DON MARIANO MARCOS MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

MID LA UNION CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
QUEZON AVENUE, SAN FERNANDO CITY, LA UNION

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME146-REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

MODULE 1
LESSONS:
 LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
 LESSON 2: IDEAL SIMPLE VAPOR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
 LESSON 3: SUB-COOLING AND SUPERHEATING

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

GENERAL DIRECTIONS AND POLICIES

1. There are three lessons in this module. Read each lesson carefully then answer
the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from it. Work
on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your instructor.
2. Carefully follow and read all the INSTRUCTIONS within this module.
3. Finish the lesson as if you are inside the classroom listening to your instructor.
4. In case you are required to answer in a neat bond paper, upload your answers
in a form of a file (picture) and submit your output in the google classroom.
5. In case you have questions and concerns with this lesson, feel free to reach me
at my email (arizacostagalvez@gmail.com) or raise it during our virtual
meetings/face-to-face meetings.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completing this learning module, you will be able to:

1. Explain the concepts of refrigeration and its application.
2. Understand the concept of Carnot Refrigeration System
3. Solve problems related to Carnot Refrigeration System.
 LESSON PROPER

INTRODUCTION
The development of refrigeration and air conditioning industry depended to a large
extent on the development of refrigerants to suit various applications and the development
of various system components. At present the industry is dominated by the vapour
compression refrigeration systems, even though the vapour absorption systems have also
been developed commercially. The success of vapour compression refrigeration systems
owes a lot to the development of suitable refrigerants and compressors. The theoretical
thermodynamic efficiency of a vapour compression system depends mainly on the operating
temperatures. However, important practical issues such as the system design, size, initial
and operating costs, safety, reliability, and serviceability etc. depend very much on the
type of refrigerant and compressor selected for a given application. This lesson presents a
brief history of refrigerants and compressors. The emphasis here is mainly on vapour
compression refrigeration systems, as these are the most commonly used systems, and also
refrigerants and compressors play a critical role here. The other popular type of
refrigeration system, namely the vapour absorption type has seen fewer changes in terms
of refrigerant development, and relatively less number of problems exist in these systems
as far as the refrigerants are concerned.

REFRIGERATION AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Refrigeration is defined as the process of extracting heat from a lower-temperature
heat source, substance, or cooling medium and transferring it to a higher-temperature heat
sink. Refrigeration maintains the temperature of the heat source below that of its
surroundings while transferring the extracted heat, and any required energy input, to a heat
sink, atmospheric air, or surface water.

A refrigeration system is a combination of components and equipment connected in

a sequential order to produce the refrigeration effect. The refrigeration systems commonly
used for air conditioning can be classified by the type of input energy and the refrigeration
process as follows:

1. Vapor compression systems. In vapor compression systems, compressors activate the

refrigerant by compressing it to a higher pressure and higher temperature level after
it has produced its refrigeration effect. The compressed refrigerant transfers its heat
to the sink and is condensed to liquid form. This liquid refrigerant is then throttled
to a low-pressure, low temperature vapor to produce refrigerating effect during
evaporation. Vapor compression systems are the most widely adopted refrigeration
systems in both comfort and process air conditioning.
2. Absorption systems. In an absorption system, the refrigeration effect is produced by
thermal energy input. After absorbing heat from the cooling medium during
evaporation, the vapor refrigerant is absorbed by an absorbent medium. This solution
is then heated by direct-fired furnace, waste heat, hot water, or steam. The
refrigerant is again vaporized and then condensed to liquid to begin the refrigeration
cycle again.
3. Air or gas expansion systems. In an air or gas expansion system, air or gas is
compressed to a high pressure by mechanical energy. It is then cooled and expanded

2
 to a low pressure. Because the temperature of air or gas drops during expansion, a
refrigeration effect is produced.

APPLICATION OF REFRIGERATION
1. Food Production and Handling - Processing, Preservation and
Transportation/Distribution:
Ex: Dairy products, meat, poultry, fish, beverages, ice making, etc.
2. Chemical and Industrial Processes:
Ex. Gas separation, condensation process, fermentation
3. Air- conditioning: Residential, commercial and industrial spaces.
Ex: Laboratories, printing, textiles, shopping malls, offices, etc.
4. Special Applications:
Ex. Cold treatment of metals, medical/pharmaceutical, ice- skating rinks, desalting
of seawater.

REFRIGERANTS, COOLING MEDIA, AND LIQUID ABSORBENTS

Refrigerants. A refrigerant is the primary working fluid used for absorbing and transmitting
heat in a refrigeration system. Refrigerants absorb heat at a low temperature and low
pressure and release heat at a higher temperature and pressure. Most refrigerants undergo
phase changes during heat absorption—evaporation—and heat releasing—condensation.

Cooling Media. A cooling medium is the working fluid cooled by the refrigerant to transport
the cooling effect between a central plant and remote cooling units and terminals. In a
large, centralized system, it is often more economical to use a coolant medium that can be
pumped to remote locations where cooling is required. Chilled water, brine, and glycol are
used as cooling media in many refrigeration systems. The cooling medium is often called a
secondary refrigerant, because it obviates extensive circulation of the primary refrigerant.

Liquid Absorbents. A solution known as liquid absorbent is often used to absorb the
vaporized refrigerant (water vapor) after its evaporation in an absorption refrigeration
system. This solution, containing the absorbed vapor, is then heated at high pressure. The
refrigerant vaporizes, and the solution is restored to its original concentration for reuse.
Lithium bromide and ammonia, both in a water solution, are the liquid absorbents used most
often in absorption refrigerating systems.

