ALDERSGATE COLLEGE

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING INFORMATICS AND TECHNOLOGY

MODULE I

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

Structural design is the art of utilizing principle of Statics, Dynamics and Mechanics of Materials to
determine the size and arrangement of structural elements under prescribed load and/or other effects.
We will focus on the design of the individual structural elements or members that make up
the whole structural system.
Such members or elements include the following:
o Beams
o Columns
o Tension Member
o Connections
o Base plate
o Frame

Structural design is a systematic and iterative process that involves:

1) Identification of intended use and occupancy of a structure – by owner
2) Development of architectural plans and layout – by architect
3) Identification of structural framework – by engineer
4) Estimation of structural loads depending on use and occupancy
5) Analysis of the structure to determine member and connection design forces
6) Design of structural members and connections
7) Verification of design
8) Fabrication & Erection – by steel fabricator and contractor
9) Inspection and Approval – by state building official
Steel Products
❑ Hot-rolled Steel – a steel formed by milling at a high temperature (typically at a temperature over
1700° F), which is above the steel’s recrystallization temperature.
❑ Coldformed Steel – common term for steel products shaped by cold-working processes carried out
near room temperature, such as rolling, pressing, stamping, bending, etc.
Specifications
AISC – American Institute of Steel Construction
AASHTO – American Association of State Highway & Transportation Officials
AREA – American Railways Engineers Association
ASCE – American Society of Civil Engineers
ASTM – American Society for Testing and Materials
AWS – American Welding Society
NSCP – National Structural Code of the Philippines
ASEP – Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines
o Handbook of Steel Construction

1 |CE 424 | Design of Steel Structures RANDOLF T. BAGYAN

Instructor
ADVANTAGES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL AS A BUILDING MATERIAL
1. High strength-to-weight ratio.
2. The properties of structural steel are uniform and homogeneous, and highly predictable.
3. High ductility - providing adequate warning of any impending collapse.
4. It can easily be recycled. In fact, a very high percentage of the structural steel used in many modern
structures is made from recycled steel.
5. Steel structures are easier and quicker to fabricate and erect, compared to concrete structures.
6. The erection of steel structures is not as affected by weather compared to other building materials,
enabling steel erection to take place even in the coldest of climates.
7. It is relatively easier to retrofit existing steel structures because of the relative ease of connecting the
new framing members to existing structural steel members.
DISADVANTAGES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL AS A BUILDING MATERIAL
1. Steel is susceptible to corrosion.
2. Maintenance costs could be high compared to other structural materials.
3. Adversely affected by high temperatures and therefore often needs to be protected from fire by
fireproofing.
4. Depending on the types of structural details used and the thickness of the steel member, structural
steel may be susceptible to brittle fracture due to the presence of stress concentrations, and to fatigue
failure from cyclic or repeated loadings causing stress reversals in the members and connections.

STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES

Structural steels are available of many shapes. The dimension and weight must be added to the
designation to uniquely identify the shape. For example, W 40 x 436 refers to W-shape with an overall depth
of approximately 40 inches (1000 mm) that weighs 436 lb/ft (640 kg/m).

Wide-Flanged: W-Shapes and M-Shapes

- commonly used as beams or columns in steel structures.
- also used as the top and bottom chord members of trusses, and as diagonal braces in braced frames.
- The inner and outer flange surfaces of W-shapes are parallel
- M-shapes are similar to W-shapes, but they are not as readily available or widely used as W-shapes
and their sizes are also limited.

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 Example:

S-Shapes
Also known as American Standard beams, are similar to I-shapes except that the inside flange surfaces
are sloped. The flange thickness varies from a smaller value at the flange tips to a larger flange thickness
closest to the web of the beam.

