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Chapter 1 Shallow Foundation 1 43
Chapter 1 Shallow Foundation 1 43
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FOUNDATION ENGINEEERING
1 SHALLOW FOUNDATION
1. INTRODUCTION
A foundation is that part of a structure which transmits the weight of the structure to the
ground. The word ‘foundation’ is derived from the latin word fundare, meaning to set or ground
on something solid. In other words, a foundation is an artificially laid base on which a structure
is set or built up.
2. BASIC DEFINITION
(i) Ultimate bearing capacity (qn): The ultimate bearing capacity is the gross pressure at
the base of the foundation at which the soil fails in shear.
(ii) Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qnu): It is the net increase in pressure at the base of
foundation that causes shear failure of the soil. It is equal to the gross pressure minus
overburden pressure.
Thus,
qnu = qu - γDf
Where,
qu = ultimate bearing capacity (gross),
γ = unit weight of foundation soil and
Df = depth of foundation
It may be noted that the overburden pressure equal to γDf existed even before the construction
of foundation.
(iii) Net safe bearing capacity (qns): It is the net soil pressure which can be safely to applied
to the soil considering only shear failure. It is obtained by dividing the net ultimate bearing
capacity by a suitable factor of safety. Thus
qnu
qns =
F
Where F = Factor of safety, which is usually taken as 3.0.
(iv) Gross Safe Bearing Capacity (qs): It is maximum gross pressure which the soil can
carry safely without shear failure. It is equal to the net safe bearing capacity plus the original
overburden pressure. Thus,
qs = qns + γDf
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or
qnu
qs = + Df
F
(v) Net Safe Settlement Pressure (qnp): It is the net pressure which the soil can carry
without exceeding the allowable settlement. The maximum allowable settlement generally
varies between 25 mm and 40 mm for individual footings.
(vi) Net Allowable Bearing Pressure (qna): The net allowable bearing pressure is the net
bearing pressure which can be used for the design of foundations. As the requirements for the
design of foundation are that there should be no shearing failure and the settlements should
also be within the limits, the allowable bearing pressure is the smaller of the net safe bearing
capacity (qns) and the net safe settlement pressure (qnp). Thus,
qna = qns if qnp > qns
qna = qnp if qns > qnp
The net allowable bearing pressure is also known as the allowable soil pressure or allowable
bearing pressure or allowable bearing capacity.
Terzaghi gave a general theory for the bearing capacity of soils under a strip footing, making
the following assumptions.
(i) The base of footing is rough.
(ii) The footing is laid at a shallow depth, i.e. Df < B.
(iii) The shear strength of the soil above the base of the footing is neglected. (iv) The soil
above the base is replaced by a uniform surcharge γDf.
(v) The load on the footing is vertical and is uniformly distributed.
(vi) The footing is long i.e. length to width ratio is infinite.
(vii) The shear strength of the soil is governed by the Mohr-Coulomb equation.
The failure surface as given by Terzaghi is as follows:
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Here,
c’ = Effective cohesion
Df = Depth of footing
NC, Nq and Nγ are the dimensionless number known as bearing capacity factors depends upon
angle of friction of soil. These are defined by the following equations:
a2
Nc = cot − 1
2 '
2 cos 45 + 2
a2
Nq =
2 '
2 cos 45 + 2
1 Kp
N = − 1 tan '
2
2 cos '
Where,
a = e(
3 /4 − '/2) tan '
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Terzaghi has suggested the following empirical reduction to the actual cohesion and the
angle of shearing resistance in case of local shear failure.
Mobilised cohesion,
2
c'm = c'
3
Mobilised angle of shearing resistance,
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If the water table is located at the level of the base of footing or below it, the surcharge
term is not affected. However, the unit weight in the third term of Eq. is modified as
b
= '+
B
( − ')
Therefore,
b
qu = c 'Nc + Df Nq + 0.5B '+ ( − ') N
B
When b = 0, i.e. W/T at the base,
qu = c’Nc + γDfNq + 0.5 γ’BNγ
When b = B, i.e. W/T at depth B below the base,
qu = c’Nc + γDfNq + 0.5 γBNγ
Hence, when the ground water table is located at a depth b equal to or greater than B,
there is no effect on the ultimate bearing capacity.
Example: Determine the ultimate bearing capacity using Terzaghi’s theory for a strip
footing 1.5 m wide assuming the water table is far below the base of footing. The depth
of footing is 0.8 m. Assume general shear failure. Take c = 12 kN/m 2, γ = 17.5 kN/m3
and ϕ = 35˚.
Sol.
For ϕ = 35˚, Nc = 57.8, Nq = 41.4 and Nγ = 42.4
As per Terzaghi,
qu = c’Nc + γDfNq + 0.5 γBNγ
⇒ qu = 12 × 57.8 + 17.5 × 0.8 × 41.4 + 0.5 × 17.5 × 1.5 × 42.4 = 1829.7 kN/m2
Example: In the example above, find the bearing capacity if the water table rises to
(a) The base of footing.