EFFECTIVENESS OF REFRIGERATION CYCLE

The effectiveness of refrigeration cycles, or coefficient of performance (COP), is one
parameter that affects the efficiency and energy consumption of the refrigeration system.
It will be clearly defined in a later section. The COP of a refrigeration cycle using a specific
refrigerant depends mainly upon the isentropic work input to the compressor at a given
condensing and evaporating pressure differential, as well as the refrigeration effect
produced.

EVAPORATING AND CONDENSING PRESSURES

It is best to use a refrigerant whose evaporating pressure is higher than that of the
atmosphere so that air and other noncondensable gases will not leak into the system and
increase the condensing pressure. The condensing pressure should be low because high
condensing pressure necessitates heavier construction of the compressor, piping,
condenser, and other components. In addition, a high-speed centrifugal compressor may
be required to produce a high condensing pressure.

REFRIGERATION PROCESSES
A refrigeration process indicates the change of thermodynamic properties of the
refrigerant and the energy transfer between the refrigerant and the surroundings. The
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following refrigeration processes occur during the operation of a vapor compression
refrigerating system:
 Evaporation. In this process, the refrigerant evaporates at a lower temperature than
that of its surroundings, absorbing its latent heat of vaporization.
 Superheating. Saturated refrigerant vapor is usually superheated to ensure that
liquid refrigerant does not flow into the compressor.
 Compression. Refrigerant is compressed to a higher pressure and temperature for
condensation.
 Condensation. Gaseous refrigerant is condensed to liquid form by being
desuperheated, then condensed, and finally subcooled, transferring its latent heat
of condensation to a coolant.
 Throttling and expansion. The higher-pressure liquid refrigerant is throttled to the
lower evaporating pressure and is ready for evaporation.

The following refrigeration processes occur during the operation of an air or gas expansion
refrigeration system:
 Compression. Air or gas is compressed to a higher pressure and temperature.
 Heat release. Heat is released to the surroundings at constant pressure in order to
reduce the temperature of the air or gas.
 Throttling and expansion. Air or gas is throttled and expanded so that its temperature
is lowered.
 Heat absorption. Heat is absorbed from the surroundings because of the lower air or
gas temperature.

UNIT OF REFRIGERATION
In inch-pound (I-P) units, refrigeration is expressed in British thermal units per hour,
or simply Btu/h. A British thermal unit is defined as the amount of heat energy required to
raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit from 59°F to 60°F; and
1 Btu/h=0.293 watt (W). Another unit of refrigeration widely used in the HVAC&R industry
is ton of refrigeration, or simply ton. As mentioned before, 1 ton=12,000 Btu/h of heat
removed. This equals the heat absorbed by 1 ton (2000 lb) of ice melting at a temperature
of 32°F over 24 h. Because the heat of fusion of ice at 32°F is 144 Btu/lb,

1 ∗ 2000 ∗ 144 𝑩𝒕𝒖

1 𝑡𝑜𝑛 = = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟏𝟔 𝒌𝑾
24 𝒉𝒓

Note: 1 ton of refrigeration (TOR)=3.516 kW

=200 Btu/min
=211 kJ/min
=4 Frigories

GRAPHICAL EVALUATION OF REFRIGERATION

Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram
The pressure-enthalpy p-h diagram is the most common graphical tool for analysis
and calculation of the heat and work transfer and performance of a refrigeration cycle. A
single-stage refrigeration cycle consists of two regions: the high-pressure region, or high
side, and the low-pressure region, or low side. The change in pressure can be clearly
illustrated on the p-h diagram. Also, both heat and work transfer of various processes can
be calculated as the change of enthalpy and are easily shown on the p-h diagram.
Figure 1 is a skeleton p-h diagram for refrigerant HCFC-22. Enthalpy h (in Btu/ lb) is
the abscissa, and absolute pressure (psia) or gauge pressure (psig), both expressed in
logarithmic scale, is the ordinate. The saturated liquid line separates the subcooled liquid

4
from the two-phase region in which vapor and liquid refrigerants coexist. The saturated
vapor line separates this two-phase region from the superheated vapor. In the two-phase
region, the mixture of vapor and liquid is subdivided by the constant-dryness-fraction quality
line.
The constant-temperature lines are nearly vertical in the subcooled liquid region. At
higher temperatures, they are curves near the saturated liquid line. In the two-phase region,
the constant-temperature lines are horizontal. In the superheated region, the constant-
temperature lines curve down sharply. Because the constant-temperature lines and
constant-pressure lines in the two-phase region are horizontal, they are closely related. The
specific pressure of a refrigerant in the two-phase region determines its temperature, and
vice versa.
Also in the superheated region, the constant-entropy lines incline sharply upward,
and constant volume lines are flatter. Both are slightly curved.

