BIOENERGETICS

Chapter 2

Biochemical & Biomolecular

Technique

1
 Bioenergy
► 1. Energy, heat and work

► 2. Entropy and the second law of

thermodynamics

► 3. Free energy
2
What is Bioenergetics?
The study of
energy in living
systems
(environments)
and the
organisms
(plants and
animals) that
utilize them.
3
 Energy
► Required by all
organisms
► May be Kinetic
or Potential
energy

4
 Kinetic Energy
► Energy of
Motion
► Heat and
light energy
are examples

5
 Potential Energy
► Energy of
position
► Includes
energy stored
in chemical
bonds
6
7
Two Types of Energy
Reactions

8
 Endergonic Reactions
► Chemical reaction that requires a
net input of energy.
► Absorbs free energy and stores it
► Eg. Photosynthesis
Light
SUN Energy
photons

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

(glucose) 9
Why Photosynthesis is
Endergonic?
► Because plants take in solar energy,
water, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll to
begin the energy process

10
 Exergonic Reactions
► Chemical reactions that releases energy
► Eg. Cellular Respiration
► Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic
reactions and processes that take place in the
cells of organism to convert biochemical
energy from nutrients into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste
products

Energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O+ AT
(glucose)
P
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12
13
14
15
Metabolic Reactions of
Cells

16
What is Metabolism?
► The chemical processes that
occur within a living organism
in order to maintain life
► The sum total of the chemical
activities of all cells.
► Managing the material and
energy resources of the cell

17
Two Types of Metabolism

► Catabolic
Pathways
► Anabolic
Pathways

18
19
 Catabolic Pathway
► Metabolic reactions which release energy
(exergonic) by breaking down complex
molecules into simpler compounds
► Hydrolysis = add a water molecule to break
apart chemical bonds
► Cellular Respiration energy

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + AT

(glucose) P

20
Why cellular respiration is Hydrolysis?
► Cellular respiration is the process cells use to convert
the energy in the chemical bonds of nutrients to ATP
energy.

21
 Anabolic Pathway
► Metabolic reactions, which consume energy
(endergonic), to build complicated molecules from
simpler compounds.
► Dehydration synthesis = removal of a water molecule
to bond compounds together
► Photosynthesis

22
Why Photosynthesis is dehydration
reaction?
►Plants reserve very little of the glucose for
immediate use.
►Glucose molecules are combined by dehydration
synthesis to form cellulose, which is used as a
structural material.
►Dehydration synthesis is also used to convert glucose
to starch, which plants use to store energy.

23
Energy Coupling
► The transfer of energy from
catabolism to anabolism

► Energy from exergonic reactions drive

endergonic reactions and vice versa

► Eg. Photosynthesis – cellular respiration

cycle
24
25
Energy Transformation

► Governed by the Laws of

Thermodynamics.

2
6
1st Law of
Thermodynamics
► Energy can be transferred and
transformed, but it cannot be
created or destroyed.
► Also known as the law of
Conservation of Energy.

2
7
 2nd Law of
Thermodynamics
► Each energy transfer or transformation
increases the entropy of the universe.
Entropy = a measure of disorder or randomness

HEAT is energy in its most random state.

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Summary

► The quantity of energy in the

universe is constant, but its quality
is not.

2
9
Free Energy

► The portion of a system's energy that can

perform work.
G = H - TS
G = free energy of a system
H = total energy of a system
T = temperature in oK
S = entropy of a system

30
 Free Energy of a System
► If the system has:
► more free energy
► it is less stable
► It has greater work capacity

► Metabolic equilibrium = zero free energy so it can do no

work DEAD CELL
► Metabolic disequilibrium = produces free energy to do work
► More unstable produces more free energy
► Eg. Greater concentration/ temperature differences

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Free Energy Changes

3
2
Spontaneous Process

► If the system is unstable, it has a greater

tendency to change spontaneously to a
more stable state.
► This change provides free energy for
work.

3
3
Chemical Reactions

► Are the source of energy for living

systems.
► Are based on free energy changes.
Reaction Types
Exergonic: chemical reactions with a net
release of free energy.
Endergonic: chemical reactions that
absorb free energy from the
surroundings.

