LEARNING

Learning is a continuous and natural process to which the human being is exposed
every day of his/her life. This concept is defined by the lasting acquisition of knowledge,
behaviors, skills, or abilities through practice, study, or experience.
Learning is “a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience
and increases the potential for improved performance and future learning” (Ambrose et
al, 2010, p.3). The change in the learner may happen at the level of knowledge, attitude
or behavior. As a result of learning, learners come to see concepts, ideas, and/or the
world differently.

LEARNING: MEANING, NATURE, TYPES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING!

Meaning and Nature:
Learning is a key process in human behaviour. All living is learning. If we compare
the simple, crude ways in which a child feels and behaves, with the complex modes of
adult behaviour, his skills, habits, thought, sentiments and the like- we will know what
difference learning has made to the individual.
The individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the environment.
This experience makes him to change or modify his behaviour in order to deal effectively
with it. Therefore, learning is a change in behaviour, influenced by previous behaviour.
As stated above the skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes, interests and other personality
characteristics are all the result of learning.
Learning is defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a
result of practice and experience”. This definition has three important elements.
 Learning is a change in behaviour—better or worse.
 It is a change that takes place through practice or experience, but changes due to
growth or maturation are not learning.
 This change in behaviour must be relatively permanent, and it must last a fairly
long time.
All learning involves activities. These activities involve either physical or mental activities.
They may be simple mental activities or complex, involving various muscles, bones, etc.
So also the mental activities may be very simple involving one or two activities of mind or
complex which involve higher mental activities.
TYPES OF LEARNING:
1. Motor learning:
 Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The individual
has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life, for example walking, running,
skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the muscular coordination.
2. Verbal learning:
This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices
we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such
activities. We use words for communication.
3. Concept learning:
It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like thinking,
reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood. For example,
when we see a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a
particular animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz. abstraction and
generalisation. This learning is very useful in recognising, identifying things.
4. Discrimination learning:
Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response to
these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles
like bus, car, ambulance, etc.
5. Learning of principles:
Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc.
in order to manage their work effectively. These principles always show the relationship
between two or more concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc.
6. Problem solving:
This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive
abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. This is
very useful to overcome difficult problems encountered by the people.
7. Attitude learning:
Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour. We
develop different attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and everything
we know. Our behaviour may be positive or negative depending upon our attitudes.
Example: attitudes of nurse towards her profession, patients, etc.

LEARNING THEORY
When talking about a theory, we must do so, considering they arise as answers to
the questions asked by researchers. So, a learning theory is defined as a set of different
concepts that observe, describe, explain, and guide the learning process of people and
everything that relates to this process.
Having defined these concepts, we present the learning theories with greater
relevance in the academic world.
A learning theory explains the different ways people learn by focusing on the
internal and external influences that affect the learning process. The learning process can
be complex and because of this, there are multiple theories to explain different
approaches to learning.
While in college, students studying to be teachers usually learn a variety of learning
theories they can implement in the classroom. Using different theories can give students
multiple opportunities to learn class content in ways that are relevant to them.