FIGURE 1. SKELETON FOR PRESSURE-ENTHALPY P-h DIAGRAM FOR HCFC-22

CARNOT REGRIGERATION CYCLE

The Carnot refrigeration cycle is a reverse engine cycle. All processes in a Carnot
refrigeration cycle are reversible, so it is the most efficient refrigeration cycle.
Figure 2a is a schematic diagram of a Carnot cycle refrigerating system, and Fig. 2b
shows the Carnot refrigeration cycle using gas as the working substance. This Carnot cycle
is composed of four reversible processes:
1. An isothermal process 4-1 in which heat q#1 is extracted at constant temperature
TR1 per lb (kg) of working substance
2. An isentropic compression process 1-2
3. An isothermal process 2-3 in which q#2 is rejected at constant temperature TR2 per
lb (kg) of working substance
4. An isentropic expansion process 3-4
Figure 2c shows the Carnot refrigeration cycle using vapor as the working substance.
Wet vapor is the only working substance where heat supply and heat rejection processes
can occur easily at constant temperature. This is because the temperatures of wet vapor
remain constant when latent heat is supplied or rejected.

5
 As in the gas cycle, there are two isothermal processes 4-1 and 2-3 absorbing heat
at temperature TR1 and rejecting heat at TR2, respectively, and two isentropic processes,
one for compression 1-2 and another for expansion 3-4.

FIGURE 2. CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE: (a) SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM (b) GAS CYCLE
(c) VAPOR CYCLE

PERFORMANCE OF CARNOT REFIRGERATION CYCLE

According to the first law of thermodynamics, often called the law of conservation of
energy, when a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, the net heat supplied to the
system is equal to the net work done, or
Heat supply +heat rejected =net work done
Referring to Fig. 2a, in a Carnot refrigeration cycle,
q#1-q#2 =-W
so, q#2=q#1 +W

where: q#1:heat supplied from surroundings per lb (kg) of working substance at temperature
T1; sign of q#1 is positive
q#2:heat rejected to sink per lb (kg) of working substance at temperature T2; sign
of q#2 is negative
W:net work done by system; sign is positive, or if it is a work input to system, sign is
negative

The heat extracted from the source at temperature TR1 by the working substance,
i.e., the refrigerating effect per lb (kg) of working substance, is
q#1=TR1(s1-s4)
where: s1, s4: entropy at state points 1 and 4, respectively, Btu/lb-°R (kJ/kg-K). Heat
rejected to the heat sink at temperature TR2 can be calculated as
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 q#2 =-TR2(s3-s2)=TR2(s2-s3)

where s2, s3:entropy at state points 2 and 3, respectively, Btu / lb-°R (kJ/kg-K). Because
in the isentropic process 1-2, s1=s2, and in isentropic process 3-4, s3=s4,

q#2=TR2(s1-s4)

COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE OF REFRIGERATION CYCLE

The coefficient of performance is an index of performance of a thermodynamic cycle
or a thermal system. Because the COP can be greater than 1, COP is used instead of thermal
efficiency. The coefficient of performance can be used for the analysis of the following:
 A refrigerator that is used to produce a refrigeration effect only, that is, COPref
 A heat pump in which the heating effect is produced by rejected heat COPhp
 A heat recovery system in which both the refrigeration effect and the heating effect
are used at the same time, COPhr

For a refrigerator, COP is defined as the ratio of the refrigeration effect q#1 to the work
input Win, both in Btu/ lb (kJ / kg), that is,

𝒒#𝟏
COPref = Refrigeration effect/Work input =
𝑾𝒊𝒏

For the Carnot refrigeration cycle,

𝒒#𝟏
𝑪𝑶𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒇 =
𝒒#𝟐 − 𝒒#𝟏
𝑻𝑹𝟏 (𝒔𝟏 − 𝒔𝟒 ) 𝑻𝑹𝟏
𝑪𝑶𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒇 = =
(𝑻𝑹𝟐 − 𝑻𝑹𝟏 )(𝒔𝟏 − 𝒔𝟒 ) (𝑻𝑹𝟐 − 𝑻𝑹𝟏 )

With a heat pump, the useful effect is the heating effect because of the rejected heat q#2,
so COPhp is the ratio of heat rejection to the work input, or

𝒒#𝟐
𝑪𝑶𝑷𝒉𝒑 =
𝑾𝒊𝒏
For a heat recovery system, the useful effect is q#1 and q#2. In such a condition, COPhr is
defined as the ratio of the sum of the absolute values of refrigerating effect and heat
rejection to the absolute value of the work input, i.e.,

/𝒒#𝟏 /+/𝒒#𝟐 /
𝑪𝑶𝑷𝒉𝒓 =
𝑾𝒊𝒏

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A refrigerating system operates on the reversed Carnot cycle. The higher

temperature of the refrigerant in the system is 120°F and the lower is 10⁰F. The
capacity is 20 tons. Neglect losses. Determine: (a) Coefficient of performance.

7
 (b) Heat rejected from the system in Btu/min. (c) Net work in Btu/min. (d)
Horsepower.

SOLUTION:

TR1 470
A. COPref = (T = (580−470) = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟕𝟑
R2 −TR1 )
B. Q#2=TR2(s1-s4)
Solving for (s1-s4), or ∆s,
Q1=20 TOR=TR1(s1-s4)
(s1-s4)=[20 TOR (200 Btu/min/TOR)]/470 R=8.511 Btu/min-R
So, Q#2=TR2(s1-s4)=580 R (8.511 Btu/min-R)=4936 Btu/min
C. W=(TR2-TR1)(∆s)=(580-470)R(8.511Btu/min-R)=936 Btu/min
D. W=936 Btu/min (1 Hp/42.4 Btu/min)=22.08 Hp

2. A refrigeration system operates on the reversed Carnot cycle. The minimum and
maximum temperatures are minus 25°C and plus 72°C. respectively. If the heat
rejected at the condenser is 6000 k.J/min, draw the TS diagram and find, (a)
power input required and (b) tons of refrigeration developed. (Board Problem –
April 13, 1981)

8
3. The power requirement of a Carnot refrigerator in maintaining a low temperature
region at 238.9 K is 1.1 kW per ton. Find (a) COP, (b) T2 and (c) the heat rejected.

