ENOCH AND THE MOSAIC TORAH

ENOCH AND THE

MOSAIC TORAH
The Evidence of Jubilees

Edited by

Gabriele Boccaccini & Giovanni Ibba

with the collaboration of

Jason von Ehrenkrook, James Waddell, and Jason Zurawski

W I L L I A M B . EERDMANS PUBLISHING COMPANY

GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN / CAMBRIDGE, U . K .

© 2009 William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company
All rights reserved

Published 2009 by
Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing C o .
2140 Oak Industrial Drive N . E . , Grand Rapids, Michigan 49505 /
P.O. Box 163, Cambridge C B 3 9 P U U.K.

Printed in the United States of America

14 13 12 11 10 09 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Enoch and the mosaic Torah: the evidence of Jubilees /

edited by Gabriele Boccaccini & Giovanni Ibba;
with the collaboration of Jason von Ehrenkrook,
James Waddell, and Jason Zurawski.

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
I S B N 978-0-8028-6409-3 (pbk.: alk. paper)
1. Book of Jubilees — Criticism, interpretation, etc. — Congresses.
2. Enoch Seminar (2nd : 2003: Venice, Italy). I. Boccaccini, Gabriele, 1958-
II. Ibba, Giovanni, 1962- III. Ehrenkrook, Jason von.
IV. Waddell, James, 1938- V. Zurawski, Jason.

BS1830.J8E56 2009
229'.911 — dc22
2009013095

www.eerdmans.com
Contents

Abbreviations

Preface: T h e E n i g m a of Jubilees and the Lesson

of the E n o c h Seminar

Gabriele Boccaccini

PART ONE: JUBILEES A N D ITS LITERARY CONTEXT

T h e Manuscript Tradition of Jubilees

fames C. VanderKam

T h e Composition of Jubilees

Michael Segal

T h e Relationship between Jubilees and the Early E n o c h i c Books

(Astronomical B o o k and B o o k of the Watchers)

John S. Bergsma

Daniel and Jubilees

Matthias Henze
Contents

T h e Chronologies of the Apocalypse of Weeks

and the B o o k of Jubilees 67

fames M. Scott

T h e A r a m a i c Levi D o c u m e n t , the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n ,

and Jubilees: A Study of Shared Traditions 82

Esther Eshel

T h e B o o k of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll 99

Lawrence H. Schiffman

Jubilees, Sirach, and Sapiential Tradition 116

Benjamin G. Wright III

T h e Heavenly Counterpart of Moses in the B o o k of Jubilees 131

Andrei A. Orlov

Jubilees and the Samaritan Tradition 145

Lester L. Grabbe

PART TWO: T H E MELTING OF MOSAIC AND

ENOCHIC TRADITIONS

Enochic J u d a i s m — a Judaism without the Torah and the Temple? 163

Helge S. Kvanvig

T h e Concept of Covenant in Jubilees 178

William K. Gilders

From a Movement of Dissent to a Distinct F o r m of Judaism:

T h e Heavenly Tablets in Jubilees as the Foundation

of a C o m p e t i n g Halakah 193

Gabriele Boccaccini

Abram's Prayer: T h e Coherence of the Pericopes in Jubilees 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7 211

Jacques van Ruiten

vi
 Contents

Reconsidering Jubilees: Prophecy and Exemplarity 229

Hindy Najman

PART T H R E E : JUBILEES BETWEEN ENOCH

AND QUMRAN

4 Q 2 6 5 and the Authoritative Status of Jubilees at Q u m r a n 247

Aharon Shemesh

Purity and Impurity in the B o o k of Jubilees 261

Lutz Doering

Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar of Jubilees 276

Jonathan Ben-Dov

T h e B o o k of Jubilees and the Origin of Evil 294

Loren T. Stuckenbruck

T h e Festivals of Pesah and Massot in the B o o k of Jubilees 309

Betsy Halpern-Amaru

Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees 323

John C. Endres, S.J.

Amplified Roles, Idealized Depictions: W o m e n in the

B o o k of Jubilees 338
Kelley Coblentz Bautch

Enochic and Mosaic Traditions in Jubilees:

T h e Evidence of Angelology and D e m o n o l o g y 353

Annette Yoshiko Reed

Worship in Jubilees and E n o c h 369

Erik Larson

vii
Contents

T h e B o o k of Jubilees and Early Jewish Mysticism 384

Martha Himmelfarb

PART FOUR: WHERE DOES JUBILEES BELONG?

Jubilees, the Temple, and the Aaronite Priesthood 397

David W. Suter

Jubilees and Enochic Judaism 411

David R. Jackson

Jubilees, Q u m r a n , and the Essenes 426

Eyal Regev

T h e B o o k of Jubilees: A Bibliography, 1850-Present 441

Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver

Index 469

viii
Abbreviations

AB A n c h o r Bible
ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary
AGJU Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des
Urchristentums
AION Annali dell'Istituto Orientale di Napoli
AJEC Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity
AJSL American Journal of Semitic languages and Literatures
ALD A r a m a i c Levi D o c u m e n t
ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt
Ant Josephus, Antiquities
AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament
AOS A m e r i c a n Oriental Series
APAT Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments
APOT The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament.
Edited by R. H . Charles. 2 vols. Oxford, 1913
ASTI Annual of the Swedish Theological Institute
ATANT Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testa­
ments
AUSS Andrews University Seminary Studies
b. Babylonian Talmud
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BASP Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists
BBB Bonner biblische Beitrage

ix
Abbreviations

BEATAJ Beitrage zur Erforschung des Alten Testaments und des

antiken Judentum
BETL Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium
Bib Biblica
BibOr Biblica et orientalia
BJS B r o w n Judaic Studies
BN Biblische Notizen
BSac Bibliotheca sacra
BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche
Wissenschaft
CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly
CBQMS Catholic Biblical Q u a r t e r l y - M o n o g r a p h Series
CCWJCW C a m b r i d g e Commentaries on Writings of the Jewish and
Christian World
CEJL Commentaries on Early Jewish Literature
ConBNT Coniectanea biblica: N e w Testament Series
CSCO C o r p u s scriptorum christianorum orientalium
DBSup Dictionnaire de la Bible: Supplement
DJD Discoveries in the Judaean Desert
DSD Dead Sea Discoveries
EDSS Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Edited by L . H .
Schiffman and J . C . V a n d e r K a m . Oxford, 2000
EgT Eglise et theologie
Encjud Encyclopaedia Judaica
Erlsr Eretz-Israel
EstBib Estudios biblicos
ET English translation
FJMB Forschungsstelle Judentum Mitteilungen und Beitrage
GTS Grazer theologische Studien
HAR Hebrew Annual Review
Hen Henoch
Hey] Heythrop Journal
HSM Harvard Semitic M o n o g r a p h s
HSS Harvard Semitic Studies
HTR Harvard Theological Review
HTS Harvard Theological Studies
HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual
IDB The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible
IEJ Israel Exploration Journal

x
 Abbreviations

IJA International Journal of Apocrypha

Int Interpretation
JA Journal asiatique
JAAR Journal of the American Academy of Religion
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature
JE The Jewish Encyclopedia. Edited by I. Singer. 12 vols. N e w
York, 1925
JJS Journal of Jewish Studies
JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies
JQR Jewish Quarterly Review
JSHRZ Jiidische Schriften aus hellenistisch-rdmischer Zeit
JSJ Journal for the Study of Judaism
JSJSup Journal for the Study of Judaism Supplement Series
JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament-Supplement Se­
ries
JSP Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha
JSPSup Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Supplements
JSQ Jewish Studies Quarterly
JSS Journal of Semitic Studies
JTS Journal of Theological Studies
LCL Loeb Classical Library
LJPSTT Literature of the Jewish People in the Period of the Second
Temple and the Talmud
LUOSMS Leeds University Oriental Society M o n o g r a p h Series
LXX Septuagint
m. Mishnah
MGWJ Monatsschrift fur Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums
MT Masoretic Text
NHS N a g H a m m a d i Studies
NIDB New International Dictionary of the Bible
NTL N e w Testament Library
NTOA N o v u m Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus
NTS New Testament Studies
OBO Orbis biblicus et orientalis
OLP Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica
Or Orientalia
OrChr Oriens christianus
OTL Old Testament Library

xi
Abbreviations

OTP The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Edited by James H .

Charlesworth. 2 vols. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983,
1985
OtSt Oudtestamentische Studien
PAAJR Proceedings of the American Academy of Jewish Research
PVTG Pseudepigrapha Veteris Testamenti graece
RAC Reallexikon fur Antike und Christentum
RB Revue biblique
REJ Revue des etudes juives
RevQ Revue de Qumran
RHPR Revue d'histoire et de philosophie religieuses
RHR Revue de Vhistoire des religions
RivB Rivista biblica italiana
RSR Recherches de science religieuse
RStB Ricerche storico bibliche
SAOC Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilizations
SBLEJL Society of Biblical Literature Early Judaism and Its Litera­
ture
SBLSBS Society of Biblical Literature Sources for Biblical Study
SBLSP Society of Biblical Literature Seminary Papers
SBLSymS Society of Biblical Literature S y m p o s i u m Series
SBLTT Society of Biblical Literature Texts and Translations
SC Sources chr^tiennes
SCS Septuagint and Cognate Studies
SEA Svensk exegetisk arsbok
SJLA Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity
SJOT Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament
SNTSMS Society for N e w Testament Studies M o n o g r a p h Series
SP Samaritan Pentateuch
SPB Studia postbiblica
STAR Studies in T h e o l o g y and Religion
STDJ Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah
StPB Studia post-biblica
SVTP Studia in Veteris Testamenti pseudepigraphica
TRu Theologische Rundschau
TSAJ Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum
TSK Theologische Studien und Kritiken
TUGAL Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der
altchristlichen Literatur

xii
 Abbreviations

VT Vetus Testamentum
VTSup Vetus Testamentum, Supplements
WMANT Wissenschaftliche Monographien z u m Alten und Neuen
Testament
WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen z u m Neuen Testament
y. Jerusalem Talmud
ZA Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie
ZABR Zeitschrift fiir altorientalische und biblische Rechtsgeschichte
ZAW Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
ZDMG Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft
ZDPV Zeitschrift des deutschen Palastina-Vereins
ZRGG Zeitschrift fiir Religions- und Geistesgeschichte
ZS Zeitschrift fiir Semitistik und verwandte Gebiete
ZWT Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Theologie

xiii
Preface: The Enigma of Jubilees
and the Lesson of the Enoch Seminar

Gabriele Boccaccini

T h e early E n o c h literature d o e s n o t c o n t a i n any reference to the M o s a i c T o -

r a h a n d d o e s n o t e m p h a s i z e the d i s t i n c t i v e l y M o s a i c l a w s d e s i g n e d for I s ­
r a e l . A t the t i m e o f the M a c c a b e a n r e v o l t , the b o o k o f D r e a m V i s i o n s relates
the ascent o f M o s e s to M o u n t S i n a i b u t c o n s p i c u o u s l y o m i t s either the
m a k i n g o f a c o v e n a n t o r the g i v i n g of the law. B y c o n t r a s t , J u b i l e e s gives
r o o m to b o t h M o s a i c a n d E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s w i t h i n the S i n a i t i c r e v e l a t o r y
framework.
W h a t s h o u l d w e m a k e of s u c h differences? W a s the o m i s s i o n of a n y
reference to the M o s a i c T o r a h in the early E n o c h t r a d i t i o n p u r e l y a c c i d e n t a l ,
an u n w a n t e d c o n s e q u e n c e of the m y s t i c a l literary g e n r e or interests of the
text? O r d o e s it reflect the reality of an a n c i e n t f o r m of J u d a i s m that d e v e l ­
o p e d a p a r t f r o m , or even against, the M o s a i c Torah? D o e s the b o o k o f J u b i ­
lees w i t n e s s to the e m e r g e n c e o f a n e w s y n t h e s i s of E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c tra­
d i t i o n s , or d o e s it testify to the m y s t i c a l interests o f the v e r y s a m e elites that
c h e r i s h e d the M o s a i c Torah? H a d the b o o k o f J u b i l e e s a n y t h i n g to do w i t h
the e m e r g e n c e of the E s s e n e m o v e m e n t a n d of the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y ? If
so, then to w h i c h extent?
A l l these q u e s t i o n s w e r e at the core of the F o u r t h E n o c h S e m i n a r at
C a m a l d o l i ( 8 - 1 2 July 2 0 0 7 ) . T h e m e e t i n g m a r k s the largest c o n f e r e n c e o f in­
t e r n a t i o n a l specialists ever g a t h e r e d to s t u d y the b o o k of J u b i l e e s , a n d p o s s i ­
b l y to address a n y O l d T e s t a m e n t P s e u d e p i g r a p h a . W i t h J a m e s V a n d e r K a m ,
J a c q u e s v a n R u i t e n , a n d G e o r g e N i c k e l s b u r g w e r e v i r t u a l l y all the m a j o r s p e ­
cialists in the d o c u m e n t , e i g h t y - f o u r s c h o l a r s from s e v e n t e e n countries

xiv
 Preface: The Enigma of Jubilees and the Lesson of the Enoch Seminar

(Australia, Canada, D e n m a r k , Ethiopia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary,

Israel, Italy, the N e t h e r l a n d s , N o r w a y , P o l a n d , S o u t h A f r i c a , the United
K i n g d o m , the U n i t e d States of A m e r i c a , a n d the V a t i c a n ) , v e t e r a n s or n e w ­
c o m e r s of the E n o c h S e m i n a r , w h o for the o c c a s i o n w e r e asked to c o n t r i b u t e
to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the d o c u m e n t in its o r i g i n a l h i s t o r i c a l a n d literary
context.
A n i m p r e s s i v e n u m b e r of t w e n t y - e i g h t p a p e r s (those here p u b l i s h e d )
w e r e s u b m i t t e d a n d circulated in a d v a n c e . T h e y w e r e d i s c u s s e d at C a m a l d o l i
in p l e n a r y s e s s i o n s a n d s m a l l g r o u p s , a n d then r e v i s e d for p u b l i c a t i o n . In
addition, nineteen short papers were presented. Edited by Pierpaolo
B e r t a l o t t o a n d T o d d H a n n e k e n , they h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y in a
c o m p a n i o n issue o f the j o u r n a l Henoch ( v o l . 3 1 , n o . 1, 2 0 0 9 ) .
S p e c i a l t h a n k s go to all the d i s t i n g u i s h e d specialists for c o n t r i b u t i n g to
this v o l u m e , to G i o v a n n i I b b a ( U n i v e r s i t y o f S i e n a ) for his e x p e r t s u p p o r t in
the editing p r o c e s s w i t h the p r e c i o u s assistance o f J a s o n v o n E h r e n k r o o k ,
J a m e s W a d d e l l , a n d J a s o n Z u r a w s k i , to J . H a r o l d E l l e n s , T o d d H a n n e k e n ,
a n d I s a a c O l i v e r for their h a r d a n d skillful w o r k as secretaries o f the E n o c h
S e m i n a r , to the D e p a r t m e n t of N e a r E a s t e r n S t u d i e s of the U n i v e r s i t y o f
M i c h i g a n a n d to the M i c h i g a n C e n t e r for E a r l y C h r i s t i a n Studies for their
loyal a n d g e n e r o u s s p o n s o r s h i p , a n d last b u t n o t least, to E e r d m a n s for p r o ­
d u c i n g this t h i r d v o l u m e in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h the E n o c h S e m i n a r , f o l l o w ­
ing Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection (2005)
a n d Enoch and the Messiah Son of Man: Revisiting the Book of Parables
(2007).

A s in the p r e v i o u s m e e t i n g s of the E n o c h S e m i n a r ( F l o r e n c e 2 0 0 1 ,
V e n i c e 2 0 0 3 , a n d C a m a l d o l i 2 0 0 5 ) , the debate at C a m a l d o l i 2 0 0 7 c o u l d n o t
a v o i d r e p e a t e d l y r e t u r n i n g to the v e r y s a m e q u e s t i o n : " H o w distinctive w a s
E n o c h i c J u d a i s m ? " J o h n J . C o l l i n s , o n e of the leaders of the E n o c h S e m i n a r ,
recently a d d r e s s e d the q u e s t i o n in an article in Meghillot: Studies in the Dead
Sea Scrolls V-VI; A Festschrift for Devorah Dimant, edited b y M . B a r - A s h e r
a n d E . T o v ( H a i f a : U n i v e r s i t y of H a i f a ; J e r u s a l e m : B i a l i k Institute, 2 0 0 7 ) , ""17-
*34. W h i l e c o n c l u d i n g that i n d e e d " E n o c h i c J u d a i s m reflects a distinctive
f o r m of J u d a i s m in the late t h i r d / e a r l y s e c o n d p e r i o d " (""33), C o l l i n s h i g h ­
lighted the m a j o r p o i n t s of c o n t r o v e r s y a m o n g s e c o n d t e m p l e specialists.
W h a t w a s E n o c h i c J u d a i s m : a m i l i t a n t o p p o s i t i o n party, a c o m p e t i n g f o r m
of J u d a i s m , or a m y s t i c a l s c h o o l w h o s e f r a m e o f interest w a s s i m p l y s o m e ­
t h i n g other t h a n the M o s a i c Torah? Were the a u t h o r s of this literature "dissi­
dent p r i e s t s " or s o m e t h i n g else? T h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s that s u r r o u n d the defini­
tion of E n o c h i c J u d a i s m affect a n d c o m p l i c a t e its relation w i t h Jubilees a n d

xv
Gabriele Boccaccini

the s e c t a r i a n d o c u m e n t s o f Q u m r a n . T h e latter l o o k clearly m o r e " M o s a i c "

t h a n E n o c h i c , e v e n t h o u g h "there is n o d o u b t that the E n o c h i c w r i t i n g s
h e l p e d s h a p e the w o r l d v i e w of that sect" (*33).
Since its s c h o l a r l y r e v i v a l in the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w h e n A u g u s t
D i l l m a n n p u b l i s h e d the first m o d e r n t r a n s l a t i o n in G e r m a n a n d the first
critical e d i t i o n of the E t h i o p i c text ( D i l l m a n n 1 8 5 1 , 1 8 5 9 ) , the e m p h a s i s g i v e n
to its M o s a i c or E n o c h i c e l e m e n t s led s c h o l a r s to assign Jubilees either to the
P h a r i s e e s ( R o n s c h 1 8 7 1 ; C h a r l e s 1 8 9 9 ) or to the E s s e n e s ( J e l l i n e k 1855) or to
E n o c h circles ( A l b e c k 1 9 3 0 ) . T h e d i s c o v e r y a n d p u b l i c a t i o n , in the mid-
n i n e t e e n t h century, of the H e b r e w f r a g m e n t s at Q u m r a n settled the q u e s ­
tion o f the o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e of the d o c u m e n t a n d m a d e m u c h m o r e likely
the a s s o c i a t i o n o f Jubilees w i t h the E s s e n e s a n d their c a l e n d a r ( J a u b e r t 1953,
1 9 5 7 ) , b u t d i d n o t solve the m y s t e r y of the o r i g i n of the d o c u m e n t . T h e u n ­
d e r s t a n d i n g w a s that Jubilees testified to an e a r l y stage in the h i s t o r y of the
E s s e n e m o v e m e n t (Testuz i 9 6 0 ) a n d r e p r e s e n t e d an early e x a m p l e of r e w r i t ­
ten B i b l e ( V e r m e s 1 9 6 1 ) .

The c o n t e m p o r a r y s t u d y of Jubilees b e g a n in the late 1970s w i t h the

studies of J a m e s V a n d e r K a m , w h o , w h i l e c o n f i r m i n g the a s s o c i a t i o n o f the
d o c u m e n t w i t h the E s s e n e s , b e g a n e x p l o r i n g its r e l a t i o n w i t h the E n o c h lit­
erature ( V a n d e r K a m 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 ) . T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of the G r o n i n g e n H y ­
p o t h e s i s a n d the E n o c h i c - E s s e n e H y p o t h e s i s further c o m p l i c a t e d the p i c ­
t u r e as t h e y c h a l l e n g e d the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n Q u m r a n a n d the rest o f
the E s s e n e m o v e m e n t a n d s u g g e s t e d a closer relation o f Jubilees w i t h n o n -
Q u m r a n E s s e n e s ( B o c c a c c i n i 2 0 0 5 ) . If E n o c h i c J u d a i s m w a s "the p a r e n t o f
the E s s e n e m o v e m e n t a n d the g r a n d p a r e n t o f the Q u m r a n Community,"
t h e n the p r e s e c t a r i a n b o o k o f Jubilees s h o u l d b e seen as e v i d e n c e o f the
transition between E n o c h and Q u m r a n .
At C a m a l d o l i 2 0 0 7 at least f o u r t e n d e n c i e s e m e r g e d . S o m e c l a i m e d
that Jubilees w a s a direct p r o d u c t o f E n o c h i c J u d a i s m w i t h s o m e M o s a i c i n ­
fluence — M o s a i c features w e r e s i m p l y s u b o r d i n a t e d to E n o c h i d e o l o g y .
S o m e s u g g e s t e d that J u b i l e e s w a s a c o n s c i o u s s y n t h e s i s of E n o c h i c a n d M o ­
saic t r a d i t i o n , yet r e m a i n i n g a u t o n o m o u s f r o m b o t h . S o m e asserted that J u ­
bilees w a s essentially a M o s a i c text w i t h s o m e E n o c h i c i n f l u e n c e — in the
c o n f r o n t a t i o n it w a s M o s e s w h o p r e v a i l e d . Finally, s o m e q u e s t i o n e d the v e r y
existence o f a g u l f b e t w e e n E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n s as c o m p e t i n g
f o r m s o f J u d a i s m at the t i m e of J u b i l e e s .
In the best t r a d i t i o n o f the E n o c h S e m i n a r s , n o a t t e m p t w a s m a d e to
reach any a g r e e m e n t or c o m p r o m i s e ; the g o a l w a s to let a n y v o i c e be h e a r d
a n d carefully c o n s i d e r e d in an o p e n f o r u m c o n t e x t . H e n c e , readers s h o u l d

xvi
 Preface: The Enigma of Jubilees and the Lesson of the Enoch Seminar

n o t e x p e c t to find here any s h a r e d s o l u t i o n to the Jubilees e n i g m a . W h a t

t h e y w i l l find in this v o l u m e is n o t a n e w c o h e r e n t v i e w of Jubilees s p o n ­
s o r e d b y the E n o c h S e m i n a r , b u t rather a lively debate a m o n g the m o s t dis­
t i n g u i s h e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l specialists, each s t r u g g l i n g for a better u n d e r s t a n d ­
ing of a d o c u m e n t w h o s e E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c e l e m e n t s s e e m to m a k e it fit
p o o r l y in any a n c i e n t o r m o d e r n c a t e g o r i e s .
Yet the E n o c h S e m i n a r is m u c h m o r e t h a n a n e u t r a l f o r u m , w h e r e
p r o b l e m s are c o n v e n i e n t l y e x p o s e d in all their n u a n c e s a n d p e r h a p s m a d e
m o r e i n t r i g u i n g b y the c o m p e t i n g s o l u t i o n s offered b y different a u t h o r s . W e
d o n o t share the a n s w e r s b u t w e all h a v e c o m e to agree that the k e y for u n ­
d e r s t a n d i n g the m y s t e r i e s of s e c o n d t e m p l e J e w i s h t h o u g h t c a n n o t be f o u n d
w i t h i n the m a n a g e a b l e b o u n d a r i e s of o u r o w n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n a l o n e , but o n l y
t h r o u g h a m u t u a l l y e n r i c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e of listening a n d comprehending
the a c h i e v e m e n t s of o n e a n o t h e r .
Since its e m e r g e n c e in the sixteenth century, the field of S e c o n d T e m ­
ple J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n O r i g i n s h a s b e e n c o n s t a n t l y o n the v e r g e of col­
l a p s i n g into the p l u r a l i t y o f its s u b f i e l d s . In the past it w a s l a r g e l y r e l i g i o u s
c o n c e r n s that created a clear s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h s t u d ­
ies a n d relegated the n o n c a n o n i c a l literature to a s u b o r d i n a t e status. N o w
the p r o b l e m s e e m s to b e p r i m a r i l y the h i g h d e g r e e o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n r e q u i r e d
to m a s t e r o n e subject or o n e b o d y of literature, a n d the contemporaneous
p r o c e s s of d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n a n d g l o b a l i z a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e that h a s m u l t i ­
p l i e d the b i b l i o g r a p h y into an u n t a m a b l e m o n s t e r . A s a result, the f r a g m e n ­
t a t i o n of s e c o n d t e m p l e J e w i s h studies has b e c o m e e n d e m i c a n d s c h o l a r s of
the field often a p p e a r reluctant to cross b o u n d a r i e s a n d v e n t u r e into an­
other's d o m a i n .

T h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c h o l a r s w h o h a v e j o i n e d the E n o c h S e m i n a r d o n o t
resign t h e m s e l v e s , a n d restrict their d r e a m s , to the g o a l of f i n d i n g a c o m f o r t ­
able n i c h e for t h e m s e l v e s . T h e e x p e r i e n c e of the E n o c h S e m i n a r has p r o v e d
to us the v a l i d i t y of the m e t h o d of analysis that tears d o w n the m i s l e a d i n g
w a l l s of s e p a r a t i o n that still d i v i d e o u r field of research, a n d c o u n t e r b a l a n c e s
the c u r r e n t f r a g m e n t a t i o n of the field, i n its m a n y subfields of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ,
b y r e c o v e r i n g the u n i t y a n d i n t e g r i t y of the p e r i o d . In o u r v i e w E n o c h has
b e c o m e m u c h m o r e t h a n the h e r o o f " E n o c h i c J u d a i s m . " H e has b e c o m e the
s y m b o l of o u r i n t e r c a n o n i c a l a n d i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y effort, as he is present in
each a n d all o f the c a n o n s a n d subfields that a n a c h r o n i s t i c a l l y d i v i d e the
s o u r c e s a n d the s c h o l a r s h i p of the p e r i o d : O l d T e s t a m e n t , A p o c r y p h a ,
P s e u d e p i g r a p h a , D e a d Sea Scrolls, J e w i s h - H e l l e n i s t i c literature, N e w Testa­
m e n t , a p o s t o l i c fathers, a n d the like.

xvu
Gabriele Boccaccini

In this p e r s p e c t i v e the 2 0 0 7 C a m a l d o l i m e e t i n g has m a r k e d a f u n d a ­

m e n t a l step in the life of the E n o c h S e m i n a r w i t h the d e c i s i o n b y the p a r t i c i ­
p a n t s to p r o v i d e m o r e s t r u c t u r e d g o v e r n a n c e a n d a consistent p l a n for the
d e v e l o p m e n t o f the field of S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n O r i g i n s
i n t h e y e a r s to come. Hanan Eshel (Bar-Ilan University) and Loren
Stuckenbruck (Durham U n i v e r s i t y ) h a v e j o i n e d the f o u n d i n g director
G a b r i e l e B o c c a c c i n i ( U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n ) as the v i c e - d i r e c t o r s of the
E n o c h S e m i n a r . F u t u r e m e e t i n g s are n o w p l a n n e d f o u r y e a r s in a d v a n c e u n ­
der the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of a chair ( A n d r e i O r l o v in 2 0 0 9 ; M a t t h i a s H e n z e in
2 0 1 1 . . . ) , a n d a p a r a l l e l series of b i e n n i a l g r a d u a t e conferences has b e e n s u c ­
cessfully l a u n c h e d (the E n o c h G r a d u a t e S e m i n a r s — A n n A r b o r 2 0 0 6 ;
Princeton 2008; Budapest 2 0 1 0 ; Notre D a m e 2 0 1 2 . . .). Far from being a
g a t h e r i n g o f E n o c h specialists or " b e l i e v e r s " in E n o c h i c J u d a i s m , the g r o u p
is n o w e x p a n d i n g its activities to the entire field of S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m
and Christian Origins.

T h e best piece of e v i d e n c e of the c o m i n g of age o f the E n o c h S e m i n a r is

the creation o f the n e w W e b site ( w w w . e n o c h s e m i n a r . o r g ) , beautifully de­
s i g n e d b y P i e r p a o l o B e r t a l o t t o ( U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n ) . A s a synthesis of o u r
past a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s a n d future p l a n s , the W e b site p r o v i d e s n o t o n l y d e ­
tailed i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the m e e t i n g s of the E n o c h S e m i n a r a n d o f the
E n o c h G r a d u a t e S e m i n a r , b u t also a g e n e r a l p i c t u r e of the status of studies i n
Second Temple Judaism and Christian Origins. The "International Scholar­
s h i p " p a g e i n c l u d e s a c o m p r e h e n s i v e d i r e c t o r y o f specialists w h o are c u r ­
rently w o r k i n g i n the field, c o u n t r y b y c o u n t r y . S e c o n d l y , it gives b i o g r a p h i c a l
a n d b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n on the h i s t o r y of research in the field from
the t i m e of the i n v e n t i o n of the press (late fifteenth c e n t u r y ) to the present.
T h i r d l y , it offers a selection, d e c a d e by d e c a d e , of the m o s t influential b o o k s
p u b l i s h e d in the field, w i t h special e m p h a s i s o n the latest titles. Finally, it
gives a list of the m a j o r w o r k s of art ( p a i n t i n g s , d r a m a s , o p e r a s , n o v e l s , m o v ­
ies, a n d the like) that offer a fictionalized a c c o u n t o f characters a n d events
f r o m the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d . A l l this i n f o r m a t i o n is not available a n y w h e r e
else, yet this is the historical m e m o r y that is the f o u n d a t i o n , the r o c k , on
w h i c h alone a solid h o u s e can be built. T h e W e b site has effectively o p e n e d a
third " s p a c e " besides the E n o c h S e m i n a r a n d the E n o c h G r a d u a t e S e m i n a r —
a v i r t u a l space in c o m p a r i s o n to that offered by the m e e t i n g s , yet n o less real,
w h e r e all specialists a n d students of the field can m e e t a n d share their w o r k
a n d l e a r n of each other, b r e a k i n g n a t i o n a l a n d specialization boundaries
w i t h o u t a b a n d o n i n g or b e t r a y i n g those b o u n d a r i e s .

A t C a m a l d o l i ( a n d w i t h this v o l u m e ) w e s c h o l a r s of the p e r i o d m i g h t

xvin
 Preface: The Enigma of Jubilees and the Lesson of the Enoch Seminar

n o t h a v e solved all the e n i g m a s o f J u b i l e e s , b u t w e h a v e f o u n d in the p r o c e s s

a c o m f o r t a b l e h o u s e for o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d a r e n e w e d sense o f p u r p o s e ,
unity, a n d m u t u a l c o m m i t m e n t for the y e a r s to c o m e .

List of Participants (Camaldoli 2 0 0 7 ) :

1. L u c a A r c a r i , U n i v e r s i t y of N a p l e s , Italy
2. D a n i e l A s s e f a , C a p u c h i n F r a n c i s c a n Institute, E t h i o p i a
3. C h r i s t o p h e B a t s c h , U n i v e r s i t y o f Lille, F r a n c e
4. A l b e r t B a u m g a r t e n , B a r - I l a n University, Israel
5. K e l l e y C o b l e n t z B a u t c h , St. E d w a r d ' s University, U S A
6. A n d r e a s B e d e n b e n d e r , D o r t m u n d , G e r m a n y
7. J o n a t h a n B e n - D o v , U n i v e r s i t y of H a i f a , Israel
8. J o h n S. B e r g s m a , F r a n c i s c a n U n i v e r s i t y of S t e u b e n v i l l e , U S A
9. C h r i s t o p h B e r n e r , G e o r g - A u g u s t - U n i v e r s i t a t G o t t i n g e n , G e r m a n y
1 0 . P i e r p a o l o B e r t a l o t t o , U n i v e r s i t y of B a r i , Italy
11. Katell Berthelot, C N R S , France
12. S i a m B h a y r o , U n i v e r s i t y of C a m b r i d g e , E n g l a n d
13. G a b r i e l e B o c c a c c i n i , U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n , U S A
14. Darrell Bock, Dallas Theological Seminary, U S A
1 5 . G i a n a n t o n i o B o r g o n o v o , C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y of M i l a n , Italy
1 6 . D a n i e l B o y a r i n , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a at B e r k e l e y , U S A
17. James H . Charlesworth, Princeton Theological Seminary, U S A
18. C a l u m C a r m i c h a e l , C o r n e l l University, U S A
1 9 . E s t h e r C h a z o n , H e b r e w U n i v e r s i t y of J e r u s a l e m , Israel
20. Michael Daise, William and M a r y College, U S A
21. G e n e D a v e n p o r t , L a m b u t h University, U S A
22. Michael Davis, Princeton Theological Seminary, U S A
23. M a r c e l l o D e l V e r m e , U n i v e r s i t y of N a p l e s , Italy
24. K a r o l y D o b o s , C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y of B u d a p e s t , H u n g a r y
25. L u t z D o e r i n g , K i n g ' s C o l l e g e L o n d o n , E n g l a n d
2 6 . H e n r y k D r a w n e l , C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y of L u b l i n , P o l a n d
27. Torleif E l g v i n , L u t h e r a n T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y , N o r w a y
28. J o h n C . E n d r e s , Jesuit S c h o o l of T h e o l o g y at B e r k e l e y , U S A
29. E s t h e r E s h e l , B a r - I l a n University, Israel
3 0 . H a n a n E s h e l , B a r - I l a n University, Israel
31. Daniel Falk, University of Oregon, U S A
3 2 . C r i s p i n F l e t c h e r - L o u i s , St. M a r y ' s L o n d o n , E n g l a n d
33. Ida F r o h l i c h , C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y of B u d a p e s t , H u n g a r y
34. C l a u d i o G i a n o t t o , U n i v e r s i t y of T u r i n , Italy
Gabriele Boccaccini

35- C h a r l e s G i e s c h e n , C o n c o r d i a T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y , U S A
3 6 . W i l l i a m K . G i l d e r s , E m o r y University, U S A
37. Lester L . G r a b b e , U n i v e r s i t y of H u l l , E n g l a n d
38. M a x i n e G r o s s m a n , U n i v e r s i t y of M a r y l a n d , U S A
39. B e t s y H a l p e r n - A m a r u , e m e r i t u s , V a s s a r C o l l e g e , U S A
4 0 . M a t t h i a s H e n z e , R i c e University, U S A
4 1 . M a r t h a H i m m e l f a r b , P r i n c e t o n University, U S A
42. J a m a l - D o m i n i q u e Hopkins, Crichton College, U S A
43. G i o v a n n i I b b a , U n i v e r s i t y o f Siena, Italy
44. D a v i d J a c k s o n , U n i v e r s i t y of S y d n e y , A u s t r a l i a
45. Jutta J o k i r a n t a , U n i v e r s i t y of H e l s i n k i , F i n l a n d
4 6 . R o b e r t A . K r a f t , U n i v e r s i t y of P e n n s y l v a n i a , U S A
47. H e l g e S. K v a n v i g , U n i v e r s i t y of O s l o , N o r w a y
48. E r i k L a r s o n , F l o r i d a I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y , U S A
49. W i l l i a m L o a d e r , M u r d o c h University, A u s t r a l i a
5 0 . G r a n t M a c a s k i l l , St. A n d r e w s University, S c o t l a n d
5 1 . L u c a M a z z i n g h i , C e n t r a l Italy T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y , Italy
5 2 . H i n d y N a j m a n , U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o , C a n a d a
53. G e o r g e W. E . N i c k e l s b u r g , e m e r i t u s , U n i v e r s i t y o f I o w a , U S A
54. B i l h a h N i t z a n , e m e r i t u s , T e l - A v i v U n i v e r s i t y , Israel
55. E r i c N o f f k e , V a l d e n s i a n F a c u l t y o f T h e o l o g y , Italy
56. D a n i e l O l s o n , D & J Scott P u b l i s h i n g , U S A
57. A n d r e i A . O r l o v , M a r q u e t t e University, U S A
58. D o r o t h y Peters, T r i n i t y Western University, C a n a d a
59. A n d e r s K l o s t e r g a a r d Petersen, U n i v e r s i t y of A a r h u s , D e n m a r k
6 0 . C l a i r e P f a n n , U n i v e r s i t y o f the H o l y L a n d , Israel
61. S t e p h e n P f a n n , U n i v e r s i t y o f the H o l y L a n d , Israel
62. Pierluigi Piovanelli, University of Ottawa, C a n a d a
63. A n n e t t e Y o s h i k o R e e d , M c M a s t e r University, C a n a d a
64. E y a l Regev, B a r - I l a n University, Israel
65. J a c q u e s v a n R u i t e n , U n i v e r s i t y of G r o n i n g e n , N e t h e r l a n d s
66. P a o l o S a c c h i , e m e r i t u s , U n i v e r s i t y of T u r i n , Italy
67. S t e p h a n e S a u l n i e r , N e w m a n T h e o l o g i c a l C o l l e g e , E d m o n t o n , C a n a d a
68. L a w r e n c e H . S c h i f f m a n , N e w Y o r k University, U S A
69. J a m e s M . Scott, T r i n i t y Western University, C a n a d a
7 0 . M i c h a e l Segal, H e b r e w U n i v e r s i t y of J e r u s a l e m , Israel
7 1 . A h a r o n S h e m e s h , B a r - I l a n University, Israel
7 2 . J o s e p h Sievers, Pontifical B i b l i c a l Institute, V a t i c a n C i t y
73. D a n i e l S t o k l B e n - E z r a , C N R S , F r a n c e
 Preface: The Enigma of Jubilees and the Lesson of the Enoch Seminar

74. Loren T. Stuckenbruck, D u r h a m University, England

75. D a v i d W . Suter, St. Martin's University, U S A
7 6 . Shemaryahu Talmon, emeritus, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
77. Sam T h o m a s , California Lutheran University, U S A
78. Cristiana Tretti, Milan, Italy
79. James C . V a n d e r K a m , University of Notre D a m e , U S A
80. Pieter Venter, University of Pretoria, South Africa
81. Ralph Williams, University of Michigan, U S A
82. Benjamin Wold, University of Tubingen, G e r m a n y
83. Benjamin Wright, Lehigh University, U S A
84. Azzan Yadin, Rutgers University, U S A

Secretaries
1. J. Harold Ellens, University of Michigan, U S A
2. Todd Hanneken, University of Notre D a m e , U S A
3 . Isaac W . Oliver, University of Michigan, U S A

xxi
PART ONE

JUBILEES AND ITS LITERARY CONTEXT

The Manuscript Tradition of Jubilees

James C. VanderKam

T h e book of Jubilees began its modern life as an object of study by Western

scholars when copies of the w o r k were found in Ethiopia and brought to E u ­
rope in the 1840s. Since that time a large number of copies in Ge'ez have
been identified and photographed, and fragmentary evidence for the text of
the book in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Syriac has come to light. Actually,
m u c h of the Greek evidence had been available for a long time: in the 1720s
Johann Fabricius had collected citations from Jubilees in Greek and Latin in
1
his Codex Pseudepigraphus Veteris Testamenti. Today there are more such
passages available than the ones Fabricius had assembled.
In this paper I will present a report detailing all the textual sources for
the book of which I am aware and a short analysis of them. T h e presentation
will follow a chronological order. For clarity's sake, the early history of the text
and the evidence for it can be summarized briefly in these five statements:

Jubilees was written in Hebrew (extant evidence: fourteen mss. from

Qumran).
Jubilees may have been translated from Hebrew into Syriac (excerpts,
no ms. copies).
Jubilees was translated from Hebrew into Greek (excerpts, no ms.
copies).

1. The two-volume work appeared in 1722-23 (Hamburg: T. C . Felginer). The Jubilees

citations may be found in 1:849-64; 2:120-22.

3
James C. VanderKam

Jubilees w a s translated f r o m G r e e k into L a t i n (one partially p r e s e r v e d

copy).

Jubilees w a s translated f r o m G r e e k into E t h i o p i c ( n e a r l y t h i r t y c o p i e s ) .

I. H e b r e w

T h e earliest m e n t i o n o f a H e b r e w f o r m of the b o o k o f Jubilees is f o u n d in C D

a n
16:2-4, identification that I m a i n t a i n despite D e v o r a h D i m a n t ' s recent re­
2
j e c t i o n o f it. T h e text, after m e n t i o n i n g the T o r a h of M o s e s in w h i c h e v e r y ­
thing is precisely defined ( p l p T T B ) , refers the reader to a n o t h e r w o r k for "the
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of their times for the b l i n d n e s s of Israel r e g a r d i n g all these
1
t h i n g s " a n d cites a title for it: D r m i V n t m i Q n ^ a V ? DTlJffi mp'pna n S O .
In it too the m a t t e r in q u e s t i o n receives precise definition (pTpTTQ). T h e
r e a d i n g o f C D 1 6 : 2 - 4 is n o w d o c u m e n t e d in p a r t b y 4 Q 2 7 0 6 ii 17 a n d 4 Q 2 7 1 4
3
ii 5 . A v e r y s i m i l a r w o r d i n g of a title is f o u n d in three places at a n d n e a r the
b e g i n n i n g of J u b i l e e s .
P r o l o g u e : " T h e s e are the w o r d s r e g a r d i n g the d i v i s i o n s of the t i m e s o f
the l a w a n d of the testimony, o f the events of the y e a r s , of the w e e k s
4
of their j u b i l e e s "
1:4 " H e related to h i m the d i v i s i o n s of all the t i m e s — b o t h of the l a w
a n d of the t e s t i m o n y "
4 Q 2 1 6 1 . 1 1 : [nj-iin ?
5
D'npn] mpVnia
1:26 " . . . the d i v i s i o n s of t i m e w h i c h are in the l a w a n d w h i c h are in the
t e s t i m o n y and in the w e e k s of their j u b i l e e s " ( 4 Q 2 1 6 4 4 p r e s e r v e s a
c o u p l e of letters f r o m the e x p r e s s i o n ; cf. also 4 Q 2 1 7 frg. 2 1 )

T h e caves f r o m Q u m r a n have y i e l d e d a g o o d l y n u m b e r of copies of J u ­

bilees, all w r i t t e n in H e b r e w , a n d c o m i n g f r o m a r a n g e of dates. T h e s e are
the securely identified c o p i e s , their contents, and their suggested p a l e o -
g r a p h i c a l dates.

2. D. D i m a n t , "Two 'Scientific' Fictions: The So-called B o o k of N o a h and the Alleged

Quotation o f Jubilees in C D 16:3-4," in Studies in the Hebrew Bible, Qumran, and the Septua-
gint Presented to Eugene Ulrich, ed. P. Flint, E . Tov, and J. V a n d e r K a m , V T S u p 101 (Leiden:
Brill, 2006), 242-48.
3. J. B a u m g a r t e n , Qumran Cave4.XIII: The Damascus Document (4Q266-2Z1), D J D 18
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1996), 156, 178.
4. Translations of Jubilees are from m y The Book of Jubilees, 2 vols., C S C O 5 1 0 - 1 1 ,
Scriptores Aethiopici 87-88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989), vol. 2.

4
 The Manuscript Tradition of Jubilees

Manuscript Passage(s) Preserved Paleographical D a t e

1Q17 27:19-20 early Herodian

5
1Q18 35:8-10 late H a s m o n e a n

2Q19 23:7-8 Herodian

2Q20 46:1-3 1st cent. C . E .

6

3Q5 3» 1 23:6-7, 1 2 - 1 3 1st cent, C . E .

4Q176 19-21 23:21-23, 30-31 Herodian 7

8
4Q216 Prologue, 1 : 1 - 2 , 4 - 7 , 7 - 1 5 , 2 6 - 2 8 ; 125-100/ca. 5 0

2:1-4, 7 - 1 2 , 1 3 - 2 4

4Q218 2:26-27 early Herodian

9
4Q219 21:1-2, 7 - 1 0 , 1 2 - 1 6 , 1 8 - 2 2 : 1 late H a s m o n e a n
10
4Q220 21:5-10 early H e r o d i a n

4Q221 2 1 : 2 2 - 2 4 ; 22:22, 30 (?); 2 3 : 1 0 - 1 3 ; late Hasmonean or

11

3 3 : 1 2 - 1 5 ; 3 7 : 1 1 - 1 5 ; 38:6-8; 39:4-9 early H e r o d i a n

12
4Q222 25:9-12; 27:6-7; 48:5 (?) late H a s m o n e a n

5. The Cave 1 fragments were published in D. Barthelemy and J. Milik, eds., Qumran
Cave 1, D J D 1 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1955), 82-84 with pi. X V I .
6. The Cave 2 and 3 fragments were published in M . Baillet, J. Milik, and R. de Vaux,
eds., Les 'petitesgrottes'de Qumran, D J D 3 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1962), 7 7 - 7 9 , with pi. X V ; and
96-98, with pi. X V I I I . 3 Q 5 was originally presented in this volume as "une proph£tie
apocryphe" b y the editor Baillet, b u t R. Deichgraber ("Fragmente einer Jubilaen-
Handschrift aus Hohle 3 von Qumran," RevQ 5 [1964-66]: 4 1 5 - 2 2 ) , A . Rofe ("Fragments
from an Additional Manuscript of the Book of Jubilees in Qumran Cave 3 " [in Hebrew],
Tarbiz 3 4 [1965]: 3 3 3 - 3 6 ) , and Baillet himself ("Remarques sur le manuscrit du Livre des
Jubil£s de la grotte 3 de Qumran," RevQ 5 [1964-66]: 4 2 3 - 3 3 ) soon recognized frgs. 1 and 3 as
coming from Jub 23.
7. 4Q176 was published as "Tanhumim" in J. Allegro, QumrAn Cave 4 I (4Q158-
4Q1S6), D J D 5 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1968), 60-67, with pis. X X I I - X X I I I . M . Kister later iden­
tified frgs. 19-21 as coming from Jubilees ("Newly-Identified Fragments of the Book of Jubi­
lees: Jub 2 3 : 2 1 - 2 3 , 3 0 - 3 1 , " RevQ 12 [1987]: 529-36).
8. For an earlier edition, see J. VanderKam and J. Milik, "The First Jubilees M a n u ­
script from Q u m r a n Cave 4: A Preliminary Publication," JBL 110 (1991): 2 4 3 - 7 0 . Two dates
are given because 4Q216 was copied by two scribes, with the outer sheet (containing the first
columns) added to an older manuscript.
9. For an earlier edition, see VanderKam and Milik, "A Preliminary Publication of a
d
Jubilees Manuscript from Qumran Cave 4: 4 Q j u b (4Q219)," Bib 73 (1992): 62-83.
c
10. For earlier editions of 4Q218 and 2 2 0 , see VanderKam and Milik, " 4 Q j u b (4Q218)
and 4 Q j u b ' (4Q220): A Preliminary Edition," Textus 17 (1994): 43-56.
f
11. For an earlier edition, see VanderKam and Milik, "4Qjub : A Preliminary Edition,"
HAR 14 (1994): 233-61.
g
12. For an earlier edition, see VanderKam and Milik, "4Qjubilees (4Q222)," in New

5
James C. VanderKam

13
4Q223-24 3 2 : 1 8 - 2 1 ; 34:4-5; 3 5 : 7 - 2 2 ; 3 6 : 7 - 2 3 ; late H a s m o n e a n

37:17-38:13; 39:9-40:7; 41:7-10;

41:28 (?)

llQl2 4 : 6 - 1 1 , 1 3 - 1 4 , 1 6 - 1 8 (?), 2 9 - 3 1 ; 5 : 1 - 2 ; late Herodian

12:15-17, 28-29 1 4
(ca. 50 C . E . )

T h e r e are also s o m e f r a g m e n t a r y Q u m r a n texts that have been identified as

c o m i n g from Jubilees b u t about w h i c h s o m e skepticism is in order.

