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Respiratory System

Respiratory System
• Function
Move air in an out of lungs (ventilation)
Delivers oxygen (O2)
Removes carbon dioxide (CO2)

• External respiration CO2

Occurs in the lungs O2 CO2
Lungs

• Internal respiration O2 CO2

Occurs in the hemoglobin O2

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Respiratory System - Structurally

• Upper respiratory system

Nose, pharynx and associated structures

• Lower respiratory system

Larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs

Respiratory System - Functionally

• Conducting portion -
conducts air to lungs
Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles and terminal bronchioles

• Respiratory portion -
main site of gas exchange
Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts,
alveolar sacs, and alveoli

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Respiratory System
Skeletal muscles and bones are required for
respiratory system function

Ribs

Sternum
Intercostal Muscles

Diaphragm

General Organizational Pattern

Conducting portion:

nasal cavity, frontal sect., monkey, H&E

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General Organizational Pattern

Conducting portion: entrance (nasal vestibule)

nasal cavity, frontal sect., monkey, H&E

General Organizational Pattern

nasal cavity, frontal sect., monkey, H&E

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General Organizational Pattern

Conducting portion: nasal cavity

nasal cavity, frontal sect., monkey, H&E

General Organizational Pattern

The epithelial lining at the entrance (vestibule)
to the nasal cavity: a gradual change from
keratinized stratified squamous epithelium of
the skin in the nasal vestibule to the
pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium
that is characteristic of the nasal mucosa
posterior to the vestibule

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General Organizational Pattern

Conducting portion:
1. MUCOSA - Luminal sheet epithelium
(typically “respiratory epithelium”)
Lamina propria (loose fibroelastic connective
tissue- FECT)

General Organizational Pattern

2. SUBMUCOSA (mod. dense FECT)
(not always present or merged
with lamina propria, serous or mixed glands may
be present in the lamina propria or submucosa)

3. “MUSCULARIS” EXTERNA (may be smooth

muscle, cartilage, or bone)

4. ADVENTITIA or SEROSA (absent in nasal

cavity)

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Cell types found in Respiratory Epithelium

Predominant cell types:
1. Ciliated columnar cells – move mucus
2. Goblet cells – secrete mucus
3. Basal cells – replace damaged cells

Less common cell types:

4. Brush cells – sensory receptor cells
5. Dense core granule cells (Small granule
cells) – enteroendocrine cells
6. Clara cells (trachea and bronchi) – protein
secreting cells, secrete surfactant

Predominant cell types found in

“Respiratory Epithelium”

Basal cell

Ciliated columnar cell Goblet cell (Mucous cell)

Source: Lentz. 1971. Cell Fine Structure

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Predominant cell types found in

“Respiratory Epithelium”

Basal cell
Cilia move mucus up to the throat, where it is
swallowed. Smoking destroys cilia.

Ciliated columnar cell Goblet cell (Mucous cell)

Source: Lentz. 1971. Cell Fine Structure

“Respiratory Epithelium”

Ciliated cells

Goblet cell/
Mucous cell Brush
cells

Basal cell Small granule cell

Source: Weiss. 1983. Histology.

Cell and Tissue Biology. 5th Edition

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“Respiratory Epithelium”

“Respiratory Epithelium”

Diagram of a Clara cell between bronchiolar ciliated epithelial cells

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“Respiratory Epithelium”
Surfactants:
• Fatty substance
• Compounds that lower the surface tension of
a liquid, the interfacial tension between two
liquids, or that between a liquid and a solid
• May act as detergents, wetting agents,
emulsifiers, foaming agents, and dispersants
• Helps maintains the inflation of the alveoli
between inspirations

“Respiratory Epithelium”

muco-serous
secretory glands

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“Respiratory Epithelium”

Epithelia of Regions within Nasal Cavities

• VESTIBULE or NOSTRIL
Stratified squamous sheet epithelium

• RESPIRATORY SEGMENT
”Respiratory epithelium”

• OLFACTORY SEGMENT
Olfactory epithelium

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Nasal Cavities/Nasal Passageways

Nasal Cavities/Nasal Passageways

“respiratory epithelium”
Olfactory mucosa

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Cell types found in Olfactory Epithelium

• Sustentacular or
supporting cells
• Olfactory cells
• Basal cells
• Brush cells

Mucosa of the Olfactory Segment

3 4

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Mucosa of the Olfactory Segment

1- Olfactory epithelium
2- Duct
3- Olfactory glands
4- Olfactory nerves
1

3 4

Mucosa of the Olfactory Segment

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Mucosa of the Olfactory Segment

ive cells
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Sup lls
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Bas
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ves us)
l ner sero
hera s (
Perip and
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Olfa

Mucosa of the Olfactory Segment

• Thickened epithelium which LACKS goblet cells
• Numerous nerve fibers à branches of the olfactotry nerve
• Specialized olfactory glands (Bowman’s glands) à the
secretions are “serous” (mostly water and some protein)
rather than mucous
• The watery secretions à dissolve odorant molecules to
facilitate their detection and then quickly wash the odorants
away so that new scents can be detected

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Pharynx

Respiratory
epithelium

Stratified squamous
sheet epithelium

Modified from: Figure 18.1 in Ross et al. 2003.