ASSESSMENT

ACTIVITY PROBLEMS
(1) A reversed Carnot cycle is used for refrigeration and rejects 1,000 kW of heat
at 340 K while receiving heat at 250 K. Determine (a) COP, (b) the power
required, and (c) the refrigerating effect. (Answers: a. 2.778, b. 264.7 kW c.
735.3 kW)
(2) A reversed Carnot cycle has a refrigerating COP of 4. What is the ratio
Tmax/Tmin? (b) If the work input is 6 kW, what will be the maximum
refrigerating effect, kJ/min and tons. (Answers: a. 1.25, b. 6.82 TR)
(3) A reversed Carnot engine removes 40,000 kW from a heat sink. The
temperature of the heat sink is 260 K and the temperature of the heat reservoir
is 320 K. Determine the power required of the engine. (Answer: 9230.7 kW)

9
 LESSON 2: IDEAL SIMPLE VAPOR
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completing this learning module, you will be able to:

1. Understand the concept of Ideal simple Vapor-Compression Cycle.
2. Solve problems related to Ideal simple Vapor-Compression Cycle.

LESSON PROPER

INTRODUCTION
The Carnot cycle cannot be achieved for the vapor cycle in actual practice because
liquid slugging would occur during compression of the two-phase refrigerant. In addition,
the mixture, mostly liquid, does very little work when it expands after condensation in the
heat engine. Therefore, a single- stage ideal vapor compression cycle is used instead of the
Carnot cycle.
Figure 3 shows an ideal single-stage vapor compression cycle in which compression
occurs in the superheated region. A throttling device, such as an expansion valve, is used
instead of the heat engine. Single-stage means that there is only one stage of compression.
An ideal cycle is one in which the compression process is isentropic and the pressure losses
in the pipeline, valves, and other components are negligible.
All the refrigeration cycles covered in this chapter are ideal cycles except the air
expansion refrigeration cycle. Vapor compression means that the vapor refrigerant is
compressed to a higher pressure, and then the condensed liquid is throttled to a lower
pressure to produce the refrigerating effect by evaporation. It is different from the
absorption or air expansion refrigeration cycle.

10
 FIGURE 3. SINGLE-STAGE IDEAL VAPOR COMPRESSION CYCLE: (a) SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
(b) P-h DIAGRAM (c) T-s DIAGRAM

FLOW PROCESSES
The cycle of operation, that is the cooling process, consists of four separate steps as follows:
1. The vaporizing process (41). As the low temperature, low pressure refrigerant in
the evaporator absorbs the heat from the material and space that is being
refrigerated, it is transformed from a liquid to a vapor in the process.
2. The compressing process (12). The compressor draws the vapor from the
evaporator, it then compresses this vapor until its temperature is above that of
condensing medium.
3. The condensing process (23). When the compressor has raised the temperature
of a vapor to a temperature above that of condensing medium, the heat of the vapor
will flow to the condensing medium and so condense the refrigerant to a high-
pressure liquid. This high-pressure liquid then flows to the receiver where it is stored
until it is supplied to the cooling unit through the expansion valve.
4. The pressure reducing process (34). As to the compressor withdraws the vapor
from the evaporator, the cooling unit must be supplied with more low pressure
refrigerant capable of absorbing heat. This is accomplished by a liquid control valve
known as an expansion valve. This valve reduces the pressure of the high pressure
liquid from the receiver to a low pressure liquid capable of absorbing heat, it
maintains a constant supply of liquid in the evaporator and acts as a dividing point
between the high pressure and low pressure side of the system.

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DIVISION OF THE SYSTEM
A refrigerating system us divided into two parts according to the pressure exerted
by the refrigerant in the parts. The low-pressure part of the system consists of the
refrigerant flow control (expansion valve), the evaporator, and the suction line. The
pressure exerted by the refrigerant in these parts is the low pressure under which refrigerant
is vaporizing in the evaporator. The pressure is known variously as the “low side pressure”,
the “evaporator pressure”, the “suction pressure, or the “back pressure”.
The high-pressure side or "high side" of the system consists of the compressor, the
discharge or "hot gas" line, the condenser, the receiver tank, and the liquid line. The
pressure exerted by the refrigerant in this part of the system is the high pressure under
which the refrigerant is condensing in the condenser. This pressure is called the "condensing
pressure," the "discharge pressure," or, more often, the "head pressure.
The dividing points between the high and low pressure sides of the system are the
refrigerant flow control, where the pressure of the refrigerant is reduced from the
condensing pressure to the vaporizing pressure, and the discharge valves in the compressor
through which the high pressure vapor is exhausted after compression.

Refrigeration is distributed through several methods as follows:

1. In direct expansion, the volatile refrigerant is allowed to expand and evaporate in a
pipe or coil placed in the space to be cooled, where the refrigerant absorbs heat
from the material or space to be cooled. This method of utilizing refrigeration is
used in small cold storage rooms, in freezer rooms and other locations where possible
losses due to the leakage of refrigerant would be low.