4Q217 1:29; 2:28-3o(?) Hasmonean (before

50 B . C . E . )

Joseph M i l i k identified 4 Q 2 1 7 , a p a p y r u s m a n u s c r i p t , as a copy of Jubilees

and thought it contained the H e b r e w text of Jub 1:29 (frg. 1 ) ; 1 : 2 9 - 2 : 1 (frg. 2 ) ,

2:28-30 (frg. 3 ) , 1:24 (?; frg. 6 ) , and 2:14 (?; frg. 7 ) . If he were correct, w e w o u l d

have to posit substantial differences between the H e b r e w and Ethiopic texts

of Jubilees at this point. T h e identification is m o s t uncertain, b u t it seems

unlikely to m e that the eleven s u r v i v i n g fragments from 4 Q 2 1 7 provide

1 5
enough evidence to include it a m o n g the copies of Jubilees from Q u m r a n .

Qumran Texts and Studies — Proceedings of the First Meeting of the International Organiza­
tion for Qumran Studies, Paris 1992, ed. G . Brooke and F. Garcia Martinez, S T D J 1 5 (Leiden:
Brill, 1994), 105-16.
13. T h e Cave 4 copies, other than 4 Q 1 7 6 , were published in VanderKam and Milik,
"Jubilees," in Qumran Cave 4.VIII: Parabiblical Texts, Parti, D J D 13 (Oxford: Clarendon,
1994), 1-140, with pis. I-II, I V - I X .
14. T h e Cave 11 fragments were published in F. Garcia Martinez, E . Tigchelaar, and
A . van der Woude, eds., Manuscripts from Qumran Cave 11 ( 1 1 Q 2 - 1 8 , 1 1 Q 2 0 - 3 0 ) , D J D 23 (Ox­
ford: Clarendon, 1997), 2 0 7 - 2 0 , with pi. X X V I . For an earlier edition, see van der Woude,
"Fragmente des Buches Jubilaen aus Q u m r a n Hohle X I (nQJub)," in Tradition und Glaube:
Das frtihe Christentum in seiner Umwelt. Festgabe fiir Karl Georg Kuhn, ed. G . Jeremias,
H . Kuhn, and H . Stegemann (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1972), 140-46, with pi.
V I I I . Milik subsequently placed some small fragments, "A propos de nQJub," Bib 54 (1973):
77-78. See also Garcia Martinez, "Texts from Cave 11," in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Forty Years of
Research, ed. D. Dimant and U. Rappaport, S T D J 10 (Leiden: Brill, 1992), 2 3 . Attention
0
should be drawn to the editors' comments regarding 11Q21, published as liQtemple . They
note that the physical appearance and layout are much like those of 1 1 Q 1 2 , and the hand may
be that of the scribe of 11Q12. However, they were not able to locate the fragments in the
known text of Jubilees, while it does show some overlap with the Temple Scroll ( 4 1 1 - 1 4 , with
pi. X L V I I I ) . In Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of Jubilees, H S M 14 (Missoula:
Scholars Press, 1977), 1 8 - 1 0 1 , 1 reedited the Hebrew fragments then available and compared
their readings with the versional evidence.
w
15. For the edition, see D J D 13, 2 3 - 3 3 , ' t h pi. III.

6
 The Manuscript Tradition of Jubilees

1 6
4Q482 13:29 (or G e n 1 4 : 2 2 - 2 4 ) ; 36:9 (?) Herodian

T h e r e are eight s m a l l pieces g r o u p e d u n d e r 4 Q 4 8 2 . M a u r i c e Baillet d e ­

b a t e d w h e t h e r frg. 1 c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h Jub 13:29 or w i t h G e n 1 4 : 2 2 - 2 4 . H e w a s
able to read t w e n t y - f o u r letters s p r e a d over five lines, w i t h o n l y one ( u n c e r ­
1
tain) c o m p l e t e w o r d (DH in line 3 ) . If he has correctly read ]V 7'S in line 1, the
possessive that he reconstructs p a r t i a l l y in line 2 w o u l d not be v e r y far distant
f r o m it, thus suggesting a rather short line, w h i l e the reference to Mamre that
he finds in line 3 has a parallel o n l y at a c o n s i d e r a b l y greater distance in Jub
13:29. N o t h i n g else m a t c h e s the context in J u b i l e e s . T h e r e is a s i m i l a r p r o b l e m
w i t h s p a c i n g in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h G e n 1 4 : 2 2 - 2 4 . T h e piece p r o b a b l y has the
text of neither Jub 13:29 n o r G e n 1 4 : 2 2 - 2 4 . F o r frg. 2 Baillet asked w h e t h e r it
held the text of J u b 36:9. It has ten letters distributed over three lines. It s e e m s
1
that the w o r d B m n ( w h i c h c a n m e a n "he w i l l d e v i s e " ) m a d e h i m t h i n k
a b o u t Jub 36:9 w h e r e yaxasses (- he will seek) a p p e a r s , as does "sky," w h i c h
w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d w i t h D'ttU? in line 2 . B u t the v e r b s do n o t h a v e the s a m e
m e a n i n g , a n d as a result there is n o t h i n g to identify the w o r d s on the frag­
m e n t w i t h J u b 36:9. Baillet w a s able to locate n o n e of frgs. 3 - 8 .

4Q483 G e n 1:28 ( J u b 2:14?) Herodian

T h e t w o tiny f r a g m e n t s p r e s e r v e , respectively, little a n d n o t h i n g dis­

tinctive. T h e s e c o n d has o n l y o n e legible letter, b u t the first has eleven of
t h e m l o c a t e d o n three lines. T h e w o r d that m a d e Baillet t h i n k the f r a g m e n t
c o u l d b e f r o m J u b 2 : 1 4 is w h a t he r e a d s as miPS'SI, a l t h o u g h he c o n s i d e r e d
r e a d i n g it as D'lPS'D'l. J u b 2:14 c o n t a i n s the a s s i g n m e n t given to h u m a n i t y to
rule the earth (JHXH c a n b e r e a d o n line 2 ) . Yet, if a p l u r a l v e r b a l f o r m is
1 7
p r o p e r l y r e a d , it w o u l d n o t a g r e e w i t h J u b 2 : 1 4 .

4Q484 M i d - i s t cent. C . E .

Baillet p u b l i s h e d u n d e r this n u m b e r t w e n t y f r a g m e n t s , the m o s t p r o ­

d u c t i v e o f w h i c h offers five letters (frg. 1 " I D t ^ t y ) , three m a r k e d w i t h a circlet

16. 4Q482 and 4Q483 were published by Baillet, Qumran Grotte4.Ill, D J D 7 (Oxford:
C l a r e n d o n , 1982), 1 - 2 , with pi. I. In neither case was he sure about the identification, as the
alternative identifications a n d question m a r k s that he supplied show.
17. P u e c h has n o w m a i n t a i n e d that 4Q483 is a c o p y o f G e n e s i s ( " U n nouveau
m a n u s c r i t de la G e n e s e de la grotte 4: 4Q483 — p a p 4 Q G e n e s e ° , " RevQ 1 9 , no. 74 [1999]: 259-
60). T h a t is, he agrees w i t h Baillet's first suggestion for it.

7
James C. VanderKam

a n d o n e w i t h a dot (frg. 5 also h a s five letters b u t on t w o l i n e s ) . S o he

s e a r c h e d for uses of " I s s a c h a r " in the literature a n d v e r y tentatively sug­
gested that 4 Q 4 8 4 w a s a H e b r e w c o p y of the T e s t a m e n t of J u d a h . A p p a r e n t l y
the p r e s e n c e o f J137 in frg. 7 p o i n t e d m o r e to the T e s t a m e n t o f J u d a h (the
w o r d is u s e d at 25:2) t h a n to the T e s t a m e n t of I s s a c h a r . H e also notes that the
v e r b Dip c a n b e r e a d on frg. 19, a n d it is p r e s u p p o s e d in T J u d 24:1 a n d p e r ­
1 8
h a p s v. 5 . E m i l e P u e c h later r e s t u d i e d the f r a g m e n t s w h i l e w o r k i n g o n the
e d i t i o n of 4 Q 5 3 8 that M i l i k h a d identified as f r o m a T e s t a m e n t of J u d a h .
P u e c h r e v i s e d s o m e of Baillet's r e a d i n g s a n d d e t e r m i n e d that 4 Q 4 8 4 s h o u l d
1 9
be renamed 4 Q j u b ' . H e t h o u g h t a shin or a lamed f o l l o w e d the name
" I s s a c h a r " o n frg. 1 ( B a i l l e t h a d i n d i c a t e d n o a d d i t i o n a l letter) a n d t h o u g h t it
fit J u b 28:22 or 3 4 : 2 0 . O n either r e a d i n g of a letter after "Issachar," the frag­
m e n t w o u l d n o t m a t c h the E t h i o p i c w o r d i n g in J u b 28:22 (semo yessakor ba-
rabu'u), n o r in 34:20 (wa-sema la-be'esita yessakor hezaqa). F o r frg. 2, w h e r e
Baillet placed two midline dots on either side of Puech reads

("certainement") ' 3 X ^ 0 as i n J u b 33:7 {'arVasani robel). T h e identifi­

c a t i o n is p o s s i b l e b u t the r e a d i n g is far f r o m a s s u r e d . T h e other fragments
P u e c h m u s t treat differently, as there is either n o w o r d o r n o c o n t e x t , b u t he
does t h i n k Baillet's r e a d i n g o f JT57 in frg. 7 is w r o n g ; a better r e a d i n g is J l Q , a
n a m e f o u n d in J u b 1 9 : 1 2 . A s the n a m e a p p e a r s in G e n 25:2 as w e l l , I d o n o t
20
t h i n k w e h a v e w a r r a n t for r e g a r d i n g 4 Q 4 8 4 as a n o t h e r c o p y of J u b i l e e s .
T h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t a r y c o p i e s are not the o n l y e v i d e n c e for the H e ­
b r e w v e r s i o n of J u b i l e e s , a n d there are also i n d i c a t i o n s that Jubilees exercised
a m o d e s t i n f l u e n c e in later H e b r e w literature.
As the editors a n d c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e r e g u l a r l y n o t e d , s o m e m i d r a s h -
i m e m b o d y e x p a n s i o n s closely r e s e m b l i n g o n e s in J u b i l e e s . T h e f o l l o w i n g
are e s p e c i a l l y n o t e w o r t h y .
1. The Book of Asaph (or The Book of Noah): T h e first p a r t o f the text
has close similarities w i t h J u b 1 0 : 1 - 1 4 , the s t o r y a b o u t the 90 p e r c e n t r e d u c ­
tion in the n u m b e r o f d e m o n s a l l o w e d to afflict the d e s c e n d a n t s o f N o a h .
T h e text is available in A . Jellinek, Bet ha-Midrash: Sammlung kleiner Mid-
raschim und vermischter Abhandlungen aus der alteren judischen Literatur,

18. D J D 7, 3, w i t h pi. I.
19. P u e c h , " U n e nouvelle c o p i e d u Livre des Jubiles 4Q484 = pap4QJubiles'," RevQ 19,
no. 74 (1999): 2 6 1 - 6 4 .
20. Puech ("Une nouvelle copie," 264 n. 7) also writes that identifying 4Q516 as a c o p y
of Jubilees is not excluded, b u t the o n l y e v i d e n c e he cites is frg. 9 w h e r e Baillet read J ^ t l ,
placing circlets above all three letters ( D J D 7 , 3 0 0 ) . B u t Jubilees is o n l y one of several w o r k s
that m e n t i o n s the n a m e , a n d the reading is n o t certain.

8
 The Manuscript Tradition of Jubilees

3rd ed. ( L e i p z i g : F. N i e s , 1853; r e p r i n t e d , J e r u s a l e m : W a h r m a n n B o o k s , 1 9 6 7 ) ,

t h i r d p a r t , p p . 1 5 5 - 5 6 . It b e g i n s : " T h i s is the b o o k of r e m e d i e s that the first
sages c o p i e d f r o m the b o o k of S h e m , N o a h ' s s o n , w h i c h w a s t r a n s m i t t e d to
N o a h at M t . L u b a r , o n e o f the m o u n t a i n s of A r a r a t , after the flood." W h i l e
the first p a r t of the s h o r t text l o o k s v e r y m u c h like the s e c t i o n in Jubilees a n d
21
t h u s can, in s o m e p l a c e s , be u s e d in e v a l u a t i n g s o m e details in the t e x t , The
Book of Asaph d o e s n o t constitute an e x t e n d e d q u o t a t i o n f r o m J u b i l e e s . T h e
w r i t e r p r e s e n t s the s t o r y in a s o m e w h a t different o r d e r a n d lacks parts of it
as it a p p e a r s in J u b i l e e s , for e x a m p l e , G o d ' s a c c e d i n g to M a s t e m a ' s r e q u e s t
that he be a l l o w e d to retain o n e - t e n t h of the d e m o n s . T h e a u t h o r of The
Book of Asaph d o e s n o t state the s o u r c e for the s t o r y other t h a n s a y i n g N o a h
received it.

2. Midrash Wayyissa'u: I n the s e c o n d h a l f of the m i d r a s h , the w a r b e ­

t w e e n J a c o b a n d E s a u is r e c o u n t e d in a w a y p a r a l l e l w i t h the s t o r y in J u b 3 7 -
38. Jellinek p u b l i s h e d this m i d r a s h as w e l l in the t h i r d p a r t of his Bet ha-
Midrash, 1 - 5 . T h e s i t u a t i o n w i t h Midrash Wayyissa'u is r e m i n i s c e n t o f the
o n e for The Book of Asaph: s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l is offered b u t the text reads far
differently t h a n the parallels in J u b i l e e s . T h e first section of the m i d r a s h d e ­
tails J u d a h ' s w o n d r o u s m i l i t a r y e x p l o i t s a g a i n s t the k i n g of T a p p u a c h a n d
others b y his b r o t h e r s a n d father. T h e r e are s e v e r a l p o i n t s o f contact (e.g.,
2 2
the n a m e s of cities) b e t w e e n it a n d J u b 3 4 : 2 - 9 .
T h e r e are traces o f the influence of Jubilees e l s e w h e r e in J e w i s h litera­
ture. T h e s e s h o w that, in s o m e f o r m , i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m Jubilees c o n t i n u e d to
2 3
b e of use to c o m m e n t a t o r s o n the text of G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s .
In Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of Jubilees, I c o m p a r e d the
r e a d i n g s of the H e b r e w f r a g m e n t s that h a d b e e n p u b l i s h e d at that t i m e w i t h
the r e a d i n g s of the four E t h i o p i c m a n u s c r i p t s o n w h i c h R . H . C h a r l e s h a d
b a s e d his e d i t i o n . I f o u n d that the best E t h i o p i c r e a d i n g s a n d the H e b r e w

21. F o r examples, see V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, 2:58-60. R. H . Charles repro­

duced the relevant part of The Book of Noah in his Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of ju­
bilees, Anecdota oxoniensia (Oxford: Clarendon, 1895), appendix 1:179. M . Himmelfarb
translates the section in question a n d discusses it in " S o m e Echoes o f Jubilees in Medieval
Hebrew Literature," in Tracing the Threads: Studies in the Vitality of Jewish Pseudepigrapha,
ed. J. Reeves, S B L E J L 6 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1994), 127-36.
22. Charles printed the latter half o f the midrash as appendix I I , 180-82, in his
Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of Jubilees. See also V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Historical
Studies, 218-38.
23. For further information, see A . Epstein, " L e livre des Jubiles, Philon et le Midrasch
Tadsche," REJ 21 (1890): 80-97; REJ 22 (1891): 1-25; Himmelfarb, " S o m e Echoes," 115-41.

9
James C. VanderKam

o n e s c o r r e s p o n d e d v e r y closely. O d d l y e n o u g h , there are even cases w h e r e

the H e b r e w is defective a n d the E t h i o p i c has p r e s e r v e d the c o r r e c t r e a d i n g .
T h o u g h the H e b r e w base of that c o m p a r i s o n w a s s m a l l , it p r o v i d e d e v i d e n c e
that the E t h i o p i c text of Jubilees is a careful r e n d e r i n g of the o r i g i n a l text
(via a G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n ) . W o r k w i t h the C a v e 4 copies that b e c a m e available
later has r e i n f o r c e d the c o n c l u s i o n s d r a w n in that study, a l t h o u g h there are
i n d e e d differences b e t w e e n the H e b r e w a n d E t h i o p i c r e a d i n g s in a n u m b e r
of details. A n o t h e r factor s u p p o r t i n g the reliability o f the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n of
Jubilees is the fact that the citations from G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s in the b o o k
h a v e the characteristics of w h a t F r a n k C r o s s called the P a l e s t i n i a n t e x t - t y p e
of the P e n t a t e u c h or w h a t w e c o u l d call a text closely related to the t y p e t h a t
lies at the b a s e of the S a m a r i t a n r e c e n s i o n .

II. S y r i a c

T h e r e m a y have b e e n a S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f the b o o k of J u b i l e e s , p o s s i b l y
m a d e f r o m a H e b r e w b a s e . T h e e v i d e n c e for a S y r i a c v e r s i o n is m u c h like
that for a G r e e k v e r s i o n : w e h a v e i n d i r e c t e v i d e n c e p o i n t i n g t o w a r d such a
conclusion but no manuscript of a Syriac translation. T h e surviving evi­
dence is as f o l l o w s :
1. T h e first text that r a i s e d the p o s s i b i l i t y that Jubilees h a d b e e n t r a n s ­
lated i n t o S y r i a c w a s B M A d d i t i o n a l 1 2 . 1 5 4 , folio 180 p u b l i s h e d b y A n t o n i o
2 4
M a r i a C e r i a n i in 1 8 6 1 . B e c a u s e J u b i l e e s ' list o f the n a m e s o f the m a t r i a r c h s
s e e m s to h a v e b e e n of such w i d e s p r e a d interest, the text, w h i c h b e g i n s : " T h e
n a m e s of the w i v e s of the p a t r i a r c h s a c c o r d i n g to the b o o k w h i c h is called
J u b i l e e s a m o n g the H e b r e w s , " is r e p r o d u c e d here:

T h e n a m e of A d a m ' s wife w a s E v e ;
of the wife of C a i n w a s ' A s a w a .
T h e n a m e of Seth's wife w a s ' A z u r a , his sister,
a n d of the wife of E n o s h w a s N a ' u m , his sister;
of C a i n a n M a h a l a l u t , his sister;
of M a h a l a l a ' e l D i n a , the daughter of his uncle;
of Ya'ar [ = J a r e d ] B a r a k a , the daughter of his uncle;
of E n o c h ' E d n i , the daughter of his uncle;

24. A. M . C e r i a n i , Monumenta Sacra etProfana, 2 vols. ( M i l a n : Bibliotheca A m b r o s i -

ana, 1 8 6 1 ) , 2:ix-x.

10
 The Manuscript Tradition of Jubilees

of M e t h u s e l a h ' E d n a , the daughter of his uncle;

of L a m e c h ' E n u s h a y , the d a u g h t e r of his uncle.
T h e n a m e of the wife of N o a h ' A m i z a r a , the daughter of his uncle;
of the wife of S h e m S e d q a t n e b a b ;
of H a m N a h a l m a h u q ;
of Japheth ' A d n a t n a s h e .
T h e n a m e of the wife of A r p a c h s h a d w a s R u s a , the d a u g h t e r of
Shushan;
of C a i n a n his son M a l k a , the daughter of M a d a y ;
of Shelah his son M a ' a k a , the daughter of his uncle;
of the wife of E b e r ' A z u r a , the d a u g h t e r of N e b r o d ;
of Peleg M a n a , the daughter of Sana'ar. In the days of Peleg the tower
w a s built; its height 5433 cubits, stadia.
T h e n a m e of the wife of R a ' u w a s ' A r w a , the daughter of U r ;
of Serug M a l k a , the daughter of K e b e r his uncle;
of N a h o r his son Isaqa, the daughter of Nastag the C h a l d e a n ;
of Terah ' E d n a , the daughter of his uncle A b r a m . She gave birth to a
son a n d n a m e d h i m A b r a m after the n a m e of her father;
but of A b r a m , Isaac, a n d Jacob, the n a m e s of the w i v e s are k n o w n ;
but of the sons of J a c o b : of R e u b e n ' A d a , of S i m e o n Y a ' a k a ' a the
C a n a a n i t e s s ; of L e v i M a l k a f r o m the daughters of A r a m ; of J u d a h
B a t - s h u a ' the C a n a a n i t e s s ; of Issachar ' A z a q a ; of Z e b u l u n ' E d n a y ;
of D a n T o b - h a g l a ; of N a p h t a l i R u s h a from B e t - N a h a r i n ; of G a d
M a ' a q a ; of A s h e r Yona; of J o s e p h A s n a t ; of B e n j a m i n ' A s a m a n a .
T h e n a m e of the daughter of P h a r a o h w h o w a s k i n d to M o s e s w a s
Tarmutay.
B u t according to others R a ' u s a .

S o m e G r e c i s m s in the text (e.g., the spelling of Jubilees [ywbly'], stadion)

s u g g e s t e d the base m i g h t h a v e b e e n G r e e k . T h e p o s s i b i l i t y that Jubilees h a d
b e e n translated into S y r i a c i n c r e a s e d w h e n a series of citations of the b o o k
w e r e i s o l a t e d in a c h r o n i c l e .
2. C h r o n i c l e to the y e a r 1 2 3 4 : T h i s l e n g t h y c h r o n i c l e s h o w s that w r i t ­
ers in the S y r i a c t r a d i t i o n u s e d J u b i l e e s as d i d their G r e e k - w r i t i n g c o l ­
l e a g u e s to s u p p l e m e n t G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s . In it there are c i t a t i o n s o f 1 3 7
v e r s e s in J u b i l e e s a n d a l l u s i o n s to 8 o t h e r s . E . T i s s e r a n t a n a l y z e d the cita­
t i o n s a n d , b a s i n g his i n f e r e n c e o n the l a c k o f G r e e k i n f l u e n c e in t h e m a n d
the fact that the a u t h o r u s e d o n l y S y r i a c a n d A r a b i c s o u r c e s , c o n c l u d e d that
t h e y c a m e f r o m a S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n of J u b i l e e s m a d e d i r e c t l y f r o m the H e ­

ll
James C. VanderKam

2 5
brew Jubilees. T h e i n f e r e n c e is p o s s i b l e , b u t there are o t h e r w a y s of e x ­
p l a i n i n g the e v i d e n c e .

III. Greek

T h e r e is s o l i d r e a s o n for t h i n k i n g that the b o o k of Jubilees w a s translated

f r o m H e b r e w into G r e e k , even t h o u g h n o c o p y of a G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n has
b e e n identified. A s a result, o n e m u s t use other k i n d s of a r g u m e n t s to estab­
lish the existence o f the t r a n s l a t i o n .
1. E t h i o p i c b i b l i c a l literature w a s translated from G r e e k . A s Jubilees is
r e g u l a r l y i n c l u d e d a m o n g the s c r i p t u r a l b o o k s o f the A b y s s i n i a n c h u r c h , it
too w o u l d have c o m e from a Greek m o d e l .
2. C l u e s in the E t h i o p i c text b e t r a y a G r e e k base for the t r a n s l a t i o n . B e ­
sides transliterated G r e e k w o r d s a n d n a m e s s p e l l e d in their G r e e k f o r m s ,
there are m i s t a k e s in the G e ' e z text that c a n b e e x p l a i n e d c o n v i n c i n g l y b y
p o s i t i n g a G r e e k Vorlage for the E t h i o p i c r e a d i n g . O n e e x a m p l e recently s u g ­
gested b y W i l l i a m G i l d e r s is in J u b 7:4: " h e [ N o a h ] p u t s o m e of its b l o o d o n
the m e a t of the altar." S i n c e there w o u l d h a v e b e e n n o m e a t o n the altar for
this riNOn offering, G i l d e r s p r o p o s e d that the o r i g i n a l H e b r e w here w o u l d
h a v e b e e n , n o t "It^D, b u t I T U T p , so that N o a h p u t the b l o o d o n the h o r n s o f
the altar. N e i t h e r the H e b r e w n o r E t h i o p i c t e r m s for these t w o w o r d s are
likely c a n d i d a t e s for c o n f u s i o n , b u t KSpcrra ( h o r n s ) a n d Kpeara (flesh, a p l u ­
ral f o r m of Kpeac) c o u l d easily h a v e c a u s e d the m i s t a k e n r e a d i n g in the G e ' e z
2 6
manuscripts.
3. A f e w citations of a n d a l l u s i o n s to J u b i l e e s , m a d e b y w r i t e r s o f G r e e k
w h o u s e d G r e e k s o u r c e s , have s u r v i v e d . T h e s e are n o t a b u n d a n t in n u m b e r
b u t do m a k e it r e a s o n a b l e to t h i n k that a t r a n s l a t i o n of Jubilees into G r e e k
(or at least a G r e e k r e n d e r i n g o f parts of it) existed. W h i l e m o s t o f the e v i ­
dence c o m e s f r o m relatively late texts, the s o u r c e s of the late citations m a y
go b a c k to a m u c h earlier t i m e in history.

25. E . Tisserant, "Fragments syriaques du Livre des Jubiles," RB 30 (1921): 55-86, 206-
32. F o r the edition of the chronicle, see J. B . Chabot, Chronicon ad annum Christi 1234
pertinens I, C S C O 81, Scriptores Syri 36 (Louvain: Secretariat d u C o r p u s S C O , 1920). I repro­
duced the Syriac fragments in The Book of Jubilees, 1.
26. W. Gilders, "Where D i d N o a h Place the Blood? A Textual Note o n Jubilees 7:4,"
JBL 124 (2005): 745-49. For other examples o f such confusions, see Charles, The Book of Jubi­
lees or the Little Genesis (London: A d a m a n d Charles Black, 1902), x x x .

12
 The Manuscript Tradition of Jubilees

E p i p h a n i u s (ca. 3 1 5 - 4 0 3 ) : T h e b i s h o p o f S a l a m i s ( C o n s t a n t i a ) o n C y ­
p r u s w r o t e t w o m a j o r w o r k s , in b o t h of w h i c h he m a d e b r i e f use of J u b i l e e s .
The Panarion (= The Medicine Chest; Against Heresies is the G r e e k ti­
tle): H e c o m p o s e d this c o m p i l a t i o n of w h a t he c o n s i d e r e d d e v i a n t v i e w s in a
t w o - t o - t h r e e - y e a r p e r i o d d u r i n g the m i d - 3 7 0 s . It is a " h i s t o r i c a l e n c y c l o p e ­
dia of h e r e s y a n d its r e f u t a t i o n . E p i p h a n i u s u n d e r t o o k the m o n u m e n t a l task
of listing all p r e - a n d p o s t - C h r i s t i a n sects — a total of e i g h t y — f r o m A d a m
till his o w n l i f e t i m e , s k e t c h i n g their h i s t o r y a n d c h i e f d o c t r i n e s as he u n d e r ­
s t o o d t h e m , a n d telling the faithful, in a f e w w o r d s , w h a t a n s w e r to give
27
them." H i s e m p l o y m e n t of J u b i l e e s c o m e s i n s e c t i o n 3 o f b o o k 1 w h e r e he
treats sect # 3 9 , the S e t h i a n s . H e w i s h e d to refute their ideas a b o u t C a i n a n d
A b e l as s o n s o f t w o m e n , a b o u t w h o m t w o angels q u a r r e l e d , l e a d i n g to the
m u r d e r o f A b e l . T h e p o w e r o n h i g h , c a l l e d M o t h e r a n d F e m i n i n e , s e e m s to
h a v e w o n the contest. S h e then c a u s e d the g e n e r a t i o n of Seth a n d p l a c e d h e r
p o w e r in h i m (see 2 , 1 - 3 , 4 ) . A g a i n s t these i d e a s , " f o o l i s h , w e a k a n d full o f
n o n s e n s e , " E p i p h a n i u s defends the s t o r y a b o u t the first f a m i l y as p r e s e n t e d
in G e n e s i s . In 5 , 5 he i n t r o d u c e s several q u o t a t i o n s f r o m G e n e s i s that he calls
s c r i p t u r e . T h e J u b i l e e s a l l u s i o n s are p a r t of his refutation of S e t h i a n v i e w s
(6, 1 - 5 ; see also 7, 1 - 3 ) .

B u t , as is a p p a r e n t in Jubilees or " T h e Little G e n e s i s " [ T i c 5 e TOIC

'IcupnAcdoic, euptjoKetai KCU rfj XeTtTfj r e v e a e i KaXouuEvrj], the b o o k even
contains the n a m e s of b o t h Cain's and Seth's wives — to the utter s h a m e
of these p e o p l e w h o have recited their m y t h s to the w o r l d . F o r after
A d a m h a d h a d sons a n d daughters it b e c a m e necessary that, for the t i m e
b e i n g , his sons m a r r y their o w n sisters. S u c h a thing w a s n o t unlawful;
there w a s n o other h u m a n stock. In a m a n n e r of s p e a k i n g , in fact, A d a m
practically m a r r i e d his o w n d a u g h t e r himself, since she w a s fashioned
from his b o d y a n d b o n e s a n d h a d b e e n f o r m e d in u n i o n w i t h h i m b y
G o d . A n d this w a s n o t u n l a w f u l . A n d his sons w e r e m a r r i e d , C a i n to his
older sister, w h o s e n a m e w a s S a u e [Trj aSeXcprj rfj U£i£ovi Zaun,]; a n d a
third son, Seth, w h o w a s b o r n after A b e l , to his sister n a m e d A z u r a [rfj
XeYOuevrj a u r o u aSsXcpfj A C o u p a ] . A s the Little G e n e s i s says, A d a m h a d
other sons too — nine after these three — so that he h a d two daughters
2 8
b u t twelve sons, o n e of w h o m w a s killed w h i l e eleven s u r v i v e d .

27. F. Williams, The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis Book I (Sects 1-46), N H S 35

(Leiden: Brill, 1987), x v i .
28. T h e translation is from W i l l i a m s , The Panarion, 259.

13
James C. VanderKam

H e d r a w s the i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the w i v e s ' n a m e s f r o m J u b 4:9, 1 1 , a n d J u b

4:10 m e n t i o n s the n i n e a d d i t i o n a l s o n s . E p i p h a n i u s , in the s e q u e l , s p e a k s
a b o u t the n e c e s s i t y of m a r r y i n g c o u s i n s in the n e x t g e n e r a t i o n s (7, 2 ) , a
p o i n t m a d e r e p e a t e d l y b y the a u t h o r of Jubilees in c h a p . 4 ( w . 1 5 , 1 6 , 27, 28,
3 3 ) . E p i p h a n i u s does n o t i n t r o d u c e the m a t e r i a l f r o m Jubilees as s c r i p t u r e ,
a n d Jubilees is n o t a m o n g the b i b l i c a l b o o k s he n a m e s in his treatise Mea­
sures and Weights; b u t the i n f o r m a t i o n in the b o o k of Jubilees w a s reliable
e n o u g h for h i m to use in refuting a sect that a t t r i b u t e d a different o r i g i n a n d
n a t u r e to S e t h .
Measures and Weights ( 3 9 2 ) : T h o u g h E p i p h a n i u s w r o t e his " B i b l e
2 9
handbook" in G r e e k , the full text has n o t s u r v i v e d in the o r i g i n a l b u t is
available in a S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n . F o r t u n a t e l y , the s e c t i o n f r o m Jubilees is
a m o n g the e x t a n t G r e e k s e c t i o n s . W h e n d i s c u s s i n g the s c r i p t u r a l m e a s u r e
modius, he notes that it c o n t a i n s t w e n t y - t w o xestai. " N o w I s p e a k of the 'just'
modius, as the L a w is a c c u s t o m e d to say, a c c o r d i n g to the s a c r e d m e a s u r e .
For, O l o v e r o f g o o d , G o d d i d t w e n t y - t w o w o r k s b e t w e e n the b e g i n n i n g a n d
the seventh day, w h i c h are these: . . ." H e t h e n lists the t w e n t y - t w o w o r k s o f
the first w e e k , o b v i o u s l y r e p r o d u c i n g J u b i l e e s ' c r e a t i o n a c c o u n t , t h o u g h he
d o e s n o t here n a m e his s o u r c e ( 2 1 - 2 2 ; see also 2 3 - 2 4 ) . T h e extent o f the cita­
tion a n d its p r e c i s i o n (the t w e n t y - t w o w o r k s are the s a m e a n d are c o r r e c t l y
d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r the s i x d a y s ) offer g r o u n d s for t h i n k i n g E p i p h a n i u s h a d a c ­
cess to a G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n of J u b i l e e s , n o t s i m p l y a w o r k c o n t a i n i n g extracts
f r o m it. H e also r e p r o d u c e s J u b i l e e s ' c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the t w e n t y - t w o
w o r k s o f c r e a t i o n u n t i l the s a b b a t h a n d the t w e n t y - t w o g e n e r a t i o n s u n t i l J a ­
cob (see also 3 - 4 ) .

O t h e r t h a n E p i p h a n i u s , a l m o s t all the G r e e k citations f r o m Jubilees

a p p e a r in B y z a n t i n e c h r o n o g r a p h i e s that date f r o m s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s later.
T h e earliest a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t of these w a s a u t h o r e d b y G e o r g e S y n c e l l u s ,
w h o c o m p i l e d his Chronograph)' circa 8 0 8 - 1 0 . A c c o r d i n g to H e i n r i c h Gelzer,
Syncellus took information d e r i v i n g f r o m Jubilees f r o m s o u r c e s such as
P a n a d o r u s a n d A n n i a n u s w h o w e r e t h e m s e l v e s d e p e n d e n t o n the w o r k o f
3 0
Julius A f r i c a n u s (ca. 1 8 0 - c a . 2 5 0 ) . W i l l i a m A d l e r sees the t r a d i t i o n differ­
ently. A s S y n c e l l u s ' s w o r k w i t h the text o f Jubilees does n o t a l w a y s agree w i t h
its e m p l o y m e n t in the A l e x a n d r i a n c h r o n o g r a p h e r s , he s e e m s n o t to h a v e

29. J. E. Dean, ed., Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures: The Syriac Version,
S A O C 11 (Chicago: University o f Chicago Press, 1935), 3.
30. H . Gelzer, Sextus Julius Africanus und die byzantinische Chronographie, 2.1: Die
Nachfolger des Julius Africanus (Leipzig: J. C . Hinrichs'sche, 1898).

14
 The Manuscript Tradition of Jubilees

d e r i v e d the i n f o r m a t i o n directly from t h e m b u t t h r o u g h other sources.

A d l e r n o t e s , for i n s t a n c e , that S y n c e l l u s r e g u l a r l y c l a i m e d that t r a d i t i o n s at­
tested in Jubilees a l o n e w e r e f r o m J o s e p h u s ' s Antiquities: " B u t his v e r y r e g u ­
lar p a t t e r n of m i s a t t r i b u t i n g citations f r o m Jubilees to J o s e p h u s ' Antiquities
m a k e s it clear that at a p r i o r stage in the t r a n s m i s s i o n of these t w o w o r k s ,
3 1
material from the two works had b e c o m e confused." Adler thinks
S y n c e l l u s a n d other B y z a n t i n e h i s t o r i a n s u s e d a certain k i n d o f reference
w o r k : " T h i s w a s , as has b e e n p r o p o s e d , n o t a c o n t i n u o u s c h r o n o l o g i c a l n a r ­
rative, b u t rather a c o l l e c t i o n of s o u r c e m a t e r i a l . In a w o r k of this s o r t
J o s e p h u s a n d Jubilees w e r e r e g u l a r l y cited together, since, in the s c o p e a n d
32
n a t u r e of the m a t e r i a l treated, the t w o w o r k s w e r e p a r a l l e l . " Such epitomes,
w h i c h i n c l u d e d excerpts f r o m a n u m b e r o f s o u r c e s r e g a r d i n g the issues a n d
passages under d i s c u s s i o n , w e r e the sorts o f m a t e r i a l s f r o m w h i c h the
c h r o n o g r a p h e r s d r e w their i n f o r m a t i o n that d e r i v e d u l t i m a t e l y f r o m w o r k s
s u c h as J u b i l e e s ; t h e y d i d n o t use the s o u r c e s t h e m s e l v e s .

M i l i k a r g u e d that a series of even less w e l l - k n o w n B y z a n t i n e h i s t o r i a n s

h a d d r a w n data f r o m Jubilees a n d h a d taken t h e m d i r e c t l y f r o m the w r i t i n g s
of J u l i u s A f r i c a n u s . If so, this w o u l d trace the t r a n s l a t i o n of Jubilees b a c k to a
3 3
t i m e n o later t h a n the early third c e n t u r y C . E .
34
B e s i d e s the G r e e k m a t e r i a l that has b e e n collected b y several e d i t o r s ,
there is n o w a d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e for the i n f l u e n c e of Jubilees in C h r i s t i a n ex­
egesis of G e n e s i s . T h e C a t e n a o n G e n e s i s , s o m e of w h i c h has o n l y recently
b e e n edited, c o n t a i n s s o m e p a s s a g e s that either m e n t i o n Jubilees as their
s o u r c e or reflect data f r o m it. F o r e x a m p l e , #551 ( C a i n ' s wife w a s n a m e d
A o a o u X ) , #585 (it lists the n a m e s of the w i v e s of the p a t r i a r c h s r e c o r d e d in
G e n 5 a l o n g w i t h their f a m i l y affiliation, j u s t as in J u b 4 ) , #590 ( o n G e n 5 : 2 1 -
24: 'Evtbx rrpwToc e u a 0 E Y p a M M ' ™ ' 0 K a l a
£YP H> e T
& oijueTa TOU oupavoO KCU
The, TpOTrac KCXI TOUC ufjvaq [Jub 4:17: " H e w a s the first of m a n k i n d w h o w e r e
b o r n o n the e a r t h w h o l e a r n e d (the art o f ) w r i t i n g , i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d w i s d o m

31. W. Adler, Time Immemorial: Archaic History and Its Sources in Christian Chronog-
raphy from Julius Africanus to George Syncellus, D u m b a r t o n Oaks Studies 26 (Washington,
D.C.: D u m b a r t o n Oaks Research Library a n d Collection, 1989), 191.
32. Adler, Time Immemorial, 193.
33. Milik, "Recherches sur la version grecque du livre des Jubiles," RB 78 (1971): 545-57.
34. The largest compilation is still that of H . Rcinsch, Das Buch der Jubilaen oder die
kleine Genesis (Leipzig: Fues's Verlag [R. Reisland], 1874), 251-382, although he included
m o r e than just Greek material. See also A . Denis, Fragmenta Pseudepigraphorum Quae
Supersunt Graeca, P V T G 3 (Leiden: Brill, 1970), 7 0 - 1 0 2 ; I reproduced them in The Book of Ju­
bilees, 1.

15
James C. VanderKam

a n d w h o w r o t e d o w n in a b o o k the signs o f the sky in accord w i t h the fixed

p a t t e r n of their m o n t h s " ] ) , #833 ( n a m e s a n d relations of the w i v e s of the sec­
o n d C a i n a n , Sala, E b e r , P h a l e g [Jub 8:5-7; 1 0 : 1 8 ] ) , #839 ( b u t see b e l o w o n
D i d y m u s ) , #857 (the s e c o n d C a i n a n ' s a s t r o n o m y a n d d i v i n a t i o n ) , # 8 6 1
( n a m e s a n d f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s of the w i v e s of R a g a u , S e r o u c h , N a h o r [Jub 1 1 : 1 ,
7, 9 ] ) , # i 8 o 4 b ( B i l h a h a n d D i n a h died w h i l e m o u r n i n g for J o s e p h , g i v i n g J a ­
cob three r e a s o n s for g r i e f a n d a c c o u n t i n g for the d a y o f a t o n e m e n t ; see J u b
3 4 : 1 4 - 1 5 , 1 8 ) ; cf. # 1 8 2 9 ( r e g a r d i n g T a m a r ; a n o t h e r reference to the C o v e n a n t /
T e s t a m e n t [see b e l o w ] ) , a n d # # 1 8 5 0 , 2268 ( o n the c h r o n o l o g y o f J o s e p h ' s
life). O f s p e c i a l n o t e are the f o l l o w i n g t w o entries.
#867: In the c o m m e n t on G e n 11:28 ( " H a r a n d i e d before his father
Terah in the l a n d of his b i r t h , in U r o f the C h a l d e a n s " ) , the C a t e n a e n t r y e x ­
p l a i n s : " A r r a n d i e d in the fire w i t h w h i c h A b r a m b u r n e d the idols of his fa­
ther, w h e n he w e n t in to r e m o v e t h e m . A b r a m w a s t h e n 60 y e a r s o f age w h e n
he b u r n e d the i d o l s — ( y e a r s ) that are not figured in the y e a r s of his life b e ­
c a u s e he w a s in u n b e l i e f u n t i l then, as it is w r i t t e n i n Jubilees [KOCOWC
y 35
Y£YP a T T T C ( 1
£ ™ TwPnXcxfio]." T h e p a s s a g e is a l l u d i n g to J u b 1 2 : 1 2 - 1 4 : " I n
the sixtieth y e a r o f A b r a m ' s life ( w h i c h w a s the f o u r t h w e e k in its f o u r t h y e a r
[ 1 9 3 6 ] ) , A b r a m g o t u p at n i g h t a n d b u r n e d the t e m p l e o f the i d o l s . H e
b u r n e d e v e r y t h i n g in the t e m p l e b u t n o o n e k n e w ( a b o u t i t ) . T h e y got u p at
n i g h t a n d w a n t e d to save their g o d s f r o m the fire. H a r a n d a s h e d in to save
t h e m , b u t the fire r a g e d o v e r h i m . H e w a s b u r n e d in the fire a n d d i e d in Ur
of the C h a l d e a n s b e f o r e his father T e r a h . T h e y b u r i e d h i m in Ur of the
Chaldeans."

T h e p a s s a g e u n m i s t a k a b l y offers i n f o r m a t i o n d o c u m e n t e d in J u b i l e e s ,
w h i c h is n a m e d as the s o u r c e , u s i n g a t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m u l a for i n t r o d u c i n g a
s c r i p t u r a l c i t a t i o n . A b r a m ' s age at the t i m e ( s i x t y y e a r s ) c o m e s f r o m J u b
1 2 : 1 2 , as d o e s his act o f t o r c h i n g the s a n c t u a r y ; it also m e n t i o n s that H a r a n
died w h i l e t r y i n g to r e s c u e the i d o l s . B u t the n o t i o n t h a t the first s i x t y y e a r s
of A b r a m ' s life w e r e n o t c o u n t e d in his t r u e age — a n o t e that relates to the
m u c h d i s c u s s e d p r o b l e m of the c h r o n o l o g y in G e n 1 1 : 2 6 , 32 — does n o t
c o m e f r o m J u b i l e e s , or at least n o t f r o m the f o r m of the text r e p r e s e n t e d in
the G e ' e z c o p i e s , a l t h o u g h Jubilees is m e n t i o n e d as the s o u r c e in i m m e d i a t e
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h this r e m a r k . T h e p a s s a g e m a y i m p l y that the G r e e k Jubilees
h a d a m o r e e x p a n d e d text at this p o i n t , b u t it is also p o s s i b l e that the w r i t e r
c o n f u s e d s o u r c e s for this p r o b l e m .

35. F o r the text, see F. Petit, ed., La chaine sur la Genese: Edition integrate 11 Chapitres 4
a 11, Traditio Exegetica G r a e c a 2 ( L o u v a i n : Peeters, 1 9 9 3 ) , 218. T h e translation is m i n e .

16
 The Manuscript Tradition of Jubilees

# 2 2 7 0 : T h e first t w e n t y - t h r e e l i n e s , as the e d i t o r s n o t e , are a r e p r o d u c ­

3 6
tion, w i t h s o m e changes, of Jub 46:6-12; 4 7 : i . T h i s p r e v i o u s l y u n e d i t e d text
is, u n l i k e s o m u c h o f the r e m a i n i n g G r e e k m a t e r i a l , a v e r y c l o s e q u o t a t i o n o f
an extended passage from Jubilees.