Example:
An S12 × 35 implies a member with a 12-in. actual depth and a self-weight of 35 lb./ft. length of the
member.
HP-Shapes
HP-shapes are similar to W-shapes and are commonly used as H-piles in bearing pile foundations. These
H-piles, which can be as long as 100 ft. or more, support the superstructure loads, and they are typically
socketed and grouted into the bedrock to resist the uplift loads on the structure.
- HP-shapes have thicker flanges and webs compared to W-sections.
- The nominal depth of these sections is usually approximately equal to the flange width, with the
flange and web thicknesses approximately equal.
- The thick webs help to resist the high impact loads that these sections are subjected to during pile
driving operations.

Channel or C- and MC-Shapes

Channels are C-shaped members with the inside faces of the channel flanges tapered from a minimum
thickness at the flange tip to a maximum thickness at the channel web.
- Commonly used as beams to support light loads, such as in catwalks and as stair stringers, and they
are also used to frame the edges of roof openings.
- C-shapes are American Standard channels, while MC-shapes are miscellaneous channels.

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 Example:
A C12 × 30 member implies a C-shape with an actual depth of 12 in. and a weight of 30 lb./ft., while
an MC 12 × 35 member implies a miscellaneous channel with an actual depth of 12 in. and a self-
weight of 35 lb./ft.
Angle (L) Shapes
Angles are L-shaped members with legs of equal or unequal lengths.
- used as lintels to support brick cladding and block wall cladding above door and window openings,
and as web members in trusses.
- used as X-braces, chevron braces, or knee-braces in braced frames where they could occur as single
angles or as double angles placed back-to-back.
- Double angles are frequently used for the end connections for beams and girders.

An angle with the designation L4 × 3 × ¼ implies a member with a long leg length of 4 in., a short leg
length of 3 in., and a thickness of ¼ in.
Structural Tees—WT-, MT-, and ST-Shapes
Structural tees are made by cutting a wide flange section (i.e., an I- or W-shape), M-shape, or S-shape in
half.
- WT-shapes are commonly used as brace members and as top and bottom chords of trusses.
- also used to strengthen existing steel beams where a higher moment capacity is required.
- ST- and MT-shapes are made from S-shapes and M-shapes, respectively.

For example, if a W14 × 90 is cut in half, the resulting shapes will be WT 7 × 45, where the nominal depth
is 7 in. and the self-weight of each piece is 45 lb./ft.
Plates and Bars
Plates and bars are flat stock members that are used as stiffeners, gusset plates, and X-braced members.
- The practical minimum thickness for plates is ¼-in., with a practical minimum width of 3 in. to
accommodate the required minimum bolt edge distances.

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Hollow Structural Sections (HSS)
All the shapes discussed above are made from hot-rolled steel sections, whereas hollow structural
section (HSS) members are welded cold-formed carbon steel made by cold bending a flat piece of carbon
steel into rectangular, square or round tubular shapes and then welding the ends together.
- they are commonly used as columns, lintel beams, struts, girts, hangers, lateral bracings, and braced-
frame members in building structures.

Structural Pipes
Structural pipes are round structural tubes similar to HSS members that are sometimes used as columns
and as struts for bracing basement excavations. They are also used as posts or columns for lightly loaded
structures.

Built-Up Sections
Built-up sections include welded plate girders and other sections built up from plates and standard rolled
sections (e.g., W-section with plate welded to the bottom flange; plane and flanged cruciform sections).

PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

Yield stress (𝐹𝑦 ) – tensile stress at which the stress-strain curve exhibits a well-defined increase in
strain (deformation) without an increase in stress.
Ultimate Tensile strength (𝐹𝑢 ) – the largest unit stress that the material achieves in tension.
Modulus of Elasticity (𝐸) – the slope of the initial straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram. It
is usually taken as 200,000 MPa for design calculation for all structural steel.
Ductility – is the ability of the material to undergo large inelastic deformations without fracture.
Toughness – the ability of the material to absorb energy and is characterized by the area under a
stress-strain curve.
Weldability – the ability of the steel to be welded without changing its basic mechanical properties.
Poisson’s Ratio – the ratio of the transverse strain to longitudinal strain. Poisson’s ratio is essentially
the same for all structural steels and has a value of 0.3 in the elastic range.
Shear Modulus – the ratio of the shearing stress to shearing strain during the initial elastic behavior.