1. Behavioral learning theory

Behaviorism states all stimuli are followed by a response based on the
environment in which the individual is. Learning can be explained from observable events
related to the behavior and the context in which learning occurs. Studies concerning
behavioral theory are based on experimental psychology. Some behaviorist theorists are
Iván Pavlov, John Watson, and B.F Skinner.
2. Cognitive theory
Cognitivism studies how the mind interprets, processes, and hand stores
information in memory. Its foundation lies in obtaining learning from childhood, proposing
that children have an orderly structure for information processing. In this theory,
individuals are an active entity in their learning process. The primary authors of this theory
are Jean Piaget, David Ausubel, and Jerome Brunner.
3. Constructivist theory
Constructivism indicates learning is not obtained passively but actively. As a
consequence, knowledge is a construction of the human being as a product of its
relationship with the environment, its own capabilities, and previous schemes. This is one
of the most used theories today and is related to the following theorists: Jean Piaget,
David Ausubel, Jerome Bruner, and Lev Vygotsky.
4. Meaningful learning theory
The meaningful learning theory was developed by the American psychologist
David Ausubel. This theory proposes the human being relates the new knowledge with
those he/she already possesses. Meaningful learning is based on obtaining quality
learning and understanding of concepts, contrary to memory or rote learning, which is
based on memorizing concepts without the need to understand them.
5. Theory of discovery learning
The theory of learning by discovery was developed by the American psychologist
Jerome Bruner. Like constructivist theory, discovery learning encourages the participation
of individuals in their learning process. It considers effective learning is obtained when
students face a problem not only to solve it but to transfer it.
6. Socio-constructivism
The Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky is the leading theoretician of socio-
constructivism. This theory is characterized by describing learning as a process
where social interaction is key to obtaining knowledge. The socialization process plays a
crucial role in learning as well as connections with prior experience.
7. Information processing theory
This theory postulates individuals are information processors. They do not
necessarily have to interact with the real environment, but their interaction is with a
subjective representation made of them. According to this theory, learning is obtained
through cognitive processes. This theory is defended by theorists Robert Gagné and
Richard Mayer.
8. Social learning theory
The theory of social learning is represented by the Canadian psychologist Albert
Bandura. According to this theory, learning is obtained as a consequence of mental
processes and the relationship with the environment. Social determinants influence this
process, so modeling is essential when learning.
9. Theory of multiple intelligences
The creator of this theory is the American psychologist Howard Gardner. Gardner
proposes every human being has eight intelligences. The development of these will
depend on the cultural and environmental exposure the individual has. According to
Gardner, not everyone learns in the same way, and learning becomes more effective
when information is individualized and pluralized.

Why are learning theories important?

Learning theories are important because they can significantly improve how
students learn new skills and concepts. They affect the content found in course
curriculums, change the way some parents explain things to their children and transform
how teachers instill knowledge in the classroom. They provide a clearer understanding of
the way people learn so that teachers can provide more comprehensive learning
strategies adaptable for all students in the classroom.
Differentiated Learning Styles in Business
Multiple Intelligences
Professor Howard Gardner of Harvard University proposed his theory of multiple
intelligences in 1983. According to Professor Gardner, there are eight distinct categories
of intelligence. Some people learn best through words, others through logic and
numbers, others through pictures. Other categories of intelligence include body
intelligence, music intelligence, social intelligence, self intelligence and nature
intelligence. Trying to design training methods for all eight categories would be difficult
and complicated, but for business purposes the theory of differentiated learning can be
applied in a simplified form.
Visual Learners
For business training purposes, the three learning styles you're most likely to run
into are the visual, kinesthetic and auditory styles. Visual learners find it easiest to learn
by seeing. For instance, if you're teaching your employees about the sales process,
visual learners will benefit most from watching a slideshow or similar visual presentation
that illustrates the steps in closing a sale successfully. Visual learners like charts, graphs
and training videos. If you're conducting role-playing exercises, visual learners will
benefit more from watching the exercise than participating in it.
Kinesthetic Learners
Kinesthetic learners prefer to learn by doing. In a sales training class, the
kinesthetic learners will benefit most from the role-playing exercises where they can
overcome objections and close the sale themselves. They also like to take a lot of notes,
as the act of note-taking helps them fix the information in their minds. In a job requiring
any type of technical know-how, kinesthetic learners pick up new skills most quickly
when they're allowed to practice and tinker. For example, rather than watching a
presentation about a new type of software, a kinesthetic learner would prefer to open it
and start experimenting.
Auditory Learners
Auditory learners learn best by listening. They prefer the traditional classroom
lecture style of education. In a sales training session, auditory learners pick up more
information from listening to the instructor explain the sales process than from a
slideshow or a role-play. Unless you know all your employees very well, it may not be
realistic to try to design separate training methods for each learning style. Instead, you
can incorporate visual, auditory and kinesthetic elements into your presentation to make
sure all employees will benefit.
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
 is the process of more effectively collecting, sharing, maintaining or managing, and
deploying organizational knowledge. As a discipline, knowledge management recognizes
three basic forms of knowledge: explicit knowledge, tacit, and implicit knowledge.
is the interdisciplinary process of creating, using, sharing, and maintaining an
organization's information and knowledge.
In business, your understanding of what customers want, combined with your
workers' know-how, can be regarded as your knowledge base. Using this knowledge in
the right way can help you run your business more efficiently, decrease business risks
and exploit opportunities to the full. This is known as the knowledge advantage.
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT: TOWARDS SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATION

 How important is knowledge as against physical assets for the success of our
business?
 Which strategic goals do we want to support by knowledge management?
 Which knowledge/competences do we have and which knowledge/competences
do we require in the future to ensure long lasting competitiveness?
 How do we manage the «knowledge» resource in the company?
 How should we organise and develop our company so that we can cope with
present and future knowledge-based competition?