F o r the sake o f c o m p l e t e n e s s , a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e d r a w n to s i x c i t a t i o n s
i n D i d y m u s the B l i n d that h e a t t r i b u t e s to w h a t he calls the B o o k o f the C o v e ­
n a n t (rj (3fpXoc Tfjc 5ia9tJKr|c). F i v e o f these a p p e a r in his c o m m e n t a r y on
G e n e s i s , a n d a s i x t h i n h i s c o m m e n t a r y o n J o b . I n n o case d o e s he cite f r o m it;
he a l w a y s s p e a k s i n d i r e c t l y a b o u t it. S o m e e d i t o r s o f D i d y m u s ' s w o r k s h a v e
c l a i m e d that these c o m e f r o m J u b i l e e s , a n d o n e m u s t a d m i t that t h e r e is a
s i m i l a r i t y in c o n t e n t b e t w e e n f o u r o f the six c i t a t i o n s a n d J u b i l e e s . C l o s e r
s t u d y s h o w s , h o w e v e r , that t h e y are n o t likely to h a v e b e e n d r a w n f r o m J u b i ­
3 7
lees, t h o u g h the B o o k o f the C o v e n a n t w o u l d b e a g o o d n a m e for i t .

IV. L a t i n

There was a Latin translation of Jubilees, m a d e from a Greek m o d e l , and one

3 8
p a r t i a l c o p y o f it is a v a i l a b l e . T h a t c o p y w a s p u b l i s h e d b y C e r i a n i i n 1 8 6 1 .
H e f o u n d it i n the m a n u s c r i p t d e s i g n a t e d A m b r o s i a n a C 73 Inf. T h e m a n u -

36. La chaine sur la Genese: Edition integrate IV Chapitres 29 a 50, 455.

37. F o r the texts a n d the v i e w s of the editors, see D . L u h r m a n n , "Alttestamentliche
P s e u d e p i g r a p h e n bei D i d y m o s v o n A l e x a n d r i e n , " ZAW 1 0 4 (1992): 2 3 1 - 4 9 , here 239-45.
L u h r m a n n denies that the B o o k o f the C o v e n a n t in these passages is Jubilees. A . C r i s l i p has
recently p u b l i s h e d parts o f a C o p t i c text, P . C t Y B R inv. 495, w h i c h he dates to the fourth to
fifth c e n t u r y C . E . T h e fiorilegium quotes at least six passages, f o u r o f w h i c h are f r o m Jubi­
lees: 8:28-30; 7 : 1 4 - 1 6 ; 15:3; 4:33 (an a l l u s i o n ) . Crislip says w e s h o u l d n o t rule o u t the possibil­
ity there w a s a C o p t i c translation o f Jubilees ( " T h e Book of Jubilees in C o p t i c : A n Early
Christian Fiorilegium o n the F a m i l y o f N o a h , " BASP 40 [ 2 0 0 3 ] : 27-44, with pis. 1 - 2 ) . T h e
C o p t i c material m a y have c o m e from a G r e e k source. I n addition, W. L o w n d e s L i p s c o m b
has p u b l i s h e d a n A r m e n i a n list o f the n a m e s of, a m o n g others, the patriarchs a n d their
w i v e s , w i t h the w i v e s ' n a m e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the o n e s given in Jub 3 : 3 4 - 1 1 : 1 4 . A s he notes,
there are five other texts (besides his list a n d the o n e in Jubilees) that p r o v i d e these n a m e s ,
a n d he offers a chart c o m p a r i n g the n a m e s in all seven. T h e others are the Syriac list o f
n a m e s (see a b o v e ) , the scholia in the L X X m i n u s c u l e 135, a n d three late H e b r e w texts ("A
Tradition from the B o o k o f Jubilees in A r m e n i a n , " JJS 29 [1978]: 1 4 9 - 6 3 ) . It is possible that
the A r m e n i a n list also c a m e from a G r e e k intermediary, t h o u g h Syriac is n o t excluded.
38. C e r i a n i , " F r a g m e n t a P a r v a e G e n e s i s et A s s u m p t i o n i s M o s i s ex Veteri Versione
Latina," in Monumenta Sacra et Profana, 1:9-64; for the Jubilees text see 15-54. R o n s c h (Das
Buch der Jubilden, 1 0 - 9 5 , w i t h c o m m e n t a r y o n 9 6 - 1 9 6 ) , C h a r l e s (The Ethiopic Version of the
Hebrew Book of Jubilees), a n d I (The Book of Jubilees, 1:270-300) have reissued the text.

17
James C. VanderKam

s c r i p t is a p a l i m p s e s t , a n d the text of Jubilees a n d that o f the T e s t a m e n t o f

M o s e s o c c u p y the l o w e r level a n d are t h u s difficult to r e a d . C e r i a n i w a s able
to d e c i p h e r a large a m o u n t of text, b e g i n n i n g at J u b 1 3 : 1 0 a n d r u n n i n g , w i t h
g a p s , until 49:22. " I n these sections [ t w e n t y - f i v e of t h e m ] o n e finds all or
parts of 439 verses (335 o f the total o f 1 3 0 7 verses in the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n ) .
M u c h has b e e n lost at the b e g i n n i n g , b u t o n c e the legible L a t i n b e g i n s it p r e ­
serves n e a r l y half of the text. T h a t is, if o n e s u b t r a c t s the n u m b e r of verses
f r o m 1 : 1 - 1 3 : 9 (the s e c t i o n o f text that p r e c e d e s the b e g i n n i n g of the first deci­
p h e r a b l e L a t i n p a s s a g e ) , the p e r c e n t a g e of the verses available in L a t i n is 47.5
2
(439 ° f 9 3 ) - It c a n safely be said that b o t h in q u a n t i t y a n d quality, the L a t i n
39
is s e c o n d o n l y to the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n . " It is difficult to o v e r e m p h a s i z e the
i m p o r t a n c e o f this text. C e r i a n i dated the c o p y to the fifth or sixth c e n t u r y
C . E . T h i s m e a n s that it is a p p r o x i m a t e l y a m i l l e n n i u m o l d e r t h a n the earliest
s u r v i v i n g c o p y o f J u b i l e e s in E t h i o p i c (see b e l o w ) . O n e h o p e s that w i t h
m o d e r n p h o t o g r a p h i c t e c h n i q u e s m o r e of the m a n u s c r i p t c o u l d b e r e a d .
T h e L a t i n a n d E t h i o p i c (see b e l o w ) t r a n s l a t i o n s furnish i n d e p e n d e n t reflec­
t i o n s o f the lost G r e e k v e r s i o n o f J u b i l e e s .

V. E t h i o p i c

T h e c o m p l e t e (as n e a r l y as w e c a n tell) b o o k of J u b i l e e s has s u r v i v e d o n l y in

manuscripts inscribed in the classical language of Ethiopia. August
D i l l m a n n w a s able to use t w o p o o r c o p i e s o f the text w h e n he p u b l i s h e d his
4 0
e d i t i o n in 1859 (38 a n d 51 in the list b e l o w ) , a n d C h a r l e s u s e d the r e a d i n g s
f r o m D i l l m a n n ' s t w o m a n u s c r i p t s (taken f r o m D i l l m a n n ' s e d i t i o n ) a n d f r o m
t w o others ( 1 2 a n d 25) for his e d i t i o n of 1895. W h e n I p r e p a r e d m y e d i t i o n o f
J u b i l e e s ( 1 9 8 9 ) , t w e n t y - s e v e n c o p i e s of the b o o k h a d b e e n identified and
m a d e available i n o n e f o r m or a n o t h e r .

9* 14th century
12* 15th c e n t u r y
17* 15th c e n t u r y
20* I5th-i6th century

39. V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, 2:xviii.

40. Charles, Mashafa Kufale sive Liber Jubilaeorum, qui idem a Graecis 'H A e m f )
Teveaig inscribitur, aethiopice ad duorum librorum manuscriptorum fidem primum editit
(Kiel: C . G . L. v a n Maack; L o n d o n : Williams a n d Norgate, 1859).

18
 The Manuscript Tradition of Jubilees

21* 16th century

22 16th century
23 16th century
25* 16th century
35* 17th century
38* 17th century
39* I7th-i8th century
40 I7th-i8th century
42* 18th century
44* 18th century
45 18th century
47* 18th century
48* 18th century
50 i8th-i9th century
51 19th century
57 19th century
58* 19th century
59 19th century
60 i9th-20th century
61 20th century
62 20th century
63* 20th century
41
64 20th c e n t u r y

I collated all these manuscripts for Jub 1 - 2 , by which time the family
relations among them were very clear; for the edition, I completely collated
the fifteen manuscripts asterisked in the list above. T h e evidence suggested
to m e that the copies represented several different manuscript traditions
(ms. 4 4 is unique):

20-25-35
39-40-42-45-47-48-51-59
39-40-48-59

41. W. Baars and R. Z u u r m o n d had collected information on the various manuscripts

and had procured copies of many of them, preparatory to a new edition they were planning
("The Project for a N e w Edition of the Ethiopic Book of Jubilees," JSS 9 [1964]: 6 7 - 7 4 ) . Many
of the manuscripts have been microfilmed for the Ethiopian Manuscript Microfilm Library
( E M M L ) (in Addis Ababa) and the Monastic Manuscript Microfilm Library (Collegeville,
Minn.). In the above list, # # 2 1 , 3 9 , 4 0 , 4 2 , 4 4 , 4 7 , 4 8 , 5 9 , 6 0 , 6 2 , 6 3 are available from E M M L .

19
James C. VanderKam

42-47-51
45

9-38-50
12-21-22-23
57-58-60-61-62-64
57-58-60-61
62-64

T h e E M M L catalogues published since 1989 list no more copies of Jubilees. A

search of all the catalogues does reveal some texts that are of interest for the
study of the book in Ethiopic. Included a m o n g other items in the following
numbers are:

# 1 2 7 6 (mid-20th century): an A m h a r i c commentary on Jubilees (folios

I96a-207b)
#1281 (1973): an A m h a r i c commentary on Jubilees ( 1 9 4 8 - 2 3 3 3 )
#1693 ( 1 8 6 5 - 1 9 1 3 ) : notes of commentary on Jubilees ( i 3 6 b - i 4 2 a )
# 1 6 9 4 (1910?): an A m h a r i c commentary on Jubilees ( 9 2 a - i 0 7 b )
#1835 (15th century): a m o n g m a n y homilies are ones in honor of St.
Ura'el (Uriel, folios i 6 6 a - i 7 9 b ) based in part on Jubilees ( 1 7 4 b ) , of
St. Fanu'el ( i 9 o b - 2 0 o a ) , in which the emperor Zar'a Ya'qob's favor­
ite quotation from Jubilees is included (Jub 2:1; folio 1 9 2 a ) , and of
St. Sadu'el ( 2 2 6 a - 2 3 7 b ) , based on E n o c h , Ezekiel, and Jubilees
(229b)
#1847 ( 1 9 4 4 / 1 9 4 5 ) : an A m h a r i c commentary on Jubilees ( 7 7 b - 8 i b )
# 2 4 3 6 (17th century): notes concerning the book of Jubilees (118b-
120ab)
#2849 (18th century): folios 3a-92b contain a Ge'ez g r a m m a r and v o ­
cabulary; apparently in a section on the meanings of words in dif­
ferent books, Jubilees is included ( 7 2 b )
#4769 (19th century): parts of Jubilees ( 9 9 a - i 2 6 b )
# 4 4 9 3 ( 1 5 2 8 ) : in a Horologium ( 4 4 a - i o o a ) , two passages from Jubilees
are included (2:4? [75b-76b] and 3 9 : 1 3 - 2 2 | y 6 b - 7 7 a ] ) .

Although m a n y more texts are available, the last catalogue (vol. 10) from the
E M M L project was published in 1993, so there has been a delay. T h e Web site
says volume 11 should be appearing soon.
M y studies of the individual Ethiopic manuscripts and comparisons of

20
 The Manuscript Tradition of Jubilees

their readings with the versional evidence led m e to the conclusion that, de­
spite a long history of copying and multiple translations, the Ethiopic text of
Jubilees is in surprisingly good shape — in contrast to some other Jewish
works such as 1 E n o c h . A n u m b e r of factors probably contributed to the tex­
tual stability of Jubilees.
1. Jubilees retells familiar stories from Genesis and Exodus; this fact
could have hindered major deviation. A related factor is, however, also worth
underscoring: the text of Jubilees does not show signs of being modified in
the direction of the biblical texts in the various languages through which it
passed. So, for example, when one compares all of Ethiopic Jubilees' cita­
tions from Genesis and Exodus with the ancient versions for those passages,
the version with which it disagrees most frequently is the Ethiopic version of
4 2
Genesis and E x o d u s .
2. Jubilees as an entire unit was accorded high status by some Jews and
Christians. T h e evidence for the esteem in which it was held at Q u m r a n has
been summarized a number of times, and the fact that it is regularly in­
cluded in Ethiopic manuscripts that contain the books of the Old Testament
shows its standing in the Abyssinian church.
3. A s a reflection of that high status, writers of various kinds of litera­
ture drew upon Jubilees and its traditions to clarify passages in Genesis/Exo­
dus or to fill in gaps that they left. This was the case for midrashists and for
chronographers. T h e fact that they drew material from passages early and
late in the b o o k raises the likelihood that full versions of the book existed
even in the languages for which we at present lack a manuscript copy (Greek,
Syriac).

42. See, for example, VanderKam, Textual and Historical Studies, 103-205; "Jubilees
and the Hebrew Texts of Genesis-Exodus," Text 14 (1988): 71-86.

21
The Composition of Jubilees

Michael Segal

Jubilees is a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l l y c o n s i d e r e d to b e the w o r k o f a single a u t h o r , al­

t h o u g h s o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e a l l o w e d for the p o s s i b i l i t y of l o c a l i n t e r p o l a t i o n s
or a d d i t i o n s to the text. A l l the m a n y differences b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the
b i b l i c a l b o o k s that it r e w r i t e s ( G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s ) , i n c l u d i n g additions,
o m i s s i o n s , a n d c h a n g e s to the b i b l i c a l text, a s s u m i n g that o n e c a n d e t e r m i n e
the specific t e x t u a l v e r s i o n u p o n w h i c h Jubilees is b a s e d , are a t t r i b u t e d to a
single a u t h o r , the putative " a u t h o r of Jubilees." T h i s a s s u m p t i o n f o r m s the
basis o f the v a s t m a j o r i t y of studies of J u b i l e e s , w h i c h a t t e m p t to d e s c r i b e
the p e r s p e c t i v e of the b o o k as a w h o l e from m a n y different a n g l e s .
A l t h o u g h s c h o l a r s have r e c o g n i z e d the g e n e r i c differences b e t w e e n
different p a s s a g e s in the b o o k ( r e w r i t t e n stories, legal p a s s a g e s , c h r o n o l o g i ­
cal f r a m e w o r k , t e s t a m e n t s , etc.), t h e y h a v e not b y a n d large v i e w e d these dif­
ferences as any i n d i c a t i o n of the diverse o r i g i n s of the p a s s a g e s . T h e c o m b i ­
n a t i o n of different g e n r e s is certainly insufficient in a n d of itself to s u p p o r t
the p o s s i b i l i t y of c o m p l e x literary d e v e l o p m e n t , since an a u t h o r is n o t l i m ­
ited b y g e n e r i c d i s t i n c t i o n s . H o w e v e r , as w i l l b e s u g g e s t e d here, s u c h a t h e o r y
can i n d e e d be d e m o n s t r a t e d by highlighting contradictions and tensions
that are f o u n d b e t w e e n these different g e n r e s t h r o u g h o u t the b o o k .
Two scholars have previously proposed that Jubilees developed
t h r o u g h a c o m p l e x p r o c e s s of literary c o m p o s i t i o n , b u t neither of their the­
ories has b e e n w i d e l y a c c e p t e d . T h e first, E r n e s t W i e s e n b e r g , o n the b a s i s o f
d i s c r e p a n c i e s w i t h i n the c h r o n o l o g y p r e s e n t e d in the b o o k , s u g g e s t e d that
they are the result of r e d a c t i o n a l layers w i t h i n the c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k

22
 The Composition of Jubilees

1
itself. A s J a m e s V a n d e r K a m n o t e d , m o s t of these c o n t r a d i c t i o n s s h o u l d b e
taken n o t as e v i d e n c e of an e d i t o r i a l p r o c e s s , b u t r a t h e r as l o c a l i n c o n s i s t e n ­
cies, either errors that resulted f r o m r e g u l a r t r a n s m i s s i o n a l p r o c e s s e s or i n ­
consistencies that e m e r g e d d u e to the a t t e m p t to a p p l y an extensive c h r o n o ­
2
l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k to all the stories in the p a t r i a r c h a l p e r i o d .
G e n e D a v e n p o r t p r o p o s e d an alternative t h e o r y of literary d e v e l o p ­
3
m e n t . O n the basis of his analysis of the E t h i o p i c text o f Jubilees a n d the es-
c h a t o l o g i c a l ideas p r e s e n t in the b o o k , he s u g g e s t e d that J u b i l e e s consists of
a b a s i c layer a n d t w o s u b s e q u e n t r e d a c t i o n s . T h i s t h e o r y too has b e e n r i g h t l y
criticized for these r e a s o n s : ( l ) it is b a s e d u p o n D a v e n p o r t ' s o w n p e r c e p t i o n
of a consistent a p p r o a c h to e s c h a t o l o g y , a n d (2) s o m e of his p h i l o l o g i c a l
analysis w a s b a s e d u p o n s u p p o s e d c o n t r a d i c t i o n s that h a v e s u b s e q u e n t l y
4
b e e n s h o w n n o t to reflect the o r i g i n a l H e b r e w text of J u b i l e e s .
T h u s , the s c h o l a r l y c o n s e n s u s has r e m a i n e d u n t i l t o d a y that Jubilees
r e p r e s e n t s a u n i f i e d c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e q u e s t i o n of the u n i t y of Jubilees o b v i ­
o u s l y has f a r - r e a c h i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s for the s t u d y o f the b o o k in m a n y differ­
ent areas. F u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s , such as the date o f c o m p o s i t i o n of the
b o o k , n e e d to b e r e e x a m i n e d or r e d e f i n e d if the b o o k is c o m p o s e d of v a r i ­
o u s m a t e r i a l s f r o m different p e r i o d s of t i m e . It is p o s s i b l e that o n e c a n c o n ­
fidently date a specific p a s s a g e in the b o o k , b u t that w o u l d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
reflect the date of the c o m p o s i t i o n as a w h o l e , since the d a t e d p a s s a g e m i g h t
either b e a s o u r c e u s e d b y the c o m p o s i t i o n , or alternatively, the c o n t r i b u t i o n
o f the editor. S i m i l a r l y , the w o r l d v i e w of the a u t h o r w o u l d n e e d to b e r e e x ­
a m i n e d . If o n e c a n isolate or identify c o m p e t i n g or c o n f l i c t i n g n o t i o n s
w i t h i n the b o o k , m u s t o n e a t t e m p t to s y n t h e s i z e or h a r m o n i z e t h e m into
o n e single w o r l d v i e w , or are these differences the result o f the c o m b i n a t i o n
of m a t e r i a l s of differing o r i g i n s ? C a n o n e s p e a k of the w o r l d v i e w o f an e n ­
tire c o m p o s i t i o n if the w o r k is the p r o d u c t o f a c o m p l e x p r o c e s s of literary
development?

1. E . Wiesenberg, " T h e Jubilee o f Jubilees," RevQ 3 (1961): 3-40.

2. J . C . V a n d e r K a m , "Studies in the C h r o n o l o g y o f the B o o k o f Jubilees," in
V a n d e r K a m , From Revelation to Canon: Studies in Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Litera­
ture, JSJSup 62 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) , 522-44 (here 532-40); trans, o f " D a s chronologische
Konzept des Jubilaenbuches," ZAW 107 (1995): 8 0 - 1 0 0 .
3. G . L. Davenport, The Eschatology of the Book of Jubilees (Leiden: Brill, 1971).
4. F o r a s u m m a r y of the a r g u m e n t s against Davenport, see J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " T h e
Origins a n d Purposes o f the Book of Jubilees" in Studies in the Book of Jubilees, ed.
M . Albani, J. Frey, a n d A. Lange, T S A J 65 (Tubingen: J. C . B . M o h r [Paul Siebeck], 1997), 3-
24 (here 1 2 - 1 3 ) .

23
Michael Segal

In recent d e c a d e s s o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e identified a few s h o r t p a s s a g e s in

J u b i l e e s that s t a n d in t e n s i o n w i t h or even c o n t r a d i c t other verses in J u b i l e e s .
T h e s e p a s s a g e s relate either to c h r o n o l o g i c a l details ( D e v o r a h D i m a n t — re­
garding 4:21) or halakic positions ( M e n a h e m Kister — regarding chaps. 7
5
a n d 3 2 ; L i o r a R a v i d — r e g a r d i n g 5 0 : 6 - 1 3 ) . W h i l e their d i s c u s s i o n s w e r e l i m ­
ited to i n d i v i d u a l p a s s a g e s , b o t h D i m a n t a n d K i s t e r s u g g e s t e d that these dis­
c r e p a n c i e s are the result o f the c o m b i n a t i o n of t r a d i t i o n s f r o m different
s o u r c e s in the c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r o c e s s of J u b i l e e s . T h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b e ­
t w e e n t h e m can t h u s b e traced to their different p r o v e n a n c e . In m y recently
p u b l i s h e d b o o k , I h a v e p r o p o s e d a n d a t t e m p t e d to d e m o n s t r a t e that J u b i l e e s
is i n d e e d the p r o d u c t of a p r o c e s s o f l i t e r a r y d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t b a s e d u p o n a
v e r y different m o d e l t h a n that p r e v i o u s l y suggested b y W i e s e n b e r g or D a v ­
6
e n p o r t . I n this p a p e r I w i l l a t t e m p t to briefly s u m m a r i z e m y a r g u m e n t s a n d
7
t h e o r y p r e s e n t e d in that a n a l y s i s .

I. C h r o n o l o g i c a l a n d H a l a k i c R e d a c t i o n

T h e t w o m o s t p r o m i n e n t characteristics of Jubilees are: ( 1 ) the c h r o n o l o g i c a l

f r a m e w o r k b y w h i c h all events in the p a t r i a r c h a l p e r i o d are dated, a n d
(2) the a d d i t i o n of l e g a l p a s s a g e s to the r e w r i t t e n n a r r a t i v e s t h r o u g h o u t the
b o o k . W h i l e there are o t h e r n o t a b l e features, such as a d e v e l o p e d a n g e l o l o g y
a n d the p o s s i b l e p r i e s t l y p r o v e n a n c e of the b o o k , these latter areas are n o t
u n i q u e to J u b i l e e s . T h e t w o f o r m e r characteristics are the t w o p r i m a r y a s ­
p e c t s e m p h a s i z e d in J u b i l e e s ' s e l f - d e s i g n a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t c h a p . 1, "the B o o k
s
of the D i v i s i o n s o f the T i m e o f the T o r a h a n d the Te'udah!'

5. D. Dimant, " T h e Biography o f E n o c h a n d the B o o k s o f Enoch," V T 3 3 (1983): 1 4 - 2 9

(here 2 1 , esp. n. 1 7 ) ; M . Kister, " S o m e Aspects of Q u m r a n i c Halakhah," in The Madrid
Qumran Congress: Proceedings of the International Congress on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Madrid,
18-21 March, 1991, ed. J. Trebolle Barrera a n d L . Vegas Montaner, 2 vols., S T D J 11 (Leiden:
Brill, 1992), 571-88; L. R a v i d , " T h e Relationship of the Sabbath L a w s in Jubilees 50:6-13 to the
Rest o f the B o o k " (in H e b r e w ) , Tarbiz 69 (2000): 161-66.
6. M . Segal, The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology, and Theology
(Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 7 ) .
7. Each of the examples mentioned here, and summarized in a few paragraphs, is
given m u c h more extensive treatment in that study.
8. It is b e y o n d the scope o f this discussion to analyze the m e a n i n g of the term
te'udah; in Segal, The Book of Jubilees, chap. 1 4 , 1 suggest that this term should be understood
as "covenant." Whether o r n o t this interpretation is accepted, the legal context of the term
"Torah" is undisputed.

24
 The Composition of Jubilees

I w o u l d like to suggest that the c o m p o s i t i o n is n o t a h o m o g e n e o u s

b o o k c o m p o s e d b y o n e a u t h o r . R a t h e r , it is p o s s i b l e to identify i n t e r n a l c o n ­
t r a d i c t i o n s , d o u b l e t s , t e n s i o n s , a n d d i s c r e p a n c i e s , b o t h in details a n d in ref­
erence to the b i b l i c a l stories in g e n e r a l . T h i s s i t u a t i o n attests to the v a r i e t y of
t r a d i t i o n s that c a n b e f o u n d side b y side w i t h i n the s a m e b o o k . T h e r e d a c t o r
s o m e t i m e s relied u p o n the P e n t a t e u c h itself, b u t often a d o p t e d o t h e r c o m ­
p o s i t i o n s , a l o n g the lines of the e x a m p l e s of r e w r i t t e n B i b l e k n o w n to us
f r o m the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d . S u c h r e w r i t t e n texts w e r e c o m m o n in J e w i s h
literature in antiquity, as e x e m p l i f i e d b y c o m p o s i t i o n s such as l E n o c h , the
T e s t a m e n t of the Twelve P a t r i a r c h s , a n d the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n . T h e ideas
e m b e d d e d in these w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n s d i d n o t always agree w i t h the v i e w s of
the redactor, thus c r e a t i n g the i n t e r n a l p r o b l e m s to b e d e s c r i b e d b e l o w . T h e
final p r o d u c t , as k n o w n to us today, is n o t the w o r k o f o n e i n d i v i d u a l , b u t a
c o m b i n a t i o n of different t r a d i t i o n s , s o u r c e s , a n d a u t h o r s . I suggest that the
redactor's contribution can be f o u n d in the c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k
t h r o u g h o u t the b o o k , in the l e g a l p a s s a g e s j u x t a p o s e d to the r e w r i t t e n sto­
ries, a n d in t h o s e p a s s a g e s that c o n t a i n the u n i q u e t e r m i n o l o g y of the legal
p a s s a g e s ( s u c h as c h a p s , l, 2, 6, a n d 2 3 : 9 - 3 2 ) .

To d e s c r i b e this p r o c e s s I h a v e c o i n e d the t e r m s " c h r o n o l o g i c a l r e d a c ­

tion" and " h a l a k i c redaction." A s n o t e d a b o v e , these t w o t h e m e s are c o m ­
b i n e d in the o p e n i n g chapter of the b o o k , a n d this c o m b i n a t i o n is also
f o u n d at its c o n c l u s i o n (50:13 — "as it w a s w r i t t e n in the tablets w h i c h he
p l a c e d in m y h a n d s so that I c o u l d w r i t e for y o u the laws of each specific time
in every division of its times"). Therefore, while I have distinguished between
these t w o r e d a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s in o r d e r to e m p h a s i z e the u n i q u e e l e m e n t s
of each aspect, b o t h are u l t i m a t e l y the w o r k of the s a m e editor r e s p o n s i b l e
for the c o m p o s i t i o n of Jubilees, a n d therefore b e l o n g to the s a m e r e d a c t i o n a l
layer.
T h e f o l l o w i n g list presents ten e x a m p l e s of c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w i t h i n J u b i ­
lees, w h i c h I suggest lead to the c o n c l u s i o n that it c o u l d n o t b e the e x c l u s i v e
w o r k o f a single a u t h o r . T h e list is d i v i d e d into t w o s e c t i o n s : the first h a l f d e ­
tails t h o s e differences b e t w e e n the r e w r i t t e n n a r r a t i v e s a n d the c h r o n o l o g i ­
cal f r a m e w o r k , w h i l e the s e c o n d s e c t i o n o u t l i n e s the tensions b e t w e e n the
r e w r i t t e n n a r r a t i v e s a n d the legal p a s s a g e s .

25
Michael Segal

A. Contradictions between the Rewritten Narratives

and the Chronological Framework

9
1. The length of a "jubilee" period. I n all o f J u b i l e e s , the d u r a t i o n o f a " j u b i ­

lee" p e r i o d is 49 y e a r s , as d e m o n s t r a t e d b y c o m p a r i n g the chronological

f r a m e w o r k in the b o o k w i t h the c h r o n o l o g i c a l d a t a in the P e n t a t e u c h itself,

1 0
a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n its g e n e a l o g i c a l l i s t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , in a few instances

the b o o k c a l c u l a t e s a d e c i m a l n u m b e r (as f o u n d in the B i b l e ) a c c o r d i n g to

the h e p t a d i c s y s t e m o f j u b i l e e s , w e e k s , a n d y e a r s . T h u s J u b 23:8 d e s c r i b e s t h e

l e n g t h o f A b r a h a m ' s life, b a s e d u p o n G e n 25:7: " H e h a d l i v e d for t h r e e j u b i ­

lees a n d f o u r w e e k s o f y e a r s — 175 y e a r s " (3 x 49 = 1 4 7 ; 4 x 7 = 28; 1 4 7 + 28 =

175)-
I n c o n t r a s t , J u b 4 : 2 1 , w h i c h d e s c r i b e s E n o c h ' s s o j o u r n w i t h the a n g e l s
f o l l o w i n g the b i r t h o f h i s s o n ( w h e n he w a s 65 y e a r s o l d a c c o r d i n g to M T , SP,
a n d J u b i l e e s ; 165 a c c o r d i n g to L X X ) , is b a s e d u p o n a different understanding
of the l e n g t h o f this p e r i o d . A c c o r d i n g to this v e r s e , " h e w a s , m o r e o v e r , w i t h
1 1
G o d ' s a n g e l s for six j u b i l e e s o f y e a r s " T h i s p e r i o d o f s i x j u b i l e e s is p a r a l l e l
to the p e r i o d d e s c r i b e d in G e n 5:22: " A n d E n o c h w a l k e d w i t h G o d after he
b e g a t M e t h u s e l a h 3 0 0 y e a r s . " A s i m p l e c a l c u l a t i o n r e v e a l s t h a t a c c o r d i n g to
1 2
J u b 4 : 2 1 , a " j u b i l e e " lasts f o r 50 y e a r s , in c o n t r a s t to the rest o f the book.

9. T h i s e x a m p l e w a s first noted b y D i m a n t , " B i o g r a p h y of E n o c h , " 21.

1 0 . While a c o m p l e t e study o f the c h r o n o l o g i c a l data in Jubilees is b e y o n d the scope
of this article, it should b e noted that it is generally closer to the dates preserved in the S a ­
m a r i t a n Pentateuch, in contrast to the other textual witnesses.
1 1 . T h e description o f E n o c h ' s s o j o u r n w i t h the angels for six jubilees is also reflected
c
in a c o m p o s i t i o n entitled 4 Q P s e u d o - J u b i l e e s [4Q227] 2 , 1-2 ( D J D 1 3 , 1 7 1 - 7 5 ) :

1 [ E ] n o c h after w e taught h i m
2 [ ]o[ ] six jubilees of years

W h i l e it h a s generally been suggested that this scroll presents a c o m p o s i t i o n based u p o n J u ­

bilees, it is possible that this perspective needs to b e reversed, a n d in fact this fragment ( o r a
similar c o m p o s i t i o n ) m a y actually represent a possible source for Jubilees itself.
1 2 . V a n d e r K a m (Calendars in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Measuring Time [London:
R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 8 ] , 121 n. 1 8 ; The Book of Jubilees, G u i d e s to A p o c r y p h a a n d P s e u d e p i g r a p h a
[Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 2 0 0 1 ] , 33) interpreted this verse in accordance with the
general m e a n i n g of "jubilee" in Jubilees (49 y e a r s ) , a n d arrived at the c o n c l u s i o n that E n o c h
spent 294 (6 x 49 — 294) years in heaven, a n d returned to the earth 6 years p r i o r to his death.
H o w e v e r , it is difficult to accept this h a r m o n i s t i c interpretation that o v e r l o o k s the direct u s ­
age of G e n 5:22. J. M . Scott, On Earth as in Heaven: The Restoration of Sacred Time and Sacred
Space in the Book of Jubilees, J S J S u p 9 1 (Leiden a n d B o s t o n : Brill, 2 0 0 5 ) , 2 3 - 7 1 , also inter­
preted the " s i x jubilees o f y e a r s " as 294 y e a r s , a n d o n this basis, suggested that this verse has

26
 The Composition of Jubilees

D i m a n t c o r r e c t l y c o n c l u d e d that " T h i s s h o w s that J u b . b o r r o w s f r o m v a r i ­

o u s s o u r c e s , often w i t h o u t r e c o n c i l i n g the c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . "
2. The order of the births of Jacob's sons. T h e births of Jacob's s o n s (ex­
cept for B e n j a m i n ) are listed in G e n 2 9 - 3 0 , a n d o r g a n i z e d there a c c o r d i n g to
their m o t h e r s : L e a h (first f o u r c h i l d r e n ) , B i l h a h , Z i l p a h , L e a h (final t w o chil­
d r e n ) , R a c h e l . A c c o r d i n g to a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d r e a d i n g of G e n 3 1 : 4 1 , all the
c h i l d r e n w e r e b o r n d u r i n g a 7 - y e a r p e r i o d (in the s e c o n d p e r i o d of 7 y e a r s
d u r i n g w h i c h J a c o b w o r k e d for L a b a n ) , a n d it is therefore r e a s o n a b l e to as­
13
s u m e an o v e r l a p b e t w e e n the b i r t h s . A c c o r d i n g to the dates p r e s e n t e d in
the c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k of J u b 28 ( w . 1 4 - 1 5 , 1 8 ) , s u c h an o v e r l a p o c ­
c u r r e d b e t w e e n the births of L e a h ' s first c h i l d r e n a n d the births of B i l h a h ' s
s o n s , as D a n ( B i l h a h ' s older s o n ) w a s c o n c e i v e d p r i o r to the b i r t h o f L e v i
(Leah's t h i r d s o n ) a n d w a s b o r n before J u d a h (Leah's f o u r t h ) :

Jubilee Week Year

Year Year
Year from Creation
28:u Birth of R e u b e n 44 3 1 2122
28:13 B i r t h of S i m e o n 44 3 3 2124
28:14 B i r t h of L e v i 44 3 6 2127
28:15 B i r t h of J u d a h 44 4 1 2129
28:18 B i r t h of D a n 44 3 6 2127

a
In c o n t r a d i c t i o n , a c c o r d i n g to 28:17, H f o u r of Leah's first c h i l d r e n w e r e
b o r n before B i l h a h w a s even g i v e n to J a c o b : " W h e n R a c h e l s a w that L e a h
h a d g i v e n b i r t h to f o u r s o n s for J a c o b — R e u b e n , S i m e o n , L e v i , a n d J u d a h
— she said to h i m : ' G o in to m y s e r v a n t girl B i l h a h . . .'" S o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e
a t t e m p t e d to resolve this c o n t r a d i c t i o n b y e m e n d i n g the dates f o u n d in the
1 4
chronological framework. H o w e v e r , it is m o r e c o n v i n c i n g to understand

fundamental significance for the c h r o n o l o g i c a l conception of Jubilees. T h i s suggestion is

difficult to accept, as it is highly unlikely that such a fundamental n o t i o n w a s left unstated,
b u t m o r e significantly, it is predicated o n the a s s u m p t i o n that the c h r o n o l o g i c a l note in Jub
4:21 refers to a 49-year p e r i o d , in c o n t r a d i c t i o n to G e n 5:22.
13. C o n t r a s t S. 'Olam Rab. 2, w h i c h posited that there w a s n o overlap between t h e m ,
a n d therefore each p r e g n a n c y extended o n l y over a s e v e n - m o n t h p e r i o d . Interestingly, Jubi­
lees extended the period o f births to also include the final six years d u r i n g w h i c h Jacob re­
m a i n e d in L a b a n ' s h o u s e h o l d .
14. See H . R o n s c h , Das Buch der Jubilaen oder die kleine Genesis (Leipzig: Fues's
Verlag, 1 8 7 4 ) , 3 2 7 - 3 1 . R o n s c h generally relied o n other c o m p o s i t i o n s , p r i m a r i l y the Testa­
m e n t o f the Twelve Patriarchs, to reconstruct the dates in Jubilees. T h e s e suggested e m e n d a ­
tions were accepted b y R . H . C h a r l e s , The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis (London:
A d a m a n d C h a r l e s Black, 1 9 0 2 ) , 1 7 0 - 7 2 .

27
Michael Segal

the p r e s e n c e of this c o n t r a d i c t i o n in the text as the result of a literary p r o c e s s

in w h i c h the dates o f the c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k w e r e s u p e r i m p o s e d u p o n
an a l r e a d y r e w r i t t e n story.
3. "Let the days allowed him be 120 years" (Gen 6:3). Interpreters f r o m
a n t i q u i t y u n t i l t o d a y are d i v i d e d as to the m e a n i n g of the 1 2 0 - y e a r l i m i t a t i o n
that w a s instituted in r e s p o n s e to the i n t e r c o u r s e b e t w e e n the s o n s of g o d
a n d the w o m e n a n d the s u b s e q u e n t b i r t h of the giants ( G e n 6 : 1 - 4 ) . S o m e
p o s i t that this l i m i t a t i o n applies to h u m a n i t y in g e n e r a l , i n c l u d i n g the giants
1 5
who were half-divine and h a l f - h u m a n . T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a m a x i m u m
age for h u m a n life e x p e c t a n c y d r e w a b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n the h e a v e n l y a n d
1 6
earthly r e a l m s . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , other interpreters h a v e s u g g e s t e d that the
s o n s of g o d s t o r y is related to the f l o o d s t o r y that f o l l o w s , a n d in fact p r o ­
v i d e s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n for this c a t a c l y s m i c p u n i s h m e n t . A c c o r d i n g to this a p ­
p r o a c h , 1 2 0 y e a r s is the length o f t i m e f r o m the W a t c h e r s ' descent u n t i l the
1 7
flood.

W i t h i n the r e w r i t t e n s t o r y in J u b 5, the l i m i t a t i o n o f 120 y e a r s applies

to the giants ( 5 : 7 - 9 ) , the o f f s p r i n g o f the W a t c h e r s , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the
first i n t e r p r e t i v e a p p r o a c h to G e n 6:3:

5:7Regarding their children there went out from his presence an order to
strike t h e m w i t h the s w o r d a n d to r e m o v e t h e m f r o m b e n e a t h the sky.
5:8He said: " M y spirit will n o t r e m a i n on p e o p l e forever for they are
flesh. T h e i r lifespan is to be 120 years." s s H e sent his s w o r d a m o n g them
so that they w o u l d kill o n e another. T h e y b e g a n to kill each other until
all of them fell b y the s w o r d a n d were obliterated from the earth.

At the s a m e t i m e , a c c o r d i n g to the c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k , the Watchers

s i n n e d in the twenty-fifth j u b i l e e , a . m . 1 1 7 7 - 1 2 2 5 ( J u b 5 : 1 , referring to 4:33),
w h i l e the f l o o d t o o k p l a c e i n the y e a r 1308 ( 5 : 2 2 - 2 3 ) . T h e difference b e t w e e n

15. Cf. LAB (pseudo-Philo) 3.2; Josephus, Ant 1.75; the opinion o f R . Joshua b .
N e h e m i a h in Genesis Rabbah 26:6 (Theodor-Albeck, ed., 251-52).
16. C o m p a r e the story of the G a r d e n o f E d e n , where there is a concern if a h u m a n is
to c o n s u m e from the tree o f life and thus live forever (Gen 3:22).
17. Cf. 4Q252, col. 1, lines 1-3; S. 'Olam Rab. 28; Targum Onqelos to G e n 6:3; Targum
Neofiti; Fragmentary Targum; Targum Pseudo-Jonathan; Mek. R. Ishmael Shirta 5; Genesis
Rabbah 30:7; b. Sanhedrin 108a; Avot of Rabbi Nathan A 32; Jerome, Questions on Genesis 6:3;
Augustine, City of God 15.24.24; Rashi, Ibn Ezra, a n d R a d a q to G e n 6:3. See M . J. Bernstein,
"4Q252: F r o m Re-Written Bible to Biblical Commentary," JJS 45 (1994): 1-27 (here 5-7); J. L .
Kugel, The Bible as It Was ( C a m b r i d g e : H a r v a r d University Press, 1997), 1 1 2 - 1 4 .

28
 The Composition of Jubilees

these t w o dates fits a p e r i o d of 120 y e a r s , a n d reflects the s e c o n d interpretive

a p p r o a c h to G e n 6:3.
In this case, the p r o c e s s o f l i t e r a r y d e v e l o p m e n t that led to the c o m b i ­
n a t i o n o f these interpretive t r a d i t i o n s c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d . T h e r e w r i t t e n n a r r a ­
tive in J u b 5 parallels the v e r s i o n of events p r e s e n t e d in 1 E n 1 0 — 1 1 . T h i s c a n
b e d e m o n s t r a t e d , for e x a m p l e , b y the p r e s e n c e of t w o j u d g m e n t s of the a n ­
gels in the J u b i l e e s a c c o u n t , b o t h b e f o r e a n d after their o f f s p r i n g kill each
other in i n t e r n e c i n e w a r f a r e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the j u d g m e n t s of A s a e l a n d
S h e m i h a z a h in the 1 E n o c h v e r s i o n , w i t h the p u n i s h m e n t for the giants in
b e t w e e n . In the latter text ( w h i c h is c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y e a r l i e r ) , the p r e s e n c e of
s e p a r a t e j u d g m e n t s for each figure is d u e to the c o m b i n a t i o n of at least t w o
18
s e p a r a t e t r a d i t i o n s w i t h i n the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s . H o w e v e r , the d o u b l e
j u d g m e n t in Jubilees b o t h p r i o r to a n d f o l l o w i n g the death of the giants
t h r o u g h civil w a r is r e d u n d a n t a n d m u s t therefore b e the result of the d e ­
p e n d e n c e o f J u b 5 u p o n the 1 E n o c h m a t e r i a l . T h i s d e p e n d e n c e e x p l a i n s the
i n c l u s i o n of the i n t e r p r e t i v e a p p r o a c h to G e n 6:3 as a l i m i t a t i o n o n h u m a n
life s p a n . T h i s s a m e n o t i o n is f o u n d in the p r e c i s e l y p a r a l l e l p l a c e in 1 E n
1 0 : 9 - 1 0 , a n d w a s i n c l u d e d in Jubilees w h e n the entire p a s s a g e w a s i n c o r p o ­
rated into the later b o o k . T h e d a t i n g o f the s t o r y in J u b i l e e s ' c h r o n o l o g i c a l
f r a m e w o r k to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 2 0 y e a r s p r i o r to the f l o o d w a s then s u p e r i m ­
p o s e d u p o n the r e w r i t t e n v e r s i o n o f the s t o r y t h a t w a s a d o p t e d from
1 E n o c h , thus l e a d i n g to the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of b o t h i n t e r p r e t i v e a p p r o a c h e s .

B. Contradictions between the Rewritten

Narratives and the Legal Passages

4. The date of the entry into the Garden of Eden. A c c o r d i n g to J u b 3:17, w h i c h

is p a r t of a r e w r i t t e n n a r r a t i v e , A d a m w a s e x i l e d f r o m the G a r d e n of E d e n o n
the s e v e n t e e n t h of the s e c o n d m o n t h , e x a c t l y s e v e n y e a r s after he entered.
T h u s , o n e c a n c o n c l u d e that he a r r i v e d in the G a r d e n o n that s a m e c a l e n d a r
date. T h e legal p a s s a g e e m b e d d e d w i t h i n this r e w r i t t e n s t o r y ( 3 : 8 - 1 4 ) c o n -

18. For analyses and suggested divisions o f the traditions and sources c o m b i n e d in
1 E n 6 - 1 1 , see, e.g., G . Beer, " D a s B u c h Henoch," in Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des
Alten Testaments, ed. E . K a u t z s c h , 2 vols. ( T u b i n g e n , Freiburg, a n d Leipzig: J. C . B . M o h r
[Paul S i e b e c k ] , 1 9 0 0 ) , 2 : 2 1 7 - 3 1 0 (here 225); D . D i m a n t , " ' T h e Fallen A n g e l s ' in the D e a d Sea
Scrolls a n d in the A p o c r y p h a l a n d P s e u d e p i g r a p h i c B o o k s Related to T h e m " (in H e b r e w )
( P h . D . diss., H e b r e w University o f J e r u s a l e m , 1 9 7 4 ) , 2 3 - 7 2 ; G . W. E . N i c k e l s b u r g , " A p o c a l y p ­
tic a n d M y t h in E n o c h 6 - 1 1 , " JBL 96 (1977): 383-405.

29
Michael Segal

nects the dates of entry for A d a m and his wife to the law of the parturient
mother from L e v 1 2 . According to this legal passage, A d a m entered the Gar­
den forty days after he was created (v. 9 ) . O n the basis of the 3 6 4 - d a y calen­
dar used throughout Jubilees, which begins each year on a Wednesday, the
calculation of the dates reveals that forty days after Adam's creation is the
thirteenth of the second month, not the seventeenth.