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 Table 1 Typical Properties of A36 Steel

Modulus of Elasticity, E 200,000 MPa

Yield strength, 𝐹𝑦 248 MPa

Tensile strength, 𝐹𝑢 400 MPa

Endurance strength 207 MPa
Density, 𝜌 7780 kg/m3
Poisson’s ratio, 𝜇 0.3
Shear Modulus, 𝐺 77,200 MPa
Coefficient of thermal expansion 11.7 x 10-6 /°C

Table 2 Structural Steel Shapes and Corresponding ASTM Specification

Structural steel ASTM Specification Min 𝐹𝑦 (𝑀𝑃𝑎) Min 𝐹𝑢 (𝑀𝑃𝑎)
shapes
W-Shape A913* 345 – 483 448 – 621
A992† 345 – 448 448
M and S-shapes A36 248 400 – 552
Channels (C- and A36† 248 400 – 552
MC-shapes) A572 Grade 50 345 448
Angles and plates A36 248 400 – 552
Steel pipe A53 Grade B 241 414
Round HSS A500 Grade B† 290 400
A500 Grade C 317 427
Square and A500 Grade B 317 400
rectangular HSS A500 Grade C† 345 427

Figure 1 Idealized stress-strain diagram

Stress-Strain Relationships in Structural Steel
To understand the behavior of steel structures, we must be familiar with the properties of steel.
Stress-strain diagrams present valuable information necessary to understand how steel will behave in a
given situation. Satisfactory steel design methods cannot be developed unless complete information is
available concerning the stress-strain relationships of the material begin used.

If a piece of ductile structural steel is subjected to tensile force, it will begin to elongate. If the tensile force is
increased at a constant rate, the amount of elongation will increase linearly within certain limits. In other
words, elongation will double when the stress goes from 6000 to 12,000 psi. When tensile stress reaches a

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value roughly equal to the ¾ of the ultimate strength of the steel (Fu), the elongation will begin to increase
at a greater rate without a corresponding increase in stress.
The largest stress for which Hooke’s Law applies, or the highest point on the linear portion of the stress-
strain diagram, is called the proportional limit. The largest stress that a material can withstand without being
permanently deformed is called the elastic limit.

The stress at which there is significant increase in the elongation, or strain, without corresponding increase
in stress is said to be the yield stress. It is the first point the stress-strain diagram where a tangent to the
curve is horizontal.

The strain that occurs before the yield stress is referred to as the elastic strain, the strain that occurs after
the yield stress, with no increase in stress, is referred to as the plastic strain. Plastic strains are usually from
10 to 15 times as large as the elastic strains.
Following the plastic strain, there is a range in which additional stress is necessary to produce additional
strain. This is called the strain-hardening. At failure in mild steels, the total strains are from 150 to 200 times
the elastic strain. The curve will actually continue up to its maximum stress value and then “tail off” before
failure. A sharp reduction in the cross-section of the member (called necking) takes place just before the
member fractures.

CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to
- differentiate the use of LRFD and ASD in designing steel structures.
- estimate the required ultimate or service load and the governing load combination for any given load.