Histology. A Text and Atlas. 4th Edition

Respiratory System
• NASAL CAVITIES/
NASAL PASSAGEWAYS
• PHARYNX -
nasopharynx, oropharynx
• LARYNX
• TRACHEA
• EXTRAPULMONARY
BRONCHI
• LUNGS

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Larynx and Trachea

Surface View Mid-longitudinal Section

Source: Leeson & Leeson. 1981.

Histology. 4th Edition.

EPIGLOTTIS of LARYNX
Stratified squamous
epithelium

Elastic Cartilage

Stratified squamous
or pseudostratified
columnar epithelium

Source: Hammersen. 1980. Histology. A Color Atlas of

Cytology, Histology and Microscopic Anatomy. 2nd
Edition

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Larynx

Respiratory System
• NASAL CAVITIES/
NASAL PASSAGEWAYS
• PHARYNX -
nasopharynx, oropharynx
• LARYNX
• TRACHEA
• EXTRAPULMONARY
BRONCHI
• LUNGS

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Trachea

Trachea

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Trachea

Trachea
1. Mucosa
“Respiratory” epithelium (+/- Clara cells)
Lamina propria of loose FECT

2. Submucosa
Loose to moderately dense FECT,
denser than lamina propria,
may contain compound tubuloacinar glands
(seromucous glands)

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Trachea
3. Muscularis externa
Hyaline cartilages (horseshoe-shaped “rings”)
Smooth muscle across open ends of cartilages
Moderately dense FECT connects adjacent rings

4. Adventitia
Loose FECT

Trachea

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Trachea

Trachea

ells et ce
ll
ted c Gobl
Cilia

l cell
Basa

Basement membrane

Small granule cell

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Respiratory System
• NASAL CAVITIES/
NASAL PASSAGEWAYS
• PHARYNX -
nasopharynx, oropharynx
• LARYNX
• TRACHEA
• EXTRAPULMONARY
BRONCHI
• LUNGS

Bronchus
The trachea bifurcates into two primary
bronchi, which enter the lung and then branch
several times to give rise to smaller secondary
and tertiary bronchi

Bronchi differ from the trachea in having plates

rather than rings of cartilage, and in having a
layer of smooth muscle between the lamina
propria and submucosa

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Bronchus

Bronchus
1. Mucosa
“Respiratory” epithelium (+/- Clara cells)
Lamina propria of loose FECT

2. Submucosa
Loose to moderately dense FECT,
denser than lamina propria,
may contain compound tubuloacinar glands

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Bronchus
3. Muscularis externa
Hyaline cartilages (horseshoe-shaped “rings”)
Smooth muscle across open ends of cartilages
Moderately dense FECT connects adjacent rings

4. Adventitia
Loose FECT

Bronchus

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Respiratory System

Organization of Lung

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Organization of Lung

Intrapulmonary Bronchi

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Intrapulmonary Bronchi

Intrapulmonary Bronchi

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Intrapulmonary Bronchi
1. Mucosa
Respiratory epithelium (+/- Clara cells)
Lamina propria of loose FECT

2. Muscularis
Spiral bundles of smooth muscle

3. Submucosa
Loose to occasionally moderately dense FECT,
may contain compound tubuloacinar glands

Intrapulmonary Bronchi
4. Muscularis externa
Hyaline cartilages (horseshoe-shaped “rings”)
Smooth muscle across open ends of cartilages
Moderately dense FECT connects adjacent rings

5. Adventitia
Loose FECT

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Intrapulmonary Bronchi
In smaller branches, the amount of cartilage
decreases, whereas the amount of smooth
muscle increases

Also, the number of glands and goblet cells

decreases

Organization of Lung

alveoli
Source: Freeman & Bracegirdle. 1976.
An Advanced Atlas of Histology

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Bronchioles

Bronchioles

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Bronchioles
1. MUCOSA
Luminal sheet epithelium à ranges from
pseudostratified ciliated columnar in large
bronchioles to simple cuboidal with mixed
ciliated cells (very few or absent) and Clara cells
in terminal bronchioles, and NO goblet cells
Lamina propria = loose FECT

Bronchioles

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Bronchioles
2. MUSCULARIS
Circularly arranged bundles of smooth muscle

3. Absence of cartilage and glands

Bronchioles

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Terminal Bronchioles

Respiratory Bronchioles

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Respiratory Bronchioles
Progressive reduction in height of the
epithelium and in the amount of smooth
muscle between the openings of adjacent
alveoli

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Alveoli are where

the action is (at
least in terms of
gas exchange)

Histological Features

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Lung

Peer Group Learning: Our Clinical Case…

e-Histology

A 50-year-old woman with leukemia

undergoes chemotherapy. During
treatment, she develops increasing
cough and shortness of breath.
Sputum cultures are negative, and the
patient does not respond to antibiotic
therapy. If this patient has acquired a
viral pneumonia, with alveolar
damage…

Could you describe the gross presentation of

the affected lung?