Business knowledge is an important strategic asset. It is a sum of skills,

experiences, capabilities and expert insight, which you collectively create and rely on in
your business. As a shared resource, knowledge shapes and affects all the activities in
and around your business.
Types of Business Knowledge
 Tacit knowledge - personal know-how or skills rooted in experience or practice
(eg aesthetic sense or intuition). Tacit knowledge is difficult to write down, visualize
or transfer.
 Explicit knowledge - articulated knowledge recorded in documents, memos,
databases, etc. Explicit knowledge is easy to store, distribute and communicate.
 Embedded knowledge - skills and understanding locked in processes, products,
rules or organizational culture (eg informal routines, codes of conduct,
organizational ethics).

Perception: Concept, Process and Distortion

Perception is another most important aspect of life of organization. Many
problems of the organisation and that of its members may be traced to the distortion in
perception. Perception means the ability to perceive i.e. understanding or knowledge,
mental grasp of qualities by means of senses or awareness.
Communication is influenced by one’s perception of individual. When we
communicate with someone, the language we used, the tone of the language and gesture
we make portray an individual’s character and a kind of relationship he wants to develop.
We see an object but it is understood differently by different people. It is perception.
Perception is vividly defined by experts. Some of the definitions are given below which
make the meaning of perception clear.
 Slephen P. Robbins — “A process by which individuals organize and interpret their
sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.”
 B. Von Haller Gilmer — “Perception is the process of becoming aware of situations,
of adding meaningful associations to sensations.”
 Udai Prateek — “The process of receiving, selecting, organising, interpreting,
checking and reacting to sensory stimuli or data.”
People’s behaviour is determined by their perception. Perception consists of
several processes which are influenced by the circumstances and the perceiver himself.
In the words of H. Joseph Reitz perception includes, “all those processes by which an
individual receives information about his environment — seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting
and smelling. The study of these perceptional processes shows that their functioning is
affected by three classes of variables — the objects or events being perceived, the
environment in which perception occurs, and the individual doing the perceiving.”
According to the definitions cited above perception is a function of objects or
events which are perceived, individual who is perceiving, circumstances under which
perceiving is done. Perception is based on the activities of organs i.e. seeing, hearing,
feeling, tasting and smelling.
Perception varies from person to person and situation to situation and time to time
i.e. it is relative to person situation and time. The individuals listening to the same thing
may perceive it differently. In the same manner the individuals looking at the same thing
may perceive it in different ways.
The environment consists of lights, sounds, smell, objects, social, political, cultural,
technological environments which govern the human behaviour and stimulate him into
action. On listening, seeing and talking he makes judgment about others.
decisions.
Perceptual Illusions: the misinterpretation of a real external, sensory experience.
(MeSH) The action of deceiving, especially by appearances. An instance of the sense
perception of an external object suggesting a false belief as to its nature. (Oxford)
The experience of misperceiving the true characteristics of an object or an image.
(Hockenbury, 116) A perceptual experience that is not a true representation of the
physical event we are receiving through our senses. An illusion is more than a simple
case of mistaken perception, it is an experience that cannot be predicted by a simple
recording of the stimulus itself. (Cardwell, 126) Perceptual illusions underscore the fact
that what we see is not merely a simple reflection of the world, but our subjective
perceptual interpretation of it. (Hockenbury, 118)
Perception bias definition
Perception bias is when our perception is skewed by the stereotypes and
assumptions we have about other groups.
Although we may believe we’re being objective, we all have unconscious biases
that can affect decision-making - even if we’re unaware of them ourselves.
The science behind perception bias
 Unconscious bias is natural.
 It’s simply a part of being human.
This doesn’t mean that we don’t need to do anything about it (especially in high-
stakes situations like recruitment), but it’s worth pointing out that having implicit biases
doesn’t make you a bad person, it makes you human.
And recruitment is a prime example of this…
Perception bias in recruitment

 Our subconsciouses are full of stereotypes and assumptions about certain groups.
 Most hirers wouldn’t like to think that their judgment is in any way influenced by
these biases…
 But the reality is - we don’t even know we’re doing it.
 Even a candidates' name alone can trigger unconscious biases.