Month 1

Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Sabbath

1 2 3 4
Man End of the
created first week

5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Seven days Seven days
after the after the
creation of first week
man

12 13 14 15 16 17 18

19 20 21 22 23 24 25

26 27 28 29 30

Month 2

Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Sabbath

1 2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Forty days Forty days
after the after the
creation of first week
man

17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Adam
entered the
Garden
(/uf».3:17)

24 25 26 27 28 29 30

30
 The Composition of Jubilees

It is i m p o s s i b l e to i g n o r e this d i s c r e p a n c y of f o u r days b e t w e e n the dates, b e ­

19
cause the p r e c e d e n t for the l a w is b a s e d entirely u p o n these d a t e s .
In a d d i t i o n , o n e can s u g g e s t an e x e g e t i c a l r e a s o n for w h y the sin in the
G a r d e n is dated to the s e v e n t e e n t h o f the s e c o n d m o n t h , u n r e l a t e d to L e v 1 2 ,
as this is the s a m e date as the b e g i n n i n g of the f l o o d ( M T a n d S P to G e n 7 : 1 1 ;
Jub 5 : 2 3 - 2 4 ) . T h e p a r a d i g m a t i c sin led to the p a r a d i g m a t i c p u n i s h m e n t . T h e
e m p h a s i s o n e x a c t l y s e v e n y e a r s in the G a r d e n is p r e s u m a b l y i n t e n d e d to
2 0
e m p h a s i z e a c o m p l e t e p e r i o d of t i m e .
?
5. Did Judah sm. A c c o r d i n g to the rewritten story of Judah and T a m a r , J u -
dah's sons h a d n o t c o n s u m m a t e d their m a r r i a g e s w i t h her, a n d she w a s there­
fore n o t legally considered Judah's d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w ( J u b 4 1 : 2 , 5 , 2 7 ; cf. L e v 18:15;
2 0 : 1 2 ) . H e therefore did n o t sin w h e n he h a d intercourse with her. In contrast,
according to the legal passage ( w . 2 3 - 2 6 ) , J u d a h i n d e e d sinned, but repented,
a n d w a s therefore forgiven. T h e legal passage emphasizes the process b y w h i c h
J u d a h w a s forgiven, a n d this a t o n e m e n t is possible o n l y if he actually s i n n e d .
6. The source for the method of Tamar's punishment. After J u d a h h e a r d
that his d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w T a m a r w a s p r e g n a n t , he d e c i d e d that she s h o u l d b e
p u t to death b y b u r n i n g ( G e n 3 8 : 2 4 ) . T h e p u n i s h m e n t of fire in cases o f s e x ­
u a l i m p r o p r i e t y a p p e a r s o n l y t w i c e in the P e n t a t e u c h : "the d a u g h t e r of a
priest w h o p r o f a n e s herself t h r o u g h h a r l o t r y " ( L e v 2 1 : 9 ) , a n d "a m a n w h o
takes a w i f e a n d h e r m o t h e r " ( L e v 2 0 : 1 4 ) . In the r e w r i t t e n s t o r y in J u b 41, J u ­
d a h w i s h e d to h a v e T a m a r killed on the b a s i s of "the l a w w h i c h A b r a h a m
h a d c o m m a n d e d his c h i l d r e n " (v. 2 8 ) . T h i s a p p a r e n t l y refers to A b r a h a m ' s
w a r n i n g i n his t e s t a m e n t to his d e s c e n d a n t s (or a s i m i l a r t r a d i t i o n ) : " I f a n y
w o m a n or girl a m o n g y o u c o m m i t s a s e x u a l offence, b u r n her in fire" ( J u b
2 0 : 4 ) , an e x p a n s i o n of the p r o h i b i t i o n and punishment of the priest's
d a u g h t e r f r o m L e v 21:9 to all Israelite w o m e n .
In contrast, the legal p a s s a g e in J u b 4 1 : 2 3 - 2 6 preferred to derive this
p u n i s h m e n t b y m e a n s of exegesis a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h the p u n i s h m e n t of
b u r n i n g for i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h a d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w ( e x p r e s s l y p r o h i b i t e d in L e v
1 8 : 1 5 ; 2 0 : 1 2 , b u t w i t h o u t the m e t h o d of p u n i s h m e n t ) is the s a m e as that o f a
m o t h e r - i n - l a w ("a wife a n d h e r m o t h e r " ) d e s c r i b e d e x p l i c i t l y in L e v 2 0 : 1 4 .
T h e s e t w o s c e n a r i o s are s y m m e t r i c s i t u a t i o n s , w h e r e the m e n a n d w o m e n
2 1
have interchanged r o l e s .

19. Pace J. M . B a u m g a r t e n , " S o m e P r o b l e m s of the Jubilees C a l e n d a r in C u r r e n t R e ­

search," VT 32 (1982): 485-89 (here 489 n. 8).
20. Cf. 12:15 — two weeks; 19:1 — two w e e k s , 12 — two weeks; 24:12 — three weeks;
47:9 — three w e e k s , 1 0 — three weeks.
21. A s I suggested in Segal, The Book of Jubilees, 67-69, the legal logic b e h i n d this c o m -

31
Michael Segal

22
7. Fourth-year fruits. L e v 1 9 : 2 3 - 2 5 defines the h a l a k i c status of fruits
d u r i n g the first five y e a r s o f a tree's life. D u r i n g the first three y e a r s , it is p r o ­
hibited to p a r t a k e in these fruits (v. 2 3 ) , w h i l e in the fifth y e a r it is p e r m i t t e d
to eat of t h e m (v. 2 5 ) . R e g a r d i n g the f o u r t h year, the P e n t a t e u c h a l l a w (v. 2 4 )
defines the fruit as "qodes hillulim ( S P hillulim) to the L o r d . " R a b b i n i c e x e g e ­
sis i n t e r p r e t e d this e x p r e s s i o n as an o b l i g a t i o n to eat the f o u r t h - y e a r fruits in
J e r u s a l e m , or to r e d e e m the fruits w i t h m o n e y a n d to b u y f o o d w i t h this
23
m o n e y in J e r u s a l e m , as is d o n e w i t h the s e c o n d t i t h e . In contrast, Q u m r a n
s e c t a r i a n c o m p o s i t i o n s p o s i t a different m e a n i n g for this e n i g m a t i c e x p r e s ­
24
s i o n : the f o u r t h - y e a r fruits are c o n s i d e r e d o n e of the priestly p r e r o g a t i v e s .
J u b 7:35-37 agrees w i t h the s e c t a r i a n p o s i t i o n : "in the f o u r t h y e a r its fruit w i l l
b e sanctified. It will b e offered as firstfruits that are a c c e p t a b l e b e f o r e the
m o s t h i g h L o r d . . . so that t h e y m a y offer in a b u n d a n c e the first of the w i n e
a n d oil as firstfruits o n the altar of the L o r d w h o accepts ( i t ) . W h a t is left
over those w h o serve in the L o r d ' s h o u s e are to eat b e f o r e the altar w h i c h re­
ceives ( i t ) " (v. 3 6 ) . H o w e v e r , a c c o r d i n g to the s t o r y at the b e g i n n i n g of J u b 7,
in the f o u r t h y e a r N o a h p i c k e d g r a p e s f r o m w h i c h he m a d e w i n e , w h i c h he
t h e n p u t in a c o n t a i n e r . N o a h d i d n o t offer the g r a p e s o n a n altar, n o r d i d he
2 5
d r i n k f r o m the w i n e u n t i l the fifth y e a r ( w . 1 - 6 ) . A c c o r d i n g to the s e c t a r i a n
h a l a k a h , N o a h a n d his s o n s s h o u l d h a v e offered the w i n e o n the altar, a n d
t h e n b e e n a l l o w e d to d r i n k f r o m it a l r e a d y in the f o u r t h year, in light o f their
priestly status ( c o m p a r e the detailed d e s c r i p t i o n of his offering o f sacrifices
in w . 3 - 6 ) . S c h o l a r s h a v e a t t e m p t e d to h a r m o n i z e the laws in w . 35-37 w i t h
2 6
the s t o r y in w . 1 - 6 ; Kister, h o w e v e r , c o n c l u d e d f r o m this c o n t r a d i c t i o n that
Jubilees i n c l u d e s m u l t i p l e t r a d i t i o n s of different o r i g i n s .

8. The length of Abraham's journey and the Akedah as a source for which

p a r i s o n is similar to that expressed in D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t 5 : 7 - 1 1 , w h i c h v i e w s the incest

p r o h i b i t i o n s in Lev 18 and 20 as a p p l y i n g equally and s y m m e t r i c a l l y b o t h to m e n a n d
women.
22. T h i s e x a m p l e w a s identified b y Kister, " S o m e A s p e c t s of Q u m r a n i c Halakhah."
23. m. Ma 'aser Sheni 5:1; Sifre Numbers 6; y. Pe'ah y:6 ( 2 o b - c ) , a n d similarly J o s e p h u s ,
Ant 4.227. See C . A l b e c k , Das Buch der Jubilaen und die Halacha, H o c h s c h u l e fiir die
Wissenschaft des J u d e n t u m s 27 (Berlin: Siegfried S c h o l e m , 1 9 3 0 ) , 3 2 - 3 3 ; J. M . B a u m g a r t e n ,
" T h e L a w s o f 'Orlah and First Fruits in L i g h t o f Jubilees, the Q u m r a n Writings, and T a r g u m
Ps. Jonathan," JJS 38 (1987): 1 9 5 - 2 0 2 (here 1 9 6 ) ; Kister, " S o m e Aspects," 577-78.
24. 1 1 Q T 60:3-4; 4 Q M M T B 62-64; in addition to Targum Pseudo-Jonathan to L e v
19:24, cf. B a u m g a r t e n , " T h e L a w s o f 'Orlah," 196; Kister, " S o m e Aspects," 577-78.
25. T h e story at the b e g i n n i n g of the chapter is v e r y similar to that presented in
l Q a p G e n 1 2 , as Kister, " S o m e Aspects," 583-85, noted.
26. Albeck, Das Buch der Jubilaen, 33; B a u m g a r t e n , " T h e L a w s o f 'Orlah," 198 n. 20.

32
 The Composition of Jubilees

festival? A c c o r d i n g to the r e w r i t t e n s t o r y in J u b 1 7 : 1 5 - 1 8 : 1 7 (parallel to the

A k e d a h s t o r y in G e n 2 2 : 1 - 1 9 ) , G o d a p p e a r e d to A b r a h a m o n the n i g h t of the
twelfth of the first m o n t h ( 1 7 : 1 5 ) , a n d c o m m a n d e d h i m to offer his son Isaac
as a sacrifice. A b r a h a m a w o k e that m o r n i n g , d e p a r t e d on his j o u r n e y , a n d o n
the t h i r d d a y ( 1 8 : 3 ) , the f o u r t e e n t h of the first m o n t h (the festival of P a s s ­
o v e r ) , a r r i v e d at the l o c a t i o n w h e r e the A k e d a h t o o k p l a c e , M o u n t Z i o n
( 1 8 : 1 3 ) . B e f o r e he h a d the o p p o r t u n i t y to sacrifice his " f i r s t b o r n " s o n Isaac
( w . 1 1 , 1 5 ) , G o d sent an a n g e l to p r e v e n t h i m f r o m d o i n g s o , a n d A b r a h a m
offered a r a m in Isaac's p l a c e . T h e s e f o u r m o t i f s — the date (fourteenth of
first m o n t h ) , the f i r s t b o r n b e i n g saved, the l o c a t i o n in J e r u s a l e m , a n d the
sacrifice o f a sheep — are f o u n d in o n l y o n e biblical c o n t e x t , the P a s s o v e r
law. T h e r e w r i t t e n s t o r y t h u s f u n c t i o n s as a f o r e s h a d o w i n g of the P a s s o v e r
law. A c c o r d i n g to the r e w r i t t e n s t o r y ( b a s e d u p o n G e n 2 2 ) , A b r a h a m a n d
Isaac r e a c h e d the l a n d of M o r i a h o n the t h i r d d a y of their j o u r n e y . F o l l o w i n g
the trial, A b r a h a m r e t u r n e d w i t h his s e r v a n t s to B e e r s h e b a , a d e s t i n a t i o n
that, unless n o t e d o t h e r w i s e , s h o u l d h a v e b e e n r e a c h e d o n the t h i r d day. T h e
r o u n d - t r i p s h o u l d n o t h a v e taken a n y l o n g e r t h a n six days ( a n d p e r h a p s o n l y
five, a s s u m i n g that A b r a h a m a n d I s a a c set o u t to r e t u r n to B e e r s h e b a o n the
day o f the A k e d a h i t s e l f ) . T h e r e w r i t t e n s t o r y d o e s n o t m e n t i o n the n u m b e r
seven at all.

In contrast, the legal p a s s a g e at the e n d of c h a p . 18 ( w . 1 8 - 1 9 ) trans­

f o r m s the s t o r y into a p r e c e d e n t for the s e v e n - d a y festival o f Massot (fif­
teenth to t w e n t y - f i r s t of the first m o n t h ) , a n d explicitly a s s u m e s that the
j o u r n e y lasted s e v e n d a y s . E v e n if o n e a s s u m e d that the r e w r i t t e n s t o r y p o s ­
ited a s e v e n - d a y j o u r n e y , the dates of the trip ( b e g i n n i n g o n the twelfth of
the first m o n t h ) do not c o r r e s p o n d to the F e s t i v a l of U n l e a v e n e d B r e a d ( b e ­
g i n n i n g o n the fifteenth of the m o n t h ) .
9. The plague of the firstborn. In the r e w r i t t e n s t o r y r e g a r d i n g the
p l a g u e s a n d the e x o d u s f r o m E g y p t ( J u b 4 8 ) , G o d a n d the a n g e l of p r e s e n c e
w o r k against the w i l l of M a s t e m a in h e l p i n g M o s e s r e t u r n to E g y p t , in the
b r i n g i n g of all the p l a g u e s (in p a r t i c u l a r the s l a y i n g of the f i r s t b o r n ) , a n d in
the s a l v a t i o n of Israel. T h e r e is explicit e m p h a s i s o n G o d ' s active role in m e t ­
ing o u t the p l a g u e s h i m s e l f ( w . 5, 8 ) . In contrast, a c c o r d i n g to the j u x t a p o s e d
legal p a s s a g e in J u b 49, the L o r d sent "the forces of M a s t e m a , " d e s c r i b e d t w o
verses later as "the L o r d ' s forces," to kill the f i r s t b o r n ( 4 9 : 2 ) , a n d refrained
f r o m b e i n g directly i n v o l v e d in this p l a g u e . T h e s e t w o d e s c r i p t i o n s t h u s dif­
fer in t e r m s of G o d ' s role in this specific story, b u t m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y in the
place of the forces of evil ( r e p r e s e n t e d b y M a s t e m a ) in the w o r l d , w h o w o r k
either at c r o s s - p u r p o s e s w i t h G o d or as his a g e n t s .

33
Michael Segal

1 0 . The punishments for Reuben and Bilhah. In the b r i e f s t o r y in G e n

35:22, w h i c h d e s c r i b e s h o w R e u b e n slept w i t h his father's c o n c u b i n e B i l h a h ,
there is n o reference to a p u n i s h m e n t for R e u b e n or B i l h a h . O t h e r b i b l i c a l
p a s s a g e s criticize R e u b e n for his b e h a v i o r ( G e n 4 9 : 3 - 4 ) , a n d d e s c r i b e h o w
this led to his loss o f the b i r t h r i g h t (1 C h r o n 5 : 1 - 2 ) , b u t do n o t m e n t i o n an
i n d i v i d u a l p u n i s h m e n t in r e s p o n s e to their b e h a v i o r . T h i s a b s e n c e is at o d d s
w i t h b i b l i c a l l a w s that p r o h i b i t i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h one's father's wife ( L e v 18:8;
2 0 : 1 1 ; D e u t 2 3 : 1 ; 2 7 : 2 0 ) , a n d e s p e c i a l l y L e v 2 0 : 1 1 , w h i c h calls for the death
p e n a l t y for b o t h the m a n a n d his father's w i f e . A c c o r d i n g to P e n t a t e u c h a l
law, b o t h R e u b e n a n d B i l h a h s h o u l d h a v e b e e n p u n i s h e d b y death.
T h e r e w r i t t e n s t o r y in J u b 33:1-98 presents B i l h a h as the v i c t i m of r a p e ,
t h u s offering a j u s t i f i c a t i o n for her n o n p u n i s h m e n t . T h e r e is n o explicit
m e n t i o n o f a p u n i s h m e n t for R e u b e n in this s e c t i o n , a l t h o u g h interestingly,
in the T e s t a m e n t o f R e u b e n , w h i c h p r e s e r v e s a p a r t i a l l y o v e r l a p p i n g v e r s i o n
27
of the e v e n t s , he is i n d e e d p u n i s h e d , as R e u b e n r e c o u n t s , " h e s t r u c k m e
w i t h a severe w o u n d in m y l o i n s for s e v e n m o n t h s " ( T R e u 1:7), a p a r t i c u l a r l y
apt p u n i s h m e n t for s e x u a l i m p r o p r i e t y .
In contrast, the l e g a l p a s s a g e ( w . 9 b - 2 o ) uses c o m p l e t e l y different legal
categories to a b s o l v e R e u b e n a n d B i l h a h . I n s t e a d of c o m p u l s i o n v e r s u s free
w i l l , the legal p a s s a g e acquits b o t h R e u b e n a n d B i l h a h f r o m any p u n i s h m e n t
for a different, t e c h n i c a l r e a s o n : "for the statute, the p u n i s h m e n t , a n d the
law h a d not b e e n c o m p l e t e l y r e v e a l e d to all" (v. 1 6 ) . T h i s a p p r o a c h d o e s n o t
i m p a r t s i g n i f i c a n c e to the i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n t e n t i o n s o r m o t i v a t i o n s , b u t r a t h e r
to the status of the laws t h e m s e l v e s at the t i m e of their v i o l a t i o n .

II. The Literary Development of Jubilees

W h i l e each of these i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s c a n b e h a r m o n i z e d to resolve

the i n h e r e n t t e n s i o n , as has b e e n s u g g e s t e d b y s c h o l a r s r e g a r d i n g a f e w of the
e x a m p l e s , I suggest that their c u m u l a t i v e effect is sufficient to demonstrate
that the b o o k is n o t the p r o d u c t of o n e a u t h o r . T h e p r e s e n c e o f t w o differ­
ent, a n d often c o n t r a d i c t o r y , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s or t r a d i t i o n s side b y side in
each of these cases s h o u l d n o t be v i e w e d m e r e l y as "overkill," to use the t e r m

27. F o r an analysis of the relationship between the versions of the story in Jubilees
and the Testament o f Reuben, see J. L. Kugel, "Reuben's Sin with Bilhah in the Testament o f
Reuben," in Pomegranates and Golden Bells: Studies in Biblical, Jewish, and Near Eastern Rit­
ual, Law, and Literature in Honor of Jacob Milgrom, ed. D . P. Wright et al. (Winona Lake, Ind.:
Eisenbrauns, 1995), 525-54 (here 550-54).

34
 The Composition of Jubilees

c o i n e d b y K u g e l , a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h m u l t i p l e interpretive s o l u t i o n s to the
2 8
s a m e p r o b l e m w e r e c o m b i n e d together in o n e c o m p o s i t i o n , b e c a u s e there
is n o r e a s o n for these s o l u t i o n s to b e c o n s i s t e n t l y differentiated b y their liter­
ary g e n r e . M o r e o v e r , the c h r o n o l o g i c a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , a n d especially the
case of the b i r t h s of J a c o b ' s s o n s ( e x a m p l e 2 ) , do n o t l e n d t h e m s e l v e s to easy
e x p l a n a t i o n as the result of the c o n s c i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n o f exegetical t r a d i ­
t i o n s , as o n e w o u l d e x p e c t a single a u t h o r to w e a v e together these alternate
t r a d i t i o n s to f o r m a c o h e s i v e a n d c o h e r e n t story.
As a final p o i n t , the W a t c h e r s s t o r y ( e x a m p l e 3 ) p e r h a p s p r o v i d e s us
w i t h a k e y to u n d e r s t a n d i n g this p r o c e s s o f d e v e l o p m e n t . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d
that the b o r r o w i n g of 1 E n 1 0 - 1 1 d e s c r i b e d a b o v e is l i m i t e d to J u b 5 : 1 - 1 2 . T h e
s u b s e q u e n t s e c t i o n , w . 1 3 - 1 8 , e m p h a s i z e s the legal aspects of the W a t c h e r s
s t o r y — each g r o u p d e s c r i b e d i n that p a s s a g e ( W a t c h e r s , giants, p e o p l e ) re­
ceives an a p p r o p r i a t e p u n i s h m e n t , as set o u t for t h e m b e f o r e t h e y b e h a v e d
sinfully. T h i s a d d i t i o n a l p a s s a g e is m a r k e d b y t e r m i n o l o g y s i m i l a r to that
f o u n d in legal p a s s a g e s t h r o u g h o u t J u b i l e e s , a n d o n e can safely a s s u m e that
it is o f the s a m e p r o v e n a n c e as the other legal p a s s a g e s . I suggest that J u b 5
c a n b e t a k e n as an e m p i r i c a l m o d e l for the l i t e r a r y d e v e l o p m e n t o f the b o o k
as a w h o l e , b a s e d u p o n the f o l l o w i n g p a t t e r n : a r e w r i t t e n b i b l i c a l text (1 E n
10—11) w a s a d o p t e d , p l a c e d w i t h i n a n e w c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k (the a d d i ­
tion of the date in 5:1 — see a b o v e ) , a n d s u p p l e m e n t e d b y a j u x t a p o s e d legal
passage.

In the case of J u b 5, a c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n the c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e ­

w o r k a n d the r e w r i t t e n n a r r a t i v e w a s identified, b u t n o s u c h t e n s i o n is p r e s ­
ent b e t w e e n the s t o r y a n d the legal p a s s a g e . H o w e v e r , the literary e v i d e n c e ,
a n d specifically the d e p e n d e n c e u p o n an extant text, attests to the b o u n d ­
aries of the b o r r o w e d m a t e r i a l ( J u b 5 : 1 - 1 2 ) a n d the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of the re­
d a c t o r ( w . 1 3 - 1 8 ) . In c o n t r a s t to J u b 5, in m o s t of the e x a m p l e s of c o n t r a d i c ­
tions listed a b o v e , there is n o direct, literary e v i d e n c e that Jubilees b o r r o w e d
f r o m a specific c o m p o s i t i o n . H o w e v e r , u s i n g this p a s s a g e as a m o d e l for the
b o o k as a w h o l e , the n o t i o n o f a r e d a c t o r w i t h h a l a k i c a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l
e m p h a s e s w h o i n c o r p o r a t e d e x t a n t r e w r i t t e n texts c a n b e u s e d to e x p l a i n the
p r e s e n c e of the c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b e t w e e n the r e w r i t t e n n a r r a t i v e s a n d the
other two g e n r e s . T h e differences b e t w e e n t h e m are the result o f their differ­
ent o r i g i n s , a n d they w e r e c o m b i n e d as p a r t of the c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r o c e s s of
the b o o k o f J u b i l e e s .

28. J. L. Kugel, In Potiphar's House: The Interpretive Life of Biblical Texts (San F r a n ­
cisco: Harper, 1 9 9 0 ) , 256-57.

35
The Relationship between
Jubilees and the Early Enochic Books
(Astronomical Book and Book of the Watchers)

John S. Bergsma

The task of this paper is to investigate the relationship between the earlier
Enochic books — the Astronomical B o o k (hereafter A B ; i.e., 1 E n 7 2 - 8 2 ) and
the B o o k of the Watchers (hereafter BW; 1 E n 1 - 3 6 ) — and the book of Jubi­
lees. It is generally assumed that there is a literary relationship between these
works, and — largely on the basis of their estimated dates of composition —
that the direction of influence flows from the E n o c h i c texts to Jubilees. First,
the evidence and arguments for the dating of the three documents will be re­
viewed. Second, A B and B W will each be compared with Jubilees to observe
similarities and differences in narrative and theology. Finally, generaliza­
tions will be made about the nature of Jubilees' relationship to the early
Enochic literature.

I. The Dating of the Astronomical Book,

the Book of the Watchers, and Jubilees

A. The Date of the Astronomical Book

The Astronomical Book, considered the earliest of the Enochic texts, is fre­
1
quently assigned a third century B . C . E . date on the basis of the following data:

1. For a thorough discussion see J. C . VanderKam, Enoch and the Growth of an Apoca­
lyptic Tradition, C B Q M S 16 (Washington, D.C.: C B A , 1984), 79-88.

36
 The Relationship between Jubilees and the Early Enochic Books

l. Manuscript Evidence. At least one apparently Enochic astronomical

text from Qumran dates to circa 200 B.C.E. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t evidence for

e s t a b l i s h i n g the r e l a t i v e a n t i q u i t y o f A B is the m a n u s c r i p t evidence from

Q u m r a n , w h i c h y i e l d e d f o u r f r a g m e n t a r y A r a m a i c s c r o l l s that b e a r a r e l a ­

t i o n s h i p to the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n f a m i l i a r to u s . T h e n o m e n c l a t u r e , dating,
2
a n d c o n t e n t s o f the m a n u s c r i p t s are d e t a i l e d in the f o l l o w i n g t a b l e :

Qumran Paleographic
Document Dating Contents

a
4QEnastr ca. 2 2 0 - 1 8 0 Table of m o o n phases possibly s u m m a r i z e d
(4Q208) B.C.E. in 1 E n 73:4-8

b
4QEnastr ca. 1 0 B . C . E . - T a b l e o f m o o n p h a s e s , b u t also p a r t s o f
(4Q209) 10 C . E . 1 E n 76:14-77; 78:10; 78:17-79:2; 82:9-13

c
4QEnastr ca. 50 B . C . E . Parts o f 1 E n 7 6 : 3 - 1 0 ; 7 6 : 1 3 - 7 7 : 3 ; 78:6-8
(4Q210)

d
4QEnastr ca. 5 0 - 1 B . C . E . Unparalleled in 1 E n o c h but apparently a
(4Q211) completion of 82:15-20

The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s e Q u m r a n m a n u s c r i p t s a n d the d a t i n g o f A B

is, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o t s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . T h e Q u m r a n texts are q u i t e f r a g m e n ­

t a r y a n d w i t n e s s to a l a r g e r d o c u m e n t t h a t i n c l u d e d m a t e r i a l t h a t w a s s u m -

2. F o r the source o f this i n f o r m a t i o n a n d general discussion o f the date o f A B , see J. T.

M i l i k , The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4 ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n , 1976),
7-22; also M . A . K n i b b , The Ethiopic Book of Enoch, 2 vols. ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n , 1978), 2 : 1 1 - 1 2 .
The dating o f any i n d i v i d u a l scroll m a y b e debated. T h e p a l e o g r a p h i c dates p r o v i d e d here
are those o f M i l i k . F e w scholars have the expertise, resources, a n d access necessary to reas­
sess Milik's w o r k . H i s p r o p o s e d dates have been challenged b y r a d i o c a r b o n dating: see
A. Jull, D . D o n a h u e , M . B r o s h i , a n d E . Tov, " R a d i o c a r b o n D a t i n g o f Scrolls a n d L i n e n Frag­
m e n t s f r o m the J u d e a n Desert," Atiqot 28 (1996): 85-91 (here 8 6 ) , a n d G . D o u d n a , " D a t i n g
the Scrolls o n the B a s i s o f R a d i o c a r b o n Analysis," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A
Comprehensive Assessment, e d . R Flint a n d J . V a n d e r K a m , 2 vols. (Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 ) ,
1:430-65. H o w e v e r , as D o u d n a p o i n t s o u t , even c a r b o n dating can p r o d u c e e r r o n e o u s results
d u e to s a m p l e c o n t a m i n a t i o n , inaccurate calibration c u r v e s , l a b o r a t o r y error, a n d other fac­
a
tors. D o u d n a reports a date r a n g e for 4 Q E n a s t r o f 1 6 0 - 4 0 B . C . E . (one sigma, i.e., 68 percent
confidence [462]), b u t also p o i n t s o u t the possibility o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n in the g r o u p o f texts
a
to w h i c h the s a m p l e o f 4 Q E n a s t r b e l o n g e d (452). We have c h o s e n , for the present, to disre­
gard t h e c a r b o n d a t i n g until greater confidence can b e expressed a b o u t the certainty o f the
results.

37
John S. Bergsma

m a r i z e d or (by i n t e n t i o n or a c c i d e n t ) o m i t t e d in the later E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n .

a
F u r t h e r m o r e , the oldest m a n u s c r i p t b y far, 4 Q E n a s t r , consists o n l y of a ta­
ble of m o o n p h a s e s , w h i c h is n o t p r e s e n t in E t h i o p i c A B ( a l t h o u g h p e r h a p s
a
s u m m a r i z e d in 1 E n 7 3 : 4 - 8 ) . E n o c h is n o t m e n t i o n e d w i t h i n 4 Q E n a s t r : it is
p o s s i b l e , t h o u g h unlikely, that it r e p r e s e n t s a f r e e - s t a n d i n g astronomical
b
w o r k o n l y later a s s o c i a t e d w i t h E n o c h . 4 Q E n a s t r does i n c l u d e both ( 1 ) sec­
a
tions o f text o v e r l a p p i n g w i t h 4 Q E n a s t r and (2) m a t e r i a l w i t h an o b s e r v a b l e
t e x t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to p o r t i o n s of E t h i o p i c A B . J . T. M i l i k , e d i t o r of the
a
editio princeps, c o n c l u d e d f r o m this that 4 Q E n a s t r w a s i n d e e d an E n o c h i c
d o c u m e n t w h o s e d e m o n s t r a b l y E n o c h i c p o r t i o n s w e r e m i s s i n g but p a r t i a l l y
b 3
extant in 4 Q E n a s t r .
a
If o n e w i s h e d to contest the explicitly E n o c h i c c h a r a c t e r of 4 Q E n a s t r ,
t h e n the n e x t earliest m a n u s c r i p t w i t h a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p to E t h i o p i c
c
AB is 4 Q E n a s t r f r o m the m i d - f i r s t c e n t u r y B . C . E . B u t even in this case,
c
4QEnastr is n o t s i m p l y the A r a m a i c Vorlage for the G r e e k f r o m w h i c h
E t h i o p i c A B w a s t r a n s l a t e d . It is a c o n s i d e r a b l y different text, a l t h o u g h s i m i ­
lar e n o u g h that a literary r e l a t i o n s h i p is certain.
To s u m m a r i z e : the Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e d e m o n s t r a t e s , at least, that b y
the m i d - f i r s t c e n t u r y B . C . E . a n E n o c h i c a s t r o n o m i c a l b o o k larger t h a n , b u t
t e x t u a l l y related to, the E t h i o p i c E n o c h 7 2 - 8 2 w a s in c i r c u l a t i o n . F u r t h e r ­
a
m o r e , it is h i g h l y p r o b a b l e that 4 Q E n a s t r w a s i n d e e d a n E n o c h i c text, p a r t
of the l a r g e r A r a m a i c A B a b b r e v i a t e d in the E t h i o p i c , a n d t h u s the date o f
the c o m p o s i t i o n of this d o c u m e n t w o u l d be at the latest (terminus ad quern)
in the late t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . E . — s u b s t a n t i a l l y earlier t h a n the u s u a l date a s ­
s i g n e d to J u b i l e e s .
2. Internal Evidence. The simple schemes and formulas of AB appear
closely related to primitive Babylonian astronomical texts dating as early as the
seventh century B.C.E. T h e a s t r o n o m i c a l p r i n c i p l e s of A B are s i m p l i s t i c a n d ,
u n f o r t u n a t e l y , i n a c c u r a t e . It is s t r i k i n g , h o w e v e r , that the s a m e l i n e a r p r o ­
g r e s s i o n s o f i n c r e a s i n g light or d a r k n e s s a n d the s a m e ratios e x p r e s s i n g the
relative lengths o f d a y a n d n i g h t are f o u n d in texts f r o m the i n f a n c y o f B a b y ­
4
l o n i a n a s t r o n o m i c a l s c i e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y in the s o - c a l l e d M U L . A P I N t e x t s .
The earliest extant tablet of the M U L . A P I N series dates from 687 B . C . E .

3. See V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 81-82.

4. F o r fuller discussion of the relationship b e t w e e n A B a n d the Q u m r a n a s t r o n o m i c a l
texts, see H . D r a w n e l , " S o m e N o t e s o n S c r i b a l Craft a n d the O r i g i n s o f the E n o c h i c Litera­
ture," Hen 31, n o . 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) . D r a w n e l p o i n t s o u t the similarities o f 4 Q 2 0 8 a n d 4 Q 2 0 9 n o t o n l y
to the M U L . A P I N texts, b u t especially to the B a b y l o n i a n Enuma Anu Enlil (EAE) astrologi­
cal series, w h i c h originates in the second m i l l e n n i u m B . C . E .

38
 The Relationship between Jubilees and the Early Enochic Books

(VAT 9412). Full explanations o f the n u m e r o u s connections between

E n o c h i c A B a n d the M U L . A P I N texts h a v e b e e n m a d e b y N e u g e b a u e r a n d
5
V a n d e r K a m — the details n e e d n o t d e t a i n us h e r e . Suffice it to quote
N e u g e b a u e r : " T h e r e is n o v i s i b l e trace [in the E n o c h i c A B ] of the s o p h i s t i ­
6
cated B a b y l o n i a n a s t r o n o m y o f the P e r s i a n or S e l e u c i d - P a r t h i a n p e r i o d . "
W h i l e N e u g e b a u e r denies that this i n f o r m a t i o n is of any help in dating
7
the c o m p o s i t i o n of E n o c h i c A B , it s e e m s to this author, at least, that the a b ­
sence from A B of any of the a d v a n c e s in ancient N e a r Eastern a s t r o n o m y from
the Persian or Hellenistic p e r i o d s argues for an o r i g i n of this literature in the
B a b y l o n i a n exile. A B m a y be an a p p r o p r i a t i o n of the astral science of B a b y l o n
8
to w h i c h the J u d e a n s c r i b e s / s c h o l a r s w e r e e x p o s e d d u r i n g this time p e r i o d .
3. External Evidence. Pseudo-Eupolemus seems to know AB. T w o frag­
m e n t s of P s e u d o - E u p o l e m u s ' s w o r k o n the J e w i s h p e o p l e , cited b y A l e x a n ­
der P o l y h i s t o r a n d p r e s e r v e d in t u r n b y E u s e b i u s (Ecclesiastical History
9 . 1 7 . 2 - 9 ; 1 8 . 2 ) , m a k e reference to E n o c h ' s a s t r o n o m i c a l k n o w l e d g e . A c c o r d ­
ing to P s e u d o - E u p o l e m u s , E n o c h ( 1 ) w a s i n s t r u c t e d in a s t r o l o g y b y the a n ­
gels, a n d so (2) b e c a m e the first astrologer, a n d (3) t r a n s m i t t e d his k n o w l ­
edge to M e t h u s e l a h . T h e s e three e l e m e n t s are the b a s i c p r e m i s e s of A B ,
l e a d i n g to the c o n c l u s i o n that P s e u d o - E u p o l e m u s w a s f a m i l i a r w i t h the
w o r k . P s e u d o - E u p o l e m u s ' s date o f w r i t i n g is difficult to establish, b u t circa
9
200 B . C . E . is a r e a s o n a b l e h y p o t h e s i s . T h i s w o u l d a g a i n p l a c e the terminus
ad quern of A B in the late t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . E .
T h e m a n u s c r i p t , internal, a n d external evidence suggest a date of c o m p o ­
sition of A r a m a i c A B at least in the third c e n t u r y B . C . E . a n d p r o b a b l y earlier.

B. The Date of the Book of the Watchers

T h e B o o k of the W a t c h e r s is g e n e r a l l y dated circa 2 0 0 B . C . E . o r earlier, yet af­

ter A B , b a s e d on the f o l l o w i n g data:

5. See discussion in O. Neugebauer a n d M . Black, The "Astronomical" Chapters of the

Ethiopic Book of Enoch (72 to 82) (Copenhagen: M u n k s g a a r d , 1981), 1 1 - 1 2 , 20; V a n d e r K a m ,
Enoch, 92-104.
6. Neugebauer, "Astronomical" Chapters, 4; V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 1 0 2 .
7. Neugebauer, "Astronomical" Chapters, 4.
8. Cf. V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 1 0 1 - 2 ; Milik, The Books of Enoch, 12-18; J. B e n - D o v , " T h e
Babylonian Lunar Three in Calendrical Scrolls from Qumran," ZA 95 (2005): 104-20, esp. 107-
8 , 1 1 2 ; Drawnel, " S o m e Notes o n Scribal Craft a n d the Origins o f the Enochic Literature."
9. V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 85.

39
John S. Bergsma

l. Manuscript Evidence. The earliest Qumran manuscript of BW dates to

circa 175 B.C.E. T h e Q u m r a n A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s o f B W are s u m m a r i z e d in
10
the f o l l o w i n g t a b l e :

Qumran Document Paleographic Dating Contents

4QEn a
(4Q201) ca. 2 0 0 - 1 5 0 B . C . E . Parts of 1 E n 1 - 1 2
b
4QEn (4Q202) ca. 150 B . C . E . Parts of 1 E n 5 - 1 4
4 QEn c
(4Q204) ca. 5 0 - 1 B . C . E . Parts of 1 E n 1 - 3 6 ; 89; 1 0 4 - 1 0 7
d
4 QEn (4Q205) ca. 5 0 - 1 B . C . E . Parts of 1 E n 2 2 - 2 7 ; 89
e
4QEn (4Q206) ca. 1 0 0 - 5 0 B . C . E . Parts of 1 E n 22; 2 8 - 3 4 ; 88-89

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a n u s c r i p t for o u r p u r p o s e s is the first a n d oldest,

a
4 Q E n , d a t i n g to the first h a l f of the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . T h i s p r o b a b l y
p u s h e s the terminus ad quern o f the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the b o o k i n t o the late
t h i r d century.
2 . Internal Evidence. BW shows the influence of Hellenistic culture, but
11
no clear allusions to Antiochus Epiphanes and the Maccabean revolt. The
m o s t c o n v i n c i n g e x a m p l e of H e l l e n i s t i c i n f l u e n c e in B W is the s i m i l a r i t y in
career profile b e t w e e n the a n g e l A s a e l (or A z a z ' e l ) a n d the G r e e k titan P r o ­
1 2
metheus. T h e r e are also s i m i l a r i t i e s , a l t h o u g h less specific, b e t w e e n the d e ­
13
s c r i p t i o n o f the W a t c h e r s ' o f f s p r i n g a n d the G r e e k l e g e n d s of the g i a n t s .
S o m e have a r g u e d that the p o r t r a y a l o f the W a t c h e r s ' r a p a c i o u s off­
s p r i n g — the giants — is a veiled criticism of the diadochoi, w h o c l a i m e d di­
v i n e descent a n d w h o s e g o v e r n i n g policies i m p o v e r i s h e d a n d o p p r e s s e d their
14
subjects. B a r t e l m u s argues that B W w a s c o m p o s e d d u r i n g the reign of the
1 5
m o s t n o t o r i o u s of the diadochoi, Antiochus IV Epiphanes. H o w e v e r , there is
n o clear allusion to A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s in B W . F u r t h e r m o r e , it is n o t neces­
s a r y to see the giants as literary reflections o f the diadochoi, since the d e s c r i p -

1 0 . See discussion in V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 1 1 1 - 1 2 ; Milik, The Books of Enoch, 22-41;

Knibb, Ethiopic Book of Enoch, 8 - 1 1 .
11. O n the Hellenistic influence o n B W generally, see G . H . Van Kooten, "Enoch, the
'Watchers,' Seth's Descendants a n d A b r a h a m as Astronomers: Jewish Applications o f the
Greek Motif of the First Inventor (300 B C E - C E 100)," in Recycling Biblical Figures, ed.
A. Brenner a n d J. W. van Henten, S T A R 1 (Leiden: D e o , 1999), 292-316.
12. See R. Bartelmus, Heroentum in Israel und seinem Umwelt, A T A N T 65 (Zurich:
Theologischer, 1979), 161-66; V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 126-28.
13. V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 127.
14. Discussed in V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 128.
15. Bartelmus, Heroentum, 179-83.

40
 The Relationship between Jubilees and the Early Enochic Books

tion of the giants in B W can be e x p l a i n e d as a d e v e l o p m e n t of the story of G e n

6:1-4. T h e d u a l descent — angelic a n d h u m a n — of the giants is s i m p l y an
exegetical c o n c l u s i o n from G e n 6:4. T h e fact that they w e r e g i g a n t i c m a y be
derived from interpreting G e n 6:4 in light of N u m 13:3. B e i n g of gigantic stat­
ure a n d the sons of w i c k e d angels, their b e h a v i o r , o n e w o u l d a s s u m e , w a s
h i g h l y c o n s u m p t i v e , o p p r e s s i v e , a n d v i o l e n t . T h u s , there is n o reason to invoke
the diadochoi as the specific i n s p i r a t i o n for these characteristics.
E v e n t h o u g h there are n o clear a l l u s i o n s to a n y specific H e l l e n i s t i c r u l ­
ers in B W , a H e l l e n i s t i c influence is present. T h i s influence i n d i c a t e s a date in
the v e r y late f o u r t h c e n t u r y at the earliest (terminus a quo). T h e l a c k of a n y
reflection of the crisis u n d e r A n t i o c h u s I V suggests a terminus ad quern in
the early s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E .
3. Internal Evidence. The latter part of the book (1 En 33-36) seems to
summarize AB. T h e last few chapters of B W p a r a p h r a s e the c o n t e n t of A B :
1 E n 3 3 : 2 - 4 s u m m a r i z e s 1 E n 72:3 a n d 7 5 : 1 - 4 ; 1 E n 3 4 - 3 6 p a r a p h r a s e s 1 E n 7 5 -
76. O n e m a y c o n c l u d e that A B w a s k n o w n to the a u t h o r / e d i t o r of B W . It is
interesting to n o t e , h o w e v e r , that the larger p o r t i o n o f A B is taken u p w i t h
the cycles of the s u n a n d m o o n , a n d n e i t h e r is m e n t i o n e d i n the last chapters
of B W (1 E n 3 3 - 3 6 ) . I n s t e a d , stars a n d w i n d s — w h i c h are o f lesser c o n c e r n
to A B — are the f o c u s of attention.
The c o m b i n e d data m a k e it likely that B W w a s c o m p o s e d n o later t h a n
the e n d o f the third, a n d n o earlier t h a n the e n d of the f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C . E .

C. The Date of Jubilees

The date of c o m p o s i t i o n o f the b o o k of Jubilees is e s t i m a t e d b y V a n d e r K a m

16
at circa 1 6 0 - 1 5 0 B . C . E . b a s e d o n the f o l l o w i n g d a t a :
1. Manuscript Evidence. The oldest Qumran manuscript (4Q216) dates
from 125 to 100 B.C.E. A total of fifteen m a n u s c r i p t s of Jubilees w e r e d i s c o v ­
ered at Q u m r a n . H e r e o u r o n l y c o n c e r n n e e d be w i t h the oldest, 4 Q 2 1 6 ,
w h i c h p r e s e r v e s a fair a m o u n t of text f r o m J u b 1 - 2 a n d dates f r o m the last
q u a r t e r o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . S i n c e 4 Q 2 1 6 is a l m o s t certainly n o t the
a u t o g r a p h , the terminus ad quern for the c o m p o s i t i o n of Jubilees p r o b a b l y
17
lies in the t h i r d q u a r t e r of the s e c o n d c e n t u r y .

16. The best discussion r e m a i n s J. C. V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Historical Studies on the

Book of jubilees, H S M 14 ( M i s s o u l a : S c h o l a r s Press, 1 9 7 7 ) , 207-85.
17. See J. A . T. G . M . v a n Ruiten, "A Literary D e p e n d e n c y of Jubilees on 1 E n o c h ? " in

41
John S. Bergsma

2. Some narratives in Jubilees have been shaped to reflect events of the

Maccabean period. A s V a n d e r K a m states it, "the battles of J a c o b a n d his s o n s
in Jubilees are p r o b a b l y literarily r e - s t r u c t u r e d a c c o u n t s of J u d a s M a c c a b e u s '
1 8
m o s t i m p o r t a n t battles a n d c a m p a i g n s . " T h e t w o e x a m p l e s are J a c o b ' s w a r
w i t h the s e v e n A m o r i t e k i n g s in J u b 3 4 : 2 - 9 , w h i c h parallels J u d a s M a c c a b e -
us's v i c t o r y o v e r N i c a n o r a n d his allies in 1 6 1 B . C . E . , a n d Jacob's w a r w i t h
E s a u a n d allies in J u b 3 7 : 1 - 3 8 : 1 4 , c o r r e s p o n d i n g to J u d a s ' s defeat of the
1 9
I d u m e a n s a n d allied forces circa 163 B . C . E . T h e e v i d e n c e for the first e x a m ­
ple is especially c o m p e l l i n g , a n d w o u l d establish the terminus a quo for the
c o m p o s i t i o n o f J u b i l e e s at circa 1 6 0 B . C . E .
3. Jubilees does not reflect the schism between proponents of the solar cal­
endar and the rest of Judaism. Later Q u m r a n documents do reflect this
s c h i s m . V a n d e r K a m a n d others p l a c e the b r e a k b e t w e e n the forebears of the
Qumran community (solar calendar advocates) and establishment (i.e.,
J e r u s a l e m i t e ) J u d a i s m d u r i n g the r e i g n o f the M a c c a b e a n h i g h priests J o n a ­
than (152-142 B . C . E . ) or S i m o n ( 1 4 2 - 1 3 4 B . C . E . ) . O f these t w o , J o n a t h a n
s e e m s the m o r e likely. If the a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s h a d w r i t t e n as late as circa 1 4 0
20
B . C . E . , o n e w o u l d e x p e c t reference to m o r e recent e v e n t s , a n d less a d u l a ­
tion o f the p r i e s t h o o d in light o f the c o r r u p t i o n of the M a c c a b e a n h i g h
21
priests.
O n the b a s i s o f this data, V a n d e r K a m establishes the date of the c o m ­
p o s i t i o n o f Jubilees in the r a t h e r n a r r o w w i n d o w 1 6 0 - 1 5 0 B . C . E .

II. The Relationship of the Astronomical Book and Jubilees

T h e d i s c u s s i o n of the d a t i n g of A B a n d Jubilees a b o v e d e m o n s t r a t e s that it is

h i g h l y likely that A r a m a i c A B w a s in existence p r i o r to the c o m p o s i t i o n o f
a
Jubilees. O n e c o u l d a r g u e to the c o n t r a r y o n l y b y d e n y i n g that 4 Q E n a s t r
ever f o r m e d a part of a larger A r a m a i c A B , which w o u l d lower the
c
p a l e o g r a p h i c terminus ad quern to the m i d - f i r s t c e n t u r y B . C . E . ( 4 Q E n a s t r ) .
B u t s u c h a d e n i a l s e e m s u n w a r r a n t e d . M o r e o v e r , the lack of H e l l e n i s t i c in-

Enoch and Qumran Origins: A New Light on a Forgotten Connection, ed. G . Boccaccini
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005), 90-93.
18. V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Historical Studies, 217.
19. V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Historical Studies, 218-38.
20. Judas Maccabeus's victory over Nicanor in 161 B . C . E . is the last datable event to
which Jubilees clearly alludes.
21. See V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Historical Studies, 284.

