RADIOLOGY EQUIPMENT FINAL TEST TIPS

Chapter 1

EXPLAIN IN DETAIL THE MEANING OF RADIATION

Radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through
space or through a material medium. • Example: i) Visible light ii) X-Rays iii) UV
iv) Airport security scanners v) Heat from our body

CLASSIFICATION OF RADIATION
Ionizing Radiation & Non-ionizing Radiation
IONISING RADIATION
“Radiation that carries enough energy to free electrons from atoms or molecules” 1. Gamma
rays 2. X-rays 3. Higher UV (EM) 4. Neutron 5. Alpha 6. Beta
NON-IONISING RADIATION
“Any type of EM that does not carry enough energy to completely remove an electron from
an atom or molecule” - Lower UV (EM) - Visible light - IR - Microwaves & - Radio waves

a) Explain in details the basic principles of production of x-ray include the sketch diagram.

X-rays are produced by energy conversion when fast moving stream of electrons is suddenly
decelerated in the target anode of an x-ray tube.

- High voltage power source is connected with cathode (-ve ) and anode (+ve)
- The high voltage will flow from cathode to anode
- The cathode consists of the electrons
- Electrons will accelerate from the cathode and hit the tungsten target and will
decelerate from the anode.
- The vacuum is used to control the number and speed of acceleration of electrons
independently
- The energy conversion produce or convert a radiation known as x-ray
- They can be adjusted by the power supply.
 2 processes of x-ray generation

1. General radiation ( Bremsstrahlung)

• High speed electrons go near nucleus of the tungsten atom

2. Characteristic radiation
• High sped electrons with the electrons in the shell of tungsten atoms

Chapter 2
Radiation sources

X-ray generators and gamma ray sources.

X-RAY
- Use a very small dose of
ionizing radiation to produce
a picture of the body internal
structure
- Moderate wavelength
GAMMA RAYS
- Uses the most energy
power of any
electromagnetic spectrum
- Have smallest wavelength
IMAGING MODALITIES

• Film Radiography • Real Time Radiography • Computed Tomography (CT) • Digital

Radiography (DR) • Computed Radiography (CR)

DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY AND ALL TECHNIQUES

•Computed Radiography (CR) =
- Digital imaging process that uses a special imaging plate employing storage
phosphorus.
- x-rays penetrating specimen stimulate the phosphor
- The stimulated phosphorus remain an excited state.
- image read electronically and erased for reuse
- as laser scan the image plate light emitted and converted to digital value
- image sent to computer for manipulation and enhancement

•Real-time Radiography (RTR)

- Allows electronic images to be captured and viewed in real-time.
- X-ray images can be viewed as the part is moved and rotated.
- The parts can be manipulated
- The image intensifier is a device that converts the radiation that passes through the
specimen into light.
- It uses materials that fluoresce when struck by radiation.
- The more radiation that reaches the input screen, the more light that is given off.
- The image is very faint on the input screen so it is intensified onto a small screen
inside the intensifier where the image is viewed with a camera.
-
•Direct Radiographic Imaging (DR) =
- Is a form of real-time radiography that uses a special flat panel detector
- The panel converts the radiation passing through the test specimen to minute
electrical charges
- The panel contains many micro-electronic capacitors.
- The capacitors form an electrical charge pattern image of the specimen.
- Each capacitor is converted into a pixel which forms the digital image

•Computed Tomography
- Real inspection system employing sample positioning
- Many images saved and compiled to 2-D images
- 2-D image are then combine into 3-D images

Advantages of Radiography
• Technique is not limited by material type or density.
• Can inspect assembled components.
• Minimum surface preparation required.
• Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, voids, cracks, and material density
changes.
• Detects both surface and subsurface defects.
• Provides a permanent record of the inspection.
Disadvantages of Radiography
• Many safety precautions for the use of high intensity radiation.
• Many hours of technician training prior to use.
• Access to both sides of sample required.
• Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical.
• Determining flaw depth is impossible without additional angled exposures.
• Expensive initial equipment cost.

Chapter 3
CT scan

Working principle of CT scan

CT scan working principles
- A CT scan is an x-ray procedure that creates cross-sectional images with the help of
computer processing.
- CT images are more detailed than conventional x-ray and can reveal bones as well
as soft tissues and organs
- A conventional x-ray uses a fixed tube that sends x-ray in only one direction, while a
CT scanner uses a motorized x-ray source that shoots narrow beams of x-rays as it
rotates around the patient
- There are special digital x-ray detectors located directly opposite the x-ray source
- As the x-ray pass through the patient, they are picked up by the detectors and
transmitted to a computer
- Image slices can either be displayed individual in 2D form, or stacked together to
generate 3D image that can reveal abnormal structure, or help the physician plan
and monitor treatment
MRI WORKING PRINCIPLE
- MRI uses magnetic field and radios frequencies rather than ionizing radiation used in
x-ray and CT.
- The magnetic field strength of an MRI machine is measured in Tesla (T).
- The majority of MRI system in clinical practice are 1.5-3T
- Our body is made up of hydrogen element = 95% of the body mass
- Hydrogen atomic number is 1, atom weight is1
- ionic state(H+) hydrogen is only proton ( no neutrons)
- Proton is positively charged and has wobble (magnetic spin). The wobble produces
magnetic moment
= MRI uses the magnetic spin to form image
= The proton spin in haphazard manner and cancel magnetism
= Magnetic field helps to align protons
= Radio frequency pulse in resonance pushes proton to a higher energy level
= High energy protons =NMRI signal
= Repeated ON-OFF of radio frequency needed
= Different various tissues based on how quickly they release energy after the pulse is turn
off.
= Emitted energy is converted into image.

