DEPARTMENT OF Civil

ENGINEERING
SEMESTER : 6th

SUBJECT : GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-II

CHAPTER : [1] Consolidation of Soil

TOPIC : [1.1] Compressibility & Settlement

PRESENTED BY: PROF. NEHA KHAIRKAR

 ⚫ LEARNING OBJECTIVE: -
⚫ Define the Compressibility and settlement.
⚫ Discuss concept of excess pore water pressure
⚫ Define various technical terms like coefficient
of volume change, compression normal and
over consolidated soil and compression.

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 Table of content

⚫ Compaction and Consolidation

⚫ Contact pressure of Soil
⚫ Compressibility of Soil
⚫ settlement of soil
⚫ Consolidation
⚫ Compression Index

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❑ Compaction and Consolidation

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❑ Contact pressure of Soil
• The pressure transmitted from the base of a foundation to the soil is
termed as contact pressure.
• This depends on the rigidity of the foundation structure and the
nature of soil.

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❑ Foundation(Footing)
The main difference between rigid and flexible
foundation is the rigidity of the footing.
The rigid footing is assumed to be infinitely rigid which
means that whole footing will settle as a rigid element.
There will not be any curvature(no bending) along its
length or width even if it experiences the concentrated
loading and hence the pressure distribution beneath
such footing remains linear.

On the other hand, in flexible footing, the footing is

considered to have some degree of flexibility and hence
upon application of partial pressure or concentrated
load the footing bends. As the footing attains the
bending curvature, the soil beneath the footing base
experiences non linear pressure distribution.
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❑ Contact pressure of Soil
FLEXIBLE FOOTING
contact pressure for all types of soil is nearly uniform
but settlement depends on type of soil as shown below;

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❑ Contact pressure and settlement
RIGID FOOTING.
In rigid footing settlement for all types of soil is nearly
uniform but contact pressure depends upon type of soil
as shown below;

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 Contact Pressure On Saturated Clay
Flexible Footing
When a footing is flexible, it deforms into shape of bowel, with the maximum
deflection at the center. The contact pressure distribution is uniform.
Contact pressure on sand
Flexible footing
In this case, the edges of flexible footing undergo a large settlement than at
the centre. The soil at the centre is confined and, therefore, has a high
modulus of elasticity and deflects less for the same contact pressure. The
contact pressure is uniform.

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 Contact Pressure On Saturated Clay

Rigid Footing
When a footing is rigid, the settlement is uniform. The contact pressure
distribution is minimum at the center and the maximum at the edges. The
stresses at the edges in real soils can not be infinite as theoretically
determined for an elastic mass. In real soils, beyond a certain limiting value
of stress, the plastic flow occurs and the pressure becomes finite.
Contact pressure on sand
Rigid footing
If the footing is rigid, the settlement is uniform. The contact pressure
increases from zero at the edges to a maximum at the centre. The soil, being
unconfined at edges, has low modulus of elasticity. However, if the footing is
embedded, there would be finite contact pressure at edges.

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 Stress Isobar or Pressure Bulb Concept
An isobar or pressure bulb is a stress contour or a line which connects all
points below the ground surface at which the vertical pressure is the same.

Pressure at points inside the bulb are greater than that at a point on the surface
of the bulb; and pressures at points outside the bulb are smaller than that value.
A system of isobars indicates the decrease in stress intensity from the
inner to the outer ones and reminds one of an ‘Onion bulb’. Hence the
term ‘pressure bulb’. An isobar diagram, consisting of a system of
isobars appears somewhat as shown in Fig.

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❑ Compressibility of Soil
When the stress is increased on soil (Caused by the Construction of
Foundation or Other Loads, Δσ), it causes Compression of Soil Layers.

The compression of soil layers leads to Soil Settlement

and that is caused by:

• Deformation of soil particles.

• Relocation of soil particles.
• Expulsion (flow out) of water or air from void spaces.

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❑ Compressibility of Soil

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 ❑ Consolidation
• When the load is applied on a saturated cohesive soil,initially,entire
load is taken by pore water ,and later on ,due to gradual
escape/seepage of water ,load is transferred on soil.
• This process of gradual load transfer from pore water to soil
skeleton and gradual compression is called as consolidation

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 ❑ Settlement
⚫ The total vertical deformation at the surface resulting from the load is
called settlement. The movement may be downward with an increase in
load or upward (called swelling) with a decrease in load.

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 ❑ Settlement
⚫ The resulted total soil settlement (ST), under loading, may be divided
into three main categories:
⚫ a- Immediate (elastic) settlement (Se): caused by the elastic
deformation of the dry, wet, or saturated soil particles without any
change in the moisture content.(Distortion)
⚫ b- Primary Consolidation Settlement (Sc): caused as a result of volume
change in saturated cohesive soil due to the expulsion of water within
void spaces.
⚫ c- Secondary Consolidation Settlement (Ss): caused as a result of
plastic deformation of soil particles. It is an additional form of
compression that occurs at constant effective stress.
⚫ ST = Se + Sc + Ss

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 ❑ Settlement
⚫ It is the settlement that occurs directly after application of load without
any change in the moisture content of soil.
⚫ The value of Se depends on:
⚫ - Flexibility of the foundation.
⚫ - Type of soil the foundation rests on.
⚫ • When we calculated the stress increase on soil, the following
assumptions were assumed:
⚫ The load is applied at the ground surface.
⚫ The loaded area is flexible.
⚫ The soil is homogeneous, elastic, isotropic, and expands to an infinite
depth.