42
 The Relationship between Jubilees and the Early Enochic Books

fluence on A B a n d the fairly clear p r e s e n c e of it in J u b i l e e s certainly suggest

that A B is the p r o d u c t o f an earlier era.
F u r t h e r m o r e , m a n y s c h o l a r s h a v e c o n c l u d e d f r o m J u b 4 : 1 7 - 1 8 , 2 1 that
the a u t h o r of Jubilees h a d k n o w l e d g e of A B , the contents of w h i c h s e e m
2 2
quite w e l l s u m m a r i z e d , especially in v. 1 7 . O p i n i o n v a r i e s w h e t h e r v. 2 1 re­
fers to A B o r the s e c o n d h a l f o f B W (1 E n 1 7 - 3 6 ) .
J . A . T. G . v a n R u i t e n a n d M . A . K n i b b h a v e p o i n t e d out, h o w e v e r , that
although Jub 4:17-18 mentions E n o c h composing a w o r k w h o s e description
s o u n d s like A B , there are in fact n o p a s s a g e s in Jubilees that e x h i b i t d e m o n ­
strable l i t e r a r y d e p e n d e n c y o n the text of A B , in m a r k e d c o n t r a s t to the liter­
2 3
ary r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d G e n e s i s .
It is true that the a u t h o r o f Jubilees does not r e p r o d u c e the text of A B
in the s a m e w a y he r e p r o d u c e s the text of G e n e s i s . H o w e v e r , this n e e d n o t
m e a n t h a t the text o f A B w a s u n a v a i l a b l e to h i m ; o n l y that he c h o s e to h a n ­
dle the E n o c h i c texts differently t h a n that of G e n e s i s . W h i l e he f o l l o w s the
b i b l i c a l text fairly closely at t i m e s , he is c o n t e n t m e r e l y to s u m m a r i z e the
contents of A B a n d other E n o c h i c w o r k s .
T h e i n f l u e n c e of A B o n Jubilees is, o d d l y , n o t as significant as o n e
m i g h t e x p e c t . O f c o u r s e , the t w o w o r k s h a v e s e v e r a l c o m m o n a l i t i e s :

• T h e 3 6 4 - d a y " s o l a r " c a l e n d a r is the o n l y l e g i t i m a t e o n e .

• A s t r o n o m i c a l a n d m e t e o r o l o g i c a l p h e n o m e n a are g u i d e d b y s p i r i t u a l
b e i n g s (cf. J u b 2 : 2 ; 1 E n 8 2 : 7 - 2 0 ) .
• T h e n a t u r a l o r d e r is s c r u p u l o u s l y o b e d i e n t to d i v i n e l a w s .
• E n o c h is the first astrologer, h a v i n g b e e n e d u c a t e d b y a n g e l s .

H o w e v e r , all these c o m m o n a l i t i e s w e r e p r o b a b l y w i d e l y p r e s e n t in s e c o n d
t e m p l e J u d a i s m . T h e r e f o r e , o n e c a n n o t say that Jubilees b o r r o w e d the 3 6 4 -
day c a l e n d a r directly f r o m A B . R a t h e r , b o t h w o r k s p r o b a b l y reflect a c o m ­
m o n calendrical tradition.
T h e differences b e t w e e n A B a n d Jubilees are a c t u a l l y m o r e interesting
t h a n the s i m i l a r i t i e s :

22. See V a n d e r K a m , " E n o c h Traditions in Jubilees a n d Other S e c o n d - C e n t u r y

Sources," in S B L S P 13 (1978), 229-51 (here 233-34); Milik, The Books of Enoch, 11; P. Grelot,
" H e n o c h et ses Ecritures," RB 82 (1975): 481-500 (here 484-85).
23. Van Ruiten, "Literary Dependency," 90-93; M . A. Knibb, "Which Parts of 1 Enoch
Were K n o w n to jubilees? A Note o n the Interpretation o f Jubilees 4.16-25," in Reading from
Right to Left: Essays on the Hebrew Bible in Honour of David J. A. Clines, ed. C . E x u m a n d
H . G . M . Williamson, J S O T S u p 373 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2 0 0 3 ) , 254-62.

43
John S. Bergsma

1. Different calendrical conflicts are reflected in the two books. A B is e m ­

p h a t i c a b o u t the t r u t h of the 3 6 4 - d a y c a l e n d a r ; h o w e v e r , it n e v e r i n v e i g h s
against p r o p o n e n t s o f a l u n i - s o l a r or 3 6 5 - d a y a r r a n g e m e n t . I n s t e a d , A B ' s o p ­
p o n e n t s are t h o s e w h o fail to c o u n t the f o u r e p a g o m e n a l d a y s : " T h e r e are
p e o p l e w h o err c o n c e r n i n g t h e m [the four e p a g o m e n a l d a y s ] b y n o t c o u n t ­
ing t h e m in the r e c k o n i n g of the y e a r : . . . the y e a r is c o m p l e t e d in 364 d a y s "
2 4
(1 E n 8 2 : 5 - 6 ) . A p p a r e n t l y , then, A B reflects a conflict w i t h a d v o c a t e s o f a
3 6 0 - d a y calendar.
T h e c a l e n d r i c a l o p p o n e n t s of Jubilees are quite different. J u b 6:36-38
w a r n s a b o u t those w h o " e x a m i n e the m o o n diligently, b e c a u s e it [the m o o n ]
w i l l c o r r u p t the times." T h o s e w h o consult the m o o n w i l l " n o t m a k e a y e a r
only three h u n d r e d a n d s i x t y - f o u r d a y s " ( 6 : 3 8 ) . T h e m o d i f i e r " o n l y " i m p l i e s
that the o p p o s i n g m o o n - c o n s u l t o r s lengthen the y e a r . So s u r e l y w h a t is b e i n g
o p p o s e d is a l u n i - s o l a r c a l e n d a r p e r i o d i c a l l y intercalated to c o m p l y w i t h the
actual (365.25) solar cycle.
2. From the perspective of Jubilees, AB shows disappointingly little inter­
est in superannual calendrical units (i.e., weeks of years and jubilee cycles). To
b e p r e c i s e , A B d o e s n o t m e n t i o n t h e m at all. O f c o u r s e , this d o e s n o t p r e v e n t
the a u t h o r o f Jubilees f r o m a t t r i b u t i n g the k n o w l e d g e o f w e e k s a n d j u b i l e e s
to E n o c h : he " r e c o u n t e d the w e e k s of the j u b i l e e s , a n d m a d e k n o w n to t h e m
the days of the y e a r s , a n d set in o r d e r the m o n t h s a n d r e c o u n t e d the S a b ­
2 5
b a t h s of the y e a r s " ( J u b 4 : 1 8 ) . It is p o s s i b l e that this is an a l l u s i o n to the
A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s ( A W ) , w h i c h m e n t i o n s " w e e k s " i n s t e a d o f " S a b b a t h s "
or "jubilees." H o w e v e r , in A W the " w e e k s " are l o n g e p o c h s o f v a r i a b l e l e n g t h ,
n o t strict s e v e n - y e a r s e q u e n c e s as they are in J u b i l e e s . M o r e o v e r , A W does
n o t p l a c e its " w e e k s " w i t h i n a j u b i l a r y cycle ( " w e e k s of j u b i l e e s " ) , n o r d o e s it
discuss " S a b b a t h s of years." T h e r e f o r e , it d o e s n o t s e e m likely that J u b 4:18
reflects the c o n t e n t s o f AW. I n s t e a d , this m a y well be the a u t h o r ' s creative
a n d e x p a n s i v e r e d e s c r i p t i o n of the c o n t e n t s o f E n o c h ' s a s t r o n o m i c a l b o o k .
A l t h o u g h it is to b e d o u b t e d that the A r a m a i c f o r m o f A B k n o w n to the a u ­
t h o r of Jubilees i n c l u d e d a n y t h i n g a b o u t w e e k s of y e a r s a n d j u b i l e e s , n o n e ­
theless the a u t h o r of Jubilees is c o n f i d e n t that this i n f o r m a t i o n w a s r e v e a l e d
to E n o c h a n d he w r o t e it d o w n in texts that are n o l o n g e r extant.

24. F r o m N e u g e b a u e r , "Astronomical" Chapters, 31.

25. Translation f r o m R. H . C h a r l e s , The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis ( L o n d o n :
A . & C . Black, 1 9 0 2 ) .

44
 The Relationship between Jubilees and the Early Enochic Books

GENERALIZATIONS

To s u m m a r i z e , it is a l m o s t certain that the a u t h o r of Jubilees k n e w a n d en­

d o r s e d A B . H o w e v e r , A B m a d e only a l i m i t e d i m p a c t o n the t h e o l o g y or n a r r a ­
tive of Jubilees. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t elements Jubilees shares w i t h A B are its
calendar a n d its general perspective o n the c o s m o s , but Jubilees is not depend­
enton A B for these c o n c e p t s . Rather, b o t h texts reflect a stream of s e c o n d t e m ­
ple J e w i s h t h o u g h t . Different calendrical debates are at the heart of the two
texts. W h a t the a u t h o r of Jubilees w o u l d have liked to find m o s t in A B —
n a m e l y , the e n u m e r a t i o n of d i v i s i o n s of w e e k s of years a n d jubilees — s i m p l y
w a s n ' t there. N o n e t h e l e s s , Jubilees freely attributes this k n o w l e d g e to E n o c h .
A g e n e r a l contrast b e t w e e n "scientific" a n d " c u l t i c - l i t u r g i c a l " interests
m a y b e o b s e r v e d . A B is fascinated w i t h the " s c i e n c e " of the h e a v e n l y b o d i e s in
p a r t , at least, for its o w n sake, w h e r e a s Jubilees sees n o p o i n t in a s t r o n o m i c a l
k n o w l e d g e except as it is r e l e v a n t to establishing the p r o p e r cultic calendar.

III. The Relationship of the Book of the Watchers and Jubilees

T h e d i s c u s s i o n o f the d a t i n g o f B W a n d Jubilees a b o v e d e m o n s t r a t e d that it

is h i g h l y u n l i k e l y that B W p o s t d a t e s J u b i l e e s . To a r g u e such w o u l d r e q u i r e
that o n e either ( l ) take the l o w e s t p o s s i b l e date ( o n p a l e o g r a p h i c g r o u n d s )
a
of the oldest m a n u s c r i p t of B W f r o m Q u m r a n ( 4 Q E n ) , i.e., circa 150 B . C . E . ,
a n d t h e n a s s u m e that B W w a s c o m p o s e d v e r y s h o r t l y after J u b i l e e s ; o r
(2) a r g u e t h a t Jubilees is p r e - M a c c a b e a n , w h i c h is u n l i k e l y in light of J u b
3 8 : 1 4 , w h i c h c o u l d h a r d l y h a v e b e e n p e n n e d b e f o r e the M a c c a b e a n c o n q u e s t
of E d o m u n d e r J o h n H y r c a n u s (163 B . C . E . ) .
T h e r e f o r e , o n e is justified in a s s u m i n g that Jubilees p o s t d a t e s B W , a n d
the a p p a r e n t literary r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the t w o w o r k s m a y b e interpreted
in t e r m s of J u b i l e e s ' d e p e n d e n c e o n B W .
T h e influence of B W o n Jubilees is m o s t a p p a r e n t in four p a s s a g e s , d e ­
26
s c r i b e d in the f o l l o w i n g t a b l e :

Passage Synopsis of Contents

4:16 T h e Watchers descend d u r i n g the days of Jared, to teach m a n k i n d
a n d " p e r f o r m j u d g m e n t a n d r i g h t e o u s n e s s " on earth.
4:21-26 S u m m a r i z e s the contents of BW, w i t h m o d i f i c a t i o n : T h e angels

26. T h e unexcelled s t u d y o f the d e p e n d e n c e o f Jubilees o n E n o c h i c m a t e r i a l r e m a i n s

V a n d e r K a m , " E n o c h T r a d i t i o n s in Jubilees a n d O t h e r S e c o n d - C e n t u r y Sources."

45
John S. Bergsma

s h o w e d E n o c h e v e r y t h i n g in heaven a n d earth. H e w i t n e s s e d
against the Watchers, w a s taken to E d e n , a n d n o w resides there,
recording a n d c o n d e m n i n g the sins of h u m a n i t y until the day of
judgment.
5:1-11 Paraphrases 1 E n 6 : 1 - 1 0 : 1 6 , w i t h m o d i f i c a t i o n . T h e Watchers de­
scend to earth a n d take w i v e s . V i o l e n t giants are b o r n , w h o o p ­
press a n d c o r r u p t b o t h m a n a n d beast. G o d p u n i s h e s the
Watchers b y b i n d i n g t h e m u n d e r the earth, a n d the giants are
c o n d e m n e d to kill o n e another by the s w o r d .
7:21-8:4 N o a h recaps Jub 5 : 1 - 1 1 (cf. 1 E n 6 : 1 - 1 0 : 1 6 ) , the b a s i c Watchers
story, while w a r n i n g his sons a b o u t the d e m o n s w h o will m i s l e a d
t h e m (cf. 1 E n 1 5 : 8 - 1 6 : 3 ) . C a i n a n son of A r p a c h s h a d finds a stone
e n g r a v e d w i t h the Watchers' astrological lore, a n d sins b y c o p y i n g
it a n d (apparently) l e a r n i n g to practice astrological d i v i n a t i o n .
T h i s is the o r i g i n of the a s t r o l o g y of Cainan's descendants the
C h a l d e a n s (cf. Jub 1 1 : 8 ) , w h i c h A b r a m eventually rejects (cf. Jub
12:16-18).
10:1-17 C o n c e r n i n g the evil spirits that c a m e forth from the b o d i e s of the
slain giants (cf. 1 E n 15:8—16:3), N o a h pleads to G o d that they b e
b o u n d in the u n d e r w o r l d . T h e prince of the d e m o n s , M a s t e m a ,
pleads to the contrary, that he be allowed s o m e servants to do his
will on earth. G o d b i n d s nine-tenths of the d e m o n s but leaves
one-tenth to c a r r y out M a s t e m a ' s will.
11:4-6 M a s t e m a a n d the r e m n a n t of d e m o n s left to h i m are m e n t i o n e d
as contributing to the evil activities of N o a h ' s descendants.

After c h a p . 1 1 the Watchers fade f r o m v i e w in the n a r r a t i v e of J u b i l e e s , a n d

w i t h t h e m the influence o f B W , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f a b r i e f m e n t i o n of the
giants in J u b 2 0 : 5 .
Jubilees accepts a n d e n d o r s e s the b a s i c n a r r a t i v e of B W . T h e t w o w o r k s
can b e said to a g r e e on the f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s :

a r e
• T h e "Sons of G o d " of G e n 6:1-4 fallen angels ( W a t c h e r s ) w h o c o p u ­
lated w i t h w o m e n a n d p r o d u c e d g i a n t s .
• T h e W a t c h e r s t a u g h t illicit m y s t e r i e s to m a n k i n d .
• T h e giants are at least p a r t i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e for the v i o l e n c e a n d evil
that b r o u g h t G o d ' s j u d g m e n t in the f o r m of the f l o o d .
• E n o c h r e b u k e d and issued j u d g m e n t against the W a t c h e r s a n d their
offspring.
• T h e W a t c h e r s w e r e b o u n d u n d e r the earth, the giants k i l l e d e a c h o t h e r
off, b u t d e m o n s c a m e forth f r o m the d e a d g i a n t s .

46
 The Relationship between Jubilees and the Early Enochic Books

• T h e s e d e m o n s c o n t i n u e to p l a g u e m a n k i n d even after the f l o o d .

• E n o c h w a s e v e n t u a l l y s h o w n the secrets of the entire c o s m o s .

D e s p i t e the fact that J u b i l e e s e m b r a c e s these b a s i c p r e m i s e s , its a u t h o r i n t r o ­

duces a l a r g e n u m b e r of m o d i f i c a t i o n s to the plot o f the Watchers story, sev­
27
eral o f w h i c h are t h e o l o g i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . A . Reed and L. Stuckenbruck
h a v e b o t h m a d e insightful a n d t h o r o u g h c o n t r i b u t i o n s to the analysis of the
28
differences b e t w e e n B W a n d J u b i l e e s . H e r e , w e m u s t be c o n t e n t o n l y to
m e n t i o n the m o s t i m p o r t a n t differences:
l. The motive for the descent of the Watchers is different. J u b 4 : 1 5 notes
that the W a t c h e r s " c a m e d o w n " in the days of the ancestor J a r e d (TV, "to d e ­
s c e n d " ) i n o r d e r "to teach the s o n s of m a n , a n d p e r f o r m j u d g m e n t a n d r i g h ­
t e o u s n e s s o n earth." T h i s is in stark c o n t r a s t to B W , in w h i c h t w o h u n d r e d
angels b i n d each other b y a s o l e m n oath while still in heaven to d e s c e n d to
the earth a n d take h u m a n w i v e s (1 E n 6 : 1 - 8 ) . After t a k i n g the w o m e n , the a n ­
gels b e g i n to teach secret arts a n d sciences (1 E n 7 - 8 ) , b u t this w a s n o t a m o ­
t i v a t i o n for their initial descent.
T h u s , in Jubilees the W a t c h e r s c o m e d o w n initially for a n o b l e p u r p o s e
(to teach a n d j u d g e ) a n d o n l y later c o r r u p t t h e m s e l v e s . In B W , h o w e v e r , the
W a t c h e r s s u c c u m b to the t e m p t a t i o n of f e m i n i n e a t t r a c t i o n w h i l e still in
h e a v e n , s w e a r an o a t h to c o m m i t a g r i e v o u s sin, c a r r y o u t the act, a n d then
a g g r a v a t e the s i t u a t i o n b y c o m m u n i c a t i n g illicit k n o w l e d g e .
O n e c a n o n l y speculate o n the r e a s o n Jubilees m o d i f i e s the n a r r a t i v e
2 9
of B W . P e r h a p s the B W a c c o u n t s e e m e d t h e o l o g i c a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c : H o w
c o u l d angels fall p r e y to sensual t e m p t a t i o n a n d deliberately, s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y
o r g a n i z e t h e m s e l v e s into a r e b e l l i o u s b o d y w h i l e still in h e a v e n a n d p r e s u m ­
ably in or n e a r the p r e s e n c e of G o d himself? In Jubilees it is o n l y after the
W a t c h e r s leave h e a v e n to c a r r y o u t their task on earth that — a p p a r e n t l y after

27. F o r s o m e discussion of the differences, see I. F r o h l i c h , " E n o c h a n d Jubilees," in

Enoch and Qumran Origins, 1 4 1 - 4 7 . Unsurprisingly, V a n d e r K a m has also e x a m i n e d the
Watcher story in b o t h B W a n d Jubilees. See V a n d e r K a m , " T h e A n g e l S t o r y in the B o o k o f J u ­
bilees," in Pseudepigraphic Perspectives: The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha in Light of the
Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. E . G . C h a z o n and M . Stone, S T D J 31 (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 1 5 1 - 7 0 .
V a n d e r K a m ' s analysis p r o c e e d s in a different fashion from m i n e , but o u r c o n c l u s i o n s are
similar.
28. See A . Y. R e e d , " E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c Traditions in Jubilees: T h e E v i d e n c e o f
A n g e l o l o g y a n d D e m o n o l o g y " (paper read at F o u r t h E n o c h S e m i n a r , C a m a l d o l i , Italy, 8 - 1 2
July 2 0 0 7 ) ; a n d L . T. S t u c k e n b r u c k , " T h e B o o k o f Jubilees a n d the O r i g i n of Evil," in this vol­
ume.
29. V a n d e r K a m discusses the issue in " E n o c h Traditions in Jubilees," 244.

47
John S. Bergsma

the p a s s a g e of s o m e years (cf. J u b 5 : 1 ) — they s u c c u m b to t e m p t a t i o n . P e r ­

h a p s the e x t e n d e d t i m e of service a w a y f r o m the h e a v e n l y r e a l m m a k e s their
defection m o r e p l a u s i b l e . G o d , too, is n o t i m p l i c a t e d in their sin to the s a m e
d e g r e e . In the B W n a r r a t i v e o n e is t e m p t e d to ask, " C o u l d G o d n o t h a v e o p ­
p o s e d or p r e v e n t e d the W a t c h e r s ' p a c t - o f - s i n taking place in the h e a v e n l y
r e a l m ? " In contrast, Jubilees assures its readers that G o d sent the Watchers to
the earth for g o o d p u r p o s e s , a n d there o n earth — far f r o m h i m — t h e y e v e n ­
tually defected.
2. Enoch never appeals on behalf of the Watchers, he only witnesses
against them. T h e s e c t i o n d e s c r i b i n g E n o c h ' s i n t e r c e s s i o n o n b e h a l f of the
W a t c h e r s (1 E n 1 2 - 1 6 ) is e l i d e d i n J u b i l e e s , n o d o u b t b e c a u s e the w h o l e sce­
n a r i o p r e s e n t s m u l t i p l e t h e o l o g i c a l difficulties. First, it is i n a p p r o p r i a t e for
a h u m a n b e i n g to i n t e r c e d e o n b e h a l f of a n g e l i c b e i n g s i n g e n e r a l , as B W it­
self a c k n o w l e d g e s (1 E n 1 5 : 2 ) . S e c o n d , s i n c e the W a t c h e r s ' sin w a s so s e r i o u s ,
w h y d i d E n o c h a g r e e to take u p their case b e f o r e the A l m i g h t y ? It calls i n t o
q u e s t i o n his g o o d m o r a l j u d g m e n t . J u b i l e e s a v o i d s these difficulties b y p r e ­
s e n t i n g E n o c h o n l y in the role of w i t n e s s i n g against the W a t c h e r s a n d their
iniquity.
3. Mankind bears more responsibility for evil; they are not merely passive
victims of the Watchers, giants, and demons. In 1 E n 7 - 9 the W a t c h e r s a n d
their g i a n t offspring o p p r e s s the p o p u l a t i o n of the e a r t h w i t h v i o l e n c e , a n d
their i n n o c e n t v i c t i m s b r i n g their case before G o d p o s t h u m o u s l y (1 E n 9 : 1 0 ) .
G o d ' s r e s p o n s e is, in p a r t , to s e n d the f l o o d (1 E n 1 0 : 2 ) . T h e r e is a s e r i o u s dif­
ficulty w i t h this s c e n a r i o : If the Watchers a n d their o f f s p r i n g are r e s p o n s i b l e
for o p p r e s s i n g the h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n o f the earth, w h y does G o d r e s p o n d
b y w i p i n g o u t the h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n in the flood? It w o u l d s e e m that G o d is
p u n i s h i n g the v i c t i m s . T h u s , in B W the sins of the W a t c h e r s d o n o t p r o v i d e a
m o r a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n for the f l o o d . I n d e e d , B W d o e s not stress the c a u s a l rela­
t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the W a t c h e r s ' sins a n d the f l o o d . T h e f l o o d is n o t n a r r a t e d
(as it is in J u b i l e e s ) , a n d 1 E n 10:2 is the o n l y m e n t i o n of either N o a h or the
f l o o d in the w h o l e of B W .

J u b i l e e s is m o r e faithful to the i n t e n t i o n o f the text o f G e n 6 : 1 - 4 . It

n e v e r d i r e c t l y states — even if it i m p l i e s — that the W a t c h e r s m i s l e d m a n ­
k i n d or caused m a n k i n d to b e e v i l . I n s t e a d , in p a s s a g e s s u c h as J u b 5:2-3
a n d 7 : 2 2 - 2 5 , m a n k i n d ( a n d the a n i m a l s ) are d e s c r i b e d as c o r r u p t i n g them­
selves. T h e r e f o r e , the f l o o d a p p e a r s as m o r a l l y j u s t i f i e d . It w i p e s o u t all h u ­
m a n a n d a n i m a l life, b e c a u s e b o t h m a n a n d a n i m a l s h a d freely g i v e n
t h e m s e l v e s o v e r to g r e a t e v i l — e v e n if e n t i c e d and assisted by the
W a t c h e r s . T h i s is o n e o f s e v e r a l differences b e t w e e n J u b i l e e s a n d B W in

48
 The Relationship between Jubilees and the Early Enochic Books

w h i c h J u b i l e e s e m e r g e s w i t h a tighter, m o r e l o g i c a l l y a n d t h e o l o g i c a l l y c o ­
3 0
herent n a r r a t i v e .
4. The postflood activity of demons is portrayed as much more limited. In
BW evil spirits e m e r g e f r o m the b o d i e s o f the slain giants a n d are free to
w r e a k h a v o c in h u m a n s o c i e t y i n d e f i n i t e l y (1 E n 1 5 : 8 - 1 2 ) . In J u b 1 0 : 1 - 1 4 the
o r i g i n o f the d e m o n s a p p e a r s to be the s a m e , b u t N o a h p e t i t i o n s G o d to
b i n d t h e m , w i t h the result that n i n e - t e n t h s are b o u n d in the place o f j u d g ­
m e n t . O n e - t e n t h is left to c a r r y o u t the w i l l of the S a t a n - f i g u r e M a s t e m a o n
earth. T h u s the r a n g e o f influence of the d e m o n s in Jubilees is c o n s i d e r a b l y
3 1
m o r e l i m i t e d t h a n in B W .
T h i s is p a r t of a consistent tendenz of Jubilees v i s - a - v i s B W to e m p h a ­
size h u m a n r a t h e r t h a n d e m o n i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the i n i q u i t i e s of h u m a n
society. A p o i n t e d e x a m p l e of this is J u b 1 1 : 1 - 6 , w h i c h d e s c r i b e s the d e g r a d a ­
tion of h u m a n s o c i e t y after the death o f N o a h . R e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the c o r r u p ­
tion is a t t r i b u t e d to N o a h ' s d e s c e n d a n t s in w . 2 - 4 . A t the e n d o f v. 4 it is fi­
32
n a l l y m e n t i o n e d that " c r u e l spirits assisted t h e m a n d led t h e m a s t r a y , " and
v. 5 m e n t i o n s the activity of M a s t e m a . T h e entire p a s s a g e illustrates J u b i l e e s '
a p p r o a c h to the p r o b l e m of h u m a n sin: h u m a n b e i n g s give t h e m s e l v e s o v e r
to sin a n d so are r e s p o n s i b l e for it, a l t h o u g h there is n o d o u b t that evil spirits
e n c o u r a g e the p r o c e s s . After J u b 1 1 there is v e r y little m e n t i o n of evil spirits
33
b e i n g r e s p o n s i b l e for h u m a n sin in the rest of J u b i l e e s .
As a c o r o l l a r y to this d i s c u s s i o n , it m a y be p o i n t e d out that Jubilees
does n o t s h o w the c o n c e r n for the n a m e s a n d identities of the evil W a t c h e r s
that B W d o e s . B W e n u m e r a t e s their n a m e s a n d roles in v a r i o u s places (cf.
a n
1 E n 6:7; 8 : 1 - 4 ) , d places at their h e a d at t i m e s o n e A z a z ' e l (or A s a e l ) , a n d
at other t i m e s a certain S e m y a z a (or S h e m i h a z a ) . T h e o n l y n a m e d d e m o n in
Jubilees, b y contrast, is their leader M a s t e m a , a S a t a n figure w h o c o m b i n e s
the roles of A z a z ' e l a n d S e m y a z a . In this w a y Jubilees resolves the a w k w a r d
c o n f u s i o n in 1 E n o c h c o n c e r n i n g the i d e n t i t y o f the h e a d d e m o n .

30. F o r further discussion o n the o r i g i n o f evil in B W a n d Jubilees, see G . B o r g o n o v o ,

"Jubilees' R a p p r o c h e m e n t b e t w e e n H e n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c Tradition," Hen 3 1 , n o . 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .
B o r g o n o v o agrees that Jubilees stresses h u m a n responsibility for evil, in agreement with the
biblical text a n d in contrast to the E n o c h i c literature.
31. See R e e d , " A n g e l o l o g y a n d D e m o n o l o g y , " 4-7.
32. Translated b y O. S. W i n t e r m u t e , OTP, 2:78.
33. M a s t e m a is b e h i n d the testing of A b r a h a m at the A k e d a h , b u t he is u n a b l e to lead
A b r a h a m into sin (Jub 1 8 : 9 - 1 2 ) . H e attempts to slay M o s e s (48:1-4) a n d is a m o t i v a t i n g force
b e h i n d the E g y p t i a n s ' p e r s e c u t i o n s of Israel (48:9-19).

49
John S. Bergsma

GENERALIZATIONS

Jubilees accepts the b a s i c s t o r y of B W b u t a d a p t s it rather freely, r e s h a p i n g it

to a v o i d several p e r c e i v e d t h e o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s — the o r i g i n of evil in
h e a v e n , the l a c k of a m o r a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n for the f l o o d , E n o c h ' s t r o u b l e s o m e
a d v o c a c y for evil angels, a n d o t h e r s . B W s h o w s its i n f l u e n c e o n Jubilees in
the n a r r a t i v e e x t e n d i n g f r o m J u b 4 (the life o f E n o c h ) to J u b 1 1 (the lives o f
N o a h ' s i m m e d i a t e d e s c e n d a n t s ) . T h e r e a f t e r the p r e s e n c e of B W is scarcely
34
felt in J u b i l e e s ' n a r r a t i v e .
B W is m o r e an e x p l a n a t i o n for h u m a n evil in g e n e r a l t h a n an e x p l a n a ­
tion of the c a u s e of the f l o o d . B W traces the evils of h u m a n i t y to the evil
spirits of the g i a n t s a n d u l t i m a t e l y to their fathers, the W a t c h e r s , w h o s i n n e d
a l r e a d y in h e a v e n . T h u s the h e a v e n l y r e a l m is the u l t i m a t e s o u r c e of e a r t h l y
evil. J u b i l e e s , o n the other h a n d , w h i l e a c c e p t i n g in p r i n c i p l e B W ' s c o n t e n ­
t i o n that s o m e o f societal evil has a s u p e r n a t u r a l o r i g i n (i.e., fallen a n g e l s ) ,
n o n e t h e l e s s e m p h a s i z e s h u m a n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to a m u c h greater d e g r e e . H u ­
m a n s give t h e m s e l v e s to evil, a l t h o u g h evil spirits c o n t r i b u t e to the p r o c e s s .
In this w a y evil in Jubilees finds its o r i g i n in, a n d is l i m i t e d to, the e a r t h l y
3 5
realm. A s w a s n o t e d a b o v e , in Jubilees the W a t c h e r s fall after t h e y h a v e al­
r e a d y d e s c e n d e d to the earth.
Finally, if a few b r o a d o b s e r v a t i o n s m a y be p e r m i t t e d , the results o f
this s t u d y p o i n t to the fact t h a t the influence of the early E n o c h i c m a t e r i a l in
Jubilees is l i m i t e d , for the m o s t p a r t , to the n a r r a t i v e s of Jubilees f r o m E n o c h
to N o a h , r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d i n g to G e n 5 - 9 . E n o c h ' s i m p o r t a n c e to Jubilees
3 6
does not, in o u r o p i n i o n , c o m e close to r i v a l i n g the i m p o r t a n c e of M o s e s .

34. L . A r c a r i ( " T h e M y t h of the Watchers a n d the P r o b l e m of I n t e r m a r r i a g e in J u b i ­

lees," Hen 3 1 , n o . 1 [2009]) u n d e r s t a n d s the Watcher m y t h to function as a p a r a d i g m a t i c n a r ­
rative g r o u n d i n g J u b i l e e s ' l a t e r c o n d e m n a t i o n o f e x o g a m o u s m a r r i a g e s . W h i l e this h y p o t h e ­
sis is possible, I a m not p e r s u a d e d by it. T h e a u t h o r o f Jubilees d r a w s no parallel b e t w e e n the
W a t c h e r s ' m a r r i a g e s a n d those b e t w e e n Jews a n d Gentiles in Jub 3 0 : 1 - 2 4 o r elsewhere. In­
stead, he g r o u n d s his p r o h i b i t i o n s against m i s c e g e n a t i o n in the M o s a i c tradition.
35. V a n d e r K a m also m a k e s this p o i n t , in " E n o c h T r a d i t i o n s in Jubilees," 244.
36. In this respect I differ f r o m H . S. K v a n v i g , "Jubilees — b e t w e e n E n o c h a n d M o s e s :
A N a r r a t i v e Reading," JSJ 35, n o . 3 ( 2 0 0 4 ) : 2 4 3 - 6 1 . In m y o p i n i o n , the role o f E n o c h a n d the
influence o f the E n o c h i c literature are not so great on Jubilees that the plot of the book
s h o u l d b e characterized as " m e d i a t i n g " between the two figures. M o s e s a n d his t r a d i t i o n
clearly d o m i n a t e . O f course, the 3 6 4 - d a y c a l e n d a r of the E n o c h i c tradition is i m p o r t a n t to
Jubilees. B u t the c a l e n d a r is v a l u e d b e c a u s e it facilitates s c r u p u l o u s o b s e r v a n c e of M o s a i c
festivals, n o t b e c a u s e o f its E n o c h i c a u t h o r i t y p e r se. O n the s u p e r i o r i t y o f M o s e s to E n o c h ,
see D. M . Peters, " N o a h T r a d i t i o n s in Jubilees: E v i d e n c e for the Struggle b e t w e e n E n o c h i c
a n d M o s a i c Authority," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .

50
 The Relationship between Jubilees and the Early Enochic Books

T h e concerns and "theologies" of Jubilees and the early E n o c h i c literature

are actually significantly different in several respects. T h e differences con­
cerning the origin of evil have been mentioned. W e m a y add that Jubilees
lacks the "scientific" interest of A B , takes a different attitude toward technol­
ogy than B W , and shows a concern for the Mosaic law and cultic-liturgical
observance quite lacking in either A B or B W .

5i
Daniel and Jubilees

Matthias Heme

The purpose of this paper is to compare two Jewish writings from the sec­
ond temple period, Daniel and Jubilees. T h e two books are linked by several
affinities. First, both texts were written roughly at the same time, possibly
within a decade of each other. T h e b o o k of Daniel reached its final form dur­
ing the years 1 6 7 - 1 6 4 B . C . E . , the time of the persecutions under A n t i ­
ochus IV. T h e date of composition of the book of Jubilees is more elusive,
1
though a date in the 160s or 150s B . C . E . seems most likely. Second, Daniel
and Jubilees are both in their o w n w a y products of the Maccabean revolt. In
Daniel the references to Antiochus are unambiguous and explicit. In Jubilees
the connection with the Maccabean uprising is more tentative and has to be
inferred. T h e prohibition of nakedness (Jub 3:30-31; cf. 1 M a c e 1:14; 2 Mace
4:12) and the "prediction" of a time of apostasy during which the Israelites
will no longer practice circumcision (Jub 15:33-34; cf. 1 M a c e 1:15) are often
quoted in this regard, though these passages m a y simply refer to controver­
sial issues that arose during the advance of Hellenism in general. Third, both
Daniel and Jubilees are of a considerable apocalyptic bent. Since neither
Daniel nor Moses, Jubilees' protagonist, is ever taken into heaven, both texts
belong, in terms of form criticism, to the group of "historical" apocalypses.

1. J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha 9

(Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001), 17-21; similarly G. W. E . Nickelsburg, Jewish Lit­
erature between the Bible and the Mishnah, 2nd ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2006), opts for a
date "in the early 160s" (73).

52
 Daniel and Jubilees

T h e A n t i o c h e a n p e r s e c u t i o n p r o v i d e d the a p o c a l y p t i c a l l y m i n d e d w i t h a
fresh m o m e n t u m that led to the c o m p o s i t i o n o f a s m a l l yet diverse g r o u p of
a p o c a l y p s e s of w h i c h D a n i e l a n d Jubilees are p a r t . A n d f o u r t h , a little o v e r
half a c e n t u r y after their c o m p o s i t i o n , b o t h D a n i e l a n d Jubilees f o u n d their
w a y into the l i b r a r y of the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y . T h e u n u s u a l l y h i g h n u m b e r
of m a n u s c r i p t s d i s c o v e r e d of b o t h texts — n o fewer t h a n eight of D a n i e l a n d
2
fifteen of J u b i l e e s — m a y b e seen as an i n d i c a t i o n that the b o o k s w e r e h e l d
in h i g h e s t e e m , a n d p o s s i b l y even c o n s i d e r e d " a u t h o r i t a t i v e " ( C D 1 6 : 3 - 4 ) , b y
the m e m b e r s of the c o m m u n i t y . It is easy to see h o w D a n i e l ' s a p o c a l y p t i c
o u t l o o k a n d J u b i l e e s ' priestly a n d l e g a l c o n c e r n s w o u l d h a v e b e e n h i g h l y
p o p u l a r at Q u m r a n . M o r e o v e r , the Q u m r a n l i b r a r y y i e l d e d a n u m b e r of v a r ­
ied w r i t i n g s that closely r e s e m b l e b o t h b o o k s , the s o - c a l l e d P s e u d o - D a n i e l
( 4 Q 2 4 3 - 2 4 5 ) a n d the P s e u d o - J u b i l e e s texts ( 4 Q 2 2 5 - 2 2 7 ) . T h e s e h i t h e r t o u n ­
k n o w n c o m p o s i t i o n s s h o w that there existed a v e r y active c o n t i n u o u s t r a d i ­
3
tion of c o m p o s i n g stories a n d v i s i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h D a n i e l a n d J u b i l e e s .

W h i l e the t w o b o o k s h a v e o b v i o u s affinities, s o m e of w h i c h c a n b e e x ­
p l a i n e d b y the c o m m o n M a c c a b e a n m i l i e u f r o m w h i c h they s t e m , in m a n y
o t h e r r e s p e c t s t h e y d i v e r g e f r o m o n e another. T h e i r literary s t r u c t u r e s are
entirely different, for e x a m p l e , as are their t h e o l o g i c a l foci. M o s t strikingly,
their r e c e p t i o n h i s t o r y b e y o n d Q u m r a n t o o k v e r y different r o u t e s . D a n i e l
b e c a m e p a r t o f the Western b i b l i c a l c a n o n s , w h e r e a s J u b i l e e s n e v e r d i d .
M y c o m p a r i s o n of these two w r i t i n g s r e v o l v e s a r o u n d three aspects
that also p r o v i d e the s t r u c t u r e for this essay: the a u t h o r s ' a p o c a l y p t i c e x p e c ­
tations, their use of b i b l i c a l exegesis, a n d their c h r o n o l o g i c a l , specifically
their h e p t a d i c , c a l c u l a t i o n s . A n y o n e of these t o p i c s d e s e r v e s a full-length
s t u d y of its o w n . W h a t I h o p e to s h o w in this b r i e f c o m p a r a t i v e essay, h o w ­
ever, is that w h i l e all three aspects are of c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e to b o t h D a n i e l
a n d J u b i l e e s , they fulfill rather different f u n c t i o n s in the t w o b o o k s . T h e is-

2. T h e numbers are taken from J. C . V a n d e r K a m a n d P. W. Flint, The Meaning of the

Dead Sea Scrolls (New York: Harper San Francisco, 2 0 0 2 ) , 149 a n d 197.
3. Scholarly literature o n this matter has grown exponentially in recent years; o n Jubi­
lees, see J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " T h e jubilees Fragments from Q u m r a n C a v e 4," in The Madrid
Qumran Congress: Proceedings of the International Congress on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Madrid,
18-21 March, 1991, ed. J. Trebolle Barrera a n d L. Vegas Montaner, S T D J 11 (Brill: Leiden, 1992),
635-48; C . Hempel, " T h e Place o f the B o o k o f Jubilees at Q u m r a n a n d Beyond," in The Dead
Sea Scrolls in Their Historical Context, ed. T. H . L i m (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2 0 0 0 ) , 187-96.
O n Daniel, see P. W. Flint, " T h e Daniel Tradition at Q u m r a n , " a n d L. T. Stuckenbruck,
"Daniel a n d Early E n o c h Traditions in the D e a d Sea Scrolls," b o t h in The Book of Daniel:
Composition and Reception, ed. J. J. Collins a n d P. W. Flint, 2 vols., V T S u p 83 (Leiden: Brill,
2 0 0 1 ) , 2:329-67 a n d 368-86; E . Ulrich, "Daniel, B o o k of," in EDSS, 170-74.

53
Matthias Henze

sues are f u n d a m e n t a l l y the s a m e — a p o c a l y p t i c i s m , exegesis, a n d the c a l e n ­

dar — b u t t h e y are d e v e l o p e d to different ends entirely. In other w o r d s , D a n ­
iel a n d Jubilees stem from closely related t h o u g h t w o r l d s w h o s e c o n c e r n s
largely o v e r l a p , b u t as literary c o m p o s i t i o n s the t w o b o o k s f u n c t i o n differ­
ently. To o b s e r v e that there are certain " p a r a l l e l s " b e t w e e n the two texts,
then, is n o t m e r e l y to p o i n t to a literary p h e n o m e n o n . Instead, the affinities
s p e a k to the fluidity, p e r m e a b i l i t y , a n d e x c h a n g e o f t h o u g h t s in g e n e r a l that
4
are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the literature of o u r p e r i o d . A s w e are g a i n i n g a better
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the c o n t o u r s o f the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s of the s e c o n d c e n ­
t u r y B . C . E . a n d o f the diverse literatures t h e y p r o d u c e d , a c o m p a r a t i v e r e a d ­
i n g o f the extant w r i t i n g s m a y help to cast into s h a r p e r relief the distinct
s t r a n d s of early J e w i s h t h o u g h t a n d their e v o l u t i o n over t i m e .

Apocalyptic Expectations

T h e a p o c a l y p t i c n a t u r e of the b o o k of D a n i e l h a r d l y n e e d s elaboration,
t h o u g h it m a y be helpful to r e v i e w s o m e o f its c o n s t i t u t i v e e l e m e n t s . I do n o t
w i s h to suggest that D a n i e l is the m o d e l of all a p o c a l y p s e s , as if the c a n o n i c a l
w r i t i n g s e n j o y e d s o m e p r i v i l e g e d status a n d s h o u l d s e r v e as t e m p l a t e s for
the g e n r e , n o r do I c l a i m that the a p o c a l y p t i c g e n r e c a n be d e s c r i b e d a d e ­
quately b y m e r e l y listing its p r o m i n e n t features. B u t it is useful to ask w h a t it
is that m a k e s D a n i e l an a p o c a l y p s e .
T h e b o o k of D a n i e l is p a r t o f a n c i e n t Israel's r e v e l a t o r y literature. Its
t r u t h c l a i m s are n o t b a s e d o n t h e o l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n g b u t d e r i v e f r o m an a p ­
p e a l to r e v e l a t i o n . W h a t is r e c o r d e d here is w h a t D a n i e l r e c e i v e d directly
f r o m G o d in the f o r m o f three v i s i o n a r y r e v e l a t i o n s ( c h a p s . 7; 8; a n d 1 0 - 1 2 ) .
D a n i e l d u l y r e c o r d e d e v e r y t h i n g he l e a r n e d a n d kept it sealed "until the t i m e
of the e n d " ( D a n 1 2 : 4 , 9 ) . T h e b i b l i c a l b o o k r e a d i l y falls into t w o h a l v e s , the
n a r r a t i v e f r a m e that consists of a c o l l e c t i o n of b i o g r a p h i c a l n a r r a t i v e s about
D a n i e l a n d his three c o m p a n i o n s in the first h a l f ( c h a p s . 1 - 6 ) , a n d the v i ­
5
s i o n s related by D a n i e l i n the latter h a l f ( c h a p s . 7 - 1 2 ) . T h e r e are n o e s c h a t o -
l o g i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n s in the first p a r t of the b o o k , n o r do the D a n i e l i c c o u r t
tales r e s e m b l e in a n y w a y the t e s t a m e n t a r y g e n r e so p r o m i n e n t in r e v e l a t o r y

4. O n the issue o f " p a r a - m a n i a , " see R. Kraft, " P a r a - m a n i a : B e s i d e , Before, a n d B e ­

y o n d Bible Studies," JBL 126 (2007): 5-27.
5. See the helpful collection J. J. C o l l i n s a n d P. W. Flint, eds., The Book of Daniel: Com­
position and Reception, 2 vols., V T S u p 83 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 1 ) , especially the article b y R . G .
Kratz, " T h e V i s i o n s of Daniel," 1 : 9 1 - 1 3 1 .

54
 Daniel and Jubilees

literature. R a t h e r , the p u r p o s e of the tales is to i n t r o d u c e D a n i e l a n d to es­

tablish his credentials as a w o r t h y r e c i p i e n t of the a p o c a l y p t i c l o r e . T h e r e v e ­
lations that f o r m the core of the a p o c a l y p t i c s e c t i o n of the b o o k ( c h a p s . 7—
12) are a l l e g o r i c a l d r e a m v i s i o n s , i.e., r e v i e w s of h i s t o r y in the f o r m of ex
eventu p r o p h e c i e s . It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e that the events p o r t r a y e d here are
s i m u l t a n e o u s a n d n o t s e q u e n t i a l . In other w o r d s , the v i s i o n s d o n o t p r o g r e s s
c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y f r o m o n e h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t to the n e x t , b u t e a c h v i s i o n
r o u g h l y c o v e r s the s a m e e v e n t s , c u l m i n a t i n g in the A n t i o c h e a n d e s e c r a t i o n
of the t e m p l e a n d the p e r s e c u t i o n o f the Jews d u r i n g the y e a r s 1 6 7 - 1 6 4 B . C . E .
T h e S e l e u c i d r u l e r A n t i o c h u s I V E p i p h a n e s is the "little h o r n . . . that s p o k e
a r r o g a n t l y " ( D a n 7:8) w h o "set u p the a b o m i n a t i o n that m a k e s d e s o l a t e " in
6
the t e m p l e in J e r u s a l e m ( D a n 1 1 : 3 1 ; i 2 : n ) .