MRI components are

Primary magnetic field
Gradient coil
Radio frequency coil
Radio frequency detector
And a computer
CHAPTER 4
Stale and unstable atoms
Stable atom = the shell is complete, they cannot receive or share any electrons
Unstable atoms = the outer sell is not full, they can share, transfer and receive electrons.

Alpha
- Alpha particles is identical to helium
- It contains two proton and two neutron
- Most alpha emitters occur naturally in the environment
- Alpha particles don’t get very far in the environment when released
- Alpha particles pick up electrons and turn into helium gas
- Cannot penetrate most matter
- Can be dangerous if inhaled or ingested

Equations are balanced by making sure the sum of the atomic numbers and mass
numbers on both sides of the equation are equal

Human use of Alpha particles emitters

• Radium-226 may be used to treat cancer, by inserting-tiny amounts of radium into
the tumorous mass
• Polonium-210 serves a static eliminator in paper mills and other industries
• Some smoke detectors use the alpha emission from Americium-241 to help create an
electrical current

Beta
- As a result of beta decay, the nucleus has one less neutron but an extra photon
- The atomic number, Z increase by 1 and the mass number A stays the same.
- Identical to electrons
- Beta particles travel several feet in open air and are easily stopped by solid materials
- There are both natural and man-made beta emitting radionuclides
- Pottasium-40 and carbon-14 are weak beta emitters that are found naturally in our
bodies
- Beta radiation can cause both acute and chronic health effect
Human use of Beta Particles Emitters
• Iodine-131 is used to treat thyroid disorder, such as cancer and graves’ disease
• Phosphorus-32 is used in molecular biology and genetic research
• Strontium-90 is used as radioactive tracer in medical and agriculture studies
Gamma
- Gamma rays are not charged particles
- Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation with high frequency. They have 10,000
times more energy than visible light
- When atoms decay by emitting or particles to form a new atom, the nuclei of the new
atoms formed may still have too much energy to be completely stable.
- This excess energy is emitted as gamma rays.
- Gamma photons have no mass and no electrical charge-they are pure
electromagnetic energy
- Because of their high energy, gamma photons travel at the speed of light and can
cover hundreds to thousands of meters in air before spending their energy
- They can pass through many kinds of materials, including human tissue. Very dense
materials, such as lead, are commonly used as shielding to slow or stop gamma
photons

Important point
- The penetrating power of gamma photons has many applications
- Gamma rays penetrate many materials, but they do not make the materials
radioactive.

Uses of Gamma Rays:

Cobalt-60
 Sterilize medical equipment in hospitals
 Pasteurize certain foods and spices treat
 Cancer
Cesium-137
 Cancer treatment

DETECTOR
Passive detector = DOES NOT require constant source of energy.
Active detectors = require a constant source of energy.
SHIELDING

They are four aspect of shielding in diagnostic radiology.

1) X-ray tube shielding = the x-ray tube housing is line with thin sheets of lead
because x-rays produced in the tube are scattered all direction. It protects both the
patients and workers from radiation.
2) Room shielding = the lead line in walls of radiology department is referred to as
protective barrier. They are meant to protect individuals outside the x-ray from
unwanted radiation. They are two types
i) Primary barriers = protect against primary radiation.
ii) Secondary radiation = protect from the stray radiation (scattered and leakage
radiation)
i) X-ray equipment room shielding
ii) Patient waiting room shielding = red light should be ON to warn the public or a
door sign should warn the person from entering the room
iii) Control room shielding = is the secondary protective barrier. The walls and
viewing windows have lead shielding
3) Personal shielding =person should remain in the radiation environment only when
necessary. The distance between the personnel and the patient should be
maximized.
4) Patient shielding (of organ not under investigation) = it is recommended that
thyroid, breast and gonad be shielded to protect organ especially children and young
adult by placing a lead apron.

Time = Exposure time is a key factor in the exposure to an external radiation source or
during the time of taking the elements radioactive in the internal radiation exposure.

Distance = Distance plays a key role in radiation prevention, as the distance from the source
of radiation increase. The amount of radiation exposure deceased.

Shielding = Based on this, different types of materials are made available shields protect
against radiation or reduce its level and called these materials with radiation shields.