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Peer Group Learning: Our Clinical Case…

e-Histology
Questions for you:

1- What feature of the cells lining the respiratory passageways

enables them to move impurities away from the lungs?

2- In what structures does gas exchange occur in the lung?

3- What is the name of the membrane that encloses the lung?

https://www.virtualpathology.leeds.ac.uk/slides/library/view.php?path=%2FResearch_4%2FSlide_Library%2FGe
neral_Teaching_Collection%2F101057.svs

Lung

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Lung

Lung

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Alveoli or Air Spaces

Lung
Video

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Alveoli or Air Spaces

Cell types found in Alveolar Epithelium

• Type I Pneumocytes [gas exchange]

• Type II Pneumocytes [secrete surfactant (mix

of proteins and lipids)]

• Brush Cells [sensory receptors]

• Pulmonary Macrophages [phagocytosis]

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Cell types found in Alveolar Epithelium

Cell types found in Alveolar Epithelium

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Type I Pneumocytes

Source: http://www.kumc.edu/emrl/images/Lung

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Type I Pneumocytes
• Simple squamous alveolar cells (simple
squamous epithelial cells)

• Responsible for gas exchange in the alveoli

• Cover a majority of the alveolar surface area

(>97%)

• Unable to replicate and susceptible to toxic

insults (Type II cells can proliferate and/or
differentiate)

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Type II pneumocytes

attached via junctional

complexes (JC) with
the adjacent, very thin
lamellar bodies type I epithelial cell

Golgi apparatus

Type II pneumocytes

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Type II pneumocytes
• Great alveolar cells or septal cells

• Large, rounded nuclei and vacuolated

cytoplasm

• Typically found at the alveolar-septal junction

• Production and secretion of surfactant

(reduce the alveolar surface tension) à stored
in lamellar bodies (specialized vesicles)

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Macrophages
Alveolar phagocytes or dust cells

Brownish-black hemosiderin pigment resulting

from the breakdown of erythrocytes leaking
from the engorged capillaries

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Cell types found in Alveolar Epithelium

Source: http://www.vetmed.vt.edu/education

Alveoli (A)
TEM of a transversely
sectioned capillary (C)
in an interalveolar
septum

The endothelium (E) is

extremely thin but not
fenestrated and its
basal lamina fuses with
that of the alveolar
cells

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Peer Group Learning: Our Clinical Case…

e-Histology
Questions for you:

1- What substance produced by lung cells aids in compliance?

2- What property of a gas determines its direction of diffusion across a membrane, and in what units is this
property expressed?
3- What substance in red blood cells holds almost all of the oxygen carried in the blood?
4- What is the main form in which carbon dioxide is carried in the blood?

https://www.virtualpathology.leeds.ac.uk/slides/library/view.php?path=%2FResearch_4%2FSlide_Library%2FGe
neral_Teaching_Collection%2F101057.svs

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Steps in Gas Exchange (in general):

1) Ventilatory pump brings external medium in
contact with respiratory surface (epithelium)

2) Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across the

respiratory surface

3) Transport of gas in blood (haemolymph) to

tissues…requires pump (heart)

4) Diffusion of gases across the capillary walls,

through the cells and to the mitochondria

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Lung
Video

Integrating
Respiratory System

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Peer Group Learning: Our Clinical Case…

e-Histology
A 78-year-old man has had increasing dyspnea without cough or increased sputum production
for the past 4 months.
On physical examination, he is afebrile. Breath sounds are reduced in all lung fields. A chest CT
scan shows a dense, brightly attenuated pleural mass encasing most of the left lung.

Questions for you:

Imaging-histological correlation –
the mass is likely to be formed by…

RadioGraphics 2002; 22:S167–S184

Peer Group Learning: Surgical Resection…

e-Histology

Macroscopic Appearance: “honeycomb” lung – what does that mean?

RadioGraphics 2002; 22:S167–S184

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Peer Group Learning: e-Histology

Questions for you:
Identify Normal Lung Tissue…
1- What feature of the cells lining the respiratory passageways enables
them to move impurities away from the lungs?
2- In what structures does gas exchange occur in the lung?
3- What is the name of the membrane that encloses the lung?

https://www.virtualpathology.leeds.ac.uk/slides/library/view.php?path=%2F
Research_4%2FSlide_Library%2FGeneral_Teaching_Collection%2F101057.svs

Peer Group Learning: e-Histology

Questions for you:
Identify Pathological Lung Tissue…
1- Can you find classic asbestos body with a segmental dumbbell-shaped configuration?

https://www.virtualpathology.leeds.ac.uk/slides/library/view.php?pat
h=%2FResearch_4%2FSlide_Library%2FGeneral_Teaching_Collection%
2F101057.svs

This patient most likely has?

How does asbestos cause mesothelioma?

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Adapted from: Histology and Cell Biology: An

Introduction to Pathology, 5th Edition

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