The fact that w e c a n d e t e r m i n e w i t h s o m e c o n f i d e n c e the h i s t o r i c a l

crisis that t r i g g e r e d the c o m p o s i t i o n of D a n i e l ' s v i s i o n s p r o v i d e s us w i t h i m ­
p o r t a n t clues for w h y the b i b l i c a l b o o k w a s w r i t t e n in the first p l a c e . Its
f u n c t i o n is t w o f o l d , to e x p l a i n the c u r r e n t m i s e r y a n d to c o n s o l e the p e r s e ­
c u t e d . To e x p l a i n the c u r r e n t conflict the a u t h o r a d o p t s a v i e w o f the w o r l d
that is f o u n d w i d e l y in a p o c a l y p t i c literature. T h i s v i e w of reality is p r e d i ­
cated o n a n e l a b o r a t e c o n s t r u a l of the h e a v e n l y w o r l d . E a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y
reality stand in stark c o n t r a s t to each other, a n d events o n earth are the d i ­
rect reflection o f w h a t is h a p p e n i n g in h e a v e n . T h e angelic d i s c o u r s e in
1 0 : 1 8 - 1 1 : 1 illustrates this well. T h e r e D a n i e l learns o f a c o s m i c conflict a m o n g
the h e a v e n l y forces c u r r e n t l y b e i n g w a g e d in h e a v e n . T h e p r i n c e of the P e r ­
sian k i n g d o m a n d the p r i n c e of G r e e c e are in c o m b a t w i t h M i c h a e l , the
g u a r d i a n a n g e l o f Israel, a n d w i t h the a n o n y m o u s i n t e r p r e t i n g a n g e l w h o is
s p e a k i n g to D a n i e l , p r e s u m a b l y G a b r i e l . T h e clash b e t w e e n A n t i o c h u s a n d
the Jews is m e r e l y the pendant to the c u r r e n t h e a v e n l y c o n f r o n t a t i o n .

T h e s e c o n d f u n c t i o n o f the b o o k of D a n i e l is to c o n s o l e . T h e first v i ­
s i o n in c h a p . 7 is of c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e in this r e s p e c t . D a n i e l w i t n e s s e s a
h e a v e n l y c o u r t r o o m scene in w h i c h G o d strips A n t i o c h u s o f his p o w e r , p u t s
7
h i m to death, a n d h a n d s d o m i n i o n over to the " S o n of M a n " ( 7 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) . S i m i ­
larly, 1 1 : 4 1 - 4 5 " p r e d i c t s " the i m m i n e n t death of the S e l e u c i d v i l l a i n . S u c h a
p r o m i s e of the j u d g m e n t a n d even death of Israel's p e r s e c u t o r m u s t h a v e
r e s o n a t e d s t r o n g l y w i t h the p e r s e c u t e d . T h e p r o m i s e o f j u d g m e n t is e x -

6. G . W. E . N i c k e l s b u r g , "Apocalyptic Texts," in EDSS, 29-35.

7. J. J. C o l l i n s , A Commentary on the Book of Daniel, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: For­
tress, 1993), 277-94; o n the religio-historical b a c k g r o u n d o f the S o n o f M a n , n o w see
G . Boccaccini, ed., Enoch and the Messiah Son of Man: Revisiting the Book of Parables (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007).

55
Matthias Henze

t e n d e d even further in the s e c o n d j u d g m e n t scene in the b o o k , the final s e c ­

tion that l o o k s to the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e s u r r e c t i o n of the d e a d ( 1 2 : 1 - 3 ) . T h o s e
w h o are f o u n d " i n s c r i b e d in the b o o k " w i l l be r e s c u e d . T h i s is f o l l o w e d b y
the r e s u r r e c t i o n of the d e a d , for s o m e to eternal life, a n d for others to ever­
lasting a b h o r r e n c e . T h e g r e a t d a y of r e c k o n i n g carries a s p e c i a l p r o m i s e for
o n e g r o u p that is specifically s i n g l e d out, "the w i s e " ( 1 2 : 3 ) . T h e y are n o t
identified b e y o n d their t h e o l o g i c a l epithet. N o t all of t h e m w i l l s u r v i v e the
p e r s e c u t i o n s , a n d so their r e w a r d is the p r o m i s e of r e s u r r e c t i o n , w h e n t h e y
will " s h i n e like the b r i g h t n e s s of the sky . . . like the stars for ever a n d e v e r "
8
(12: ). 3

T h e b o o k of Jubilees shares several of the features that r e n d e r D a n i e l

an a p o c a l y p s e , b u t these e l e m e n t s are less d o m i n a n t , w h i l e other, non-
a p o c a l y p t i c e l e m e n t s that p l a y o n l y a m i n o r role i n D a n i e l are m u c h m o r e
p r e v a l e n t in J u b i l e e s , m o s t n o t a b l y the b o o k ' s d e v e l o p e d interest in h a l a k a h .
Since the d a w n o f its m o d e r n r e a d i n g , s c h o l a r s h a v e d i s c u s s e d w h e t h e r or
9
n o t Jubilees can r i g h t l y be called an a p o c a l y p s e . T h e l a c k of an a g r e e m e n t
r e g a r d i n g J u b i l e e s ' genre a n d the v a r i e t y o f different p r o p o s a l s that h a v e
b e e n a d v a n c e d are i n d i c a t i v e o f the c o m p o s i t e literary c h a r a c t e r of the b o o k .
T h e issue is further c o m p l i c a t e d b y the fact that o v e r t l y a p o c a l y p t i c t h o u g h t
is e x p r e s s e d o n l y in a h a n d f u l of places in J u b i l e e s , m o s t p r o m i n e n t l y in
1 0
c h a p s . 1 a n d 2 3 . T h i s h a s led s o m e s c h o l a r s to p r o p o s e that the a p o c a l y p t i c
1 1
p a s s a g e s are later a d d i t i o n s to the b o o k . Such literary-critical decisions
b a s e d o n alleged " t e n s i o n s " are u n n e c e s s a r i l y s p e c u l a t i v e . It is true, h o w e v e r ,

8. J . F. H o b b i n s , " R e s u r r e c t i o n in the D a n i e l T r a d i t i o n a n d O t h e r W r i t i n g s at
Q u m r a n , " in The Book of Daniel, 2:395-420; C . H e m p e l , "Maskil(im) a n d Rabim: F r o m D a n ­
iel to Q u m r a n , " in Biblical Traditions in Transmission: Essays in Honour of Michael A. Knibb,
ed. C . H e m p e l and J. M . Lieu (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 6 ) , 133-56.
9. See the list o f scholars in A. L a n g e , " D i v i n a t o r i s c h e T r a u m e und A p o k a l y p t i k i m
Jubilaenbuch," in Studies in the Book of Jubilees, ed. M . A l b a n i , J. Frey, a n d A. L a n g e
( T u b i n g e n : M o h r Siebeck, 1997), 25-38; L a n g e himself c o n c l u d e s that " [ e j i n e Klassifikation
des J u b i l a e n b u c h e s als a p o k a l y p t i s c h e Schrift i s t . . . a b z u l e h n e n " (35). J. J. C o l l i n s , The Apoc­
alyptic Imagination ( G r a n d R a p i d s : E e r d m a n s , 1 9 9 8 ) , 83, states d i p l o m a t i c a l l y that "Jubilees
represents a b o r d e r l i n e case for the a p o c a l y p t i c genre." T h e discussion is a w e l c o m e re­
m i n d e r that genres are n o t absolute categories b u t m o d e r n abstractions that help us catego­
rize ancient literature.
10. G . L. D a v e n p o r t , The Eschatology of the Book of Jubilees (Leiden: Brill, 1 9 7 1 ) , distin­
guishes between "passages intended to teach e s c h a t o l o g y " (1:4-29 a n d 2 3 : 1 4 - 3 1 ) a n d " n o n -
: -
eschatological passages that contain significant eschatological e l e m e n t s " ( 1 : 1 - 5 ; 5 i i 9 > 8 : 1 0 -
15; 1 5 : 1 - 3 4 ; 1 6 : 1 - 9 ; 2 2 : 1 1 - 2 3 ; 24:8-33; 3 1 : 1 - 3 2 ; a n d 3 4 : 1 - 1 8 ) .
1 1 . See, for e x a m p l e , C . Berner, "50 Jubilees a n d B e y o n d ? S o m e O b s e r v a t i o n s o n the
C h r o n o l o g i c a l Structure o f the B o o k o f Jubilees," Hen 3 1 , n o . 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .

56
 Daniel and Jubilees

that a p o c a l y p t i c ideas r e p r e s e n t o n l y o n e aspect of J u b i l e e s ' t h o u g h t w o r l d ,

1 2
a n d so the c o m p o s i t i o n as a w h o l e s h o u l d n o t b e called an a p o c a l y p s e .
It m a y be helpful to b e g i n b y stating w h a t Jubilees does not i n c l u d e .
T h e r e is n o r e v e l a t o r y v i s i o n in Jubilees that so often is the preferred m e ­
d i u m in a p o c a l y p s e s , n o r is there a h e a v e n l y j o u r n e y or a n y other f o r m of
e p i p h a n y . S c h o l a r s w h o felt c o m p e l l e d to call Jubilees an a p o c a l y p s e e v i ­
dently did so n o t o n f o r m a l g r o u n d s b u t r a t h e r b e c a u s e o f the b o o k ' s o b v i ­
o u s affinity w i t h other a p o c a l y p s e s . T h e s t r o n g e s t case can be m a d e for J u b i ­
lees' s i m i l a r i t y to, a n d in s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s d e p e n d e n c e u p o n , 1 E n o c h . T h e
author of J u b i l e e s w a s c l e a r l y f a m i l i a r w i t h the E n o c h i a n B o o k of the
W a t c h e r s a n d the A s t r o n o m i c a l B o o k . A f f i l i a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r p a r t s of
1 E n o c h , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h the B o o k of D r e a m s , are e q u a l l y o b v i o u s .
T h e first chapter of Jubilees i n t r o d u c e s the r e a d e r to s o m e k e y c o n c e p t s
that w i l l be f o u n d a t i o n a l for the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the b o o k . O n e of t h e m is
the s t o r y of h o w Jubilees w a s w r i t t e n . T h e r e w e learn that w h e n M o s e s as­
c e n d e d M o u n t S i n a i , he r e c e i v e d m u c h m o r e t h a n the T o r a h . G o d gave M o s e s
a historical o v e r v i e w f r o m the b e g i n n i n g of t i m e to its c o n s u m m a t i o n , a s u r ­
v e y of "the d i v i s i o n s of all the times," a n d t h e n c o m m a n d e d M o s e s to w r i t e
e v e r y t h i n g d o w n in a b o o k ( J u b 1:4). T h e c o m m a n d is r e p e a t e d at the e n d of
c h a p . 1 and thus f o r m s an inclusio for the b o o k ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n . " N o w y o u
w r i t e all these w o r d s w h i c h I tell y o u o n this m o u n t a i n : w h a t is first a n d w h a t
is last a n d w h a t is to c o m e d u r i n g all the d i v i s i o n s o f t i m e w h i c h are in the l a w
a n d w h i c h are in the t e s t i m o n y a n d in the w e e k s of their Jubilees until eternity
— until the t i m e w h e n I d e s c e n d a n d live w i t h t h e m t h r o u g h o u t all the ages
1 3
of eternity" ( 1 : 2 6 ) . T h e passages aptly describe the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l h o r i z o n
w i t h i n w h i c h the b o o k w a n t s to be read. T h e events M o s e s is c o m m a n d e d to
r e c o r d do n o t fall w i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s of biblical history, let alone c a n they
b e f o u n d in G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s , the t w o b o o k s Jubilees p a r a p h r a s e s , but they
cover all of history, "the w e e k s of their Jubilees t h r o u g h o u t all the y e a r s of
eternity" ( p r o l o g u e ) . T h e b o o k o f Jubilees itself d o e s not s p a n all of h i s t o r y
f r o m b e g i n n i n g to e n d but gives us o n l y an excerpt of w h a t w a s revealed to
M o s e s on M o u n t S i n a i . B u t this in n o w a y c o m p r o m i s e s the claim that the
b o o k w a n t s to be u n d e r s t o o d in a larger e s c h a t o l o g i c a l context.

1 2 . T h e verdict of M . Testuz, Les idees religieuses du Livre des Jubiles ( G e n e v a : E . D r o z ,

i 9 6 0 ) , still h o l d s true. "Ainsi, le Livre des Jubiles est u n o u v r a g e de genre c o m p o s i t e , qui tient
a la fois d u l i v r e h i s t o r i q u e , de l ' o u v r a g e de l e g i s l a t i o n , d u livre c h r o n o l o g i q u e , de
l ' a p o c a l y p s e et d u genre des testaments" (12; see also 1 6 5 - 7 7 ) .
13. A l l translations are taken from J. C . V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, C S C O 510-11
(Louvain: Peeters, 1989).

57
Matthias Henze

T h e p a s s a g e is also telling in that it p r o v i d e s a fictitious a c c o u n t o f

h o w Jubilees w a s c o m p o s e d . In the v e r s e f o l l o w i n g the e x c e r p t q u o t e d a b o v e ,
God tells the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e to dictate to M o s e s the d i v i n e lore ( 1 : 2 7 ) .
H o w e v e r , f r o m 2:1 o n it is M o s e s w h o r e c o r d s w h a t the a n g e l r e a d s to h i m . In
either case, the a u t h o r m a k e s the c l a i m that the b o o k as a w h o l e is a r e v e l a ­
tion that M o s e s received on M o u n t S i n a i . U n l i k e D a n i e l , M o s e s does n o t
h a v e any v i s i o n s , b u t the m o d e of r e v e l a t i o n that led to the c o m p o s i t i o n o f
the t w o b o o k s is the s a m e . In b o t h cases the r e v e l a t o r y a c c o u n t s a m o u n t to
p o w e r f u l c l a i m s to authority.
In the i n t r o d u c t o r y chapter of Jubilees G o d p r o m i s e s M o s e s t h a t G o d
w i l l s h o w h i m all o f h u m a n history. T h e r e are s e v e r a l e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p a s s a g e s
in the b o o k , the longest a n d m o s t explicit o f w h i c h is f o u n d in c h a p . 2 3 . T h e
n o t i c e o f the death of A b r a h a m ( 2 3 : 1 - 8 ) p r o v i d e s the a u t h o r w i t h an o p p o r ­
t u n i t y to reflect on the life s p a n s o f h u m a n s , " f r o m n o w [i.e., the t i m e o f
A b r a h a m ] until the great d a y o f j u d g m e n t " ( 2 3 : 1 1 ) . T h e p r o p h e c y that fol­
l o w s the a c c o u n t of A b r a h a m ' s death d e s c r i b e s h o w the ages o f i n d i v i d u a l s
will initially b e d i m i n i s h e d as p a r t o f a d i v i n e p u n i s h m e n t until they reach a
certain l o w d u r i n g a g e n e r a t i o n s i m p l y referred to as "the evil g e n e r a t i o n "
1 4
(23:14) , T h e n t h a t g e n e r a t i o n ' s c h i l d r e n w i l l r e p e n t , a n d after m a n y t r i b u l a ­
t i o n s , h u m a n life s p a n s w i l l i n c r e a s e a g a i n until they reach close to o n e
t h o u s a n d y e a r s ( 2 3 : 2 7 - 2 9 ) . L i k e the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l o u t l o o k at the e n d o f the
b o o k of D a n i e l , the c h a p t e r c u l m i n a t e s in the p r o m i s e of the r e s u r r e c t i o n o f
the d e a d , a p a s s a g e i m m e d i a t e l y r e m i n i s c e n t of D a n 1 2 . " T h e n the L o r d w i l l
heal his s e r v a n t s . T h e y w i l l rise a n d see great p e a c e . H e w i l l e x p e l his ene­
m i e s . T h e r i g h t e o u s w i l l see ( t h i s ) , offer p r a i s e , a n d b e v e r y h a p p y forever
a n d ever. T h e y w i l l see all their p u n i s h m e n t s a n d curses o n their e n e m i e s .
T h e i r b o n e s w i l l rest in the earth a n d their spirits w i l l be v e r y h a p p y . T h e y
w i l l k n o w that the L o r d is o n e w h o executes j u d g m e n t b u t s h o w s k i n d n e s s to
h u n d r e d s a n d t h o u s a n d s a n d to all w h o love h i m " ( 2 3 : 3 0 - 3 1 ) . B o t h D a n 1 2 : 1 - 3
a n d J u b 2 3 : 3 0 - 3 1 d e s c r i b e an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l scene in w h i c h r e s u r r e c t i o n a n d
j u d g m e n t are closely i n t e r t w i n e d (see also 1 E n 2 7 : 1 - 4 , w h i c h m a y w e l l h a v e
s e r v e d as the Vorlage for b o t h ) . T h e text d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y that the
r e s u r r e c t i o n is u n i v e r s a l a n d affects all w h o h a v e d i e d . It is certain, h o w e v e r ,
that n o t all w h o are r e s u r r e c t e d w i l l g a i n life eternal. B u i l t into the a c c o u n t
in D a n 1 2 : 1 - 3 is the s p e c i a l p r o m i s e to "the w i s e " that t h e y w i l l be b r o u g h t to
life a n d s h i n e like the stars. S i m i l a r l y in J u b 2 3 , "the r i g h t e o u s " — they are

14. J . Kugel, " T h e Jubilees A p o c a l y p s e , " DSD 1 (1994): 322-37; s o m e scholars have
f o u n d here an allusion to the M a c c a b e a n p e r i o d .

58
 Daniel and Jubilees

also called G o d ' s " s e r v a n t s " — will receive h e a l i n g , a n d in r e s p o n s e will offer

their infinite p r a i s e to G o d . T h e i r e n e m i e s , o n the other h a n d , w i l l b e p u n ­
i s h e d a n d c u r s e d . S u c h d o u b l e j u d g m e n t is h a r d l y n e w . T h e o p p o s i t i o n of
r i g h t e o u s a n d s i n n e r s is f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t b i b l i c a l literature, p a r t i c u l a r l y in
s a p i e n t i a l texts a n d in the p s a l m s , y e t it is here p r o p e l l e d to an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l
e x t r e m e a n d a p p l i e d to the last j u d g m e n t s c e n e .
T h e b o o k o f Jubilees displays s e v e r a l traits that are clearly a p o c a l y p t i c .
A s the i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r m a k e s clear, the a u t h o r of Jubilees w r i t e s w i t h
a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t in m i n d , even t h o u g h the b o o k relates o n l y a s m a l l
s e c t i o n thereof. H i s t o r y is h e a d i n g for an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l finale, m a r k e d b y
G o d ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n , the r e s u r r e c t i o n of the d e a d , a n d j u d g m e n t day. It is also
clear, h o w e v e r , that, w h i l e these e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s delineate the i m a g i ­
n a t i v e f r a m e o f the b o o k , t h e y are n o t d e v e l o p e d in a n y detail. T h e y w e r e n o t
t r i g g e r e d by, n o r do they f o c u s o n , a c o n c r e t e p e r c u s s i v e e v e n t s u c h as the
A n t i o c h e a n p e r s e c u t i o n in the b o o k of D a n i e l . In D a n i e l , the a p o c a l y p s e is
the l i t e r a r y r e s p o n s e to a specific h i s t o r i c a l crisis that in t u r n b e c o m e s the
focal p o i n t o f the v i s i o n s ; in Jubilees a p o c a l y p t i c i s m is the m e n t a l h o r i z o n of
the a u t h o r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n , n o t the literary m o l d of the b o o k .

Biblical Exegesis

In c h a p . 9 of D a n i e l , w e find D a n i e l s t u d y i n g S c r i p t u r e . " I , D a n i e l , p e r c e i v e d
in the b o o k s the n u m b e r of y e a r s that, a c c o r d i n g to the w o r d of the L o r d to
the p r o p h e t J e r e m i a h , m u s t be fulfilled for the d e v a s t a t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m ,
n a m e l y , s e v e n t y y e a r s " ( D a n 9 : 2 ) . T h e reference is to J e r e m i a h ' s p r e d i c t i o n
that B a b y l o n w o u l d fall after 70 y e a r s (Jer 2 5 : 1 1 - 1 2 ; cf. Jer 2 9 : 1 0 ) . T h e a u t h o r
o f D a n i e l is w r i t i n g at a t i m e w h e n the t e m p l e w a s desecrated a n d J u d a i s m
w a s u n d e r siege, a n d so the r e d e m p t i o n p r o m i s e d b y J e r e m i a h still s e e m e d to
lie in the future, even t h o u g h the 70 y e a r s of J e r e m i a h h a d l o n g p a s s e d . To
solve the o b v i o u s p r o b l e m , the a n g e l G a b r i e l reinterprets the 70 y e a r s to
m e a n s e v e n t y w e e k s of y e a r s , or 490 y e a r s ( D a n 9 : 2 4 - 2 7 ) .
T h e o f t - q u o t e d e p i s o d e has b e c o m e s o m e w h a t o f a locus classicus in
s c h o l a r l y t r e a t m e n t s of i n n e r - b i b l i c a l exegesis, since it is o n e o f the f e w
places in the B i b l e w h e r e a b i b l i c a l a u t h o r explicitly refers to an earlier b o o k
a n d interprets it. T h e use of earlier p r o p h e c i e s in D a n i e l ' s r e v e l a t o r y v i s i o n s
is m a d e explicit in D a n 9 — b u t it is i m p l i c i t t h r o u g h o u t the latter h a l f of the
b o o k . N o other p a r t of the c a n o n has b e e n as f o r m a t i v e for the c o m p o s i t i o n
of D a n i e l ' s a p o c a l y p t i c texts as the P r o p h e t s . T h e a u t h o r s p e a k s in the p r o -

59
Matthias Henze

phetic i d i o m , u s i n g l a n g u a g e a n d speech f o r m s at h o m e in the P r o p h e t s . S o

p e r v a s i v e is the u s e o f p r o p h e t i c p r o n o u n c e m e n t s that o n e m o d e r n inter­
15
preter aptly d e s c r i b e d D a n 1 0 : 1 - 1 2 : 1 0 as "a catena o f p r o p h e t i c f r a g m e n t s . "
1 6
T h r e e b r i e f e x a m p l e s suffice to m a k e the p o i n t . D a n 1 1 : 3 6 predicts
the d o w n f a l l o f the S y r i a n ruler A n t i o c h u s . R i g h t after the section that d e ­
s c r i b e s the sacrileges in J e r u s a l e m a n d the d e s e c r a t i o n o f the t e m p l e ( D a n
1 1 : 2 9 - 3 5 ) , the a u t h o r goes o n to " p r e d i c t " that A n t i o c h u s ' s offensive b e h a v i o r
w i l l c o n t i n u e for a w h i l e u n t i l he m e e t s his just p u n i s h m e n t , w h i c h , it t u r n s
out, h a s already b e e n o r d a i n e d . " H e [ A n t i o c h u s ] shall p r o s p e r until the p e ­
r i o d o f w r a t h is c o m p l e t e d , for w h a t is d e t e r m i n e d shall b e d o n e '
nnirwa m x r u ' 3 a y t n ^ s - i s n . T h e k m a u a g e m a k e s clear that o u r a u t h o r
T T T T '." V T T - ' O O

is referring to Isa 1 0 : 2 3 - 2 7 , a n oracle p r o m i s i n g the Israelites relief f r o m t h e

A s s y r i a n s . T h e p r o m i s e s that "the L O R D G o d o f hosts w i l l m a k e a full e n d "
(HSTnjIJ H^D ' 3 ; Isa 1 0 : 2 3 ) a n d that h i s " i n d i g n a t i o n w i l l c o m e to a n e n d "
(DJ/T n"?31;Isa 1 0 : 2 5 ) are here c o m b i n e d a n d t r a n s f e r r e d . T h e p r o m i s e o f re­
lief f r o m the A s s y r i a n s has t u r n e d into a promise of the demise of
Antiochus.
S e c o n d , m u c h h a s b e e n m a d e o f "the w i s e " ( D ^ r w a n ) i n D a n i e l .
T h e i r precise identity r e m a i n s o b s c u r e , t h o u g h w e learn that they educate
others ( D a n 1 1 : 3 3 ) a n d " l e a d m a n y to r i g h t e o u s n e s s " ( D ' a ^ H ' p ' l S ? ; D a n
12:3) a n d hence w i l l receive a s p e c i a l r e w a r d i n the r e s u r r e c t i o n . Modern
c o m m e n t a t o r s have l o n g o b s e r v e d that the w o r d i n g o f the p a s s a g e is b a s e d
1 7
o n the fourth S e r v a n t S o n g i n Isa 5 2 : 1 3 - 5 3 : 1 2 . T h e p a s s a g e s agree i n several
respects, b u t the v e r b a l o v e r l a p is especially striking i n Isa 5 3 : 1 1 , the c o n c l u ­
sion to the S o n g in w h i c h G o d p r o m i s e s that the S e r v a n t will b e v i n d i c a t e d :
" T h e r i g h t e o u s o n e , m y s e r v a n t , shall m a k e m a n y r i g h t e o u s " ( p ' ? ?
, 1 , 1 8
n :n 7 t 3 3 7 ) .
15. M . Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1985), 516.
16. T h e first two examples are taken from M . A. Knibb, " ' Y o u Are Indeed Wiser T h a n
Daniel': Reflections on the Character o f the B o o k o f Daniel," in The Book of Daniel in the
Light of New Findings, ed. A . S. Van D e r Woude, B E T L 106 (Louvain: Leuven University
Press, 1993), 399-411, a n d Knibb, " T h e B o o k of Daniel in Its Context," in The Book of Daniel,
1:16-35, w h o follows Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, 487-99.
17. H . L. Ginsberg, "The Oldest Interpretation o f the Suffering Servant," V T 3 (1953):
400-404; G . W. E. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental
Judaism and Early Christianity: Expanded Edition, H T S 56 (Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 2006 [1972]), 38-41.
18. We are reminded that "the righteous" in Jub 23:30, a passage with obvious affini­
a r e a l s
ties to D a n 1 2 : 1 - 3 , o called G o d ' s "servants," clearly an allusion to the Servant Song.

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 Daniel and Jubilees

T h i r d , w h i l e "the w i s e " will receive their p o s t m o r t e m r e w a r d , the

1
w i c k e d w i l l a w a k e n "to s h a m e a n d everlasting c o n t e m p t " (liXI^ ? niS^D"?
D a n 12:2 ). T h i s text, too, h a r k e n s b a c k to the p r o p h e t Isaiah, in this
case to the final p r o s e oracle, w h i c h d e s c r i b e s a g r u e s o m e scene in w h i c h the
priests go o u t a n d " l o o k at the d e a d b o d i e s of the p e o p l e w h o h a v e rebelled
against m e . . . they shall b e an a b h o r r e n c e to all flesh" (Isa 6 6 : 2 4 ) . T h e w o r d
for " a b h o r r e n c e " (TlNTl) o c c u r s o n l y in these t w o texts in the H e b r e w B i b l e ,
a n d in b o t h cases the s h a m e is t h o u g h t to be everlasting. D a n i e l here takes
the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l passages in Isaiah to the next level, so that " T h i r d Isaiah
1 9
reads like a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the t i m e of the w r i t i n g of D a n i e l . "
In a classic s t u d y o n the topic of i n n e r - b i b l i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , M i c h a e l
F i s h b a n e has p r o v i d e d a t h o r o u g h a n a l y s i s of D a n i e l ' s reuse o f earlier
20
prophecy. In his s e c t i o n titled " T h e M a n t o l o g i c a l E x e g e s i s o f O r a c l e s "
F i s h b a n e discusses a w e a l t h o f e x a m p l e s t a k e n f r o m D a n 9 - 1 2 in w h i c h the
b i b l i c a l a u t h o r reuses b i b l i c a l p r o p h e c i e s . T h e a s s u m p t i o n is that b y the t i m e
of D a n i e l , the precise m e a n i n g o f the a n c i e n t p r o p h e c i e s , m u c h like that of
oracles, v i s i o n s , or o m e n s , w a s n o l o n g e r s e l f - e v i d e n t and h e n c e r e q u i r e d in­
t e r p r e t a t i o n . It c o u l d be that a p r o p h e c y w a s f o u n d to have failed o r that it
r e m a i n e d unfulfilled or s i m p l y w a s in n e e d o f r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . B e c a u s e o f
this o r a c u l a r i z a t i o n of S c r i p t u r e , the w o r d of the p r o p h e t itself h a d b e c o m e
the subject o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; it h a d to be d e c o d e d a n d , in a sense, t r a n s l a t e d
so that it c o u l d b e r e a p p l i e d to the c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n . In s u p p o r t o f his a r g u ­
m e n t F i s h b a n e p r o d u c e d a significant n u m b e r of text e x a m p l e s f r o m D a n i e l
for w h i c h he w a s able to trace their l i n g u i s t i c o r i g i n to the p r o p h e t i c c o r p u s .

F i s h b a n e has revealed the full extent to w h i c h the a p o c a l y p t i c texts in

D a n 9 - 1 2 are i n d e b t e d to b i b l i c a l p r o p h e c y . T h e r e is h a r d l y a verse here that is
n o t a n c h o r e d in the p r o p h e t i c d i s c o u r s e . F i s h b a n e ' s m o d e l o f " m a n t o l o g i c a l
exegesis" w o r k s for D a n 9 and its r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of J e r e m i a h . I r e m a i n u n ­
c o n v i n c e d , h o w e v e r , that it w o r k s equally w e l l for the n u m e r o u s o t h e r p r o ­
phetic texts w e hear echoes of in D a n 9 - 1 2 . T h e r e is n o t h i n g in D a n i e l to sug­
gest that the p r o p h e t i c utterances s e e m e d o b s c u r e a n d unintelligible, let
alone h a d b e c o m e the subject of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n like an oracle or an o m e n . In
, ,
D a n 9:2 the text stresses that D a n i e l " u n d e r s t o o d " ( r n 3 ^ N ' n ' J X ) the
w o r d s of J e r e m i a h . Similarly, the e x a m p l e s a d d u c e d b y F i s h b a n e h a r d l y sug­
gest that the texts in Isaiah c a u g h t D a n i e l ' s attention b e c a u s e of their o b s c u ­
rity. True, the angelus interpres does assist D a n i e l with his u n d e r s t a n d i n g to

19. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, 34.

20. F i s h b a n e , Biblical Interpretation, 474-524.

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Matthias Henze

21
solve the " c o g n i t i v e d i s s o n a n c e . " B u t w h a t is o b s c u r e , d i s s o n a n t , a n d in ur­
gent n e e d of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n are n o t the w o r d s of the p r o p h e t s b u t the content
of D a n i e l ' s v i s i o n s .
It is m y c o n t e n t i o n , t h e n , that w h a t p r o m p t e d the a u t h o r o f D a n i e l to
m a k e s u c h extensive use of the p r o p h e t i c texts w a s n o t their d i s s o n a n c e b u t
— quite to the c o n t r a r y ! — their c o n s o n a n c e w i t h the s i t u a t i o n at h a n d .
22
D a n i e l is f i r m l y r o o t e d in the p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n . T h e w i s e , for e x a m p l e ,
d i d n o t use the l a n g u a g e o f Isa 53 a n d a p p l y it to t h e m s e l v e s to fill an esoteric
epithet o n c e a g a i n w i t h m e a n i n g . T h e e n o r m o u s r e c e p t i o n h i s t o r y of the
S e r v a n t S o n g s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s that a n c i e n t i n t e r p r e t e r s f o u n d n o t h i n g o b ­
s c u r e a b o u t it. R a t h e r , b y a d o p t i n g the i d e n t i t y o f the suffering s e r v a n t , the
w i s e m a k e the p o w e r f u l s t a t e m e n t that their suffering has a v i c a r i o u s q u a l i t y
a n d e v e n t u a l l y w i l l b e r e w a r d e d (Isa 5 3 : 1 2 ) . E v e n t h o u g h t h e y h a v e to suffer
u n d e r A n t i o c h u s a n d s o m e o f t h e m are c e r t a i n to die, in the e n d t h e y w i l l b e
vindicated and glorified.

T h e h o p e for r e s u r r e c t i o n as e x p r e s s e d in D a n 1 2 : 1 - 3 is a n o t h e r case i n
p o i n t . In a recent s t u d y o n the h i s t o r y of this J e w i s h d o c t r i n e , J o n L e v e n s o n
a r g u e s forcefully that, e v e n t h o u g h the literal e x p e c t a t i o n o f the r e s u r r e c t i o n
of the d e a d m a y h a v e b e e n a n e w c o n c e p t first i n t r o d u c e d in D a n 1 2 , the l a n ­
g u a g e a n d s y m b o l i s m b y w h i c h it is e x p r e s s e d h a d l o n g b e e n present a n d
available in a n c i e n t I s r a e l . H i s c o m m e n t s are w o r t h q u o t i n g in full.

M o d e r n historians, researching the o r i g i n of the Jewish idea of resurrec­

tion, u n d e r s t a n d a b l y think of it as an i n n o v a t i o n a n d seek a situation of
keen d i s c o n t i n u i t y in w h i c h it arose. T h i s is not necessarily w r o n g , b u t it
does u n d e r e s t i m a t e the v e r b a l p a r t i c u l a r i t y a n d the textual character of
its a p p e a r a n c e — p o i n t s of greater significance to the ancient Jewish
culture itself. G i v e n the rich intertextual c o n n e c t i o n s and d e p e n d e n c e in
w h i c h it is e n v e l o p e d , the r e s u r r e c t i o n of the d e a d in D a n 1 2 : 1 - 3 m a y
have s e e m e d (at least to s o m e sectors) m u c h less i n n o v a t i v e than it does
to those w h o , i g n o r i n g its linguistic e m b e d d i n g , think of it as an idea.
M u c h is lost w h e n the r e s u r r e c t i o n of the d e a d is treated as a free-
floating c o n c e p t w h o s e essence r e m a i n s constant n o matter w h a t the
23
culture in w h i c h it appears or to w h i c h it m i g r a t e s .

21. Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, 509 a n d 510.

22. O u r earliest sources clearly thought o f Daniel as a prophet (4QFlor ii 3; Matt 24:15;
Josephus, Antw.2.4,7); see K . Koch, "Is Daniel Also a m o n g the Prophets?" Int39 (1985): 117-31.
23. J. D . Levenson, Resurrection and the Restoration of Israel: The Ultimate Victory of
the God of Life ( N e w Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), 185.

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 Daniel and Jubilees

W h a t L e v e n s o n describes for the d o c t r i n e of r e s u r r e c t i o n h o l d s true for the

reuse of p r o p h e t i c l a n g u a g e in D a n i e l in g e n e r a l . R e u s i n g p r o p h e t i c pro­
n o u n c e m e n t s a n d r e a p p l y i n g t h e m to his o w n situation, the a u t h o r of D a n i e l
s h o w s his i n d e b t e d n e s s to S c r i p t u r e a n d places his o w n w o r k s q u a r e l y in the
p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n , n o t b e c a u s e he f o u n d it o b s c u r e but b e c a u s e he f o u n d it
c o n g e n i a l . T h e l a n g u a g e o f Isaiah a n d of the other p r o p h e t s w a s ideally suited
to d e s c r i b e D a n i e l ' s r e v e l a t o r y e x p e r i e n c e s not least b e c a u s e of its rich escha­
t o l o g i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n s . In m a n y respects, the b o o k of D a n i e l a n d the a p o c a ­
lyptic ideas it e s p o u s e s f o r m the l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n of biblical p r o p h e c y .
B i b l i c a l exegesis is a k e y factor in the b o o k of Jubilees as w e l l , t h o u g h
24
of a different s o r t a l t o g e t h e r . T w o aspects in p a r t i c u l a r are relevant for o u r
p r e s e n t i n q u i r y , b o t h o f w h i c h u n d e r s c o r e the differences in the use o f the
B i b l e in D a n i e l a n d J u b i l e e s . First, J u b i l e e s b e l o n g s to a sizable g r o u p of early
J e w i s h texts that are c o n c e r n e d w i t h the p a t r i a r c h a l p e r i o d . T h e i r p u r p o s e is
to p a r a p h r a s e a n d r e w o r k G e n e s i s - E x o d u s . T h e s e c o m p o s i t i o n s w e r e p a r t i c ­
u l a r l y p o p u l a r at Q u m r a n a n d w e r e f o u n d there in significant n u m b e r s . T h e
2 5
key f i g u r e , in J u b i l e e s as in m a n y o f the o t h e r c o m p o s i t i o n s , is M o s e s . By
c h o o s i n g M o s e s as the p s e u d o n y m o u s h e r o o f the b o o k , the a u t h o r of J u b i ­
lees carefully places his w o r k in a s t r e a m o f s e c o n d t e m p l e w r i t i n g s that are
26
p a r t o f an o n g o i n g " M o s a i c d i s c o u r s e . " T h i s is rather different f r o m the
b o o k o f D a n i e l . A n d s e c o n d , J u b i l e e s has a d e v e l o p e d interest in J e w i s h law.
M u c h of the r e w r i t i n g of G e n e s i s - E x o d u s is m o t i v a t e d b y the a u t h o r ' s u r g e
to solve a specific h a l a k i c p r o b l e m , h a v i n g to do, inter alia, w i t h the calendar,
p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h the S a b b a t h , a n d w i t h s e v e r a l p r i e s t l y a n d L e v i t i c a l m a t t e r s .
T h e h a l a k i c p o r t i o n s of Jubilees can b e p r o f i t a b l y c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r J e w ­
ish, p a r t i c u l a r l y early r a b b i n i c , texts. In short, w h e r e a s m u c h o f the exegesis
in D a n i e l serves a larger, e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p u r p o s e , the a u t h o r o f Jubilees is
m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h s o l v i n g legal p r o b l e m s . H e r e , e s c h a t o l o g y is c o n s p i c u ­
o u s b y its a b s e n c e .

24. J. Endres, Biblical Interpretation in the Book of Jubilees, C B Q M S 18 (Washington,

D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association, 1987); G . J. Brooke, "Exegetical Strategies in Jubilees 1 - 2 , "
in Studies in the Book of Jubilees, 179-205; J. C . V a n d e r K a m , "The Scriptural Setting o f the
B o o k o f Jubilees," DSD 13 (2006): 61-72.
25. G . J. Brooke, " ' T h e C a n o n within the C a n o n ' at Q u m r a n and in the N e w Testa­
ment," in The Scrolls and the Scriptures: Qumran Fifty Years After, ed. S. E. Porter a n d C . A.
Evans (Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 1997), 242-66, a n d his "Genesis, C o m m e n t a r y
on," in EDSS, 300-302; D . K. Falk, "Moses, Texts of," in EDSS, 577-81.
26. H . Najman, Seconding Sinai: The Development of Mosaic Discourse in Second Tem­
ple Judaism, JSJSup 77 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 3 ) , 41-69.

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Matthias Henze

Heptadic Chronologies

T h e b o o k o f D a n i e l s h o w s a clear a w a r e n e s s of things c h r o n o l o g i c a l . To
c o n t e x t u a l i z e the events o f the b o o k in t e r m s of w o r l d h i s t o r y a n d to p r o v i d e
a c o m p r e h e n s i v e t i m e f r a m e , the a u t h o r d e v i s e d his o w n chronological
s c h e m e , the p e r i o d i z a t i o n of h i s t o r y into f o u r k i n g d o m s . T h e s u c c e s s i o n o f
the f o u r w o r l d e m p i r e s is the m a i n t h e m e of c h a p s . 2 a n d 7, but it also u n d e r ­
lies the v i s i o n s in c h a p s . 8 a n d 1 1 . T h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l r e m a r k s f o u n d in the
chapter h e a d i n g s , specifically in the s u p e r s c r i p t i o n s of the v i s i o n r e p o r t s
( D a n 1 : 1 ; 2 : 1 ; 7 : 1 ; 8:1; 9:1; a n d 1 0 : 1 , 4 ) , f o l l o w the s a m e m o d e l a n d p r o v i d e s p e ­
cific dates for specific e p i s o d e s . T h e f o u r - k i n g d o m s c h e m e is c o n c e r n e d ex­
clusively w i t h the e n d o f history, n o t w i t h its b e g i n n i n g , w h i c h is n e v e r c o n ­
s i d e r e d in D a n i e l . Its a i m , as is m a d e v e r y clear i n 7 : 1 - 8 , is n o t m e r e l y to
d i v i d e h i s t o r y into four e q u a l p a r t s b u t to a r g u e that the ruler of the f o u r t h
e m p i r e , w h o rules at the t i m e o f the a u t h o r , is s i g n i f i c a n t l y w o r s e t h a n a n y
p r e v i o u s w o r l d ruler. T h e p r o m i s e that the ruthless t y r a n t w i l l s o o n b e
s t r i p p e d of his p o w e r a n d d o m i n i o n w i l l b e h a n d e d o v e r to Israel ( D a n 7:27)
gives D a n i e l ' s m e s s a g e an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l u r g e n c y . T h e f o u r - k i n g d o m m o d e l
is n o t i n t e n d e d to f u n c t i o n as a full-fledged c a l e n d a r . I n s t e a d , it focuses at­
t e n t i o n o n the e n d - t i m e , w h i c h is t h o u g h t to b e i m m i n e n t .

A c h r o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m of a different sort is f o u n d in 9:24-27, D a n i e l ' s

interpretation of J e r e m i a h ' s p r o p h e c y a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . H e r e the
a u t h o r d o e s n o t f o l l o w a q u a r t e r s y s t e m , but a h e p t a d i c s y s t e m . S i m i l a r c h r o ­
n o l o g i e s that m e a s u r e h i s t o r y o r p e r i o d s t h e r e o f in s a b b a t i c a l w e e k s a n d j u ­
bilees are f o u n d in a n u m b e r of texts w r i t t e n around the t i m e o f the
M a c c a b e a n revolt, i n c l u d i n g the E n o c h i c A p o c a l y p s e o f W e e k s , the A n i m a l
A p o c a l y p s e , s e v e r a l texts f r o m Q u m r a n , a n d o f c o u r s e , b o t h D a n i e l a n d J u ­
27
bilees. T h e roots of these c h r o n o l o g i e s are b i b l i c a l , r e a c h i n g b a c k to the
T o r a h . T h e m o s t explicit t r e a t m e n t of an a n c i e n t c a l e n d a r b a s e d on units o f
seven y e a r s is f o u n d in L e v 25, w h i c h c o n t a i n s i n s t r u c t i o n s for the s a b b a t i c a l
a n d the j u b i l e e y e a r s . T h e chapter b e g i n s b y calling for a rest for the l a n d ev­
ery s e v e n y e a r s (the s a b b a t i c a l y e a r ) a n d m o v e s o n to legislate that e v e r y fif­
tieth y e a r (the j u b i l e e y e a r ) all p r o p e r t y that h a d c h a n g e d h a n d s h a d to be
r e t u r n e d to its o r i g i n a l o w n e r . A l s o , e v e r y H e b r e w w h o h a d s o l d h i m s e l f into

27. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , "Sabbatical Chronologies in the D e a d Sea Scrolls a n d Related

Literature," in The Dead Sea Scrolls in Their Historical Context, 159-78; C . Berner, Jahre,
Jahrwochen und Jubilaen. Heptadische Geschichtskonzeptionen im Antiken Judentum, B Z A W
363 (Berlin a n d N e w York: D e Gruyter, 2 0 0 6 ) .

64
 Daniel and Jubilees

slavery w a s to b e released. It s e e m s likely that D a n i e l ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Jere­

m i a h w a s i n f l u e n c e d b y L e v 2 5 . A c c o r d i n g to G a b r i e l ' s c a l c u l a t i o n , then, the
t i m e f r o m the B a b y l o n i a n d e s t r u c t i o n of the first t e m p l e to the d e m i s e of
A n t i o c h u s I V s p a n s s e v e n t y w e e k s of y e a r s , or ten j u b i l e e s , i.e., 490 y e a r s .
T h e critical t h e m e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the j u b i l e e y e a r in L e v 25 — release, free­
d o m , r e n e w a l , r e t u r n , a n d r e s t o r a t i o n — all a s s u m e n e w s i g n i f i c a n c e in their
e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t . T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of D a n i e l ' s r e n d e r i n g of J e r e m i a h ' s
p r o p h e c y does n o t lie in its c o n c r e t e c a l e n d r i c a l use but in its s y m b o l i c v a l u e
2 8
a n d in the p o w e r f u l p r o m i s e that A n t i o c h u s ' s rule w i l l b e o v e r c o m e .
T h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m of J u b i l e e s has often b e e n a n a l y z e d , a n d
2 9
there is n o p o i n t in r e h e a r s i n g the details a g a i n . It suffices m e r e l y to h i g h ­
light s o m e o f its m a i n features a n d to c o m p a r e t h e m w i t h D a n i e l . A l r e a d y
J u b i l e e s ' p r o l o g u e u n d e r s c o r e s the p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e the a u t h o r places o n
the e x a c t c a l c u l a t i o n o f the b i b l i c a l events a c c o r d i n g to a s a b b a t i c a l calendar.
T h e essential m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t i m e are "years," " w e e k s , " a n d "jubilees."
T h e s e are m e n t i o n e d t h r o u g h o u t the b o o k a n d f o r m a c h r o n o l o g i c a l g r i d
that is u n d e r l y i n g the w h o l e of the c o m p o s i t i o n . H o w d o e s this c o m p a r e
w i t h the b o o k of D a n i e l ? I n D a n i e l h e p t a d i c c a l c u l a t i o n s are f o u n d o n l y in
c h a p . 9, w h i l e the b o o k as a w h o l e is o r g a n i z e d a l o n g the lines o f the f o u r
w o r l d e m p i r e s . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , the j u b i l e e c h r o n o l o g y r e m a i n s s o m e w h a t
s c h e m a t i c ; it is the p r i n c i p l e that m a t t e r s , n o t its exact c a l e n d r i c a l a p p l i c a b i l ­
ity. In J u b i l e e s , b y contrast, the s a b b a t i c a l c h r o n o l o g y is the m a i n o r g a n i z i n g
p r i n c i p l e for the entire b o o k , as the p r o l o g u e a l r e a d y m a k e s clear. T h e b o o k
seeks to d e m o n s t r a t e in s o m e detail h o w Israel's earliest h i s t o r y f o l l o w e d the
h e p t a d i c c h r o n o l o g y . F o r b o t h a u t h o r s the h e p t a d i c c h r o n o l o g y w a s of ulti­
m a t e t h e o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e — b u t " t h e o l o g i c a l " here m e a n t different
t h i n g s entirely. F o r the a u t h o r of D a n i e l , w h o l o o k e d to the future, the
h e p t a d i c c a l c u l a t i o n w a s an ideal v e h i c l e to m a k e his a p o c a l y p t i c p r o m i s e
that h i s t o r y is u n f o l d i n g a c c o r d i n g to a p r e o r d a i n e d d i v i n e p l a n a n d that the
e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a l v a t i o n w i l l b r i n g f r e e d o m a n d r e s t o r a t i o n as it w a s fore­
s h a d o w e d a l r e a d y in L e v 2 5 . F o r the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s , w h o l o o k e d to the
past, the c o n c e r n w a s w i t h Israel's earliest history. F o r h i m the s i g n i f i c a n c e
of the h e p t a d i c c h r o n o l o g y w a s to p r o v e that the events o f G e n e s i s - E x o d u s
w e r e all in c o m p l i a n c e w i t h the s a b b a t i c a l c a l e n d a r . In fact, it is n o t e w o r t h y

28. F i s h b a n e , Biblical Interpretation, 482-89.

29. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " D a s c h r o n o l o g i s c h e K o n z e p t des Jubiliienbuches," ZAW 107
(1995): 8 0 - 1 0 0 ; V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, 9 4 - 1 0 0 . O n the calendar specifically, see
A . Jaubert, " L e calendrier des Jubiles et de la sect de Q u m r a n . Ses o r i g i n s bibliques," VT 3
(i953): 250-64.