2. In the indirect system, some refrigeration medium, such as brine (sodium chloride
or calcium chloride) is cooled down by direct expansion of the refrigerant, and is
then pumped through the material or space to be cooled, where it absorbs its
sensible heat.
Brine systems are used to advantage in large installations, where the danger due to
leakage of the large amount of refrigerant present is important, and in rooms or
series of rooms of fluctuating temperatures (SEE FIGURE BELOW).

BRINE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

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PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE CYCLE

1 - 2  Isentropic compression from saturated vapor to the condenser pressure (s = c)

 Refrigerant is superheated vapor at point 2.
2 - 3  Heat rejection at constant pressure. De-superheating and condensation process
 Refrigerant is liquid at point 3.
3 - 4  Expansion at constant enthalpy (h = c) from saturated liquid to wet mixture where
evaporator pressure is achieved.
 Refrigerant is wet at point 4.
4 - 1  Heat absorption at constant pressure, (P = c), and constant temperature, (T = c).
 Refrigerant is saturated vapor at point 1.

ANALYSIS OF THE IDEAL VAPOR COMPRESSION CYCLE

1. COMPRESSOR
w=h2-h1 [kJ/kg]
w=specific work of compression
h=enthalpy of refrigerant

WC=m(h2-h1) [kW]
W=theoretical compressor work
m=mass flowrate of refrigerant

V1=m𝝊𝟏 [m3/s]
V1=actual volume of refrigerant drawn or
taken in to the cylinder
𝜐1 =specific volume of refrigerant (VAPOR)

NOTE: ENTHALPIES AND SPECIFIC VOLUME ARE TO BE TAKEN IN THE CHARTS AND
TABLES BASED ON THE WORKING PRESSURES AND TEMPERATURES OF THE
REFRIGERANT.

2. CONDENSER

BY ENERGY BALANCE,
qr=h2-h3 [kJ/kg]
qr=heat extracted from the refrigerant per unit
mass

QR=m(h2-h3) [kW]
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 QR=total heat extracted from the refrigerant
3. EXPANSION VALVE
h4=(hf+xhfg)4
x=quality or weight of flash gas per unit weight of refrigerant

4. EVAPORATOR
qe=h1-h4=h1-h3 [kJ/kg]
qe=refrigerating effect or cooling effect

Qe=m(h1-h4) [kW or TOR]

Qe=refrigerating capacity or cooling
capacity

PERFORMANCE OF THE CYCLE

5. COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE
The coefficient of performance is the ratio of the refrigerating effect to the work of
compression.
𝐡𝟏 − 𝐡𝟑 𝐐𝐞
𝐂𝐎𝐏 = =
𝐡𝟐 − 𝐡𝟏 𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭

 Higher COP means more efficient refrigeration system.

 Energy Efficiency Ratio, EER - The ratio of the cooling effect in kJ/hr over the
Power consumption or power rating in watts.
 The minimum EER required by the Philippine government (DTI) is 9.1

𝐤𝐉
𝐐𝐞 [ ]
𝐄𝐄𝐑 = 𝐡𝐫
𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 [𝐖]

6. VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY, 𝛈𝐯

 PISTON DISPLACEMENT, VD – the displacement rate of compressor

𝐃𝟐 𝐦𝟑 𝐟𝐭 𝟑
𝐕𝑫 = 𝛑 𝐋𝐍 [ ; ]
𝟒 𝐬 𝐦𝐢𝐧
Where:
VD = displacement rate of compressor
D = diameter of cylinder (bore) [m;ft]
L = length of stroke [m;ft]
N = number of cycles completed per unit time [rpm;rps]
N = (n) (1) (number of cylinders) for single-acting compressor
N = (n) (2) (number of cylinders) for double- acting compressor
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 n = compressor speed
 Actual volume of refrigerant, V1 – Actual volumetric flow rate of refrigerant
drawn in to the compressor.
𝐦𝟑 𝐟𝐭 𝟑
𝐕𝟏 = 𝐦𝝊𝟏 [ ; ]
𝐬 𝐦𝐢𝐧

Where: 𝜐1 =specific volume of refrigerant entering the compressor [m3/kg, ft3/lb]

 ACTUAL VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY, 𝛈𝐯𝐚

𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐢𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐕𝟏

𝛈𝐯𝐚 = =
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐫 𝐕𝐃

 CLEARANCE VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY, 𝛈𝐯𝐜

𝐏𝟐 𝟏
𝛈𝐯𝐜 = 𝟏 + 𝐜 − 𝐜( )𝐤
𝐏𝟏
𝝊𝟏
𝛈𝐯𝐜 = 𝟏 + 𝐜 − 𝐜( )
𝝊𝟐
𝝊𝟏 𝑽
Where: c=clearance= = 𝑽𝒄
𝝊𝟐 𝑫
υ1 =sp. Vol. at suction
υ1 =sp. Vol. at discharge
Vc=clearance vol.
k=specific heat ratio of the refrigerant
= 1.31 for ammonia
= 1.166 for R-22
= 1.13 for R-11
= 1.102 for R-134a
= 1.126 for R-12
= 1.3 for CO2
= 1.33 for H2O
= 1.086 for R-600a

7. COMPRESSION EFFICIENCY, 𝛈𝐜

𝐈𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐫 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐖𝐜

𝛈𝐜 = =
𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐫 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐖𝐚

8. MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY, 𝛈𝐦

𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐏𝐢
𝛈𝐦 = =
𝐁𝐫𝐚𝐤𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐏𝐛

15
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A simple saturated refrigeration cycle for R-12 system operates at an evaporating

temperature of -5°C and a condensing temperature of 40°C. Determine (a)the
refrigerating effect per kg, (b) the work per kg, (c) the heat rejected at the
condenser per kg, (d) the COP. For a refrigerating capacity of 1 kW, determine (e)
the total heat rejected at the condenser, (f) the work, and (g) the volume flow rate.

