Examples of Valid and Invalid Variable Names

Valid Name Invalid Name
My_Car My.Car
ThisYear 1NewBoy
Long_Name_Can_beUSE He&HisFather *& is not acceptable
Arithmetic Operators
Operator Mathematical function Example>
^ Exponential 2^4=16
* Multiplication 4*3=12,
/ Division 12/4=3
Mod Modulus (returns the remainder from an integer division) 15 Mod 4=3
\ Integer Division(discards the decimal places) 19\4=4
+ or & String concatenation "Visual"&"Basic"="Visual Basic"
Conditional Operators
To control the VB program flow, we can use various conditional operators. Basically, they resemble mathematical operators.
Conditional operators are very powerful tools, they let the VB program compare data values and then decide what action to take,
whether to execute a program or terminate the program and more. These operators are shown in Table 7.1.
Table : Conditional Operators

Operator Meaning
= Equal to
> More than
< Less Than
> More than or equal
<= Less than or equal
<> Not Equal to
Logical Operators
In addition to conditional operators, there are a few logical operators that offer added power to the VB programs. They are shown in
Table 7.2.
Table:Logical Operators
Operator Description
And Both sides must be true
Or One side or other must be true
Xor One side or other must be true but not both
Not Negates true
Example calculate the commission based on sales volume attained. Let's say the commission structure is laid out as in Table
Sale Volume($) Commission(%)

<5000 0
5000-9999 5
10000-14999 10
15000-19999 15
20000 and above 20
In this example, we insert a textbox to accept sale volume input and a label to display commission. Insert a command button to
trigger the calculation
The Code
Private Sub cmdCalComm_Click()

Dim salevol, comm As Currency
salevol = Val(TxtSaleVol.Text)
If salevol >= 5000 And salevol < 10000 Then
comm = salevol * 0.05
ElseIf salevol >= 10000 And salevol < 15000 Then
ElseIf salevol >= 15000 And salevol < 20000 Then
ElseIf salevol >= 20000 Then
Else
comm = 0
End If
LblComm.Caption = Format(comm, "$#,##0.00")
End Sub
Select Case
the Select Case control structure. The Select Case control structure is slightly different from the If....ElseIf control structure .The
difference is that the Select Case control structure can handle conditions with multiple outcomes in an easier manner than
the If...Then...ElseIf control structure. The syntax of the Select Case control structure is shown below:
Example
Dim mark As Single

Private Sub Compute_Click()
'Examination Marks
mark = mrk.Text
Select Case mark
Case Is >= 85
comment.Caption = "Excellence"
Case Is >= 70
comment.Caption = "Good"
Case Is >= 60
comment.Caption = "Above Average"
Case Is >= 50
comment.Caption = "Average"
Case Else
comment.Caption = "Need to work harder"
End Select
End Sub
Example
Dim grade As String

Private Sub Compute_Click( )
grade=txtgrade.Text
Select Case grade
Case "A"
result.Caption="High Distinction"
Case "A-"
result.Caption="Distinction"
Case "B"
result.Caption="Credit"
Case "C"
result.Caption="Pass"
Case Else
result.Caption="Fail"
End Select
End Sub
The For....Next Loop
The For....Next Loop event procedure is written as follows:
For counter=startNumber to endNumber (Step increment)
One or more VB statements
Next
Example
Dim counter As Integer
For counter = 1 To 10
List1.AddItem counter
Next
End Sub
Example
Dim counter As Integer

For counter = 1 To 1000 Step 10
counter = counter + 1
Print counter
Next
End Sub
Nested For...Next Loop

For counter1=startNumber to endNumber (Step increment)
For counter2=startNumber to endNumber (Step increment)
One or more VB statements
Next counter2
Next counter1
Example
Private Sub Form_Activate ( )
For firstCounter= 1to 5
Print "Hello"
For secondCounter=1 to 4
Print "Welcome to the VB tutorial"
Next secondCounter
Next firstCounter
Print"Thank you"
The Do Loop
The Do Loop statements have Two different forms, as shown below

a)
Do While condition
Block of one or more VB statements
Loop
b)
Do
Block of one or more VB statements
Loop While condition
Example
Example 9.1
Do while
counter <=1000
num.Text=counter
counter =counter+1
Loop
Example
Do
counter=counter+1
Loop until counter>1000

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File Management System:

Example The database is organized as five files:

• The STUDENT file stores data of each student

• Provides security and removes redundancy

DBMS vs. Flat File

Multi-user access It does not support multi-user access

Remove redundancy Redundancy issues

Expensive. But in the long term Total Cost of Ownership

Easy to implement complicated transactions No support for complicated transactions

Component Name Task

The Application programmers write programs in various

Database Admin is responsible for managing the entire DBMS

DBMS Three Level Architecture Diagram

Data Abstraction in DBMS

We have three levels of abstraction:

• Single-value attribute − Single-value attributes contain single value. For example −

Multivalued attributes are depicted by double ellipse.

• MS SQL Server using T-SQL,

SQL> SHOW DATABASES;

2. The basic syntax of the CREATE TABLE statement

3. The basic syntax of this DROP TABLE statement

DROP TABLE table_name;

INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (column1, column2, column3,...columnN)

SELECT column1, column2, columnN

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |

| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY

WHERE SALARY > 2000;

6. The basic syntax of the AND operator with a WHERE clause

SELECT column1, column2, columnN

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY

WHERE SALARY > 2000 AND age < 25;

7. The basic syntax of the OR operator with a WHERE clause

SELECT column1, column2, columnN

| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |

| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY

WHERE SALARY > 2000 OR age < 25;

8. The basic syntax of the UPDATE query with a WHERE clause

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |

| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |

SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS

SET ADDRESS = 'Pune'

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS

Exponentiation operator, raises one operand to the power of A B will give