The Self from Various

Perspectives
Chapter I
“No topic is more interesting to people than people. For most people,
moreover, the most interesting is the self.” – Baumeister (1999)

The Self
The Funeral Game
Spotlights and Illusions

▪ Spotlight Effect (Lawson, 2010)

– The belief that others are paying more attention to our appearance and behavior
than they really are.

▪ Illusion of Transparency (Stavitsky & Gilovich, 2003)

– The illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by
others.
Research Close-Up: On Being Nervous
about Looking Nervous

▪ Examples of interplay between our sense of self and our social world:
– Social surroundings affect our self-awareness
– Self-interest colors our social judgment
▪ We attribute favorable outcomes to internal causes (self) Self-serving
▪ We attribute unfavorable outcomes to external causes attribution
– Self-concern motivates our social behavior
– Social relationships help define our self
▪ We have varying selves in our varied relationships (Andersen and Chen, 2002)
▪ When relationships change, our self-concept may change as well
▪ College students who recently broke up with a romantic partner shifted their self-
perceptions and felt less certain about who they were (Slotter et al., 2010)
Self-Concept: Who Am I?

▪ Self-concept – what we know and believe about ourselves

– Which brain hemisphere helps you to recognize yourself?
▪ Right hemisphere (Decety & Sommerville, 2003)

▪ Self-schema - beliefs about self that organize and guide the

processing of self-relevant information
Development of the Social Self
▪ Factors that Determine Our Self-Concept
1. Roles we play
▪ Self perception theory (D. Bem)
▪ New roles begin as play-acting then become reality (“fake it ‘till you make it”)
2. Social identities we form
3. Comparisons we make with others
▪ Social Comparison – evaluating one’s abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with
others
▪ We tend to “compare upward”
Comparison
Development of the Social Self

▪ Factors that Determine Our Self-Concept

4. How other people judge us
• How we think others perceive us is a mirror for perceiving ourselves
5. Surrounding culture
• Individualism – the concept of giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and
defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
• Collectivism – giving priority to the goals of one’s group and defining one’s identity
accordingly
Self-Knowledge
▪ Planning fallacy – the tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a
task
▪ Impact bias – overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events
▪ Self-serving bias – the tendency to perceive oneself favorably
▪ Self-serving attribution – a form of self-serving bias; the tendency to attribute positive
outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to other factors
▪ Defensive pessimism – the adaptive value of anticipating problems and harnessing
one’s anxiety to motivate effective action
▪ False consensus effect – the tendency to overestimate the commonality of one’s
opinions and one’s undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors
▪ False uniqueness effect – the tendency to underestimate the commonality of one’s
abilities and one’s desirable or successful behaviors
▪ Self-handicapping – protecting one’s self-image with behaviors that create a handy
excuse for later failure
Self-Esteem

▪ Awareness
▪ Acceptance
▪ Action
Self-Esteem Tips

1. Say stop to your inner critic.

2. Use healthier motivation habits.
– Remind yourself of the benefits
– Refocus on doing what YOU really, really like to do

3. Take a 2 minute self-appreciation break.

4. Do the right thing.
5. Do not aim for perfection.
6. Handle mistakes and failures in a more positive way.
Self-Esteem Tips

7. Be kinder towards other people.

– Listen to someone
– Hold up the door for the next person
– Take a few minutes help someone out in a practical way