SOLUTION
GIVEN:
WORKING TEMPERATURES
 t1= -5 C (evaporating temperature) [Pe=P1=P4=260.96 kPa from R-12
Table]
 t2= 40 C (condensing temperature) [Pc=P2=P3=960.65 kPa from R-12
Table]

REFRIGERANT: R-12

cp
P

3 260.96 kPa 2
Pc=P2=P3

tc=40C
960.65 kPa
Pe=P1=P4
4 1

h
te=-5C

REQUIRED:
a. qe=h1-h4
b. w=h2-h1
c. qr=h2-h3
d. COP
e. for Qa=1Kw; Qr=m(h2-h3)
f. Wc=m(h2-h1)
g. V1=m𝜐1

16
FINDING h1, h2, h3 and h4 in R-12 chart and table,
h1=hg @ te= -5C [from R-12 table]
h2=h @ s1=s2 & tc= 40C [from R-12 P-h chart]
h3=h4=hf @ tc=40C [from R-12 table]

h2=372 kJ/kg

Temperature
lines

1 Entropy
lines

Density
lines

te=-5C
tc=40C

 Take note that lines created from the R-12 P-h chart above are all parallel to
the lines in the chart may it be entropy lines, temperature lines, specific
volume lines/density lines and pressure lines.
 Condensing temperature and evaporating temperature of the refrigerant are
recommended to be used in getting other properties of the refrigerant in the
P-h chart other than the working pressures.
 Enthalpies (at superheat state of the refrigerant) are being read at the
abscissa of the chart.

17
18
 BASED ON THE R-12 CHART AND TABLE:
h1=349.321 kJ/kg
h2=372 kJ/kg
h3=h4=238.535 kJ/kg
𝜐1 =0.0649629 m3/kg

a. qe=h1-h4= (349.321-238.535) kJ/kg =110.8 kJ/kg

b. w=h2-h1 = (372-349.321) kJ/kg = 22.7 kJ/kg
c. qr=h2-h3= (372-238.535) kJ/kg = 133.5 kJ/kg
d. COP= qe/w = 110.8/22.7 = 4.88
e. for Qa=1Kw; Qr=m(h2-h3)
Qa=m(qe)
m=(1 kJ/s)/(110.8 kJ/kg)=0.00903 kg/s
Qr=(0.00903 kg/s) (133.5 kJ/kg)=1.206 kJ/s or 1.206 kW
f. Wc=m(h2-h1)=(0.00903 kg/s)(22.7 kJ/kg)=0.205 kJ/s or 0.205 kW
g. V1=m𝜐1 =(0.00903 kg/s)(0.0649629 m3/kg)=0.0005866 m3/s

2. A four cylinder, 8 cm x 10 cm, single acting, V-type compressor operates at 600 rpm.
It is used in a Freon-12 vapor compression system with condenser and evaporator
temperatures of 29OC and -14OC, respectively. If the compression is dry and
isentropic, the clearance is 2 percent. Determine (a) the refrigerating capacity of
the compressor in tons, (b) the heat given off in the condenser, and (c) the COP. The
gas constant, k for R-12 is 1.126.

SOLUTION
GIVEN:
Working temperatures
 te=-14 C
 tc=29 C
Percent clearance (c)=2%
Freon-12 Refrigerant (k=1.126)
4 cylinders (single acting)
N=600 RPM
Bore diameter (D)=8 cm =0.08 m
Length of stroke(L)=10 cm=0.10 m

REQUIRED:
a. Qa=m(h1-h4)
b. Qr=m(h2-h3)
c. COP

19
FROM R-12 TABLE ABOVE,
h1=hg at -14 C=345.365 kJ/kg
h3=h4=hf at 29 C=227.557 kJ/kg
𝜐1 =𝜐𝑓 at -14 C= 0.090 m3/kg
h2=h @ s1=s2 & Pc=369 kJ/kg [see figure below]

SOLVING FOR REFRIGERATION CAPACITY, Qa

Qa=m(h1-h4)

For mass flow of refrigerant, m

V1
m=
υ1

CLEARANCE VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY, ηvc

V1
ηvc =
VD
𝟏
𝐏𝟐 𝐤
ηvc = 𝟏 + 𝐜 − 𝐜( )
𝐏𝟏
P2=Psat @ 29 C=725.50 kPa
P1=Psat @ -14 C=189.50 kPa

20
 1
725.50 1.126
ηvc = 1 + 0.20 − 0.20( ) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟒
189.50

For VD
D2
VD = π LN but N=n(1) -----single acting
4
0.082 m3
VD = π 4(60) (0.10)(600)(1) s
𝐦𝟑
𝐕𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟏 𝐬

𝐦𝟑
Therefore, V1=ηvc(VD )=0.954(0.0201)
𝐬
𝐦𝟑
V1=0.0192
𝐬

m3
0.0192 𝐤𝐠
s
So, m= m3
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟑 𝐬
0.090
kg

For Qa=(0.213 kg/s)(345.365-227.557) kJ/kg=25.103 kW

Qa=25.103 kW (1 TOR/3.516 kW)=7.131 TOR

SOLVING FOR Qr,

Qr=(0.213 kg/s)(369-227.557)kJ/kg=30.127 kW

SOLVING FOR COP,

COP=Qa/WC
Wc=m(h2-h1)=(0.213 kg/s)(369-345.365)kJ/kg=5.034 kW
COP=25.103/5.034=4.987

3. A refrigeration system is to be used to cool 45,000 kg of water from 29°C to 18°C in

5 hours. The refrigerant is ammonia and the operation conditions are 616 kPa
evaporating pressure and 1737 kPa liquefaction pressure. Determine (a) the
coefficient of performance, (b) the quantity of cooling water in the condenser for
an increase in temperature of 7°C, (c) the compressor power, and (d) the volume of
flow rate entering the compressor. The specific heat of water is 4.187 kJ/kg• C.