STRUCTURAL LOADS

The building structure must be designed to carry or resist the loads that are applied to it over its design-
life. The building structure will be subjected to loads that have been categorized as follows:
• Dead Loads (D): are permanent loads acting on the structure. These include the self-weight of
structural and non-structural components. They are usually gravity loads.
• Live Loads (L): are non-permanent loads acting on the structure due to its use and occupancy. The
magnitude and location of live loads changes frequently over the design life. Hence, they cannot be
estimated with the same accuracy as dead loads.
• Wind Loads (W): are in the form of pressure or suction on the exterior surfaces of the building. They
cause horizontal lateral loads (forces) on the structure, which can be critical
• Roof Live Load (Lr): are live loads on the roof caused during the design life by planters, people, or by
workers, equipment, and materials during maintenance.
• Earthquake Loads (E): when the ground under a structure suddenly moves, the inertia of the mass
of the structure tends to resist the movement, causing the development of a shear force between the
ground and the structure.
Dead Loads (D)
→ Dead loads consist of the weight of all materials of construction incorporated into the building
including but not limited to walls, floors, roofs, ceilings, stairways, built-in partitions, finishes,
cladding and other similarly incorporated architectural and structural items, and fixed service
equipment such as plumbing stacks and risers, electrical feeders, and heating, ventilating, and air
conditioning systems.
From an engineering standpoint, once the materials and sizes of the various components of the
structure are determined, their weights can be found from tables that list their densities.
Table 204-1 Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials (kN/m 3) p.87
Table 2014-2 Minimum Design Dead Loads (kPa) p.88
Live Loads
→ Building floors are usually subjected to uniform live loads or concentrated live loads. They have to
be designed to safely support the minimum uniformly distributed load or the minimum concentrated
live load, whichever produces the maximum load effects in the structural members.
Table 205-1 Minimum Uniform and Concentrated Live Loads p.90-91
Table 205-2 Special Loads p.92

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 Roof Live Loads
Ordinary flat, pitched, and curved roofs shall be designed for the live loads specified below.

Wind Loads
Wind velocity will cause pressure on any surface in its path. The wind velocity and hence the velocity
pressure depend on the height from the ground level.

Earthquake Loads
Design requirements and seismic analysis is covered in your earthquake engineering subject.

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
The design of a structural member entails the selection of a cross section that will safely and
economically resist the applied loads. Economy usually means minimum weight—that is, the minimum
amount of steel. This amount corresponds to the cross section with the smallest weight per foot, which is the
one with the smallest cross-sectional area.

The fundamental requirement of structural design:

𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ≤ 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN (ASD)

• A member is selected that has cross-sectional properties such as area and moment of inertia that are
large enough to prevent the maximum applied axial force, shear, or bending moment from exceeding
an allowable, or permissible, value.

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 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
• Strength can be an axial force strength (as in tension or compression members), a flexural strength
(moment strength), or a shear strength.

The allowable stress will be in the elastic range of the material. This approach to design is also called
elastic design or working stress design. Working stresses are those resulting from the working loads,
which are the applied loads. Working loads are also known as service loads.
PLASTIC DESIGN
- is based on a consideration of failure conditions rather than working load conditions
• The term plastic is used because, at failure, parts of the member will be subjected to very large
strains—large enough to put the member into the plastic range.
• When the entire cross section becomes plastic at enough locations, “plastic hinges” will form at those
locations, creating a collapse mechanism.
• Members designed this way are not unsafe, despite being designed based on what happens at failure.

LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)

- is similar to plastic design in that strength, or the failure condition, is considered. Load factors are
applied to the service loads, and a member is selected that will have enough strength to resist the
factored loads.
• the theoretical strength of the member is reduced by the application of a resistance factor.
The criterion that must be satisfied in the selection of a member is
𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 ≤ 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

The factored strength is the theoretical strength multiplied by a resistance factor

(𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒔 × 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔) ≤ 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 × 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
• The factored loads are the loads that bring the structure or member to its limit (fracture,
yielding, or buckling)
• Factored resistance is the useful strength of the member, reduced from the theoretical value
by the resistance factor.