(b) At the ground surface
Sol.
(a) When the water table is at the base of the footing:
qu = c’Nc + γDfNq + 0.5 γ’BNγ
⇒ qu = 12 × 57.8 + 17.5 × 0.8 × 41.4 + 0.5 × (17.5 − 9.81) × 1.5 × 42.4 = 1517.75 kN/m2
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Meyerhof gave a general theory of bearing capacity for a strip footing at any depth. Meyerhof
considered the failure mechanism similar to that assumed by Terzaghi. but extended the failure
surfaces above foundation level. Thus, the shearing strength of the soil above the footing base
was also accounted for the analysis. The curved rupture surfaces in the zone of radial shear
were assumed to be logarithmic spirals, Meyerhof’s rupture surfaces are more general than
those assumed by Terzaghi.
Meyerhof gave the following equation for the ultimate bearing capacity of strip footings.
qu = c’Nc + q0Nq + 0.5γ BNγ
where Nc, Nq and Nγ are the general bearing capacity factors of Meyerhof's theory. These factors
depend upon the roughness of base, depth of footing and the shape of footing.
5. IS CODE METHOD
IS: 6403 – 1981 gives the equation for the net ultimate bearing capacity
qnu = c Nc sc dc ic + q (Nq - 1) sq dq iq + q(Nq - 1) sq dq iq + 0.5B γNγsγdγiγ W’
Where,
q = effective pressure at the base.
sc, sq and sγ are shape factors
dc, dq and dγ are depth factors
ic, iq and iγ are inclination factors
W’ is the water table correction factor
Shape Factors:
Shape of footing sc sq sγ
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Where
L = length of footing
B = width of footing.
The depth factors are given below.
dc = 1 + 0.2 (Df/B) tan (45° + ϕ/2)
dq = dγ = 1.0 for ϕ < 10°
dq = dγ = 1 + 0.1(Df/B) tan (45° + ϕ/2) for ϕ < 10°
The inclination factors given by fig. are used.
ic = iq = (1 – α°/90°)2
and
iγ = (1 – α°/ϕ)2
where α° is the inclination of the load with vertical.
Skempton analysis is suitable for soils having angle of internal friction equal to zero. As per
Skempton,
qnu = cuNc
The bearing capacity factors can be calculated using the following relations:
For Strip Footing:
Df
Nc = 5 (1 + 0.2 ) ≤ 7.5
B
For square and circular footings:
Df
Nc = 6 (1 + 0.2 )≤9
B
For rectangular footing:
Df B Df
Nc = 5 (1 + 0.2 ) (1 + 0.2 ) ; for ≤ 2.5
B L B
B Df
Nc = 7.5 (1 + 0.2 ) ; for > 2.5
L B
Example: A square footing of width 1.5 m and depth 1 m is laid in a cohesive soil having the
undrained cohesion value 28 kN/m2. What will be the net safe bearing capacity as per
Skempton’s theory using a factor of safety 2.65.
Sol.
As per Skempton’s theory for square footing,
Df 1
Nc = 6 (1 + 0.2 ) = 6 (1 + 0.2 × ) = 6.8 < 9
B 1.5
Net ultimate bearing capacity
qnu = cuNc = 28 × 6.8 = 190.4 kN/m2
Net Safe bearing capacity = qnu/ FOS = 190.4/2.65 = 71.85 kN/m2
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7. PROBLEMS
Problem 1: Derive the ultimate bearing capacity equation given by Terzaghi. State all the
assumptions used.
Problem 2: Determine the safe gross load that can be carried by a square footing using a
factor of safety of 3 if the size and depth of footing is 1.2 m and 1 m respectively. The water
table is at a depth of 0.5 m from the ground surface. Take c’ = 0, ϕ’ = 32˚, γd = 16 kN/m3, γsat
= 19.5 kN/m3.
Ans. 311.5 kN
Problem 3: A square footing is to be designed to carry a load of 2400 kN. Assume the factor
of safety of 3. Take c = 50 kN/m 2, ϕ = 32˚, γd = 17.25 kN/m3, γsat = 19.5 kN/m3. Determine
the size of the footing using Terzaghi’s theory in the following cases:
(a) The water table is 1m below the base of footing.
(b) The water table rises to the ground surface.
Ans. 1.33 m, 1.42 m
Problem 4: A circular footing having diameter 2.5 m is laid at a depth of 1.2 m in a cohesive
soil having the bulk density of 1.8 t/m3 and an unconfined compressive stress of 5.5 t/m 2.
Determine the ultimate and safe bearing capacity of the footing using a factor of safety of 2.54
using skempton’s theory.
Ans. 20.24 t/m2, 9.39 t/m2.
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