65
Matthias Henze

that none of the apocalyptic sections in Jubilees makes an explicit reference

to the heptadic chronology that otherwise is so important to the author.
Sabbatical measurements were crucial not for their eschatological signifi­
cance but as a w a y of calculating a precise chronology of the events narrated
in Genesis-Exodus.

66
The Chronologies of the Apocalypse of Weeks
and the Book of Jubilees

James M. Scott

Both in w h o l e and in part the chronology in the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks (1 E n

9 3 : 1 - 1 0 + 9 1 : 1 1 - 1 8 ) is obviously different from the one in the b o o k of Jubilees,

and it w o u l d be easy therefore to assume that the two chronologies are inde­
1
pendent of one another. T h e m a i n difference between the two works is

clear: although they contain sabbatical chronologies with strong affinities to

Dan 9, w h i c h reinterprets the 70 years of Jerusalem's desolation (Jer 29:10) as

seventy "weeks" of years, the respective chronological systems are quite dif­

ferent in their overall scope. W h e r e a s the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks encompasses

2
all of h u m a n history within its ten "weeks," Jubilees heptadically periodizes

only Genesis to E x o d u s , looking forward to the repossession of the land 4 0

3
years h e n c e . V a n d e r K a m stresses that although Jubilees interprets the exo-

1. Translations o f the Apocalypse o f Weeks are from George W. E. Nickelsburg and J. C.

VanderKam, trans., 1 Enoch: A New Translation Based on the Hermeneia Commentary (Minne­
apolis: Fortress, 2 0 0 4 ) , 140-43. Translations o f the book o f Jubilees are from J. C. VanderKam,
trans., The Book of Jubilees, C S C O 511, Scriptores Aethiopici 88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989).
2. F o r a succinct s u m m a r y o f the Apocalypse o f Weeks, see J. J. Collins, "From P r o p h ­
ecy to Apocalypticism: The Expectation o f the End," in The Encyclopedia of Apocalypticism,
vol. 1, The Origins of Apocalypticism in Judaism and Christianity, ed. J. J. Collins (New York
and London: C o n t i n u u m , 2000), 129-61 (esp. 139-40).
3. F o r a survey o f Jubilees' chronological system, see J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Ju­
bilees, Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha 9 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press,
2 0 0 1 ) , 94-96; VanderKam, "Studies in the Chronology o f the B o o k o f Jubilees," in From Rev­
elation to Canon: Studies in the Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Literature, ed. J. C .
VanderKam, JSJSup 6 2 (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 522-44.

67
James M. Scott

dus a n d c o n q u e s t as j u b i l e a n events, " [ w j h e t h e r the a u t h o r m e a n t to i m p l y

m o r e a b o u t the c h r o n o l o g y of the p o s t - c o n q u e s t p e r i o d cannot be inferred
4.
from the text"
T h e r e are also significant differences in the c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s of the
t w o c h r o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s , i n c l u d i n g , for e x a m p l e , the h e p t a d i c u n i t s e m ­
5
p l o y e d in each (i.e., " w e e k s " [— 490 y e a r s ? ] in the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s v e r ­
sus " j u b i l e e s " [ = 49 y e a r s ] , " w e e k s " [ = 7 y e a r s ] , a n d " y e a r s " in J u b i l e e s ) a n d
— d e p e n d i n g o n the n u m e r i c a l v a l u e of the " w e e k s " in the A p o c a l y p s e o f
W e e k s — the relative d a t i n g o f h i s t o r i c a l events in the t w o w r i t i n g s . F o r e x ­
a m p l e , w h e r e a s in the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks the y e a r 2450 A . M . (i.e., the e n d
of the "fifth w e e k " ) c o i n c i d e s w i t h the b u i l d i n g of the t e m p l e (1 E n 93:7), in
Jubilees, the s a m e y e a r c o r r e s p o n d s to the c u l m i n a t i o n o f the momentous
"jubilee of jubilees," the e n t r a n c e i n t o the l a n d that w o u l d take p l a c e 40 y e a r s
after the r e v e l a t i o n to M o s e s o n M o u n t S i n a i in 2 4 1 0 A . M . (cf. J u b 48:1; 5 0 : 4 ) .
D e s p i t e these difficulties, I h a v e a t t e m p t e d e l s e w h e r e to a r g u e that the
c h r o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m of the b o o k of Jubilees is i n d e e d i n f l u e n c e d b y the
c h r o n o l o g y of the A p o c a l y p s e o f W e e k s , a n d that therefore the A p o c a l y p s e
of W e e k s c a n b e u s e d c a u t i o u s l y to h e l p fill in s o m e o f the g a p s of the
p o s t c o n q u e s t era that Jubilees m e n t i o n s but d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y p e r i o d i z e in
6
t e r m s o f its a w k w a r d s y s t e m of j u b i l e e s , w e e k s , a n d y e a r s . T h e tentative n a ­
t u r e of m y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n w a s clear to m e f r o m the outset, b u t it s e e m e d
p l a u s i b l e in v i e w of several factors: ( 1 ) the s c h e m a t i c n a t u r e of the s a b b a t i c a l
c h r o n o l o g i e s of w h i c h Jubilees is a p r i m e e x a m p l e ; (2) the s t i m u l a t i n g s u g ­
g e s t i o n of G e o r g e N i c k e l s b u r g a n d J a m e s C . V a n d e r K a m that J u b 4 : 1 8 - 1 9 ,
w h i c h deals w i t h the E n o c h i c o r i g i n of the b o o k ' s c h r o n o l o g y , a c t u a l l y al­
ludes to the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s ; (3) the c h r o n o l o g i c a l trajectories in the
b o o k ; a n d (4) the m i r r o r i n g effect of the s e q u e n c e of events in J u b 23:8-31
w i t h earlier p a r t s of the b o o k . In the present p a p e r I w o u l d like to reinforce
m y a r g u m e n t that the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks m a y h a v e i n f l u e n c e d the c h r o ­
n o l o g y of the b o o k of J u b i l e e s .

4. V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, 96, emphasis mine.

5. Cf. J. S. B e r g s m a , The Jubilee from Leviticus to Qumran: A History of Interpretation,
V T S u p 115 (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 241. Even if it is argued that the "weeks" in the Apocalypse o f
Weeks are of unequal length, it is still possible — and perhaps even probable — that Jubilees
would have understood the Apocalypse's "weeks" as equal units o f time.
6. Cf. J. M . Scott, On Earth as in Heaven: The Restoration of Sacred Time and Sacred
Space in the B o o k o f Jubilees, J S J S u p 91 (Leiden: Brill, 2005). T h e following deliberations are
based largely o n this book, which also constituted the point of departure in m y original con­
ference paper.

68
 The Chronologies of the Apocalypse of Weeks and the Book of Jubilees

I. The Apocalypse of Weeks and the

Book of Jubilees as Apocalypses

T h e p o s s i b i l i t y that the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks influenced the b o o k of Jubilees

b e g i n s w i t h the r e c o g n i t i o n that b o t h w o r k s are a p o c a l y p s e s . A n a p o c a l y p s e
is "a genre of r e v e l a t o r y literature w i t h a n a r r a t i v e f r a m e w o r k , in w h i c h a rev­
elation is m e d i a t e d b y an o t h e r w o r l d l y b e i n g to a h u m a n recipient, d i s c l o s i n g
a t r a n s c e n d e n t reality w h i c h is b o t h t e m p o r a l , insofar as it e n v i s a g e s e s c h a t o ­
l o g i c a l s a l v a t i o n , a n d spatial i n s o f a r as it i n v o l v e s another, supernatural
7
w o r l d . " T h e r e is n o d o u b t that the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks is an a p o c a l y p s e , b u t
m o r e needs to be said a b o u t Jubilees, since c h a p s , l a n d 23 are the o n l y parts
of the b o o k that are generally r e g a r d e d as fitting the d e s c r i p t i o n of an a p o c a ­
l y p s e , c o n t a i n i n g s p e c i a l revelations to M o s e s t h r o u g h angelic m e d i a t i o n
2 : 2
f r o m the t e s t i m o n y i n s c r i b e d o n the h e a v e n l y tablets (cf. 1:26-27; 3 3 ) -
I h a v e a r g u e d that these t w o c h a p t e r s are so t h o r o u g h l y integrated
w i t h i n the c h r o n o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e a n d m e s s a g e of the b o o k that it is artifi­
cial to isolate t h e m as s e p a r a t e a p o c a l y p s e s . T h e a p o c a l y p s e in the first c h a p ­
ter sets the stage for the rest o f the b o o k , a n d the final chapter recalls that
setting, p r o v i d i n g c l o s u r e for the w h o l e b o o k ( 5 0 : 2 ) . H e n c e , the w h o l e of J u ­
bilees s h o u l d b e seen as o n e u n i f i e d a p o c a l y p s e , albeit a r e v e l a t i o n that in­
cludes, as p a r t a n d p a r c e l of its f u n d a m e n t a l f a b r i c , a c o p i o u s a m o u n t of
h a l a k i c m a t e r i a l a n d q u a s i - h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e . I n d e e d , if o n e of the m a i n
p u r p o s e s o f the b o o k w a s to teach the p r o p e r o b s e r v a n c e o f h a l a k a h f r o m
r e w o r k e d p r i m e v a l a n d p a t r i a r c h a l n a r r a t i v e s , t h e n s p e c i a l r e v e l a t i o n of the
n a r r a t e d events w a s a b s o l u t e l y essential to l e n d d i v i n e a u t h o r i t y to the a u ­
thor's i n t e r p r e t i v e m o v e s .

In asserting the literary u n i t y of J u b i l e e s , I a m , of c o u r s e , a s s u m i n g the

final f o r m of the b o o k m o r e or less as w e n o w h a v e it. A l t h o u g h there h a v e
8
b e e n recent a t t e m p t s to r e c o n s t r u c t the c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i s t o r y of the b o o k ,

7. T h i s is the w i d e l y accepted definition o f the literary genre " a p o c a l y p s e " in J. J. C o l ­

lins, " I n t r o d u c t i o n : T o w a r d s the M o r p h o l o g y o f a G e n r e , " in Apocalypse: Morphology of a
Genre, ed. J. J. C o l l i n s , S e m e i a 14 ( M i s s o u l a : Scholars Press, 1 9 7 9 ) , 1-20 (9). A l t h o u g h the def­
inition o f an " a p o c a l y p s e " is admittedly m o d e r n and s o m e w h a t arbitrary, it still serves the
useful p u r p o s e of g r o u p i n g texts that exhibit a coherent and recurring pattern of features
constituted by the interrelated elements o f f o r m , content, a n d function. T h e discussion of
the literary genre " a p o c a l y p s e " should n o t be a b a n d o n e d in favor of other k i n d s o f f o r m a l
c o m p a r i s o n s between texts (e.g., Jubilees a n d w i s d o m literature). It is not a matter of
"either-or" b u t o f "both-and."
8. Cf. C . Berner, Jahre, Jahrwochen und Jubilaen. Heptadische Geschichtskonzeptionen

69
James M. Scott

m o s t s c h o l a r s h a v e v i e w e d Jubilees as a literary unity. T h i s is n o t to d e n y that

the b o o k c o n t a i n s m a n y a n o m a l i e s . A s V a n d e r K a m a c k n o w l e d g e s , there are
in fact a n u m b e r of m i s t a k e s or i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s in the b o o k , b u t "all of t h e m
9
are e x p l i c a b l e in s i m p l e r t e r m s t h a n a s s u m i n g s u n d r y e d i t i o n s of the b o o k . "
Superficially, Jubilees is a r e w o r k i n g of G e n l to E x o d 24 (or even to
1 0
chap. 3 2 ) , a n d , as s h o w n b y the b e g i n n i n g a n d the e n d of the b o o k , the set­
ting of the b o o k is p o r t r a y e d as the actual r e v e l a t i o n g i v e n to M o s e s on
M o u n t S i n a i . T h u s , Jubilees o p e n s ( 1 : 1 - 4 ) w i t h the L o r d s u m m o n i n g M o s e s to
ascend the m o u n t a i n to m e e t with h i m , referring to M o s e s ' stay o n the m o u n ­
tain ( E x o d 24:18; cf. 34:28) that t o o k place the d a y after the c o v e n a n t a l cere­
m o n i e s d e s c r i b e d in E x o d 1 9 - 2 4 . T h e b o o k also ends w i t h a direct reference to
the r e v e l a t i o n to M o s e s o n M o u n t S i n a i ( J u b 50:2: " O n M t . Sinai I [sc. the a n ­
gel of the p r e s e n c e ] told y o u a b o u t the s a b b a t h s of the l a n d a n d the years o f
j u b i l e e s in the S a b b a t h s o f the y e a r s " ) . Scattered t h r o u g h o u t Jubilees are sev­
eral r e m i n d e r s that the contents of this b o o k are a d d r e s s e d to M o s e s (on
M o u n t S i n a i a n d t h r o u g h angelic m e d i a t i o n ) . O b v i o u s l y , therefore, the a u ­
t h o r of Jubilees w a n t e d the revelation a n d c o v e n a n t at Sinai to be u n d e r s t o o d
in light of the w h o l e b i b l i c a l h i s t o r y that p r e c e d e d it ( G e n e s i s - E x o d u s ) .

Yet Jubilees is n o t so m u c h a c o v e n a n t a l b o o k as an a p o c a l y p s e w i t h i n a
c o v e n a n t a l setting that inherently lends it authority. A s a result, the Sinaitic
c o v e n a n t is s o m e w h a t relativized, so that, for e x a m p l e , the election of Israel
goes b a c k , n o t to the e x o d u s from E g y p t or to the m a k i n g o f the c o v e n a n t at
Sinai, but rather to the v e r y b e g i n n i n g of creation ( J u b 2 : 1 9 - 2 2 ) . M o r e o v e r ,
m a n y of the laws g i v e n to Israel o n S i n a i a c c o r d i n g to the biblical r e c o r d are
dated b a c k to earlier p e r i o d s (e.g., the Festival of W e e k s w a s instituted n o t at
Sinai [ E x o d 2 3 : 1 6 ; 34:22] b u t w h e n N o a h d i s e m b a r k e d f r o m the a r k [Jub 6:17-
1 9 ] ) . S i n c e the direct a u t h o r i t y of d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n w a s n e e d e d to achieve this
relativization, w e can be fairly sure that c h a p s . 1 a n d 23 b e l o n g e d to Jubilees
originally. I h a v e a r g u e d that the r e a s o n for this b a c k d a t i n g a n d relativization
is directly l i n k e d to a central thesis of the b o o k : the r e v e l a t i o n o n S i n a i is a re­
iteration o f the d e t e r m i n i s t i c d i v i n e p l a n for the w o r l d , w h e r e b y all things on
earth, especially the cultus in the l a n d , w i l l e v e n t u a l l y c o r r e s p o n d to the w a y

im Antiken Judentum, B Z A W 363 (Berlin a n d N e w York: D e Gruyter, 2 0 0 6 ) , 234-328;

M . Segal, The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology, and Theology, JSJSup 117
(Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 7 ) .
9. V a n d e r K a m , "Studies in the Chronology," 540.
10. Cf. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , "The E n d o f the Matter? Jubilees 50:6-13 and the Unity o f the
Book," in Heavenly Tablets: Interpretation, Identity, and Tradition in Ancient Judaism, ed.
L. LiDonnici a n d A . Lieber, J S J S u p 119 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 7 ) , 267-84 (278-79).

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things are in h e a v e n a n d have b e e n from the b e g i n n i n g . T h u s , for instance,

the Festival of W e e k s reinstituted at Sinai ( J u b 6:19) w a s o r i g i n a l l y g i v e n to
N o a h after the f l o o d ( w . 1 6 - 1 7 ) , a l t h o u g h it " h a d b e e n celebrated in h e a v e n
f r o m the t i m e of creation until the lifetime of N o a h " (v. 1 8 ) , in a c c o r d a n c e
w i t h the o r d i n a n c e w r i t t e n o n the h e a v e n l y tablets (v. 1 7 ) .
A s a p o c a l y p s e s , b o t h the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s a n d the b o o k o f Jubilees
share a w o r l d v i e w that i n c l u d e s a d e t e r m i n i s t i c v i e w o f history. In o t h e r
w o r d s , events p r o c e e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a d i v i n e p l a n that is f o r e o r d a i n e d
in h e a v e n l y tablets. H e n c e , the a p o c a l y p t i c w o r l d v i e w of these t w o w r i t i n g s
is clearly f o u n d a t i o n a l to the c h r o n o l o g i c a l s c h e m e s c o n t a i n e d in each.
B o t h the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s a n d the b o o k o f Jubilees a p p e a l to the
a n t e d i l u v i a n k n o w l e d g e o f E n o c h to establish the v a l i d i t y of their c h r o n o ­
l o g i c a l s y s t e m s . T h u s , in the E p i s t l e of E n o c h (1 E n 9 2 - 1 0 5 ) , the a n t e d i l u v i a n
E n o c h i n t r o d u c e s his t e n - " w e e k " c h r o n o l o g y in the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s
w i t h the w o r d s , " C o n c e r n i n g the s o n s of r i g h t e o u s n e s s , a n d c o n c e r n i n g the
c h o s e n o f eternity, a n d c o n c e r n i n g the p l a n t of t r u t h , these t h i n g s I say to
y o u a n d I m a k e k n o w n to y o u , m y s o n s , I myself, E n o c h . T h e v i s i o n o f
h e a v e n w a s s h o w n to m e , a n d f r o m the w o r d s o f the w a t c h e r s a n d h o l y o n e s
I h a v e l e a r n e d e v e r y t h i n g , a n d in the h e a v e n l y tablets I r e a d e v e r y t h i n g a n d I
h a v e u n d e r s t o o d " ( 9 3 : 2 ) . S i m i l a r l y , J u b i l e e s credits E n o c h as the first w h o es­
t a b l i s h e d b o t h c a l e n d a r a n d c h r o n o l o g y ( J u b 4 : 1 7 - 1 9 ) . W i t h r e s p e c t to c h r o ­
n o l o g y , Jubilees r e p o r t s :

(18) H e [sc. E n o c h ] w a s the first to write a testimony. H e testified to

m a n k i n d in the generations of the earth: T h e w e e k s of the jubilees he re­
lated, a n d m a d e k n o w n the days of the years; the m o n t h s he a r r a n g e d ,
a n d related the sabbaths of the years, as w e [sc. the angels of the pres­
ence] had told h i m . (19) W h i l e he slept he saw in a v i s i o n w h a t has h a p ­
p e n e d a n d w h a t w i l l o c c u r — h o w things w i l l h a p p e n for m a n k i n d dur­
ing their history until the day of j u d g m e n t . H e saw e v e r y t h i n g a n d
u n d e r s t o o d . H e w r o t e a t e s t i m o n y for himself a n d placed it u p o n the
earth against all m a n k i n d a n d for their history.

T h e s i m i l a r w o r d i n g of these passages is r e m a r k a b l e : the " v i s i o n " a n d r e v e l a ­

tion to E n o c h t h r o u g h a n g e l i c m e d i a t i o n e n c o m p a s s e d " e v e r y t h i n g . " I n ­
d e e d , N i c k e l s b u r g a n d V a n d e r K a m h a v e suggested that Jubilees alludes to
1 1
the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s at this p o i n t , although van Ruiten has countered

11. Cf. Scott, On Earth, 128 with n. 129.

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12
that it is difficult to p o i n t to an e x a c t p a r a l l e l . In a n s w e r to v a n Ruiten's c r i ­
t i q u e , V a n d e r K a m is right to insist, h o w e v e r , (a) that even if w e are n o t sure
that an item is f r o m o n e E n o c h i c b o o k o r another, it m a y still b e f r o m o n e or
b o t h of t h e m ; (b) that J u b 4 : 1 7 - 2 6 in p a r t i c u l a r c o r r e s p o n d s quite closely in
t h e m e , if n o t in w o r d i n g , to s e v e r a l E n o c h i c texts; a n d (c) that it s e e m s m o r e
e c o n o m i c a l to a s s u m e d e p e n d e n c e o n these w r i t t e n E n o c h i c s o u r c e s t h a n to
a p p e a l to u n k n o w n o n e s , especially since Jubilees u n d e r s c o r e s that E n o c h
left w r i t t e n w o r k s b e h i n d a n d even p i c t u r e s h i m as c o n t i n u i n g his s c r i b a l a c ­
1 3
tivity after his r e m o v a l from h u m a n s o c i e t y to the G a r d e n of E d e n .
T h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e n a t u r e of the r e v e l a t i o n to E n o c h in the A p o c a ­
l y p s e of W e e k s a n d the b o o k of Jubilees p e r t a i n s e s p e c i a l l y to their c h r o n o ­
l o g i c a l s y s t e m s , w h i c h are u n i v e r s a l in s c o p e insofar as they e x t e n d f r o m cre­
14
ation to n e w c r e a t i o n . T h e A p o c a l y p s e o f Weeks b e g i n s w i t h a reference to
"the first w e e k " (1 E n 9 3 : 3 ) , w h i c h s t r o n g l y i m p l i e s c r e a t i o n , a n d e n d s w i t h
the e x p e c t a t i o n that "the first h e a v e n w i l l p a s s a w a y in it, a n d a n e w h e a v e n
w i l l a p p e a r " ( 9 1 : 1 6 ) , a l l u d i n g to the n e w c r e a t i o n in Isa 65:17 ( " F o r I a m
1 5
a b o u t to create n e w h e a v e n s . . " ) . B e t w e e n these t w o p o l e s , the w h o l e s p a n
of h u m a n h i s t o r y is s c h e m a t i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d in this s h o r t a p o c a l y p s e . L i k e ­
w i s e , the b o o k of Jubilees c o n t a i n s a u n i v e r s a l s c o p e in its c h r o n o l o g i c a l s y s ­
t e m . T h u s , w e r e a d in J u b 1:29:

T h e angel of the presence, w h o w a s g o i n g along in front of the Israelite

c a m p , t o o k the tablets ( w h i c h told) of the divisions of the years from the
time the l a w a n d the t e s t i m o n y w e r e created — for the w e e k s of their j u ­
bilees, year b y year in their full n u m b e r , and their jubilees from [the time

12. Cf. J. v a n Ruiten, "A Literary Dependency of Jubilees o n 1 E n o c h ? " in Enoch and
Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection, ed. G . Boccaccini (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2005), 90-93 (esp. 92-93); see also M . A . Knibb, "Which Parts o f 1 Enoch Were
K n o w n to Jubilees? A Note o n the Interpretation o f Jubilees 4.16-25," in Reading from Right to
Left: Essays on the Hebrew Bible in Honour of David J. A. Clines, ed. J. C . E x u m a n d H . G . M .
Williamson, J S O T S u p 373 (Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 2003), 254-62.
13. Cf. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , "Response: Jubilees a n d Enoch," in Enoch and Qumran Ori­
gins, 162-70 (esp. 163-64).
14. See further Bergsma, The Jubilee, 240: "Moreover, after the ten weeks, the apoca­
lyptic author [of the Apocalypse of Weeks] expects 'many weeks without number,' s o m e ­
what similar to Jubilees' vision of a future in which 'jubilees will pass b y until Israel is pure
. . . until eternity' {Jub. 50:5)."
15. Cf. Jacques van Ruiten, "The Influence a n d D e v e l o p m e n t of Is 65,17 in 1 E n 91,16,"
in The Book of Isaiah — Le livre d'Isaie: les oracles et leurs reflecteurs. Unite et complexity de
Vouvrage, ed. Jacques Vermeylen, B E T L 81 (Louvain: Leuven University Press, 1989), 161-66.

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of the creation until] the time of the n e w creation w h e n the heavens, the
earth, a n d all their creatures will b e r e n e w e d like the p o w e r s of the sky
a n d like all the creatures of the earth, until the time w h e n the temple of
the L o r d will be created in J e r u s a l e m on M t . Z i o n . A l l the l u m i n a r i e s will
be r e n e w e d for (the p u r p o s e s o f ) healing, health, a n d blessing for all the
elect ones of Israel a n d so that it m a y r e m a i n this w a y from that time
t h r o u g h o u t all the days of the earth.

T h e reference here to the r e n e w a l of the l u m i n a r i e s can b e c o m p a r e d to Isa

65:17 ( " F o r I a m a b o u t to create n e w h e a v e n s . . . " ) , especially since Jubilees
refers to "the n e w c r e a t i o n " in this c o n t e x t . M o r e o v e r , J u b 23, w h i c h has
m a n y similarities to c h a p . 1 a n d o n c e a g a i n a d u m b r a t e s w o r l d h i s t o r y f r o m
c r e a t i o n to n e w c r e a t i o n , clearly alludes to the n e w c r e a t i o n e x p e c t e d in Isa
1 6
6 5 : 1 7 - 2 5 , w i t h its h o p e o f i n c r e a s e d h u m a n l o n g e v i t y in the latter d a y s .
In the f o r e g o i n g w e have seen that there are several r e m a r k a b l e s i m i l a r i ­
ties b e t w e e n the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks a n d the b o o k of Jubilees as a p o c a ­
l y p s e s . T h e r e is even a s t r o n g p o s s i b i l i t y that Jubilees alludes to the A p o c a ­
lypse o f W e e k s . N o w w e are i n a p o s i t i o n to e x p l o r e a tentative r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
of J u b i l e e s ' c h r o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m . A s w e shall see, Jubilees is n o t o n l y b e ­
h o l d e n to the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s for s o m e of its f u n d a m e n t a l c h r o n o l o g i ­
cal p e r s p e c t i v e s , especially those p e r t a i n i n g to the d a t i n g of the exile a n d its
aftermath, b u t is also critical of the E n o c h i c w o r k at certain c r u c i a l p o i n t s .

II. A Reconstruction of Jubilees' Chronological System

J u b i l e e s is a p o l e m i c a l w r i t i n g w i t h a distinctly priestly o r i e n t a t i o n that seeks

to p r o v e the v a l i d i t y of its o w n p o s i t i o n over against other c o m p e t i n g p e r ­
spectives w i t h r e s p e c t to t w o m a j o r issues — s a c r e d s p a c e a n d s a c r e d t i m e .
L i k e other p s e u d e p i g r a p h a in the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d , Jubilees is v y i n g for
p r e d o m i n a n c e in the n a m e of d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h a u t h o r ­
itative figures of the past. To this e n d , Jubilees p o r t r a y s itself n o t o n l y as c o n ­
t a i n i n g the d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n w r i t t e n on h e a v e n l y tablets a n d g i v e n t h r o u g h
angelic m e d i a t i o n to M o s e s o n M o u n t S i n a i , b u t also, a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y ,
as e n c a p s u l a t i n g the v e r y r e v e l a t i o n that angels h a d a l r e a d y g i v e n to E n o c h
in the a n t e d i l u v i a n p e r i o d .
A c c o r d i n g to J u b 4:21 (cf. G e n 5:22), E n o c h w a s " w i t h G o d ' s angels for

16. Cf. Scott, On Earth, 1 0 3 - 2 5 , 138-39.

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James M. Scott

six j u b i l e e s of y e a r s . T h e y s h o w e d h i m e v e r y t h i n g on earth a n d in the heav­

ens — the d o m i n i o n of the s u n — a n d he w r o t e d o w n e v e r y t h i n g . " T h i s a p ­
p e a l to E n o c h is the b o o k ' s clincher, p a r t of a g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y w i t h i n the
w r i t i n g to a s c r i b e its s c r i p t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g cultic a n d h a l a k i c
m a t t e r s to the p r i m e v a l a n d p a t r i a r c h a l p e r i o d s . F o r J u b i l e e s , E n o c h , the sev­
enth p a t r i a r c h in the line f r o m A d a m , is the p r o t o t y p i c a l priest, the m e d i a t o r
p a r excellence b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d earth. E n o c h is the m o d e l that the
priestly a u t h o r of the b o o k seeks to e m u l a t e . E n o c h is also the h a r b i n g e r o f
the a u t h o r ' s m o s t treasured h o p e — the r e s t o r a t i o n of sacred s p a c e a n d s a ­
cred t i m e , so that all t h i n g s , e s p e c i a l l y the cultus in the restored l a n d o f I s ­
rael, e v e n t u a l l y w i l l b e " o n earth as in heaven." F o r as w e l e a r n in J u b 4 : 2 5 - 2 6 ,
E n o c h ' s priestly s e r v i c e in the p r i m e v a l s a n c t u a r y of the G a r d e n o f E d e n sets
u p a t r a j e c t o r y to the e x p e c t e d priestly s e r v i c e i n the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e m p l e
on M o u n t Z i o n in the n e w c r e a t i o n . B y that t i m e at the latest, all t h i n g s in
h e a v e n a n d earth w i l l c o n f o r m to the C r e a t o r ' s o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n .

A s a p o l e m i c a l w r i t i n g , Jubilees e n g a g e s in critical d i a l o g u e w i t h its

s c r i p t u r a l base text a n d the E n o c h i c a p o c a l y p t i c t r a d i t i o n w i t h i n w h i c h it
s t a n d s . A l t h o u g h the b o o k is f i r m l y b a s e d o n Israel's s c r i p t u r e s , it is n e v e r t h e ­
less also, at least in p a r t , a r a d i c a l r e w o r k i n g o f those texts. Jubilees s h a p e s the
b i b l i c a l text, p a r t i c u l a r l y G e n e s i s to E x o d u s , so that it c o n f o r m s to the b o o k ' s
o w n t h e o l o g i c a l a g e n d a a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l s c h e m e . Similarly, Jubilees adapts
a n d reinterprets E n o c h i c a p o c a l y p t i c t r a d i t i o n , m o s t n o t a b l y the A p o c a l y p s e
of W e e k s , in order to assert that its o w n v e r s i o n o f the r e v e l a t i o n to E n o c h
( a n d to M o s e s after h i m ) has the greater claim to a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d authority.
To this end, the b o o k seeks to d e m o n s t r a t e the d i v i n e l y o r d a i n e d s y m m e t r y
b e t w e e n the t e m p o r a l a n d spatial axes in the s p a c e - t i m e continuum.
F u n d a m e n t a l to o u r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of Jubilees' c h r o n o l o g i c a l system are
t w o o v e r a r c h i n g trajectories in the b o o k nestled o n e w i t h i n the other: on the
o n e h a n d , the trajectory set u p b y the all-inclusive revelation to M o s e s of the
division o f the years in their jubilees "from the time of creation until the time
of the n e w creation w h e n the h e a v e n s , the earth, a n d all their creatures will be
r e n e w e d like the p o w e r s of the sky a n d like the creatures of the earth, until the
t i m e w h e n the t e m p l e of the L o r d will be created in J e r u s a l e m on M t . Z i o n "
(Jub 1:29); o n the other h a n d , the trajectory set u p b y the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of
E n o c h ' s entrance into the p r i m e v a l s a n c t u a r y of the G a r d e n of E d e n a n d the
expected entrance of the eschatological p r i e s t h o o d in the rebuilt t e m p l e on
M o u n t Z i o n , " w h i c h w i l l be sanctified in the n e w creation" (4:23-26; cf. 1:29).
T h e first trajectory p r o v i d e s the b a s i c j u b i l e a n structure for the w h o l e course
of h i s t o r y as outlined in the b o o k from creation to n e w creation. T h e s e c o n d

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trajectory, w h i c h likewise extends to the n e w creation, focuses m o r e p a r t i c u ­

larly o n the eschatological t e m p l e a n d its cultus, using the p r o t o t y p i c a l priest
E n o c h a n d his m o v e m e n t s as the a n c h o r p o i n t a n d terminus a quo for the c o r ­
r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n Urzeit a n d Endzeit on this trajectory.
In b e t w e e n these t w o o v e r a r c h i n g trajectories is the m u c h s m a l l e r tra­
j e c t o r y of Israel in the P r o m i s e d L a n d , w h i c h c o m e s at the e n d of the b o o k ,
f o r m i n g a k i n d of b o o k e n d w i t h the o p e n i n g r e v e l a t i o n to M o s e s in the first
c h a p t e r (note the s i m i l a r reference to p e r i o d i z a t i o n in t e r m s of s a b b a t h s a n d
j u b i l e e s in b o t h c a s e s ) . T h u s , J u b 50:2-5 states:

(2) O n M t . Sinai I told y o u a b o u t the sabbaths of the l a n d a n d the years

of jubilees in the sabbaths of the years, but its year w e have n o t told y o u
until the t i m e w h e n y o u enter the l a n d w h i c h y o u w i l l possess. (3) T h e
l a n d w i l l o b s e r v e its sabbaths w h e n they live on it, a n d they are to k n o w
the y e a r of the j u b i l e e . (4) F o r this r e a s o n I have a r r a n g e d for y o u the
w e e k s of years a n d the jubilees — 49 jubilees f r o m the t i m e of A d a m u n ­
til today, a n d o n e w e e k and t w o y e a r s . It is still 40 years off (for l e a r n i n g
the L o r d ' s c o m m a n d m e n t s ) until the t i m e w h e n he leads ( t h e m ) across
to the l a n d of C a n a a n , after they have crossed the J o r d a n to the west of it.
(5) T h e jubilees w i l l pass b y until Israel is p u r e of e v e r y s e x u a l evil, i m ­
purity, c o n t a m i n a t i o n , sin, a n d error. T h e n they w i l l live confidently in
the entire l a n d . T h e y w i l l n o l o n g e r have a n y satan or any evil p e r s o n .
The l a n d w i l l b e p u r e from that t i m e until eternity.

In o t h e r w o r d s , the e n t r a n c e into the l a n d is p r e d i c t e d to take p l a c e f o r t y

y e a r s f r o m the r e v e l a t i o n at S i n a i (2410 A . M . ) , at the c u l m i n a t i o n of the j u b i ­
1 7
lee of j u b i l e e s ( 2 4 5 0 A . M . ) . T h i s d a t e is s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e the all-
i m p o r t a n t s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n b e t w e e n h e a v e n l y a n d e a r t h l y c u l t u s , if it is to
h a p p e n at all, m u s t c o m m e n c e u p o n initial e n t r a n c e into the l a n d ; o t h e r ­
w i s e , the p e o p l e w i l l a g a i n err w i t h respect to the o b s e r v a n c e of j u b i l e e s a n d
the s a b b a t h s of the l a n d .

17. Cf. V a n d e r K a m , " E n d of the Matter?" 281, referring to Jub 50:2-3: " T h e a u t h o r
n a m e s two subjects — the Sabbaths o f the land and the years of jubilee — b o t h of which de­
rive from Leviticus 25 ( u n d e r s t o o d to b e l o n g to the Jubilean setting o f M o s e s ' first forty-day
sojourn atop Sinai). T h e legislation in Leviticus 25 is intended for the t i m e w h e n Israel will
live in the land (v. 2), a n d this idea is expressed at the e n d o f Jub 50:2. T h e p h r a s e ' S a b b a t h of
the l a n d ' occurs in L e v 25:6 (cf. w . 4-5), a n d the year o f jubilee (for the p h r a s e see, e.g., L e v
25:28) is treated in w . 8-17, while m o s t of the r e m a i n d e r of the chapter deals w i t h legal m a t ­
ters related to it."

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James M. Scott

T h e a u t h o r o f Jubilees k n o w s , of c o u r s e , that Israel's t i m e in the l a n d

w a s d o o m e d to failure, as the D e u t e r o n o m i c p a t t e r n of s i n - e x i l e - r e s t o r a t i o n
( S E R ) in c h a p , l m a k e s clear. T h u s , J u b 1:7 directly states: " I k n o w their defi­
ance a n d their s t u b b o r n n e s s ( e v e n ) b e f o r e I b r i n g t h e m into the l a n d w h i c h I
p r o m i s e d b y o a t h to A b r a h a m , I s a a c , a n d Jacob." T h e sins of Israel in the
l a n d w i l l i n c l u d e , a m o n g other t h i n g s , v i o l a t i o n s of the c a l e n d a r : a b a n d o n ­
i n g G o d ' s c o v e n a n t a l festivals, his s a b b a t h s , a n d the j u b i l e e ( 1 : 1 0 , 1 4 ) . E l a b o ­
r a t i n g o n Israel's life i n the l a n d a n d e m p l o y i n g o n c e a g a i n the D e u t e r o ­
n o m i c S E R p a t t e r n , J u b 23 e x p e c t s that the p e o p l e will h a v e "forgotten
c o m m a n d m e n t , c o v e n a n t , festival, m o n t h , s a b b a t h , j u b i l e e , a n d e v e r y v e r ­
dict" (v. 1 9 ) . T h e fact that c h a p . 23 is referring to Israel's sinful life in the l a n d
b e f o r e the exile is c o n f i r m e d b y c o m p a r i n g to it 50:5, w h i c h refers to the res­
t o r a t i o n p e r i o d (see a b o v e ) . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s to 23:29, w h i c h l i k e w i s e refers
to the r e s t o r a t i o n : " T h e y w i l l c o m p l e t e a n d live their entire lifetimes p e a c e ­
fully a n d joyfully. T h e r e w i l l b e n e i t h e r a satan n o r any evil o n e w h o w i l l d e ­
stroy." In other w o r d s , Jubilees r e c o g n i z e s that Israel's entire t i m e in the l a n d
b e f o r e the exile w o u l d b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y sin, b u t that this c o n d i t i o n w o u l d
b e rectified at the t i m e o f the r e s t o r a t i o n . H e n c e , the t h e m e of Israel's e x ­
p e c t e d sin in the l a n d is reiterated in v e r y s i m i l a r t e r m s in c h a p s . 1, 2 3 , a n d
5 0 , t h u s g i v i n g these m u t u a l l y r e i n f o r c i n g chapters a f r a m i n g f u n c t i o n for
the b o o k as a w h o l e .

If, as V a n d e r K a m has recently a r g u e d , Jub 5 0 : 1 - 5 c o h e r e s s e a m l e s s l y

1 8
w i t h the rest of the b o o k , t h e n all three of the i n t e r c o n n e c t e d framing
chapters h a v e a c l a i m to b e i n g o r i g i n a l . M o r e o v e r , since all three chapters
l o o k f o r w a r d to the r e s t o r a t i o n p e r i o d , w h e n I s r a e l will reenter the l a n d a n d
reestablish the cultus o n a n e w b a s i s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to that in h e a v e n f r o m
the b e g i n n i n g , the surface n a r r a t i v e of the b o o k stops w h e r e it d o e s , at " T
m i n u s 40 y e a r s " b e f o r e e n t r a n c e into the l a n d , for t w o m a i n r e a s o n s : ( 1 ) b e ­
c a u s e , f r o m the a u t h o r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e , the o r i g i n a l e n t r a n c e into the l a n d w a s
a l r e a d y l o n g past, a n d (2) b e c a u s e Israel's h i s t o r y essentially recapitulates it­
self at the t i m e of the r e s t o r a t i o n : the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e n t r a n c e into the l a n d
c o r r e s p o n d s c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y to the o r i g i n a l e n t r a n c e into the l a n d . I n d e e d ,
J u b i l e e s is all a b o u t r e c a p i t u l a t i o n . T h e t w o o v e r a r c h i n g trajectories of the
b o o k d e m o n s t r a t e that the n e w c r e a t i o n recapitulates the o r i g i n a l c r e a t i o n ,
a n d the e n t r a n c e o f the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r i e s t h o o d into the future t e m p l e o f

18. Cf. V a n d e r K a m , " E n d o f the M a t t e r ? " 267-84, w h o s h o w s n o t o n l y that Jub 50:6-13

accords w i t h the author's m a n n e r o f i n t r o d u c i n g laws t h r o u g h o u t the b o o k b u t also that the
entire chapter coheres well w i t h the rest o f the b o o k .

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 The Chronologies of the Apocalypse of Weeks and the Book of Jubilees

the L o r d on M o u n t Z i o n c o r r e s p o n d s to E n o c h ' s e n t r a n c e into the p r i m e v a l

t e m p l e of the G a r d e n of E d e n . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , b y the t i m e of the r e s t o r a ­
tion at the latest, the p e o p l e w i l l r e c o m m e n c e the c e l e b r a t i o n of the s a b b a t h ,
in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d d i v i n e w i l l for e v e r y t h i n g o n
earth, p a r t i c u l a r l y the cultus in the P r o m i s e d L a n d , to c o r r e s p o n d to the w a y
t h i n g s are in h e a v e n . F o r from the c r e a t i o n of the w o r l d , the L o r d s e p a r a t e d
for h i m s e l f Israel as a s p e c i a l p e o p l e to k e e p s a b b a t h w i t h h i m a n d the h i g h ­
est angels ( J u b 2 : 1 9 , 2 1 , 3 1 ) .
A n o t h e r w a y in w h i c h J u b 1 , 2 3 , a n d 50 c o h e r e c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y is illus­
trated b y the w a y the s t o r y o f A b r a h a m is f r a m e d i n c h a p . 2 3 . U p o n m e n ­
t i o n i n g A b r a h a m ' s death a n d b u r i a l w i t h his w i f e S a r a h in the d o u b l e cave at
M a c h p e l a h ( 2 3 : 1 - 7 ) , the a u t h o r m e n t i o n s A b r a h a m ' s life s p a n in t e r m s o f its
n u m b e r of j u b i l e e s ("three j u b i l e e s a n d f o u r w e e k s of y e a r s — 175 y e a r s " )
a n d h o w h u m a n l o n g e v i t y in g e n e r a l h a d d e c l i n e d f r o m "the t i m e of the an­
c i e n t s " ( w . 8 - 9 ) . In d o i n g s o , the a u t h o r p e r f o r m s a c o m p l e x interpretive
m o v e that correlates p r e c i s e l y w i t h his interest in t e m p o r a l a n d spatial s y m ­
m e t r i e s . O n the o n e h a n d , w e see his interest in t e m p o r a l s y m m e t r y in his
e m p h a s i s o n the decline a n d r e c o v e r y o f h u m a n l o n g e v i t y in J u b 2 3 : 8 - 3 1 . F o r
j u s t as h u m a n l o n g e v i t y p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e c l i n e d f r o m the c r e a t i o n of the
w o r l d until the e n t r a n c e into the l a n d f r o m A d a m ' s 930 y e a r s (i.e., 70 y e a r s
fewer t h a n 1,000 y e a r s ) to M o s e s ' 1 2 0 y e a r s ( J u b 4:29-30; 5:5, 8; 23:9; cf. D e u t
3 4 : 7 ) , a n d t h e n further p l u m m e t e d after Israel w a s in the l a n d to a m a x i m u m
life e x p e c t a n c y o f 70 y e a r s ( J u b 23:15; cf. Ps. 9 0 : 1 0 ) , so also h u m a n l o n g e v i t y
w i l l i n c r e m e n t a l l y i n c r e a s e after Israel's r e s t o r a t i o n to the l a n d , f r o m the
m e a g e r 7 0 - y e a r life s p a n to the o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d d i v i n e ideal of 1,000 years
( J u b 23:27; cf. Ps 9 0 : 4 ) . T h u s , a c c o r d i n g to J u b 23:27, after the p e o p l e r e t u r n
to the r i g h t w a y , " T h e days w i l l b e g i n to b e c o m e n u m e r o u s a n d i n c r e a s e , a n d
m a n k i n d as w e l l — g e n e r a t i o n b y g e n e r a t i o n a n d d a y b y d a y until their life­
t i m e s a p p r o a c h 1 0 0 0 y e a r s a n d to m o r e y e a r s t h a n the n u m b e r o f days ( h a d
b e e n ) . " T h e fact that h u m a n l o n g e v i t y started at 70 y e a r s fewer t h a n the di­
v i n e ideal, d e c r e a s e d f r o m there to a m a x i m u m of 70 y e a r s , a n d finally w i l l
attain the d i v i n e ideal, thus b e s t i n g A d a m ' s p r e v i o u s h i g h b y 70 y e a r s , s h o w s
that J u b 23 still o p e r a t e s w i t h i n the h e p t a d i c s t r u c t u r e that o t h e r w i s e c h a r a c ­
terizes the b o o k , i n c l u d i n g the s t o r y of A b r a h a m ' s death, w h i c h p r o v i d e s the
n a r r a t i v e h o o k for the a p o c a l y p t i c m a t e r i a l .