A candidate’s perceived race can affect their chances of getting a callback

In the UK: Inside Out London’s study found that people with a Muslim-sounding name are
3x more likely to be overlooked for a job.
In the US: A 2004 study concluded that candidates with African-American names would
need an extra 8 years of experience to get the same number of callbacks as those with
white-sounding names.
In Germany: A study found that candidates with a Muslim-sounding name, who were
pictured wearing a headscarf, were 15% less likely to receive a callback than their white
peers.
In all of these studies, researchers only changed candidates names. The rest of resume
was exactly the same.
Although we can’t know for sure, let’s assume that most of the employers involved were
not explicitly bias.
If you asked them, they’d probably tell you that their recruitment process was based purely
on merit and wasn’t biased…
But the evidence begs to differ.
Whether we choose to admit it or not, we're all open to bias.
And the same applies to gender
Perception bias doesn’t just affect our perception of people from different ethic
backgrounds, someone’s gender, for example, can also affect our judgement.
In the US: A study of university science faculties found that when the name on an
application was female, job candidates were perceived as being less competent and
hireable (the rest of the application was identical).
In Australia: A study of hiring algorithm, discovered that AI favoured male candidates.
In the UK: A UN report found that 25% of people think men should have more right to a
job than women.

Stereotypes influence how we see others

So, we know at the screening stage, perception bias (whether we’re aware of it or not)
can play a significant role in decision-making.
But even when someone makes it past the initial screening through to an
interview, stereotype bias and the ideas we have about different groups could cloud our
judgement.
Someone’s voice, perceived class or disability could lead us to attribute certain
characteristics to them or make assumptions about their ability.
Here’s how stereotypes can affect our perception of various groups:
What can we do to remove perception bias from the hiring process?
Here is our process for de-biasing your hiring...
Start ‘blinding’ applications
Since candidates’ names can lead to perception bias, the first step is to anonymise
applications.
But it’s not just names that can lead to bias - things like addresses and date of birth
can indicate that someone is part of a certain group, and should therefore be
removed too.
Say goodbye to the CV
Once you’ve removed personal details from an application, you’re left with just
education and experience.
But these can also be problematic.
So, if you’re going to remove experience and eduction from applications, what
should you replace them with?
Work samples take tasks involved in the role and ask candidates to either perform
or think through them as if they were actually in the job.
What could be more predictive than simulating parts of the role itself?
If someone’s eduction and experience makes them the best candidate, then this
will show in their work samples.
By asking candidates to answer 3-5 work samples instead of submitting a CV,
you’re testing for skills upfront, and removing perception biases around eduction
and experience in the processes.
Switch to structured interviews
When meeting candidates face-to-face, perception bias is hard to eliminate
completely.
You’re still going to see candidates, hear them speak and therefore naturally
make unconscious connections.
Our perception bias may lead us to favour a well-spoken candidate, for instance.
That being said, the fairest (and most predictive) way to interview candidates is
by asking everyone the same questions in the same order.
This is what we call a ‘structured interview.’
However, our de-biased interview process here at Applied goes a little further than
just changing structure.
Whilst your standard interview questions typically focus on past experience, we
use work sample-style questions.

Give yourself scoring criteria

Scoring criteria is essential for a bias-free hiring process.
Each of your work samples and interview questions should have their own set of
criteria to score candidates against.
This doesn’t need to be extremely detailed, but some form of objective, pre-set
criteria is required.

Barriers to Accurate Perception of Others

Barrier Definition

A tendency to assign attributes to people

Stereotyping solely on the basis of their class or
category

A process by which we systematically

Selective screen out or discredit information we
perception don’t wish to hear and focus instead on
more salient information

A tendency to distort or ignore

Perceptual
information that is either personally
defense
threatening or culturally unacceptable
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