8. Try something new.

9. Stop falling into the comparison trap.
10. Spend more time with supportive people (and less time with
destructive people).
11. Remember the why you want to improve your self-esteem.
Summary
▪ Our sense of self helps organize our thoughts and actions. When we process
information about ourselves, we remember it well (using our self-schemas).
▪ Cultures shape the self too. Many people in individualistic western cultures
assume an independent self. Collectivistic cultures assume a more
interdependent self. These contrasting ideas contribute to cultural
differences in social behavior.
▪ Our self-knowledge is curiously flawed.
▪ Self-esteem is the overall sense of self-worth we use to appraise our traits
and abilities
▪ Self-efficacy is the belief that one is effective and competent and a do
something.
▪ As social animals, we adjust our words and actions to suit our audiences.
▪ Sometimes, we self-handicap with self-defeating behaviors that protect
self-esteem by providing excuses to failure.
Jungian Archetypes
▪ The Persona – an identity which we wish to project to others
▪ The Shadow - composed primarily of the elements of ourselves that
we consider to be negative. We do not show this side of the self to
the outside world as it can be a source of anxiety or shame.
▪ Anima/Animus - The anima (in males) or animus (in females)
represents the opposite gender to a person's self.
▪ The Wise Old Man - represents the power of peaceful contemplation
in the absence of physical prowess.; foresees the future and offers
guidance in turbulent times.
▪ The Great Mother - embodies the idealized qualities of the mother
figure. She is caring, compassionate, dependable and loving and, like
the Wise Old Man, she may offer guidance when asked.
Jungian Archetypes

▪ The mother: Nurturing; comforting.

▪ The child: Longing for innocence; rebirth; salvation.
▪ The hero: Champion; defender; rescuer.
▪ The maiden: Innocence; desire; purity.
▪ The trickster: Deceiver; liar; trouble-maker.
▪ The self - represents the unified unconsciousness and consciousness
of an individual.
 Self-affirmation
1. I wake up today with strength in my heart and clarity in my mind.
2. My life is just beginning.
3. Today, I abandon my old habits and take up new, more positive ones.
4. I forgive those who have harmed me in my past and peacefully detach
from them.
5. Though there are times that are difficult, they are only a short phase of life.
6. My ability to conquer my challenges is limitless; my potential to succeed is
infinite.
7. I am superior to negative thoughts and low actions.
8. I acknowledge my own self-worth; my confidence is soaring.
I. The Self from Various Perspectives

A. Philosophy
B. Sociology
C. Anthropology
D. Psychology
E. The Self in Western and Oriental/Eastern Thought
A. Philosophy

1. Socrates (470 - 399 B.C.)

– acclaimed as the greatest philosopher in the Western civilization
– one of the philosophers who had the greatest influence on European thought
– “KNOW THYSELF”
▪ It is imperative to know the limits of the self…. The real meaning of knowing thyself,
then, is a requirement for self-moderation/self-control, prudence/good judgment, and
excellence of the soul
A. Philosophy

1. Socrates
➢ VIEWS
• The proper way to solve problems is to discover our true nature (Examined vs
Unexamined Life)
• Man is a being who wills and thinks and knowledge is a virtue while ignorance is
a vice
• Man should discover the truth, truth about good life, for it is in knowing the
good life that man can act correctly
• The admission of ignorance is the beginning of wisdom
• Humanity comit evil because people do not know any better (ignorance)
A. Philosophy

1. Socrates
➢ VIEWS
• Anything that is excessive is not good. Thus it is just prudent to strike the
balance of things
o Too much power might lead to abuse;
o Too many friends might decrease the quality of relationships;
o Too many problems might bring about depression;
o Too much knowledge might make one think that there is nothing else to know about,
and so on.
A. Philosophy

1. Socrates
➢ SUMMARY
• Knowledge is the personification of good while ignorance is that of evil
• Self-knowledge is the ultimate virtue
A. Philosophy

2. Plato (427 B.C.-347 B.C.)

– student of Socrates
– devoted himself to the pursuit of philosophy and science
– dedicated himself to the education of the youth
– a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy
in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the
Western world
– “THE IDEAL SELF, THE PERFECT SELF”

“Be kind, for everyone you meet is fighting a hard battle”

“Love is a serious mental disease”
A. Philosophy

2. Plato (Aristocles)
➢ VIEWS
• The psyche is composed of three elements
o Appetitive – includes one’s desires, pleasure, comforts, physical satisfactions, etc.
o Spirited – part of the psyche that is excited when given challenges (fights when
agitated or fights for justice)
o Mind (nous) – the conscious awareness of the self
– thinks, analyses, decides for the what is best for the self
– rationally controls the appetitive and the spirited elements of the psyche
– the most superior of all the elements
• In order to have a good life, one has to develop the mind (nous) and fill it with
understanding of the limits of the self, and the correct ethical standards
A. Philosophy

