GEC 108 ( ETHICS )

INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS
 Ethics is deduced from the Greek word ethos, meaning “customs” or “behaviors.”
 Behavior is more attributed to human behavior and is therefore inherent to human beings.
 The term ethos has an equivalent meaning in Latin word moris which means “morals”
 Ethics is not to be understood as a specific to the nation but rather as inherent human characteristics.
DEFINITION OF ETHICS
 Ethics is a mental set, disposition or values.
 Ethics is defined as:
-as a science, it deals with the morality (rightness or wrongness) of the human act.
-as a discipline, it is meant for the exercise of a human conduct, both ethical and unethical.
-as a philosophical study, it guides the intellect in discerning concrete human conduct.
IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS
 Ethics is important to every society as it plays a critical role in shaping the individuals behaviors
within a society.
 Act as a self-governing system to keep human self-interest and the good of society at equilibrium
because the eyes of the law are not always available.
 Society might fall into chaos if we accept that each of us could pick and choose what the right to do
is.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN ETHICS
The Human Act
- Human act is a conscious and free exercise of one’s faculties, therefore conscious and free.
- Act of man is an act beyond the control of one’s will.
- Morality or ethics is more concerned with the human acts rather than acts of man.
Constituents of Human Act:

-Knowledge -resides in the intellect and is the mindfulness of what the moral agent is doing.
-Freedom – quality of the freewill by which one is able to choose between one or more alternatives.
-Voluntariness – quality of the human act whereby any commission or omission of an act is a result of
the knowledge which an agent has on its end.

Sources/Determinants of Morality
The Object of the Act
-the very substance of the act
“What was performed by the agent?”
Motive of the Agent
-Purpose by which a human agent does the action.
“What specifically does the agent want?”
THE CIRCUMSTANCES
What – the intended object of the act.
Why – personal intention of the agent.
By what means – tools or procedures used
How – modes of doing the act
When – the time the act was performed.
Where – the spatial setting where the act is done.
Who – the person who does/receive.

STANDARDS/NORM OF MORALITY
Natural Law and Conscience
“an ordinance or reason promulgated by a duly constituted authority for the common good of the society.
Law is necessary to regulate acts of the free will.

Kinds of Law
-Natural Law/Divine Law/Human Positive Law

Natural Law
-a system of law that is purportedly determined by nature, and thus universal.
-the pattern of behavior of animals, plants, or minerals follow such actions or movements in accordance with
the will of the Divine Mind.
-“Our universe is composed of an infinite variety of beautiful arranged things. Indeed nature shows a
constant order which is the result of a universal plan and of immutable laws.” (Panizo, 1964)
Conscience
- The practical judgment that determines that an act is good, therefore to be done, and evil therefore to
be avoided.
- Considered as subjective because it is borne out of the mental process of man.
- Man has to follow his conscience.
 Follow the law
 Follow one’s cultural beliefs.
 Follow one’s feelings.
 Follow one’s religious beliefs.
 STAGES OF MORAL DEVLEOPMENT
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Pre-conventional stage
-usually common among children
Judge morality of action based on direct consequences
Stage 1 (Obedience vs. punishment)
An action is perceived as wrong because the perpetrator is punished.
Egocentric
Stage 2 (self-interest driven)
What’s in store for me
Conventional Stage
-usually common among adolescents
-judge morality of action based on societal views and expectations.
Stage 3 (good intentions as determined by social consensus)
Live to expectations by being good boy/girl
Stage 4 (authority and social order)
Important to obey rules to uphold social order.
Post conventional stage
-known as principle level; marked by a growing realization of individual perspective may differ from
society.
-live principles universally, especially human rights.
Stage 5 (social contract driven)
World has differing opinions, rights and values
Stage 6 (universal ethical principles driven)
Based on abstract reasoning
Involves an individual imagining what they would do in another’s shoes, if they believed what other
person imagines to be true.
ETHICS
Ethics, generally speaking, is about matter such as the good thing that we should pursue and the bad
thing that we should avoid; the right ways in which we could or should act and the wrong ways of acting. It
is about what is acceptable and unacceptable in human behavior. It may involve obligations that we are
expected to fulfill, prohibitions that we are required to respect, or ideals that we are encouraged to meet.
Ethics as a subject for us to study is about determining the grounds for the values with particular and special
significance to human life.
TERMINOLOGIES
Aesthetics – derived from the Greek word aesthesis (“sense or feeling”) and refers to judgement of
personal approval or disapproval that we make about what we see, hear, smell and feel. We often used the
word “taste” to refer to the personal aesthetic preferences that we have on these matters, such as “his taste in
music” or “her taste in clothes.”
Etiquette – concerned with right or wrong actions, but those which might considered not quite grave
enough to belong to the discussion of ethics.
Technique – from the Greek word techne, which are often used to refer to a proper way (or right
way) of doing things, but a technical valuation (or right or wrong technique of doing things).
Morals – used to refer to specific beliefs or attitudes that people have or to describe acts that people
perform.

DESCRIPTIVE AND NORMATIVE DESCRIPTION

Descriptive – reports how people, particularly groups, make their moral valuations without making any
judgement either or against these valuations.
E.g. Filial Piety and obedience are pervasive characteristics of Chinese culture.
Normative – is often done in philosophy or moral theology, it prescribes what we ought to maintain as our
standards or bases for moral valuation.
E.g. Confucian ethics enjoins us to obey our parents and to show filial piety.
CLARIFICATIONS OF TERMS
Moral Issue – used to refer to those particular situations that are often the source of considerable and
inclusive debates.
Moral Decision – when one is placed in a situation and confronted by the choice of what act to perform.
Moral Judgement – making an assessment on the actions or behavior of someone.
Moral dilemma – more complicated situation wherein one is torn between choosing one of two goods or
choosing between the lesser of two evils.