SOLUTION
GIVEN:
WORKING PRESSURES
 Pe=P1=P4=616 kPa [te=tsat@616 kPa=approx. 10 C ----- ammonia table]
 Pc=P2=P3=1737 kPa [tc=tsat@616 kPa= 44 C ----- ammonia table]

tout=18 C tin=29 C
mw=49,000 kg/5hr

21
 ASSESSMENT

ACTIVITY PROBLEMS
1. An ice plant with a capacity of 12 tons of ice a day operates on NH3 compressor
with a suction pressure of 227.04 kPa and a discharge pressure of 831.69 kPa.
a) If 1.65 tons of refrigeration are required per ton weight of ice produced,
what will be the dimensions of a twin cylinder, single acting compressor
operating at 300 rpm? Volumetric efficiency is 82% and the ratio of bore to stroke
is 0.80.
b) What is the size of the driving motor if the mechanical efficiency of the
compressor is 85%?

22
2. A six-cylinder, 6.70 x 5.70-cm, refrigerant 22 compressor operating at 30 r/s
indicate a refrigerating capacity 96.4 kW and a power requirement of 19.4 kW
at an evaporating temperature of 5°C and a condensing temperature of 35°C.
Compute (a) the clearance volumetric efficiency if the clearance volume is 5
percent, (b) the actual volumetric efficiency, and (c) the compression
efficiency.
3. A 100 x 200-mm ammonia compressor with a compression efficiency of 80 per
cent operates with a suction pressure of 291.6 kPa and a condenser pressure of
1204 kPa at 23 r/s. The refrigerant cools 102 kg/min of brine by 8 degrees in
the brine cooler. The specific heat of the brine is 3.14 kJ/kg℃. Electric input
to the motor driving the compressor is 14.33 kW. Motor efficiency at this load is
92 per cent. Assuming 5 per cent of the useful refrigerating effect is lost by
brine cooler from the room, determine the mechanical and volumetric
efficiencies of the compressor.

23
 LESSON 3: SUBCOOLING AND SUPERHEATING

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completing this learning module, you will be able to:

1. Understand the different effects of operating conditions (subcooling and
superheating) in a standard vapour compression system.
2. Solve problems when operating conditions are changed.

LESSON PROPER

Subcooling
Condensed liquid refrigerant is usually subcooled to a temperature lower than the
saturated temperature corresponding to the condensing pressure of the refrigerant, shown
in Fig. below as point 3’. This is done to increase the refrigerating effect. The degree of
subcooling depends mainly on the temperature of the coolant (e.g., atmospheric air, surface
water, or well water) during condensation, and the construction and capacity of the
condenser.

Superheating
As mentioned before, the purpose of superheating is to avoid compressor slugging damage.
Superheating is shown in Fig. below. The degree of superheat depends mainly on the type
of refrigerant feed and compressor as well as the construction of the evaporator.

24
 SAMPLE PROBLEM

1. An ammonia compression refrigeration system has a condensing temperature of

25OC and an evaporating temperature of -10OC. The refrigerating capacity is 7
Tons.
a) Show the effect of sub-cooling the liquid from 25OC to 15OC before
reaching the expansion valve.
b) Show the effect of superheating the suction vapor from -10OC to 10OC.

Given:
Without sub-cooling and superheating:
t1 = -10OC
t2 = 25OC
Q = 7 TR
With sub-cooling:
t3’ = 15OC
With superheating:
t1’ = 10OC

Solution:
The system is to be solved first without sub-cooling and superheating with
the refrigerating effect, work of compression and COP as basis of comparison.

25
P-h DIAGRAM WITHOUT SUBCOOLING AND SUPERHEATING

FROM AMMONIA TABLE AND CHART,

h1=hg@-10C=1450.22 kJ/kg
h2=1624 kJ/kg
h3=h4=hf@25C=317.667 kJ/kg

26
For refrigerating effect (w/o subcooling and superheating), qe
qe=h1-h4=(1450.22-317.667)kJ/kg=1132.553 kJ/kg

For work of compression, w

w=h2-h1=(1624-1450.22)kJ/kg=173.78 kJ/kg

For COP,
COP=qe/w=1132.553/173.78=6.52

27
WITH SUBCOOLING (LIQUID REFRIGERANT IS SUBCOOLED TO 15 C)

FROM AMMONIA TABLE AND CHART [PLEASE SEE CHART AND TABLE ABOVE FOR
GETTING THE VALUES OF ENTHALPIES],
h1 = hg @ -10OC
h1 = 1450.22 kJ/kg
h2 = h @ s1=s2 and P2
h2 = 1624 kJ/kg
h3’ = hf @ 15OC
h3’ = 270.053 kJ/kg
h4’ = h3’ = 270.053 kJ/kg