2. Plato (Aristocles)
➢ SUMMARY
• Moral virtue is rooted in the intellect and leads to happiness
• Wisdom and knowledge lead to virtue which in turn will lead to happiness
A. Philosophy

3. St. Augustine (354-430 A.D.)

– a Roman African, early Christian theologian and philosopher
– writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and
Western philosophy
– was not a Christian before becoming a saint. He succumbed to vices and
pleasures of the world
– after becoming a Christian, he dedicated his life the pursuit of contemplative
ideals and practiced extreme self-denial and self-mortification
A. Philosophy

3. St. Augustine
➢ VIEWS
• The development of the self is achieved through self-presentation and self-
realization (self-acceptance)
• There is a struggle between the pleasures of the body and the demands of the
soul
• Man's end goal is happiness
• Human beings alone, without God, are bound to fail
*His journey toward the understanding of the self was centered on his religious
convictions and beliefs
A. Philosophy

3. St. Augustine
➢ SUMMARY
• Only the pure in heart can see God.
Love of God; faith in Him and the understanding of His Gospel will ultimately
lead to happiness
A. Philosophy

4. Rene Descartes
– a French philosopher, and scientist
– dubbed the father of modern Western philosophy
– a Mathematician, to whom the Coordinate System of the Cartesian Plane is
attributed
– also known for his contributions in Analytic Geometry and Algebra
– “COGITO, ERGO SUM” (“I THINK, THEREFORE, I AM.” OR “I DOUBT,
THEREFORE, I EXIST.”)
A. Philosophy

4. Rene Descartes
➢ VIEWS
• Everything must be subjected to doubt (our existence, our world, religion, etc.)
• There will never be certain in this world as long as it passes our senses. We
cannot really rely on our senses because our sense perceptions can often deceive
us
• The self is a thinking entity distinct from the body. Man must use his own mind
and thinking abilities to investigate, analyze, experiment, and develop himself
• Only after the certitude of the “doubting I” can all the other existences become
certain
A. Philosophy

4. Rene Descartes
➢ SUMMARY
• The primary condition of the existence of the self is human rationality
• We need reason in order to evaluate our thoughts and actions. We need reason
to live fully the demands, challenges and call of our religion. We need reason in
order to establish firm foundations for universal truth and morals. We need
reason in order to exist and to continue to survive the generations to come by
protecting our environment. We need reason in order to protect ourselves from
our being savage to one another. We need reason in order to build and live out
our peace.
A. Philosophy

5. John Locke (1632-1704)

– an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as
one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers
– commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism“
– “TABULA RASA” (blank slate)
A. Philosophy

5. John Locke
➢ VIEWS
• Opposed the idea that only reason is the source of knowledge of the self
• - His proposition is that the self is comparable to an empty space where
everyday experiences contribute to the pile of knowledge that is put forth on
that empty space
• - Experience, therefore, is an important requirement in order to have sense data
which, through the process of reflection and analysis, eventually becomes sense
perception
A. Philosophy

5. John Locke
➢ SUMMARY
• Our concept of personal identity must be derived from inner experience. It is the
experience that creates personal identity.
• It is in consciousness alone that identity exists
A. Philosophy

6. David Hume (1711-1776)

– a Scottish Enlightenment philosopher, historian, economist,
and essayist
– best known today for his highly influential system of philosophical
empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism
– “THE SELF IS THE BUNDLE THEORY OF MIND”
A. Philosophy
6. David Hume
➢ VIEWS
• All knowledge is derived from the senses. The impressions that we create are
more superior than our ideas because ideas come after impressions.
• There cannot be a persisting idea of the self. All we know about ourselves are
just bundles or collection of different temporary impressions or perceptions.
• This idea supports the difficulty of answering the question “Who am I?” because
what we can readily answer are impressions such as name, height, color of hair,
affiliations, skills, achievements and the like. All these are temporary and non-
persisting.
• Hume harshly claimed that there is no self.
A. Philosophy