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Exergonic/Endergonic

3
5
3 main kinds of cellular
work
► i-Mechanical - muscle contractions
► ii-Transport - pumping across membranes
► iii-Chemical - making polymers

All cellular work is powered by

ATP

36
37
i-Mechanical –
muscle
contractions

38
► In vertebrate animals, there are three types of muscle tissues: 1)
skeletal, 2) smooth, and 3) cardiac
► 1) Skeletal muscle cells are long tubular cells with striations (3) and
multiple nuclei (4). The nuclei are embedded in the cell membrane
(5) so that they are just inside the cell. This type of tissue occurs in
the muscles that are attached to the skeleton. Skeletal muscles
function in voluntary movements of the body. 2) Smooth muscle cells
are spindle shaped (6), and each cell has a single nucleus (7). Unlike
skeletal muscle, there are no striations. Smooth muscle acts
involuntarily and functions in the movement of substances in the
lumens. They are primarily found in blood vessel walls and walls
along the digestive tract. 3) Cardiac muscle cells branch off from
each other, rather than remaining along each other like the cells in
the skeletal and smooth muscle tissues. Because of this, there are
junctions between adjacent cells (9). The cells have striations (8),
and each cell has a single nucleus (10). This type of tissue occurs in
the wall of the heart and its primary function is for pumping blood.
This is an involuntary action 39
40
41
ii-Transport - pumping across
membranes

42
iii-Chemical - making polymers

► A phosphate group is transferred from ATP to glucose, forming a

phosphorylated glucose intermediate (glucose-P). This is an energetically
favorable (energy-releasing) reaction because ATP is so unstable, i.e.,
really "wants" to lose its phosphate group.
► In the second reaction, the glucose-P intermediate reacts with fructose to
form sucrose. Because glucose-P is relatively unstable, this reaction also
releases energy and is spontaneous.
43
Cell Energy

► Couples an exergonic process to drive an endergonic

one.
► ATP is used to couple the reactions together.

4
4
Cellular Energy - ATP

4
5
 ATP
► Components:
1. adenine: nitrogenous base
2. ribose: five carbon sugar
3.phosphate group: chain of 3

adenine phosphate group

P P P
ribose

46
 Adenosine
Triphosphate
► Three phosphate
groups-(two with high
energy bonds
► Last phosphate group
(PO4) contains the
MOST energy
► All three phosphate
groups are negatively
charged (repel each
other making it very
unstable)
4
7
Breaking the Bonds of ATP
Occurs continually in cells
► Enzyme ATP-ase can
weaken & break last PO4
bond releasing energy &
free PO4

► Phosphorylated = a
phosphate group attaches
to other molecules making
them more unstable and
more reactive (energy
boost to do work)
4
8
How does ATP work ?
► Organisms use enzymes to
break down energy-rich
glucose to release its
potential energy
► This energy is trapped and
stored in the form of
adenosine triphosphate(ATP)
4
9
How Much ATP Do Cells Use?

► It is estimated
that each cell
will generate and
consume
approximately
10,000,000
molecules of ATP
per second
5
0
Coupled Reaction - ATP
► The exergonic hydrolysis of ATP is
coupled with the endergonic
dehydration process by
transferring a phosphate group to
another molecule.

H2O

H2O 51
 Hydrolysis of ATP
ATP + H2O → ADP + P (exergonic)

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

P P P

Hydrolysis
(add water)

P P + P
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Hyrolysis is Exergonic

Energy
Used
by
Cells

53
Dehydration of ATP
ADP + P → ATP + H2O
(endergonic)
Dehydration
(Remove H2O

P P + P
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

P P 5P
4
Dehydration is Endergonic

Energy
is
restored
in
Chemical
Bonds

5
5
ATP in Cells

► A cell's ATP content is recycled every minute.

► Humans use close to their body weight in ATP daily.

► No ATP production equals quick death.