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❑ Immediate (Elastic) Settlement

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20
 Example 1

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❑ Immediate (Elastic) Settlement

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❑ Difference Compaction and Consolidation

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❑ Consolidation Settlement

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❑ Consolidation Settlement

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 ❑ Excess pore water pressure
1a
2a
Excess pore water pressure in the consolidation process is defined in two
3d
different ways:
4a
excess pore pressure is the excess over the hydrostatic pressure; excess
5a water pressure is the pore pressure in excess of a steady-state flow
pore
6a
condition. This Note makes an attempt to clarify the conditions under
which each of the definitions of excess pore water pressure will lead to
correct solutions of consolidation problems.
The study concludes with the hope that there will be a recognition that the
pore water pressure and the excess pore water pressure require precise
definition which will cover both the effects of static loading and seepage
conditions.

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 ❖ Initial, Primary and Secondary Consolidation of Soil
1a
2a
Initial Consolidation
3d
▪ 4a
When a load is applied to a partially saturated soil, a decrease in volume occurs due
5a
to expulsion and compression of air in the voids.
6a
▪ A small decrease in volume occurs due to compression of solid particles.
▪ The reduction in volume of the soil just after the application of the load is known as
initial consolidation or initial compression. For saturated soils, the initial
consolidation is mainly due to compression of solid particles.

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 Primary consolidation
▪ Occurred due to the expulsion/extrusion of the water that occupies the void
spaces.
▪ Primary consolidation settlement is a result of a volume change in saturated
cohesive soils.
▪ Very slow and continues over a long period of time.

Secondary consolidation
▪ Additional form of compression that occurs at constant effective stress at a
very slow rate.
▪ Observed in saturated cohesive soils.
▪ Result of the plastic adjustment and rearrangement of soil fabrics.
▪ Occurs after the primary consolidation settlement ended.

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 ❖ Compression Index
It describes the variation of the void ratio e as a function of the change of effective
1a σef plotted in the logarithmic scale:
stress
2a
3d
4a
5a
6a

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 Compressibility Characteristics
Soils are often subjected to uniform loading over large areas, such as from
wide1afoundations, fills or embankments. Under such conditions, the soil
2a is remote from the edges of the loaded area undergoes vertical strain,
which
but 3d
no horizontal strain. Thus, the settlement occurs only in one-dimension.
The4acompressibility of soils under one-dimensional compression can be
5a
described from the decrease in the volume of voids with the increase of
6a stress. This relation of void ratio and effective stress can be
effective
depicted either as an arithmetic plot or a semi-log plot.

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 . decreases as the effective
It can be said that the compressibility of a soil
stress increases. This can be represented by the slope of the void ratio –
effective stress relation, which is called the coefficient of compressibility, av.

The -ve sign is introduced to make av a positive parameter

If e0 is the initial void ratio of the consolidating layer, another useful

parameter is the coefficient of volume compressibility, mv, which is expressed
as

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 ❖ Normally Consolidated and Over-Consolidated Clays
The figure shows the relation of void ratio and effective stress of a clay soil as a
semi-log plot.

OP corresponds to initial loading of the soil. PQ corresponds to unloading of the soil.

QFR corresponds to a reloading of the soil. Upon reloading beyond P, the soil
continues along the path that it would have followed if loaded from O to R
continuously.
The reconsolidation stress, s'pc, is defined to be the maximum effective stress
experienced by the soil. This stress is identified in comparison with the effective stress
in its present state. For soil at state Q or F, this would correspond to the effective stress
at point P.
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 If the current effective stress, s', is equal (note that it cannot be greater than) to
the reconsolidation stress, then the deposit is said to be normally consolidated
(NC). If the current effective stress is less than the reconsolidation stress, then
the soil is said to be over consolidated (OC).

The distance from the normal consolidation line has an important influence on
soil behavior. This is described numerically by the over consolidation ratio
(OCR), which is defined as the ratio of the reconsolidation stress to the current
effective stress.

Note that when the soil is normally consolidated,

OCR = 1

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❑ Compressibility Characteristics
Soils are often subjected to uniform loading over large areas, such as from wide
foundations, fills or embankments. Under such conditions, the soil which is remote
from the edges of the loaded area undergoes vertical strain, but no horizontal strain.
Thus, the settlement occurs only in one-dimension.

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❑ Normally Consolidated and Over-Consolidated Clays

• OP corresponds to initial loading

of the soil.
• PQ corresponds to unloading of the
soil.
• QFR corresponds to a reloading of
the soil.
• Upon reloading beyond P, the soil
continues along the path that it
would have followed if loaded
from O to R continuously.

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 ❏ LEARNING OUTCOME: -

●To get to know difference between compaction and consolidation.

●Ability to solve numerical related with consolidation.

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 ❑ References
• Soil Mechanics and Foundations: Dr. B. C. Punmia, Ashok Kumar
Jain, Arun Kumar Jain; Laxmi Publications
• Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering: K. R. Arora; Standard
Publishers and Distributors
• Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering: V. N. S. Murthy;
Saitech Publications
• Theoretical Soil Mechanics: K. Terzaghi; John Wiley and Sons
• https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=shear+strength+of
+soil&ab_channel=GATEACADEMY-CEMECHXEPI
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LViTxWFa7tQ&ab_channel=G
eologyandSoilMechanics
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ykZVkiPip_E&ab_channel=G
ATEACADEMY
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GN8V7UGQwb8&ab_channel
=APSEd
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 1a
2a
3d
4a
5a
6a Thank You

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