6. David Hume
➢ SUMMARY
• All knowledge passes through the senses
• There is no self, only a bundle of perceptions
A. Philosophy

7. Immanuel Kant

– a German philosopher who is a central figure in modern philosophy

– argued that the human mind creates the structure of human experience
– “RESPECT FOR SELF”
A. Philosophy
7. Immanuel Kant
➢ VIEWS
• Man is the only creature who governs and directs himself and his actions, who
sets up ends for himself and his purpose, and who freely orders means for the
attainment of his aims.
• Every man is thus an end in himself and should never be treated as a means - a
plain dictum of reason and justice: Respect others as you would respect yourself.
• A person should not be used as a tool, instrument, or device to accomplish
another's private ends. All men are persons gifted with the same basic rights and
should treat each other as equals.
• Our rationality unifies and makes sense the perceptions we have in our
experiences and make sensible ideas about ourselves and the world.
A. Philosophy

7. Immanuel Kant
➢ SUMMARY
• Reason is the final authority of morality.
• There is the inner self which includes rational reasoning and psychological state
and the outer self which includes the body and physical mind, where
representation occurs.
A. Philosophy

8. Gilbert Ryle
– a British philosopher, proposed his Positive View in his “Concept of the Mind”
– a stern critique of Descartes’ dualism of the mind and body
– “I ACT, THEREFORE, I AM.” OR “YOU ARE WHAT YOU DO.”
A. Philosophy
8. Gilbert Ryle
➢ VIEWS
• The mind is never separate from the body. Dualism is a category of mistake.
• The mind will depend on how words are being told and expressed and delivered.
• The mind will depend on how words are being told and expressed and delivered.

➢ SUMMARY
• Physical actions or behaviors are dispositions of the self which are derived from
our inner private experiences, meaning, we will only be able to understand the
self based from the external manifestation – behaviors, expressions, language,
desires and the like, hence, he mind is nothing but a disposition of the self.
A. Philosophy

9. Paul and Patricia Churchland

– modern day philosophers who study the brain
– - promoted the position they called “eliminative materialism” which brings forth
neuroscience in the fore of understanding the self.
– “ THE SELF AS THE BRAIN”
 A. Philosophy
9. Paul and Patricia Churchland
➢ VIEWS
• For the Churchlands, these philosophical and psychological directions will eventually be abandoned only
to be replaced by a more acceptable trend in neuroscience that provides explanation of how the brain
works.
• It is not impossible that folk psychology will be replaced by neurobiology. As the Churchlands wanted to
predict, when people wanted to ask what is going on with themselves, they might as well go for MRI
scan or CT Scan to understand the present condition of the brain and how it currently works.

➢ SUMMARY
➢ A fully matured neuroscience wll eliminate the need for beliefs since “they are not real.”
➢ The physical brain gives us a sense of self.
A. Philosophy
10. Maurice Merleau-Ponty
– a French philosopher who is associated with Existentialism
– “PHENOMENOLOGY OF PERCEPTION”

➢ VIEWS
• rejected classical empiricism because it eliminates the indeterminate complexities of
experience that may have an effect on perception.
• rejected the idealist-intellectual position because it will only falsify perception based
from one’s biases and prejudices.
• Both empiricism and intellectualism are flawed in nature.
• believes that the physical body is what makes up the subjective self.
A. Philosophy
10. Maurice Merleau-Ponty
➢ VIEWS
• Self and perception are encompassed in the physical body.
• - “We are our bodies. "Our bodily experiences do not detach the subject/object,
mind/body, rational/irrational.
• our perceptions are caused by the intricate experiences of the self, and
processed intellectually while distinguishing truthful perceptions from illusory.