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS, AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD

𝑅𝑢 ≤ ∅𝑅𝑛
The factored resistance ∅𝑅𝑛 is called the design strength. The summation on the left side of
the equation is over the total number of load effects (including, but not limited to, dead load and live
load), where each load effect can be associated with a different load factor. Not only can each load
effect have a different load factor but also the value of the load factor for a particular load effect will
depend on the combination of loads under consideration.
where
𝑅𝑢 = required strength = sum of factored load effects (forces or moments)
𝑅𝑛 = the nominal resistance, or strength, of the component under consideration
ø = resistance factor

Section B2 of the AISC Specification says to use the load factors and load combinations prescribed by
the governing building code. If the building code does not give them, then ASCE 7 (ASCE, 2010)
should be used. The load factors and load combinations in this standard are based on extensive
statistical studies and are prescribed by most building codes.
NSCP 2015 Section 203.3 presents the basic load combinations using Load and Resistance Factor
Design in the following form:
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏: 𝟏. 𝟒(𝐃 + 𝐅)
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟐: 𝟏. 𝟐(𝐃 + 𝐅 + 𝐓) + 𝟏. 𝟔(𝐋 + 𝐇) + 𝟎. 𝟓(𝐋𝐫 𝐨𝐫 𝐑)
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟑: 𝟏. 𝟐𝐃 + 𝟏. 𝟔(𝐋𝐫 𝐨𝐫 𝐑) + (𝐟𝟏 𝐋 𝐨𝐫 𝟎. 𝟓𝐖)
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟒: 𝟏. 𝟐𝐃 + 𝟏. 𝟎𝐖 + 𝐟𝟏𝐋 + 𝟎. 𝟓(𝐋𝐫 𝐨𝐫 𝐑)
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟓: 𝟏. 𝟐𝐃 + 𝟏. 𝟎𝐄 + 𝐟𝟏𝐋
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟔: 𝟎. 𝟗𝐃 + 𝟏. 𝟎𝐖 + 𝟏. 𝟔𝐇
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟕: 𝟎. 𝟗𝐃 + 𝟏. 𝟎𝐄 + 𝟏. 𝟔𝐇
where
f1 = 1.0 for floors in places for public assembly, for live loads in excess of 4.8 kPa, and for garage live
load
f1 = 0.5 for other live loads
D = dead load
L = live load due to occupancy, except roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction
Lr = roof live load
F = loads due to fluids w/ well defined pressures and heights

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 R = rain or ice load*
W = wind load
E = earthquake (seismic load) set forth in Section 208.6.1
T = self-straining force resulting from temperature change, shrinkage, moisture change, creep,
movement due to differential settlements.
The resistance factor ø for each type of resistance is given by AISC in the Specification chapter dealing with
that resistance, but in most cases, one of two values will be used:
0.90 for limit sates involving yielding or compression buckling.
0.75 for limit states involving rupture (fracture).

SAFETY FACTORS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR ASD

For allowable strength design, the relationship between loads and strength (Equation 2.1) can be expressed as
Rn
Ra ≤
Ω
where
𝑅𝑎 = required strength
𝑅𝑛 = nominal strength (same as for LRFD)
Ω = safety factor
Rn
= allowable strength
Ω

The required strength R a is the sum of the service loads or load effects. As with LRFD, specific combinations
of loads must be considered. Load combinations for ASD are also given in NSCP 2015 Section 203.4.
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏: 𝐃 + 𝐅
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟐: 𝐃 + 𝐇 + 𝐅 + 𝐋 + 𝐓
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟑: 𝐃 + 𝐇 + 𝐅 + (𝐋𝐫 𝐨𝐫 𝐑)
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟒: 𝐃 + 𝐇 + 𝐅 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓[𝐋 + 𝐓 + (𝐋𝐫 𝐨𝐫 𝐑)]
𝐄
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟓: 𝐃 + 𝐇 + 𝐅 (𝟎. 𝟔𝐖 𝐨𝐫 )
𝟏. 𝟒
The factors shown in these combinations are not load factors. The 0.75 factor in some of the combinations
accounts for the unlikelihood that all loads in the combination will be at their lifetime maximum values
simultaneously. The 0.7 factor applied to the seismic load effect E is used because NSCP uses a strength
approach (i.e., LRFD) for computing seismic loads, and the factor is an attempt to equalize the effect for ASD.