For refrigerating effect (w/ subcooling), qe

qe=h1-h4’=(1450.22-270.053)kJ/kg=1180.167 kJ/kg

For work of compression, w

w=h2-h1=(1624-1450.22)kJ/kg=173.78 kJ/kg

For COP,
COP=qe/w=1180.167/173.78=6.79

WITH SUPERHEATING (VAPOR REFRIGERANT IS SUPERHEATED TO 10 C)

FROM AMMONIA TABLE AND CHART [PLEASE SEE CHART AND TABLE ABOVE FOR
GETTING THE VALUES OF ENTHALPIES],
h1’ = h @ 10OC and P1
28
 h1’ = 1498 kJ/kg
h2’ = h @ s1’ = s2’ and P2
h2’ = 1687 kJ/kg
h3=h4 = hf @ 25OC= 317.667 kJ/kg

For refrigerating effect (w/ subcooling), qe

qe=h1’-h4=(1498-317.667)kJ/kg=1180.338 kJ/kg

For work of compression, w

w=h2’-h1’=(1687-1498)kJ/kg=189 kJ/kg

For COP,
COP=qe/w=1180.338/189=6.25

Effects of increasing the vaporizing temperature (SUPERHEATING)

(1) The refrigerating effect per unit mass increases.
(2) The mass flow rate per ton decreases.
(3) The volume flow rate per ton decreases.
(4) The COP increases.
(5) The work per ton decreases.
(6) The heat rejected at the condenser per ton decreases.

Effects of increasing the condenser temperature (SUBCOOLING)

(1) The refrigerating effect per unit mass decreases.
(2) The mass flow rate per ton increases.
(3) The volume flow rate per ton increases.
(4) The COP decreases.
(5) J The work per ton increases.
(6) The heat rejected at the condenser per ton increases.

REFRIGERATION WITH LIQUID TO SUCTION HEAT EXCHANGER

Hot liquid refrigerant from the condenser gives off its heat to the low temperature
vapor refrigerant from the evaporator through the liquid-to-suction heat exchanger. Thus,
the hot liquid is sub-cooled and at the same time the cold vapor is superheated.

Function of heat exchanger:

1. To ensure that no liquid enters the compressor.
2. To sub-cool the liquid from the condenser to prevent bubbles of vapor from
impending the flow of refrigerant through the expansion valve.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

 A R-22 Vapor compression system includes a liquid to suction heat exchanger in the
system. The heat Exchanger warms the saturated vapor coming from the evaporator
from -10OC to 5OC. Condenser temperature is 30OC. If compression is isentropic, a)

29
calculate the COP, b) if the compressor capacity is 12 L/sec. measured at the
compressor suction, what is the refrigeration capacity of the system?

30
From R-22 refrigerant charts and tables:
h6 = hg @ -10OC = 401.555 kJ/kg
𝜐1 = 𝜐@P1 & s1=s2 = 0.070 m3/kg
h1 = h @ 5OC & P1 = 413 kJ/kg
h2 = h @ S1 = S2 & P2
h2 = 444 kJ/kg
h3 = hf @ 30OC = 236.664 kJ/kg
h4 is unknown because there is no given temperature at point 4.
h5 = h4

By energy balance at the heat exchanger,

ΣEin = ΣEout
mh6 + mh3 = mh1 + mh4
h4 = h6 + h3 – h1 = 401.555 + 236.664 – 413
h4 = 225.215 kJ/kg = h5

SOLVING FOR COP,

𝐡 −𝐡 𝟒𝟎𝟏.𝟓𝟓𝟓−𝟐𝟐𝟓.𝟐𝟏𝟓
COP=𝐡𝟔−𝐡𝟓 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒−𝟒𝟏𝟑
= 𝟓. 𝟔𝟖𝟖
𝟐 𝟏

SOLVING FOR REFRIGERATING CAPACITY, Qa

Qa=m(h6-h5) but m=V1/𝜐1 [V1=12 L/s=0.012 m3/s]
m=(0.012 kg/s)/(0.070 m3/kg)=0.1714 kg/s

so, Qa=(0.1714 kg/s)(401.555-225.215)kJ/kg=30.229kW

Qa=30.229/3.516 TOR=8.60 TOR
31
 ASSESSMENT

 Sub-Cooling and Superheating

A refrigerant 22 , four-cylinder, 85 mm x 70 mm compressor operating at 28 rev/sec,
condensing temp of 38OC and an evaporating temp of-2OC carries a refrigerating load of 112
kW. The motor driving the compressor has an efficiency of 92% and draws 32.5 kW. There is
a 5OC subcooling and 7OC superheating of the suction gas entering the compressor. Compute
(a) the actual volumetric efficiency (b) the compression efficiency.

 Liquid-To-Suction Heat Exchangers

A refrigerant 22 vapor compression system includes a liquid-to-suction heat
exchanger in the system. The heat exchanger cools the saturated liquid from the condenser
from 32OC to 21OC with vapor which comes from the evaporator at -10OC. The compressor is
capable of pumping 20 L/sec of refrigerant.
a) Calculate the COP and the refrigerating capacity of the system without the heat
exchanger,
b) Calculate the COP and the refrigerating capacity of the system with the heat exchanger.

RESOURCES & MATERIALS

 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by Jordan and Priester

 Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration by Shan K. Wang
 MRII Mechanical Engineering Charts and Tables
 Steam Tables by Keenan, etc.

32