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История США
Lwów University
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Topic 1. English as an academic lingua franca
OUTLINE
1. English as an academic lingua franca (ELF) in the context of
globalization.
2. Types of institutional discourse.
3. The concept of academic writing. Characteristics of academic
writing.
Assignment 1. Fill in the gaps with appropriate words:
1/ As a result of globalization, higher education institutions throughout the

world are adopting English for parts of their education. Higher education is
becoming increasingly international
_______ and thus linguistically _______,
diverse for educational,
idealistic and financial reasons.
2/ However, ELF is especially crucial as a communication tool in certain

disciplines. In no professional area is the use of English more necessary for the
cross-fertilization and transfer of knowledge than in science and technology. For
this reason, engineers and scientists should acquire _______
language skills pertaining to
knowledge in their respective fields. If they wish to be competitive, they must
reseaches/works
publish their _______ and disseminate their findings in English.
As previously mentioned, communicative competence in scientific and
technical communication goes far beyond a certain fluency in the _______. speech
Rather, it also means an understanding of other aspects of _______

language such as how
to vary intonation, rhythm, and sentence structure to argue one’s viewpoint, and
present content in such a way as to interest and persuade an audience. It signifies
an understanding of the differences between oral and written communication, the
contexts of scientific and technical interaction, and the texts that are typical of
each context.
formal
3/ Communication in scientific discourse refers to both _______
oral
and
_______ communication and often involves methods of reasoning as well as
informal/ written
vocabularies used to present information, conclusions and ideas.
Assignment 2. What terms relating to discourse are defined below:
_______
discourse is a polysemantic term, which is frequently used in modern studies in
philosophy and sociology, as well as in literary studies and linguistics. In the
Anglo-Saxon and American linguistic tradition _______discourse is understood as a
coherent stretch of speech, longer than a sentence. _______
discourse is also concerned
with the language use in social contexts and interaction between speakers [Stubbs
1983]. http://scodis.com/for-students/glossary/discourse/

Institutional Diskurs
_______ – communication within the established social institutions of the society
[Dijk, van, 2008]. In some linguistic works the notion of “_______ ________” is
Institutional Diskurs
understood as “the _______ produced in social institutions that presuppose

discourse
communication as a constituent part of their organization” [Шейгал, 2000, с. 43].

It is “a specialized clichéd type of communication among people, who might not
know each other in person, but should communicate in accordance with the
regulations of this community” [Карасик, 2002, c. 292]. http://scodis.com/for-
students/glossary/discourse/
_______ is the processes and methods used to communicate and debate scientific
scientiﬁc discourse
information.scientiﬁc
_______ discourse
focuses on how to arrive at and how to present scientific
ideas and thoughts, taking into account a diverse range of audiences. Those
audiences include peers, students, teachers, the general public, business and
government organizations, or any other potential audience that may benefit from
or contribute to scientific theory and consensus.
https://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-scientific-discourse.htm
Assignment 3. Write 3-4 sentences to sum up about the English-speaking

scientific discourse.
Assignment 4. Describe the following concepts: speech community

(дискурсивна спільнота, мовленнєва спільнота), scientific community
(фахова спільнота, наукова спільнота). Use the following words and
expressions:
addressee / recipient oriented rules of communication
culture speech act/s
international communication to share
language
Assignment 5. Read the following passage about Academic Writing and
correct the mistakes:
1 Academic writing is also used for publications that are read by teacher and
2 researchers or presented at conferences. A very broad definition
3 of academic writing could include any writing assingment given in
4 an academic seting. Here is a list of documents where academic writing is
5 used.
6 Academic writing is, of course, any formal written work produced in an
7 academic setting. While academic writing comes in many forms, the
8 following are some of the most common.
9 Literary analysis: A literary analisys essay examins, evaluates, and makes
discourse
discourse
10 an argument about a literary work. As its name suggests, a literary analysis
11 essay goes beyond mere summarization. It requires careful close

12 reading of one or multiple texts and often focuses on a specific
13 charachteristic, theme, or motiff.
14 Research paper: A research paper uses outside information to support a
15 thesis or make an argument. Research papers are written in all disciplins
16 and may be evaluative, analitical, or critical in nature. Common research
17 sources include data, primary sources (e.g., historical records), and
18 secondary sources (e.g., pier-reviewed scholarly articles). Writing a
19 research paper involves synthesizing this external information with your
20 own ideas.
21 Disertation: A disertation (or thesis) is a document submited at the
22 conclusion of a Ph.D. program. The dissertation is a book-length
23 summarization of the doctoral candidate’s research.
24 Academic papers may be done as a part of a class, in a program of study,
25 or for publication in an academic journal or scholarly book of articles
26 around a theame, by different authors.
Source : https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-academic-writing-1689052
Assignment 6. Write short sentences or phrases to summarize / entitle the