Corresponding to the two most common values of resistance factors in LRFD are the following values of the
safety factor Ω in ASD:
For limit states involving yielding or compression buckling, Ω=1.67.
For limit states involving rupture, Ω= 2.00.

The relationship between resistance factors and safety factors is given by

1.5
Ω=
ø
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
A column (compression member) in the upper story of a building is subject to the following loads:
Dead load: 485 kN compression
Floor live load: 204 kN compression
Roof live load: 85 kN compression
Rain Load: 89 kN compression
a. Determine the controlling load combination for LRFD and the corresponding factored load.
b. If the resistance factor f is 0.90, what is the required nominal strength?
c. Determine the controlling load combination for ASD and the corresponding required service load
strength.
d. If the safety factor Ω is 1.67, what is the required nominal strength based on the required service load
strength?

SOLUTION
a. The controlling load combination is the one that produces the largest factored load. We evaluate each
expression that involves dead load, D; live load resulting from occupancy, L; roof live load, Lr; and
rain load, R.
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1: 1.4(D + F) = 1.4(485) = 679 𝑘𝑁
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2: 1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or R)
Because R is larger than Lr, we need to evaluate this combination only once, using R.
1.2(485) + 1.6(204) + 0.5(89) = 952.9 𝑘𝑁
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3: 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + (f1L or 0.5W)
1.2(485) + 1.6(89) + 1.0(204) = 928.4 𝑘𝑁
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 4: 1.2D + 1.0W + f1L + 0.5(Lr or R)
1.2(485) + 1.0(204) + 0.5(89) = 830.5 𝑘𝑁

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 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 5: 1.2D + 1.0E + f1L = 1.2(485) + 0 + 1.0(204) = 786 𝑘𝑁
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 6: 0.9D + 1.0(W or E) + 1.6H
These combinations do not apply in this example, because there are no wind or earthquake loads to
counteract the dead load.
✓ Combination 2 controls, and the factored load is 952.9 kN.

b. If the factored load obtained in part (a) is substituted into the fundamental LRFD relationship, we
obtain
𝑅𝑢 ≤ ∅𝑅𝑛
954.9 ≤ 0.90𝑅𝑛
𝑅𝑛 ≥ 1061 𝑘𝑁
✓ The required nominal strength is 1061 kN.

c. As with the combinations for LRFD, we will evaluate the expressions involving D, L, Lr, and R for ASD.
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1: 𝐷 + 𝐹 = 485 𝑘𝑁. (Obviously this case will never control when live load is present.)
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2: 𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + 𝐿 + 𝑇 = 485 + 204 = 689 𝑘𝑁
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3: 𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + (𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) = 485 + 89 = 574 𝑘𝑁
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 4: 𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + 0.75[𝐿 + 𝑇 + (𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)] = 485 + 0.75(204 + 89) = 704.75 𝑘𝑁
𝐸
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 5: 𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 (0.6𝑊 𝑜𝑟 )
1.4
Because W and E are zero, this expression reduces to combination 1.

✓ Combination 4 controls, and the required service load strength is 704.75 kN.
d. From the ASD relationship,
Rn
Ra ≤ ≫≫ R n ≤ 1.67(704.75) = 1177 kN
Ω
✓ The required nominal strength is 1177 kN.

GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF AREAS

1. Area – property used in the design for tension and shear.
𝒃
𝑨 = ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝒂
2. Centroid of an Area
- The location of the centroid of an area bounded by the x- and y-axes and the function y=f(x).
𝐴 𝑇 𝑥𝑐 = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐴

𝐴 𝑇 𝑦𝑐 = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴
3. Moment of Inertia – property used for stiffness.
𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼̅𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 2

𝐼𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼̅𝑦 + 𝐴𝑥 2
4. Section Modulus – geometric property used in the design of beams or flexural members
𝐼
𝑆=
𝑐
I = moment of inertia
c = distance from the neutral axis to the most extreme fiber.

