RE Lec#1

NE-507 Radiological Engineering
Class Lecture # 1
Naturally Occurring Radiations
Dr. M. Sohail
01-07-2021 (Summer Semester)
Department of Nuclear Engineering
Email: msohail@pieas.edu.pk
DNE
Reference books
 “Introduction to Health Physics” by Herman Cember
 “Introduction to Nuclear Engineering “ by John R

Lamarsh
2 DNE
Naturally Occurring Radiation

Cosmic Radiation
 The primary cosmic radiation consists of a mixture of

protons ( ̴87%), α-particles ( ̴11%), and a trace of
heavier nuclei ( ̴1 %) and electrons ( ̴1 %)
 Mainly with energies between 108 and 1011 eV
 Interact in the first few hundred g/cm2 of the

atmosphere.
3 DNE
Naturally Occurring Radiation contd..

 Large numbers of secondary particles, in particular,
neutrons, additional protons, and charged pions, are
produced as a result of these interactions.
 Cosmic ray intensity increases with altitude because of

the decreased shielding effect of the atmosphere
4 DNE
Naturally Occurring Radiation contd..

Terrestrial Radiation
 Approximately 340 naturally occurring nuclides on

earth of which 70 are radioactive
 Primordial radionuclides present since the earth was

formed
 Concentrations or quantities of naturally occurring

radioactive material of sufficient activity are known by
the acronym NORM
5 DNE
Half Lives of Radionuclides

 Primordial nuclides must be very long-lived e.g. 238U(T1/2 =
4.5 X 109 yrs)
 Parents of long decay chains (short lived radionuclides)
 Cosmogenic radionuclides that are continually being

produced by the action of cosmic rays
 Other Naturally occurring short-lived radionuclides, such as

14C(T
1/2 = 5,730 yrs) produced by cosmic rays
 3H, the worldwide steady state inventory is estimated to be

34 × 106 Ci and for 14C is 31 × 107 Ci
6 DNE
Long Series of Radioactive Isotopes
7 DNE
Cont’d..
 The 238U and 234U belong to one family, the uranium
series
 While the 235U isotope of uranium is the first member

of another series called the actinium series
 All members of a radioactive series are found in the

upper portion of the periodic table
 The lowest atomic number in these groups is 81, while

the lowest mass number is 207
8 DNE
Cont’d..
 The first member of each series is very long-lived
 In case of artificially produced neptunium series, the

first member is the transuranic element 241Pu
 The half-life of 241Pu is only 13 years, a period of a
century is long enough to permit most of the 241Pu to
decay away
 The half-life of the longest-lived member of this series,

237Np, which is 2.2 × 106 years is also sufficiently short
compared to 4.5 billion yrs
9 DNE
Cont’d..
 Each naturally series has a gaseous member
 Which is the radioactive gas a different isotope of the

element radon
 The artificial neptunium series has no gaseous member
 The existence of the radioactive gases in the three

chains is one of the chief reasons for naturally
occurring environmental radioactivity
10 DNE
Cont’d..
 The radon gas diffuses out of the earth into the air and
becomes widely dispersed throughout the local
atmosphere
 The radioactive radon daughters, which are solids

under ordinary conditions, attach themselves to
atmospheric dust
 Airborne particles are washed out of the atmosphere
by rain, to increase background radiation during
periods of rain
11 DNE
Cont’d..
 When the ground is covered with snow a decrease in
airborne radioactivity occurs
 The filtering action of the snow blanket on the effusing

radon and its daughters
 Increased environmental radioactivity from this source

also occurs during temperature inversions
 When vertical mixing of the air and consequent

dilution of radon and its daughters temporarily ceases
12 DNE
Cont’d..
 The end product in each case of three natural
radioactive series is lead
o In the case of the uranium series, the final member is stable
206Pb, in the actinium series, it is 207Pb, and in the thorium
series, it is 208Pb.
 The artificial neptunium series differs, the terminal
member is stable bismuth, 209Bi.
13 DNE
Low-Atomic-Numbered Naturally
Occurring Radioisotopes
 Several of the elements among the lower-atomic
numbered members also have radioactive isotopes
 Potassium in humans is about 1.7 g/kg is the most

important from the health physics point of view
14 DNE

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NE-507 Radiological Engineering

 “Introduction to Nuclear Engineering “ by John R

Naturally Occurring Radiation

 The primary cosmic radiation consists of a mixture of

 Mainly with energies between 108 and 1011 eV

 Interact in the first few hundred g/cm2 of the

Naturally Occurring Radiation contd..

 Cosmic ray intensity increases with altitude because of

Naturally Occurring Radiation contd..

 Approximately 340 naturally occurring nuclides on

 Primordial radionuclides present since the earth was

 Concentrations or quantities of naturally occurring

Half Lives of Radionuclides

 Parents of long decay chains (short lived radionuclides)

 Cosmogenic radionuclides that are continually being

 Other Naturally occurring short-lived radionuclides, such as

 3H, the worldwide steady state inventory is estimated to be

Long Series of Radioactive Isotopes

 While the 235U isotope of uranium is the first member

 All members of a radioactive series are found in the

 The lowest atomic number in these groups is 81, while

 In case of artificially produced neptunium series, the

 The half-life of the longest-lived member of this series,

compared to 4.5 billion yrs

 Which is the radioactive gas a different isotope of the

 The artificial neptunium series has no gaseous member

 The existence of the radioactive gases in the three

 The radioactive radon daughters, which are solids

 The filtering action of the snow blanket on the effusing

 Increased environmental radioactivity from this source

 When vertical mixing of the air and consequent

 Potassium in humans is about 1.7 g/kg is the most

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