following paragraphs:
Characteristics of Academic Writing

Most academic disciplines employ their own stylistic conventions. However, all
academic writing shares certain characteristics.
focus and main
task/
A. ___________________________________________________________
MAIN TASK AND FOCUS ON IT THESIS FOCUS/PRIMARY FOCUS
The focus of an academic paper—the argument or research question—is

established early by the thesis statement. Every paragraph and sentence of
the paper connects back to that primary focus. While the paper may include
background or contextual information, all content serves the purpose of
supporting the thesis statement.
B. ___________________________________________________________
it is important to follow the structure LOGICAL STRUCTURE
All academic writing follows a logical, straightforward structure. In its

simplest form, academic writing includes an introduction, body
paragraphs, and a conclusion. The introduction provides background
information, lays out the scope and direction of the essay, and states the
thesis. The body paragraphs support the thesis statement, with each body
paragraph elaborating on one supporting point. The conclusion refers back
to the thesis, summarizes the main points, and highlights the implications
of the paper’s findings. Each sentence and paragraph logically connects to
the next in order to present a clear argument.
argumented text
C. ___________________________________________________________
Academic writing requires well-informed arguments. Statements must be

supported by evidence, whether from scholarly sources (as in a research
paper), results of a study or experiment, or quotations from a primary text
(as in a literary analysis essay). The use of evidence gives credibility to an
argument.
D. ___________________________________________________________
no subjectivity
The goal of academic writing is to convey a logical argument from an

objective standpoint. Academic writing avoids emotional, inflammatory,
or otherwise biased language. Whether you personally agree or disagree
with an idea, it must be presented accurately and objectively in your paper.
Most published papers also have abstracts: brief summaries of the most important
points of the paper. Abstracts appear in academic database search results so that
readers can quickly determine whether the paper is pertinent to their own
research.
Source : https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-academic-writing-1689052
Assignment 7. Project work: Teaching and Learning Resources Development.

Work either in teams or independently. Create a quiz for an Academic
Writing Handbook for International Students to help learners focus on the
English language as an academic lingua franca and improve their awareness
of academic writing requirements.

Topic 2. Avoiding scientific misconduct and improving your style
OUTLINE
1. A scientific misconduct: plagiarism.
2. The key techniques of avoiding the inappropriate relationship
between a text and its sources: a linguistic perspective.
2.1 Paraphrasing.
2.1.1 Paraphrasing techniques: stripping the main idea and using
key words.
2.1.2 Tools and means of paraphrasing.
2.1.2.1 Shift of attention / focus.
2.1.2.2 Paradigmatic substitution.
2.1.2.3 Changing the order of ideas.
2.2 Summarizing.
Assignment 1. What techniques of avoiding plagiarism are described below?

_____________
paraphrasing
involves re-writing a text so that the language is substantially
different while the content stays the same.
summarizing
_____________ means reducing the length of a text but retaining the main points.
Assignment 2. Read the following passages and decide which of the

paraphrased ones is/are acceptable. Give your reasons.
A.
Original version
“Rapunzel had beautiful long hair that shone like gold. When she heard the voice
of the witch she would undo the fastening of the upper window, unbind the plaits
of her hair, and let it down twenty ells* below, and the witch would climb up by
it.” (Grimm, J. and Grimm, W. (1995). Grimm’s fairy tales with illustrations by
Jill Bauman. Stamford, Ct: Longmeadow press, p. 94).
(Souce: Paraphrasing without plagiarizing by Laura Isakov and C. Klassen, 2004, pp. 2-3.
Douglas College Learning Centre).
* Ell < PGmc *alinō, L. ulna. The Viking unit of measurement,

approximating the length of a man's arm from the elbow (elbow
lit. “the bend (bow) of the arm (ell)”) to the tip of the middle
finger, or about 18 inches (457 mm). This custom of measurement
was observed in several Germanic cultures.

Paraphrased passages
(a) Between 1830 and 1850 there was very rapid development in railway
construction worldwide. Two periods of especially feverish growth were 1835–7
and 1844–7. It is hard to understand the reason for this intense activity, since
railways were not particularly profitable investments and some produced no
return at all. (Hobsbawm, 1995: 45)
(b) There were only a few dozen miles of railways in 1830, including the
Liverpool to Manchester line. But by 1840 there were over 4,500 miles and over
23,500 by 1850. Most of them were built in large part with British capital, British
iron, machines and know-how, and most of them were projected in a few bursts
of speculative frenzy known as the ‘railway manias’ of 1835–7 and especially in
1844–7. Because most yielded quite modest profits and many none at all these
investment booms appear irrational. In fact few railways were much more
profitable to the investor than other forms of enterprise. (Hobsbawm, 1995: 45)
(c) As Hobsbawm (1995) argues, nineteenth-century railway mania was

partly irrational: ‘because in fact few railways were much more profitable to the
investor than other forms of enterprise, most yielded quite modest profits and
many none at all: in 1855 the average interest on capital sunk in the British
railways was a mere 3.7 per cent.’ (Hobsbawm, 1995: 45)
(d) Globally, railway networks increased dramatically from 1830 to 1850;