56
 What Are Enzymes?
► Most enzymes are
Proteins (tertiary and
quaternary structures)
► Act as Catalyst to
accelerates a reaction
► Not permanently
changed in the
process

5
7
 Enzymes
► Are specific for
what they will
catalyze
► Are Reusable
► End in –ase
-Sucrase
-Lactase
-Maltase
How do enzymes Work?

Enzymes work by
weakening bonds
which lowers
activation energy
Activation Energy

► Energy needed to convert potential energy into kinetic

energy.

Activation Energy

Potential Energy
Enzymes
Without
Enzyme
With
Enzyme

Free Free energy of

Energy activation
Reactants

Products

Progress of the
61
reaction
6
2
6
3
Enzyme-Substrate Complex

The substance (reactant) an

enzyme acts on is the
substrate
Substrat
e Joins Enzyme
Active Site
Active
Site
Substrat
e Enzyme

► A restricted region of an enzyme molecule

which binds to the substrate.
6
6
Models of How Enzymes Work

1. Lock and Key model

2. Induced Fit model

6
7
 Lock and Key Model

► Substrate (key) fits to the

active site (lock) which
provides a microenvironment
for the specific reaction.

6
8
 Induced Fit
► A change in
the shape of
an enzyme’s
active site
► Induced by the
substrate
Induced Fit Model
► Substrate “almost” fits into the
active site, causing a strain on
the chemical bonds, allowing
the reaction.

7
0
Enzymes

► Usually specific to one substrate.

► Each chemical reaction in a cell

requires its own enzyme.

71
Factors that Affect Enzymes

► Environment (Temperature & pH)

► Cofactors
► Coenzymes
► Inhibitors
► Allosteric Sites

72
Environment

► Factors that change protein structure will

affect an enzyme.
► Examples:
► pH shifts
► temperature
► salt concentrations
Temperature & pH
► High temperatures denature
enzymes (Most enzymes like
normal body temperatures)
► Most enzymes function near
neutral pH (6 to 8)
► Denatured (unfolded) by ionic salts
7
5
 Cofactors
► Inorganic substances (zinc, iron, copper)
are sometimes need for proper enzymatic
activity.
► Non-protein helpers can bond to the
active site of enzymes to help in reactions

► Example:
Iron must be present in the
quaternary
structure of hemoglobin in order for it
to pick up oxygen.

76
 Coenzymes

► Organic molecules that act as

cofactors which help enzymes.
► Examples:
► vitamins

7
7
 Two examples of Enzyme
Inhibitors
a. Competitive inhibitors: are chemicals that resemble an
enzyme’s normal substrate and compete with it for the
active site.

Substrat
e Enzyme
Competitive inhibitor

7
8
 Inhibitors
b. Noncompetitive inhibitors:
Inhibitors that do not enter the active
site, but bind to another part of the enzyme
causing the enzyme to change its shape,
which in turn alters the active site.

Substrat Noncompetitive
e Inhibitor
Enzyme
active site
altered 7
9
8
0
 Control of Metabolism
► Is necessary if life is to function.
► Controlled by switching enzyme
activity "off" or "on” or separating
the enzymes in time or space.

Types of Control
1. Switching on or off the genes that encode for
specific enzyme production
2. Allosteric sites
3. Feedback inhibition
4. cooperativity

81
 Allosteric Regulation

► The control of an enzyme complex by the

binding of a regulatory molecule.
► Regulatory molecule may stimulate or
inhibit the enzyme complex.

► Allosteric site is a specific receptor site

on some part of the enzyme molecule
away from the active site
► When activated, this site changes the
shape of the enzyme to inhibit it or to
stimulate it
8
2
Allosteric Regulation

8
3
 Feedback Inhibition

► When a metabolic pathway is switched off by its

end-product.
► End-product usually inhibits an enzyme earlier in the
pathway.
► Prevents the cell from wasting chemical resources

8
4
8
5
 Cooperativity

► One substrate molecule can trigger the same favorable

shape-change in all the other subunits of the enzyme

► Amplifies the response of the enzymes to substrate

Review

8
7
Which is true of photosyntheis?

Anabolic or Catabolic

Exergonic Or Endergonic

8
8
 The breakdown of ATP is due to:

Dehydration or Hydrolysis

H2O added or H2O removed

Thank you

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