5. Radius of Gyration – geometric property used for compression.

𝐼
𝑟=√
𝐴

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Determine the geometric properties of the W section shown below.
SOLUTION:
By inspection, the centroid is at the center of the section.

Area
𝐴 𝑇 = 2(127)(8.51) + (348 − 8.51(2))(5.84) = 𝟒, 𝟎𝟗𝟒 𝐦𝐦𝟐

11 | CE 424 | Design of Steel Structures

x-axis
127−5.84 3
127(348)3 ( )(348−2(8.51))
2
𝐼𝑥 = − 2( )
12 12

𝑰𝒙 = 𝟕𝟗. 𝟗𝟒(𝟏𝟎𝟔 ) 𝐦𝐦𝟒

𝐼𝑥 79.94(106 )
𝑆𝑥 = = = 𝟒𝟓𝟗, 𝟒𝟐𝟓 𝐦𝐦𝟑
𝑐 348
2
𝐼𝑥 79.94(106 )
𝑟𝑥 = √ = √ = 𝟏𝟕𝟒 𝐦𝐦
𝐴𝑇 459,425

Y-Axis
127−5.84 3
348(1273 ) (348−2(8.51))( )
2
𝐼𝑦 = −2( )
12 12

𝐼𝑦 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟏𝟒(𝟏𝟎𝟔 ) 𝐦𝐦𝟒

𝐼𝑦 47.14(106 )
𝑆𝑦 = = = 𝟕𝟒𝟐, 𝟑𝟔𝟐 𝐦𝐦𝟑
𝑐 127
( )
2
𝐼𝑦 47.14(106 )
𝑟𝑦 = √ = √ = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟑 𝐦𝐦
𝐴𝑇 459,425

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
Determine the geometric properties for C12X30 using the detailing values.
d = 305 mm
bf = 79.4 mm
tf = 12.7 mm
tw = 12.7 mm

SOLUTION:
Area
𝐴 𝑇 = 305(12.7) + 2(66.7)(12.7)
𝐴 𝑇 = 5568 mm2

Centroid:
305
𝑦̅ = = 152.5 mm
2
66.7
∑ 𝐴𝑥 305(12.7)(6.35)+2(66.7)(12.7)( 2 +12.7)
𝑥̅ = = = 18.43 mm
𝐴𝑇 5568
Moment of Inertia
3
79.4(3053 ) 66.7(305 − 2(12.7))
𝐼𝑥 = − = 66.24 × 106 mm4
12 12
305(79.43 ) (305 − 2(12.7))(66.73 )
𝐼𝑦 = − = 5.81(106 ) mm4
12 12

Section Modulus:
𝐼𝑥 66.24 × 106
𝑆𝑥 = = = 434,361 mm3
𝑐 305/2
𝐼𝑦 5.81(106 )
𝑆𝑦 = = = 87,106 mm3
𝑐 79.4 − 12.7

Radius of Gyration:
𝐼𝑥
𝑟𝑥 = √ = 109.07 mm
𝐴𝑇

𝐼𝑦
𝑟𝑦 = √ = 32.30 mm
𝐴𝑇

12 | CE 424 | Design of Steel Structures

LEARNING ACTIVITY:

1. Research the internet for three tallest steel building structures in a specific country of your choice.
Write a brief description of the building indicating the types of gravity and lateral load resisting
systems used in these buildings.

2. Sketch and completely dimension (in mm units) the cross sections of the following:
a. W36 × 210
b. W14 × 500
c. HP13 × 60
d. WT12 × 52
e. L6 × 4 × 1/2

PROBLEM SET 1:
See separate file in SIAS.

Resources:
L. Spiegel, G. Limbrunner. Applied Structural Steel Design, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
J. McCormac, S. Csernak. Structural Steel Design. England: Pearson Education Limited, c2012
A. Aghayere, J. Vigil, Structural Steel Design A Practice-Oriented Approach., New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
https://www.aisc.org/publications/detailing-resources2/dimensioningtool/

13 | CE 424 | Design of Steel Structures