the majority in short periods of ‘mania’ (1835–7 and 1844–7). British technology
and capital were responsible for much of this growth, yet the returns on the
investment were hardly any better than comparable business opportunities.
(Hobsbawm, 1895: 45)
(e) The dramatic growth of railways between 1830 and 1850 was largely
achieved using British technology. However, it has been claimed that much of
this development was irrational because few railways were much more profitable
to the investor than other forms of enterprise; most yielded quite modest profits
and many none at all.
Assignment 3. The following examples demonstrate several types of

paraphrasing. Explain what means are employed to avoid plagiarism.
(a) Rapunzel had lovely long blonde hair. When she heard the voice of the
witch she would open the top window, undo the braid of her hair, and let it
down about 10 meters below, and the witch would climb up by it (see the original
version above).

ever-repeated mental labour of making the articulated sound capable of
expressing thought. In a direct and strict sense, this is the definition of speech on
any occasion; in its true and essential meaning, however, we can also regard, as
it were, only the totality of this speaking as the language. For in the scattered
chaos of words and rules that we are, indeed, accustomed to call a language, there
is present only the particular brought forth by this speaking, and this never
completely, and first calling for new work, so as to detect from it the nature of
the living speech and to provide a true image of the living language.
(B) Noam Chomsky (b. 1928)

Source: Chomsky, N. (2006). Language and mind. 3 ed. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, pp. 86-87.
I have tried to suggest that the study of language may very well, as was
traditionally supposed, provide a remarkably favorable perspective for the study
of human mental processes. The creative aspect of language use, when
investigated with care and respect for the facts, shows that current notions of habit
and generalization, as determinants of behavior or knowledge, are quite
inadequate. The abstractness of linguistic structure reinforces this conclusion, and
it suggests further that in both perception and learning the mind plays an active
role in determining the character of the acquired knowledge. The empirical study
of linguistic universals has led to the formulation of highly restrictive and, I
believe, quite plausible hypotheses concerning the possible variety of human
languages, hypotheses that contribute to the attempt to develop a theory of
acquisition of knowledge that gives due place to intrinsic mental activity. It seems
to me, then, that the study of language should occupy a central place in general
psychology.
Assignment 11. The passage below provides some information on how to

write a summary (Source: How to write a Summary at
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/englishcomp1v2xmaster/chapter/how-to-
write-a-summary/). Study the requirements of writing a good summary and
do the task that follows.

A summary is condensing a lengthy source (a book or a film) into a concise form.
The basic requirements to achieve an accurate summary include:
- identify what is most important;
- restate the text (or other media) in your own words;
- make it in the form of a paragraph;
- begin with an introductory sentence that states the text’s title, author and
main point of the text as you see it; it is important to identify the source;
- write in your own words;

- include only the ideas of the original text and do not insert any of your
own opinions, interpretations, deductions or comments;
- identify the significant sub-claims the author uses to defend the main
point;
- it is important to use some source material because defending claims with
source material is what you will be asked to do when writing a research such as
a diploma thesis or some other academic papers;
- put “quotation marks” around the passage or extract you chose to cite;
- write the last sentence that “wraps” up your summary; it is often a simple
rephrasing of the main point.
You will find more information and an example at

https://depts.washington.edu/owrc/Handouts/How%20to%20Write%20a%20Su
mmary.pdf
Task. Write a summary (max 250 words) of the article Bilingualism in the
Early Years: What the Science Says by K. Byers-Heinlein, C. Lew-Williams at
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6168212/


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1/ As a result of globalization, higher education institutions throughout the

2/ However, ELF is especially crucial as a communication tool in certain

Rather, it also means an understanding of other aspects of _______

vocabularies used to present information, conclusions and ideas.

Assignment 2. What terms relating to discourse are defined below:

Document shared on www.docsity.com

understood as “the _______ produced in social institutions that presuppose

communication as a constituent part of their organization” [Шейгал, 2000, с. 43].

Assignment 3. Write 3-4 sentences to sum up about the English-speaking

Assignment 4. Describe the following concepts: speech community

Document shared on www.docsity.com

Assignment 6. Write short sentences or phrases to summarize / entitle the

Characteristics of Academic Writing

The focus of an academic paper—the argument or research question—is

All academic writing follows a logical, straightforward structure. In its

Document shared on www.docsity.com

The goal of academic writing is to convey a logical argument from an

Assignment 7. Project work: Teaching and Learning Resources Development.

Document shared on www.docsity.com

Assignment 1. What techniques of avoiding plagiarism are described below?

Assignment 2. Read the following passages and decide which of the

* Ell < PGmc *alinō, L. ulna. The Viking unit of measurement,

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(c) As Hobsbawm (1995) argues, nineteenth-century railway mania was

(d) Globally, railway networks increased dramatically from 1830 to 1850;

Assignment 3. The following examples demonstrate several types of

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(B) Noam Chomsky (b. 1928)

Assignment 11. The passage below provides some information on how to

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You will find more information and an example at

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