T h u s , the p r o o f o f the existence o f d i v i n e p r o v i d e n c e — a n d therefore

the c o r r e c t n e s s o f J u b i l e e s ' v e r s i o n of things — is in its r h y t h m i c w o r k i n g in
h i s t o r y : c o n s t r u c t i o n , d e s t r u c t i o n , a n d r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . A l l this w a s d e c r e e d
f r o m h e a v e n to o c c u r in p e r i o d s that w e r e e q u a l in length a n d therefore

77
James M. Scott

s y m m e t r i c a l . In this c o n c e p t i o n of the p r o g r e s s o f w o r l d history, Jubilees

r e p r e s e n t s a m a j o r a d v a n c e o v e r the A p o c a l y p s e o f W e e k s , w h i c h also has
p e r i o d s of e q u a l length ( o s t e n s i b l y 4 9 0 - y e a r " w e e k s " ) , but fails to achieve
the s a m e d e g r e e of bilateral s y m m e t r y in w o r l d history. I n s t e a d , the A p o c a ­
l y p s e of Weeks has m e r e l y a p a r t i a l a n d a s y m m e t r i c a l c o m p l e m e n t b e t w e e n
" w e e k s " 1 - 7 a n d 8 - 1 0 , w i t h the center of h i s t o r y c o n s t i t u t i n g the b u i l d i n g o f
the t e m p l e at the c u l m i n a t i o n of " w e e k " 5 (1 E n 93:7).
A l o n g s i d e this interest in t e m p o r a l s y m m e t r y , Jub 23 d e m o n s t r a t e s the
author's interest in spatial s y m m e t r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y the t w o f o l d loss a n d r e t u r n
of the P r o m i s e d L a n d to Israel. To appreciate this p o i n t , w e m u s t recall that
Jub 50:4-5 c o n t a i n s the c h r o n o l o g y o f Jubilees that r u n s t h r o u g h o u t the en­
tire b o o k a n d ends at the e x p e c t e d e n t r a n c e into the P r o m i s e d L a n d . T h i s o c ­
curs at the c u l m i n a t i o n of the j u b i l e e of j u b i l e e s , w h e n the n a t i o n w i l l e x p e r i ­
ence on a g r a n d scale w h a t an i n d i v i d u a l Israelite c o u l d have e x p e r i e n c e d in
the y e a r o f j u b i l e e — f r e e d o m from s e r v i t u d e a n d r e t u r n to ancestral l a n d (cf.
L e v 2 5 ) . T h e r e t u r n of Israel to its ancestral h o m e p r e s u p p o s e s J u b i l e e s '
lengthy s e c t i o n a b o u t the o r i g i n a l a s s i g n m e n t o f the l a n d to S h e m after the
f l o o d a n d the theft of the l a n d b y C a n a a n s o o n thereafter ( c h a p s . 8 - 1 0 ) .
T h u s , f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e o f J u b i l e e s , w h e n Israel c o n q u e r e d the l a n d
f r o m the C a n a a n i t e s it w a s a m a t t e r o f r e t a k i n g p r o p e r t y that rightfully b e ­
l o n g e d to t h e m i n the first p l a c e . It w i l l n o t go u n n o t i c e d , h o w e v e r , that the
theft of the l a n d b y C a n a a n w a s p a r a l l e l e d in the a u t h o r ' s o w n d a y b y the
theft of the l a n d b y the G r e c o - M a c e d o n i a n s , w h i c h l i k e w i s e constituted a v i ­
o l a t i o n o f the eternal oath m a d e b y the s o n s a n d g r a n d s o n s of N o a h : "All o f
t h e m s a i d : ' S o be it'! S o be it for t h e m a n d their c h i l d r e n u n t i l eternity d u r ­
i n g their g e n e r a t i o n s u n t i l the d a y of j u d g m e n t o n w h i c h the L o r d G o d w i l l
p u n i s h t h e m w i t h the s w o r d a n d fire b e c a u s e of all the evil i m p u r i t y of their
errors b y w h i c h they h a v e filled the earth w i t h w i c k e d n e s s , i m p u r i t y , f o r n i ­
1 9
cation, and sin" (Jub 9 : 1 5 ) .
T h e d a y of j u d g m e n t is m e n t i o n e d a g a i n in J u b 2 3 : 1 0 - 1 1 . T h e a p p r o p r i ­
ateness of the a p o c a l y p t i c s e c t i o n of c h a p . 23 ( a n d its c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the
earlier o a t h in c h a p . 9) c a n b e seen b y the fact that the n a r r a t i v e t r i g g e r for

1 9 . Cf. P. S. A l e x a n d e r , " J e r u s a l e m as the O m p h a l o s of the World: O n the H i s t o r y o f a

G e o g r a p h i c a l C o n c e p t , " Judaism 46 (1997): 147-58 (esp. 1 4 9 - 5 1 ) ; A l e x a n d e r , " J e r u s a l e m as the
O m p h a l o s o f the World: O n the H i s t o r y of a G e o g r a p h i c a l C o n c e p t , " in Jerusalem: Its Sanc­
tity and Centrality to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, ed. L. I. L e v i n e ( N e w York: C o n t i n ­
u u m , 1 9 9 9 ) , 1 0 4 - 1 9 (esp. 1 0 5 - 7 ) , w h o a r g u e s that Jubilees is a H a s m o n e a n d o c u m e n t that is
politically m o t i v a t e d : it contrasts J e r u s a l e m to D e l p h i , m a k e s G r e e k influence in the East il­
legitimate, a n d justifies H a s m o n e a n e x p a n s i o n .

78
 The Chronologies of the Apocalypse of Weeks and the Book of Jubilees

the a p o c a l y p t i c section is the s t o r y of A b r a h a m ' s death a n d b u r i a l in the

d o u b l e cave of M a c h p e l a h ( J u b 2 3 : 7 ) , w h i c h w a s the o n l y f o o t h o l d the p a t r i ­
2 0
archs h a d in the P r o m i s e d L a n d ( G e n 2 3 : 1 7 - 2 0 ) . N o t o n l y S a r a h but also
A b r a h a m , I s a a c a n d R e b e k a h , a n d J a c o b a n d L e a h w e r e b u r i e d there ( G e n
4 9 : 2 9 - 3 2 ; 5 0 : 1 3 ) . A l t h o u g h J u b 23 o b v i o u s l y p r e s u p p o s e s the s t o r y of A b r a ­
h a m ' s p u r c h a s e of the cave in G e n 23, the a u t h o r e v i d e n t l y d o e s n o t w a n t to
e m p h a s i z e that A b r a h a m b o u g h t it f r o m the Hittites, since that w o u l d u n ­
d e r m i n e his thesis that the l a n d b e l o n g e d to I s r a e l as an i n h e r i t a n c e that w a s
subject to the law of j u b i l e e o n a g r a n d scale. J u b 23 anticipates the t i m e
w h e n the L o r d w i l l e x p e l his e n e m i e s f r o m the l a n d (v. 3 0 ) , the o n e s w h o h a d
c a u s e d s u c h c h a o s in Israel a n d sin against J a c o b (v. 2 3 ) . T h i s is e v i d e n t l y a
t h i n l y v e i l e d a l l u s i o n to c o n d i t i o n s in the a u t h o r ' s o w n t i m e .

If the a u t h o r of Jubilees b e l i e v e s that the o r i g i n a l e n t r a n c e into the

l a n d c o r r e s p o n d s c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y to the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e n t r a n c e into the
l a n d , t h e n the t i m i n g of the first event at the j u b i l e e o f j u b i l e e s (2450 A . M . )
v e r y likely c o r r e s p o n d s to a fixed date in the future f r o m the a u t h o r ' s o w n
2 1
time. W e k n o w f r o m the S i n - E x i l e - R e t u r n p a t t e r n in c h a p s . 1 a n d 23 that
the a u t h o r of Jubilees r e c k o n s w i t h a p e r i o d of exile, a l t h o u g h its l e n g t h is
n o w h e r e explicitly g i v e n in the b o o k . It c o u l d h a v e b e e n a k n o w n q u a n t i t y
traditionally, such as the 70 " w e e k s " = 490 years = 1 0 j u b i l e e s in D a n 9:24.
H e n c e , b y u s i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n of e v i d e n c e f r o m the b o o k itself ( p a r ­
t i c u l a r l y p e r i o d i c i t y a n d s y m m e t r y ) a n d f r o m other s a b b a t i c a l c h r o n o l o g i e s
(especially the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s ) , I h a v e a t t e m p t e d to d e d u c e w h e n the
a u t h o r of Jubilees t h o u g h t the r e s t o r a t i o n w o u l d b e g i n . T h e A p o c a l y p s e of
W e e k s m e n t i o n s that at the c o n c l u s i o n o f the sixth w e e k (2940 A . M . ) the
t e m p l e w i l l b e d e s t r o y e d , a n d "the w h o l e race o f the c h o s e n r o o t w i l l b e dis­
p e r s e d " (1 E n 93:8). It s e e m s quite p o s s i b l e that Jubilees accepts this date for
the exile, for w h e n w e p o s t u l a t e , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h established tradition,
that the exile w a s to last 490 y e a r s , s o m e t h i n g v e r y interesting o c c u r s : 3430
A . M . is the b e g i n n i n g of the r e s t o r a t i o n (as in the A p o c a l y p s e o f W e e k s ) a n d
the exact m i r r o r of the j u b i l e e of j u b i l e e s in 2450 A . M . across the axis o f s y m ­
m e t r y (the exile in 2940 A . M . ) .

In other w o r d s , for Jubilees the p e r i o d f r o m the o r i g i n a l e n t r a n c e into

20. Even t h o u g h the a u t h o r o f Jubilees regards the l a n d as Israel's inherited right b e ­

cause of the a s s i g n m e n t of the l a n d to S h e m , he still thinks o f it as the " p r o m i s e d land." Cf.
Jub 1:7, w h i c h refers to "the l a n d w h i c h I p r o m i s e d b y oath to A b r a h a m , Isaac, a n d Jacob."
2 1 . If the o r i g i n a l e n t r a n c e into the l a n d w a s to o c c u r forty years after the revelation
to M o s e s o n M o u n t Sinai, d o e s the a u t h o r o f Jubilees a s s u m e that the eschatological restora­
tion to the l a n d w a s to o c c u r forty years f r o m the t i m e o f writing?

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James M. Scott

the l a n d until the r e e n t r y into the l a n d at the t i m e of the r e s t o r a t i o n w o u l d

b e t w o p e r i o d s c o m p r i s e d of p r e c i s e l y 490 y e a r s , for a total of 980 y e a r s . T h e
n o t i o n that the t i m e in exile c o r r e s p o n d s to the t i m e in the l a n d c o u l d be a
reflection of the idea in 2 C h r o n 36:21 that the exile, w h i c h w i l l last 70 y e a r s
as J e r e m i a h h a d p r e d i c t e d ( J e r 2 9 : 1 0 ) , w i l l befall Israel b e c a u s e of its n e g l e c t
of the s a b b a t i c a l a n d j u b i l e e y e a r s ( L e v 2 5 : 1 - 1 3 ) . T h i s p r e s u p p o s e s that Israel
failed p r o p e r l y to o b s e r v e the s a b b a t h s o f the l a n d f r o m the v e r y outset.
V i e w e d t h r o u g h the lens o f the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of J e r e m i a h ' s p r o p h e c y in D a n
9:24, the c o m p e n s a t o r y p u n i s h m e n t for Israel's m i s s e d s a b b a t h s in the l a n d
c o u l d h a v e b e e n r e c k o n e d as 490 y e a r s (70 x 7 = 49 x 1 0 ) . T h e s a b b a t i c a l l o g i c
of this c a l c u l a t i o n w o u l d have c o h e r e d v e r y w e l l w i t h J u b i l e e s ' o w n c o n c e r n
for the p r o p e r o b s e r v a n c e o f the s a b b a t h , on w h i c h in fact the b o o k e n d s
(Jub 5 0 : 1 - 1 3 ) , a n d the o t h e r h e p t a d i c cycles of the s u n .

T h e i n h e r e n t p l a u s i b i l i t y of this r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s h o u l d n o t be m i s s e d .
T h e r e can b e little q u e s t i o n that the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s w o u l d h a v e c o n s i d ­
ered the date for the e n d o f the exile a n d the b e g i n n i n g of the r e s t o r a t i o n ev­
ery bit as i m p o r t a n t , if n o t m o r e s o , as the j u b i l e e of j u b i l e e s that figures so
largely i n the surface n a r r a t i v e o f the b o o k as a w h o l e . F o r the a u t h o r a n d his
c o m m u n i t y p r o b a b l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s as s t a n d i n g o n the t h r e s h o l d o f
the r e s t o r a t i o n , j u s t as the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s — the other h e p t a d i c c h r o ­
n o l o g y w i t h a u n i v e r s a l s c o p e f r o m c r e a t i o n to n e w c r e a t i o n — m o s t likely
saw its c o m m u n i t y as s t a n d i n g on the t h r e s h o l d of the eighth "week," w h i c h
c o m m e n c e s the p r o t r a c t e d r e s t o r a t i o n p e r i o d ( " w e e k s " 8 - 1 0 ) .

III. Conclusion

W e have a r g u e d that a l t h o u g h in s o m e respects the c h r o n o l o g i e s in the A p o c ­

alypse of Weeks a n d the b o o k of Jubilees differ substantially from o n e an­
other, in other w a y s t h e y are quite similar. T h e i r s i m i l a r i t y suggests a literary
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the t w o w r i t i n g s , a n d the p o s s i b l e a l l u s i o n of J u b 4 : 1 8 - 1 9
to the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks s e e m s to s h o w the d i r e c t i o n of the i n f l u e n c e . If
this is correct, Jubilees w a s not u n c r i t i c a l of its s o u r c e . F o r the p e r i o d before
the exile, Jubilees goes its o w n c h r o n o l o g i c a l way, especially insofar as it e v i ­
dently expects a m u c h l o n g e r length of t i m e f r o m creation to the c o n q u e s t .
F o r the p e r i o d c o m m e n c i n g w i t h the exile, h o w e v e r , it can b e c r e d i b l y
a r g u e d that Jubilees tracks the A p o c a l y p s e to a r e m a r k a b l e d e g r e e . E v i d e n t l y ,
b o t h w r i t i n g s e x p e c t the e n d of exile a n d the b e g i n n i n g of the r e s t o r a t i o n to
o c c u r o n the s a m e date (3430 A . M . ) . A l t h o u g h J u b i l e e s d o e s n o t explicitly

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 The Chronologies of the Apocalypse of Weeks and the Book of Jubilees

mention this date, it leaves enough clues via its heptadic cycles and extensive
symmetries to demonstrate that the culmination of the jubilee of jubilees
(2450 A . M . ) would correspond ideally to that blessed date across an axis of
symmetry, the exile (2940 A . M . in the Apocalypse of Weeks). In that case, Ju­
bilees appears to expect that Israel's time in the land (2940 A . M . - 2 4 5 0 A . M . =
490 years) would equal its time in exile ( 3 4 3 0 - 2 9 4 0 = 490 years), in accor­
dance with the kind of sabbatical logic that w e see reflected in 2 C h r o n 36:21
(cf. D a n 9:24).

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The Aramaic Levi Document,
the Genesis Apocryphon, and Jubilees:
A Study of Shared Traditions

Esther Eshel

T h e complex interrelationships between the second temple period works

that are based on, or retell, the stories of Genesis are a matter of scholarly de­
bate. Although it is not always feasible to show direct influence, examination
of linguistic and thematic parallels has the potential to indicate influence or
borrowing and its possible direction. T h e three Jewish texts examined here
— the A r a m a i c Levi D o c u m e n t (hereafter A L D ) , the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n ,
and Jubilees — share the background of Genesis. However, each elaborates
on the biblical text in a different way, based on its sources, on the one hand,
and its author's worldview on the other.
T h e underlying premise of this article is that A L D and the Genesis
A p o c r y p h o n served as sources for Jubilees, as demonstrated b y the examina­
tion of parallels, mostly thematic but also linguistic in nature. These paral­
lels relate to Levi and his investiture to the priesthood, to N o a h and the
world division among his sons and its accompanying mapa mundi, and to
the imagery of the two ways.

I. A L D and Jubilees: Jacob's Journey

and the List of Trees for Sacrificial Use

I consider A L D the oldest extant w o r k in a series of writings attributed to the

1
fathers of the priestly line. It was first discovered in the Cairo Geniza, and at

l. For a detailed description o f the various textual witnesses o f ALD, see J. C. Green-

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 The Aramaic Levi Document, the Genesis Apocryphon, and Jubilees

present ten p a g e s of the G e n i z a m a n u s c r i p t o f this w o r k are k n o w n . S e v e n

Q u m r a n scrolls, all f r a g m e n t a r y , h a v e b e e n identified as c o p i e s of this w o r k .
T h e s i n g l e c o p y f r o m C a v e l, a n d the s i x f r o m C a v e 4, c a n be dated
p a l e o g r a p h i c a l l y to the late H a s m o n e a n or early H e r o d i a n p e r i o d . N e i t h e r
2
the w o r k ' s b e g i n n i n g n o r its e n d has s u r v i v e d . A L D is s i g n i f i c a n t for its reli­
g i o u s ideas, w h i c h i l l u m i n e the early p o s t b i b l i c a l p e r i o d , for the light it
sheds o n early p r i e s t l y p r a c t i c e , for its u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w i s d o m , a n d for its
e m p h a s i s o n the t r a n s m i s s i o n o f a n c i e n t l e a r n i n g .
In the e d i t i o n of A L D p u b l i s h e d b y the late J o n a s G r e e n f i e l d , M i c h a e l
S t o n e , a n d myself, w e date this w o r k to the t h i r d or the early s e c o n d c e n t u r y
B . C . E . at the latest. T h i s d a t i n g is g r o u n d e d in p a l e o g r a p h y , the c e n t r a l i t y o f
the p r i e s t h o o d , a n d A L D ' s use o f a solar c a l e n d a r s i m i l a r to the o n e p r o ­
3
m o t e d b y 1 E n o c h , J u b i l e e s , a n d the Q u m r a n s e c t a r i a n w r i t i n g s . T h e a b ­
sence of p o l e m i c s u r r o u n d i n g the c a l e n d a r in the s u r v i v i n g f r a g m e n t s of
A L D c o n t r a s t s w i t h the s i t u a t i o n in Jubilees a n d s u p p o r t s this early d a t i n g ,
m a k i n g A L D o n e of the earliest k n o w n p o s t b i b l i c a l J e w i s h w r i t i n g s . O n the
b a s i s o f an e x a m i n a t i o n o f s h a r e d t r a d i t i o n s f o u n d in b o t h A L D a n d J u b i ­
lees, w e a r g u e that A L D s e r v e d as a s o u r c e for Jubilees a n d the D a m a s c u s
D o c u m e n t , as w e l l as for the T e s t a m e n t o f L e v i .
T h e t w o m a i n e x a m p l e s of s h a r e d t h e m a t i c t r a d i t i o n s p r o v i d e d here,
w h i c h are d i s c u s s e d in detail in o u r e d i t i o n of A L D , d e m o n s t r a t e that J u b i ­
lees w a s f a m i l i a r w i t h , a n d relied o n , A L D . ( F o r a d d i t i o n a l scattered e x a m ­
ples, see the c o m m e n t a r y to o u r e d i t i o n . ) T h e first e x a m p l e c o n c e r n s the
s t o r y of the events f o u n d in A L D 4:9-5:8 a n d its p a r a l l e l i n J u b 3 1 - 3 2 . B o t h
r e c o u n t , t h o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r i l y in the s a m e order, J a c o b ' s j o u r n e y f r o m
S h e c h e m to B e t h e l a n d L e v i ' s v i s i o n s , a d d i n g events that h a v e n o b i b l i c a l
b a c k g r o u n d . L e v i ' s v i s i o n in A L D 4, w h i c h c o m b i n e s p r i e s t l y a n d r o y a l f u n c ­
t i o n s , is f o l l o w e d b y L e v i ' s investiture as a priest, a n d his r e c e i v i n g tithes
f r o m J a c o b a n d b e i n g blessed a n d i n s t r u c t e d b y his g r a n d f a t h e r I s a a c in
c h a p . 5. T h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s are detailed in c h a p . 6. B u t certain incidents

field, M . E . Stone, a n d Esther Eshel, The Aramaic Levi Document, S V T P 19 (Leiden: Brill,
2 0 0 4 ) , 1-6.
d e
2. Two o f the copies from Q u m r a n ( 4 Q L e v i and 4 Q L e v i ) contain shorter texts than
the G e n i z a m a n u s c r i p t . M o r e o v e r , A L D p r o b a b l y inspired t w o o t h e r w o r k s f o u n d at
Q u m r a n , 4QTestament o f Q a h a t (4Q542) a n d 4 Q V i s i o n s o f A m r a m (4Q543-549). A n o t h e r
w o r k related to A L D is the Testament of Levi (— T P L , w h i c h is part of the Testaments o f the
Twelve P a t r i a r c h s ) , especially three insertions in o n e o f its G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s (Athos
K o u t l o u m o u s 3 9 , called m a n u s c r i p t e).
3. Greenfield, Stone, a n d Eshel, The Aramaic Levi Document, 20.

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Esther Eshel

found in A L D 4 : 9 - 5 : 8 (and T P L 8:1; 9 : 1 - 6 ) o c c u r earlier in the story in Jubi­

4
lees. T h e parallel stories are set out in the following table:

ALD Jubilees

31:1 Start off in Shechem

31:3 Jacob goes to Bethel, invites Isaac and
Rebecca to come to Bethel
31:4-5a Isaac refuses, invites Jacob, Levi, and
Judah to go with Isaac to the residence of
Abraham

31:5b-29 The meeting of Jacob and Rebecca

with Levi and Judah and their blessing

31:30-32 Upon Isaac's orders, Jacob returns to

Bethel with Rebecca and her nurse Deborah

4:9-12 Levi's vision of investiture 32:1 Levi's dream at Bethel, of being appointed
to the eternal priesthood of the Most High

5:1a "We" go to Isaac

5:1b Isaac's blessing o f Levi

5:2 Jacob gives a tithe to Levi
Jacob invests Levi
32:2-3a Jacob giving the tithe;
Birth of Benjamin; Jacob counting his sons —
Levi as the tenth son
32:3b Levi as the tithe
32:3c Jacob invests Levi

32:4-15 Jacob's celebration of the Festival of

Booths

5:3-5 Levi offers sacrifices and blesses his

father and brothers in Bethel

5:6 Levi leaves Bethel and encamps at the

residence of Abraham

Jubilees' additions to the biblical narrative are inserted between the

5
sections of the Bethel narrative in G e n 3 5 , specifically after v. 4 . T h e i r p u r -

4. A comparison o f these parallels is found in Greenfield, Stone, and Eshel, The Ara­
maic Levi Document, 151.
5.1. C. VanderKam, "lubilees' Exegetical Creation o f Levi the Priest," in From Revela­
tion to Canon: Studies in the Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Literature (Leiden and Boston:

84
 The Aramaic Levi Document, the Genesis Apocryphon, and Jubilees

p o s e is to create an earlier visit b y J a c o b to H e b r o n — so that he c a n h a v e

Isaac m e e t a n d bless his g r a n d s o n s — a n d to e x p l a i n D e b o r a h ' s p r e s e n c e at
6
B e t h e l ( G e n 35:8), as K u g e l n o t e s . To this w e m u s t a d d V a n d e r K a m ' s c o m ­
m e n t : " J a c o b ' s r e t u r n to his father's h o u s e in safety m e a n t that the L o r d h a d
n o w a c c o m p l i s h e d for h i m w h a t J a c o b h a d r e q u e s t e d as a p r e c o n d i t i o n for
7
c a r r y i n g o u t the v o w he h a d m a d e d u r i n g his first stay at B e t h e l . " T h e s e a d ­
ditions are consistent w i t h the centrality of J a c o b in J u b i l e e s , as o p p o s e d to
A L D , w h e r e L e v i is the h e r o . A c c o r d i n g l y , Jubilees devotes c o n s i d e r a b l y less
s p a c e to L e v i than does A L D . T h i s is e x e m p l i f i e d b y a c o m p a r i s o n of the
b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of L e v i ' s investiture i n J u b 3 2 : 3 : " H i s father p u t priestly
clothes on h i m a n d o r d a i n e d him," a n d the greater detail o f A L D 5:4: " a n d he
invested m e in the priestly g a r b , a n d c o n s e c r a t e d m e a n d I b e c a m e a priest of
the G o d of eternity." A l s o a b s e n t f r o m Jubilees is a p a r a l l e l to A L D ' s detailed
d e s c r i p t i o n of L e v i b l e s s i n g his father a n d b r o t h e r s at B e t h e l ( 5 : 5 - 8 ) . A s
n o t e d , the d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n the d e s c r i p t i o n s p e r h a p s rests in the centrality
of L e v i i n A L D , as in the L e v i literature in g e n e r a l . A l t h o u g h a w a r e of this
t r a d i t i o n , J u b i l e e s ' focus is less L e v i - c e n t r i c a n d therefore its a c c o u n t of
these events is s h o r t e r a n d less d e t a i l e d . T h e different w e i g h t afforded to the
L e v i m a t e r i a l in each w o r k reflects its a u t h o r ' s w o r l d v i e w .

A s e c o n d e x a m p l e o f J u b i l e e s ' use of A L D also relates to the cultic

r e a l m . Isaac's i n s t r u c t i o n s to L e v i , f o u n d i n A L D 6 - 1 0 , c o m p r e h e n d cultic
priestly t e a c h i n g s , i n c l u d i n g the f o l l o w i n g lists: (a) trees for sacrificial use,
(b) prescriptions for a n i m a l s a c r i f i c e s , (c) s a c r i f i c i a l o r d i n a n c e s , and
(d) metrological equivalents.
I f o c u s here on the list of trees f o u n d in A L D 7:6-7, w h i c h is d o c u ­
m e n t e d in the G e n i z a a n d the Q u m r a n m a n u s c r i p t s , as w e l l as in the G r e e k
m a n u s c r i p t s f r o m M o u n t A t h o s . A s seen f r o m the f o l l o w i n g table, J u b 2 1 : 1 2 -
15 c o n t a i n s a v e r y s i m i l a r list:

Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) , 545-61 (here 548); in his study o f the story of Levi according to Jub 3 0 - 3 2 ,
V a n d e r K a m maintained that the author o f Jubilees "probably had another source, the A r a ­
maic Levi, o n which to draw, whether directly or indirectly" (551), whereas R. A . Kugler,
From Patriarch to Priest: The Levi-Priestly Tradition from Aramaic Levi to Testament of Levi,
S B L E J L 9 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1996), 146-55, suggested an intermediary text between
A L D a n d Jubilees.
6. J. Kugel, "Levi's Elevation to the Priesthood in Second Temple Writings," HTR 86
(1993): 1-64. F o r his latest study o n the relationship between A L D a n d Jubilees, see Kugel,
" H o w O l d Is the Aramaic Levi Document?" DSD 14 (2007): 291-312.
7. V a n d e r K a m , "Jubilees' Exegetical Creation," 553.

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Esther Eshel

ALD Jubilees
cedar cypress
j u n i p e r (bay) silver fir
almond (Aramaic), mastik (Greek) almond
fir fir
pine pine
ash cedar
cypress juniper

fig date
oleaster ( A r a m a i c ) , cypress ( G r e e k ) olive w o o d
laurel myrtle
myrtle laurel w o o d = cedar
juniper bush
aspalathos balsam

B e a r i n g in m i n d the difficulty of i d e n t i f y i n g these trees, a n d also the indefi-

niteness o f s o m e of the E t h i o p i a n t e r m s f o u n d in this p a s s a g e , the t w o lists
8
m a y b e e v e n closer t h a n a p p e a r s at first g l a n c e . In o u r c o m m e n t a r y o n A L D
w e u n d e r t o o k a l i n g u i s t i c c o m p a r i s o n of these p a r a l l e l lists, w h i c h p o i n t s to
the o r i g i n a l i t y of A L D ' s list. H e r e I f o c u s o n w h a t a p p e a r s to b e a m i s t a k e in
Jubilees: w h e r e A L D h a s NnitfD K57, "oleaster," the p a r a l l e l in Jubilees reads
"olive w o o d . " S i n c e TWfi m e a n s "oil," NntPft N57 w a s m i s t a k e n l y u n d e r s t o o d
as " o l i v e w o o d , " w h i l e " o l i v e tree" is NIT'T in A r a m a i c . T h e p r o h i b i t i o n i n
r a b b i n i c h a l a k a h of the use of olive w o o d o n the altar (m. Tamid 2 : 3 ) i m p l i e s
that A L D h a s p r e s e r v e d the o r i g i n a l r e a d i n g . S u p p o r t i n g this s u p p o s i t i o n is
the fact that J u b i l e e s ' priestly h a l a k a h is g e n e r a l l y stricter t h a n r a b b i n i c h a l a ­
k a h ; it is therefore u n l i k e l y that Jubilees w o u l d p e r m i t the use of olive w o o d
on the altar. T h i s suggests that in the p r o c e s s o f c o p y i n g the list f r o m A L D ,
the o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n w a s c o r r u p t e d .

W i t h r e g a r d to the a b o v e - n o t e d lists f o u n d in A L D 6 - 1 0 , it s h o u l d be
n o t e d that despite s o m e p o i n t s of c o n t a c t w i t h later sacrificial p r a c t i c e as re­
p o r t e d in r a b b i n i c literature, these lists are l a r g e l y u n i q u e a n d p e r h a p s even
p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e for the existence of cultic h a n d b o o k s d u r i n g the s e c o n d
t e m p l e p e r i o d . B e c a u s e it is n o t related to the fixed daily, S a b b a t h , n e w
m o o n , o r festival sacrifices p r e s c r i b e d i n the P e n t a t e u c h , the list o f sacrifices
is p a r t i c u l a r l y interesting.

8. Here I c o m p a r e o n l y the translation. F o r the full details a n d discussion, see G r e e n ­

field, Stone, and Eshel, The Aramaic Levi Document, 165-68.

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 The Aramaic Levi Document, the Genesis Apocryphon, and Jubilees

T h e r e is also an i m p o r t a n t c o n t e x t u a l difference b e t w e e n A L D a n d J u ­
bilees w i t h r e s p e c t to the t r a n s m i s s i o n of these cultic i n s t r u c t i o n s . A c c o r d ­
ing to J u b i l e e s , these i n s t r u c t i o n s w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d to I s a a c b y A b r a h a m ( J u b
2 1 ) , w h e r e a s in A L D t h e y w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d to L e v i b y I s a a c . T h i s is consistent
w i t h J u b i l e e s ' w o r l d v i e w of the p a t r i a r c h s f u n c t i o n i n g as priests, starting
w i t h A d a m a n d c o n t i n u i n g t h r o u g h A b r a h a m , to I s a a c , to L e v i . A s K u g e l has
d e m o n s t r a t e d , this priestly line does n o t i n c l u d e J a c o b ; thus Isaac is the o n e
9
w h o delivers the directives of the p r i e s t h o o d to L e v i . A c c o r d i n g l y , the a u ­
t h o r of Jubilees "felt n o n e e d to add a n o t h e r scene in w h i c h Isaac w o u l d in­
1 0
struct L e v i in the p r i e s t h o o d (as Aramaic Levi d o e s ) . "
I w o u l d like to a r g u e that these t e a c h i n g s are i n t r o d u c e d b y the a u t h o r
o f A L D in their l o g i c a l setting, w h e r e I s a a c p r e p a r e s L e v i for his priestly role
( c h a p s . 6 - 9 ) . T h i s l o n g s e c t i o n c o n c l u d e s i n c h a p . 1 0 ( p r e s e r v e d o n l y i n the
G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t f r o m M o u n t A t h o s ) w i t h Isaac's i n j u n c t i o n s a n d b l e s s i n g s
to L e v i . T h i s chapter also c o n t a i n s t w o references to A b r a h a m : " F o r m y fa­
ther A b r a h a m c o m m a n d e d m e to do t h u s a n d to c o m m a n d m y s o n s " ( 1 0 : 3 ) ;
a n d " F o r m y father A b r a h a m c o m m a n d e d m e for t h u s he f o u n d in the w r i t ­
ing o f the b o o k o f N o a h c o n c e r n i n g the b l o o d " ( 1 0 : 9 ) . A p p a r e n t l y these ref­
erences to A b r a h a m m o t i v a t e d the a u t h o r o f Jubilees to m o v e these cultic i n ­
structions to e a r l i e r i n the a c c o u n t , t r a n s p o s i n g them into Abraham's
i n s t r u c t i o n s to I s a a c , a n d stressing A b r a h a m ' s role in the priestly l i n e . T h u s ,
the s h a r e d t r a d i t i o n of L e v i ' s investiture to the p r i e s t h o o d w a s altered b y J u ­
bilees to h a r m o n i z e w i t h his v i e w p o i n t of the priestly l i n e a g e as p r o c e e d i n g
f r o m A d a m t h r o u g h the p a t r i a r c h s to L e v i ( a n d s k i p p i n g J a c o b ) .

II. The Genesis Apocryphon and Jubilees

A. The Mapa Mundi

A L D w a s n o t the o n l y s o u r c e available to, a n d k n o w n by, J u b i l e e s . A n o t h e r

w o r k u p o n w h i c h Jubilees d r e w w a s the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n . If m y first e x ­
a m p l e s of parallels a n d p o s s i b l e i n f l u e n c e c o n c e r n e d L e v i a n d his investiture
to the p r i e s t h o o d , the f o l l o w i n g o n e relates to a different c o m p o n e n t of the
G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e : the d i v i s i o n of the w o r l d a m o n g N o a h ' s s o n s a n d the
mapa mundi it reflects.

9. Kugel, " L e v i ' s Elevation," 1 9 - 2 1 , 62-63; V a n d e r K a m , " J u b i l e e s ' Exegetical Creation,"

560.
10. V a n d e r K a m , " J u b i l e e s ' Exegetical Creation," 560.

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Esther Eshel

T h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n — an A r a m a i c p a r a b i b l i c a l text — recounts,

w i t h a d d i t i o n s , o m i s s i o n s , a n d e x p a n s i o n s , s o m e o f the s t o r i e s f r o m G e n 5—
1 1
15. A l t h o u g h g e n e r a l l y a t t r i b u t e d to the s e c o n d o r first c e n t u r y B . C . E . , an
1 2
e a r l i e r d a t e c a n n o t b e r u l e d o u t f o r the c o m p o s i t i o n o f this w o r k . L i k e the

o t h e r A r a m a i c texts f o u n d at Q u m r a n , the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n is n o t c o n ­
1 3
sidered sectarian.

In a paper I wrote in honor of m y friend and colleague Betsy

1 4
Halpern-Amaru, I d i s c u s s e d t h e mapa mundi in detail, m a i n l y c o m p a r i n g

t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s f o u n d i n the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n ( c o l s . 1 6 - 1 7 ) , J u b i l e e s (8—

9 ) , a n d J o s e p h u s {Ant 1 . 1 2 2 - 4 7 ) . T h o s e s o u r c e s reflect b o t h r e l i a n c e o n G e n
1 5
10 a n d a s h a r e d c a r t o g r a p h i c a l b a s i s f o r t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the w o r l d ,

n a m e l y , a n u p d a t e d v e r s i o n o f this a n c i e n t , s i x t h c e n t u r y B.C.E. Ionian

world map, based on Dicaearchus's (fl. 3 2 6 - 2 9 6 B . C . E . ) division of the

world by a median r u n n i n g t h r o u g h the P i l l a r s o f H e r c u l e s , the Taurus

1 6
M o u n t a i n s , a n d the H i m a l a y a s . O f t h e s e t e x t s , the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n

1 1 . See M . J. Bernstein, " F r o m the Watchers to the F l o o d : S t o r y a n d Exegesis in the

E a r l y C o l u m n s o f the ' G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , ' " in Reworking the Bible: Apocryphal and Re­
lated Texts at Qumran, ed. E . C h a z o n , D . D i m a n t , a n d R . A . C l e m e n t s (Leiden a n d B o s t o n :
Brill, 2 0 0 5 ) , 39-63.
12. F o r the latest edition o f the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , see J . A . Fitzmyer, The Genesis
Apocryphon of Qumran Cavei (1Q20): A Commentary, 3 r d ed., B i b O r 1 8 / B ( R o m e : Pontificio
Instituto Biblico, 2 0 0 4 ) . T h e readings a n d translation o f the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n are based
on this edition. H o w e v e r , s o m e readings were arrived at in conjunction with M . Bernstein;
others were f o r m u l a t e d in the course o f w o r k i n g on this article.
13. N o t e that N o a h waited until the fifth year to d r i n k the fourth-year w i n e ( l Q a p G e n
1 2 : 1 3 - 1 5 ; see also J u b 7 : 1 - 2 ) , as in sectarian law, rather than in the fourth year, as i n r a b b i n i c
law. See M . Kister, " S o m e A s p e c t s o f Q u m r a n i c H a l a k h a " in The Madrid Qumran Congress:
Proceedings of the International Congress on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Madrid, 18-21 March, 1991,
ed. J. Trebolle B a r r e r a a n d L . V e g a s M o n t a n e r , S T D J X I , 2 (Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 2 ) , 2:581-86. O n
the other h a n d , a reference to N o a h ' s e n d o g a m y in c h o o s i n g his children's s p o u s e s (col. 6 )
m a y p o i n t to general, n o n s e c t a r i a n , second temple practice.
14. E . Eshel, " T h e Imago Mundi o f the Genesis Apocryphon" in Heavenly Tablets: Inter­
pretation, Identity, and Tradition in Ancient Judaism, e d . L. L i D o n n i c i a n d A . Lieber, J S J S u p
119 (Leiden a n d B o s t o n : Brill, 2 0 0 7 ) , 1 1 1 - 3 1 .
15. S u c h constructs also a p p e a r in P s e u d o - P h i l o , Antiquities of the Bible 4 . 1 - 1 0 , S i b O r 1
3: 1 1 0 - 1 4 ; Acts 2 : 9 - 1 1 , a n d later, in Genesis Rabbah 37:1-8. T h e War Scroll ( 1 Q M 2 : 1 0 - 1 4 ) also
contains a G e n 1 0 - b a s e d list o f nations to b e fought in the third phase o f the thirty-three-
year war. See Y. Yadin, The Scroll of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness (Oxford:
O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 6 2 ) , 2 6 - 3 3 . i Q M 1 0 : 1 4 - 1 5 also alludes to the division o f the w o r l d .
1 6 . P. S. A l e x a n d e r , " N o t e s o n the ' I m a g o M u n d i ' o f the B o o k o f Jubilees," JJS 33
(1982): 204; L. H . F e l d m a n , ed., Judean Antiquities 1-4, v o l . 3 o f Flavius Josephus: Translation
and Commentary, e d . S. M a s o n ( B o s t o n : B r i l l , 2 0 0 0 ) , 43.

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is, in m y o p i n i o n , the oldest s u r v i v i n g s e c o n d - t e m p l e - p e r i o d text m a p p i n g

1 7
the i n h a b i t e d w o r l d .
T h e m a i n s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n re­
lates to the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t in w h i c h the w o r l d d i v i s i o n is p l a c e d .
W h e r e a s the b i b l i c a l Table o f N a t i o n s a p p e a r s after the death of N o a h ( G e n
9:29; see also J o s e p h u s , Ant 1 . 1 0 4 ) , in Jubilees ( 8 : 1 0 - 1 1 ) N o a h takes an active
role in d i v i d i n g the w o r l d a m o n g his s o n s , a n d the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n
documents the a n n o u n c e m e n t and interpretation o f the d i v i s i o n of the
w o r l d in N o a h ' s d r e a m v i s i o n , w h i c h p r e c e d e s the a c t u a l d i v i s i o n . A n o t h e r
s i m i l a r i t y relates to the reference to reliance o n a w r i t t e n , p r o b a b l y h e a v e n l y
s o u r c e . T h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n m a k e s reference to a w r i t t e n s o u r c e in the
angel's s t a t e m e n t : " S o it is w r i t t e n c o n c e r n i n g y o u " ( 1 5 : 2 0 ) ; to b e c o m p a r e d
w i t h J u b i l e e s : " H e d i v i d e d the earth into the lots w h i c h his three s o n s w o u l d
o c c u p y . T h e y r e a c h e d o u t their h a n d s a n d t o o k the b o o k f r o m the b o s o m of
their father N o a h . In the b o o k there e m e r g e d as S h e m ' s lot . . ." ( J u b 8 : 1 1 - 1 2 ) .
Finally, b o t h texts p r o v i d e a detailed d e s c r i p t i o n o f each son's allotment,
which includes m a n y parallels, a m o n g them shared terminology, mainly
l a n d - r e l a t e d t e r m s taken f r o m J o s h 1 5 .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , there are s i g n i f i c a n t differences b e t w e e n the G e n e s i s

A p o c r y p h o n a n d J u b i l e e s , s o m e o f w h i c h enable the d r a w i n g o f c o n c l u s i o n s
w i t h r e g a r d to the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n these texts. T h e m a i n differ­
ences are the f o l l o w i n g :
1. T h e n a t u r e of direct d i v i n e i n v o l v e m e n t in the d i v i s i o n a r y p r o c e s s : if
the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n attributes n o i m m e d i a t e role to angels in the d i v i ­
s i o n — rather, g e n e r a l g u i d e l i n e s to the d i v i s i o n a p p e a r in the d r e a m v i s i o n
a n d its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n — a c c o r d i n g to Jubilees there is direct angelic i n v o l v e ­
m e n t : " t h e y d i v i d e d the earth into three parts . . . w h i l e o n e of us w h o w e r e
sent w a s s t a y i n g w i t h t h e m " ( 8 : 1 0 ) .
2. J u b i l e e s ' e x p a n s i o n i s t tendency, w i t h r e g a r d to b o t h greater g e o ­
g r a p h i c a l detail a n d , m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , the p r o v i s i o n of e t h n o g r a p h i c i n f o r ­
m a t i o n , n a m e l y , w h i c h n a t i o n s i n h a b i t a p a r t i c u l a r area, to w h i c h J o s e p h u s
1 8
gives even greater e m p h a s i s .
3. A n o t h e r difference relates to S h e m ' s p o r t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to the G e n e ­
sis A p o c r y p h o n , i n v a s i o n s of S h e m ' s p o r t i o n a p p e a r in N o a h ' s d r e a m v i s i o n ,

17. See J. A . Fitzmyer, " G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , " in EDSS, 1:302. Fitzmyer argues for its
literary d e p e n d e n c e o n Jubilees, therefore suggesting a possible first century B . C . E . dating.
See, h o w e v e r , M . E . Stone, " T h e B o o k ( s ) A t t r i b u t e d to N o a h , " DSD 13 ( 2 0 0 6 ) : 9.
18. T h u s , A l e x a n d e r w a s able to identify each grandson's territory ( " I m a g o M u n d i , "
209).

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Esther Eshel

a p p a r e n t l y a reference to future v i o l e n t acts, b u t n o v i o l e n t i n v a s i o n is re­

c o r d e d i n the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n ' s a c t u a l a c c o u n t of the d i v i s i o n of the
w o r l d . A different a p p r o a c h is d o c u m e n t e d in J u b i l e e s , w h i c h r e p o r t s i n v a ­
s i o n s c o n d u c t e d b y C a n a a n , the s o n of H a m , a n d n e g o t i a t i o n s for l a n d b y
M a d a i , the son of J a p h e t h .
4. T h e m o s t c r u c i a l difference lies in the a c t u a l lots g i v e n to each s o n
a n d in the p r o m i n e n c e J u b i l e e s a s c r i b e s to J e r u s a l e m . A c c o r d i n g to J u b i ­
lees, S h e m r e c e i v e d all o f A s i a M i n o r , t o g e t h e r w i t h S y r i a , P h o e n i c i a , a n d
P a l e s t i n e , w h e r e a s a c c o r d i n g to the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , the r e g i o n o f
A s i a M i n o r b e l o n g e d to J a p h e t h . G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n a g r e e s here w i t h the
m a p o f S h e m ' s lot a c c o r d i n g to J o s e p h u s (Antiquities). M o r e o v e r , the s u r ­
v i v i n g text of the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n d o c u m e n t s n o c o n c e p t o f J e r u s a ­
l e m ' s s u p e r i o r i t y . I n d e e d , o n the b a s i s of the m e n t i o n o f "the Sea o f the
E a s t " (NrUTft D'; 1 7 : 1 0 ) in L u d ' s a l l o t m e n t , I m a i n t a i n t h a t the G e n e s i s
A p o c r y p h o n d i d n o t s h a r e this b i a s . T h e " S e a o f the E a s t " c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d
as J u b i l e e s ' M a u q S e a , the p r e s e n t - d a y S e a o f A z o v . T h i s r e f e r e n c e to the
Sea of the E a s t reflects the o r i e n t a t i o n f r o m G r e e c e , n a m e l y , w i t h D e l p h i at
the center. T h u s , as o p p o s e d to J u b i l e e s , w h i c h c o n v e r t s the I o n i c m a p to a
J e w i s h p e r s p e c t i v e , p l a c i n g J e r u s a l e m at the c e n t e r o f the w o r l d , the G e n e ­
sis A p o c r y p h o n r e t a i n s the f o c u s o f the o r i g i n a l I o n i c m a p . O n l y s o m e o n e
u s i n g G r e e c e as a r e f e r e n c e p o i n t c o u l d refer to the Sea of A z o v as "the Sea
of the East."

F u r t h e r m o r e , closer e x a m i n a t i o n of the parallels b e t w e e n these t w o

w o r k s enables the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f three m i s t a k e s in J u b i l e e s . T h e s e m i s t a k e s
i n d i c a t e J u b i l e e s ' k n o w l e d g e of, a n d reliance o n , the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n :
1. O n e m i s t a k e relates to the p o r t i o n allotted to A r a m , w h e r e Jubilees
reads "the entire l a n d of M e s o p o t a m i a b e t w e e n the T i g r i s a n d the E u p h r a t e s
to the north o f the C h a l d e a n s " ; on the basis of the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n ' s de­
s c r i p t i o n , it s h o u l d r e a d "to the east!'
2. A n o t h e r o b v i o u s m i s t a k e in Jubilees results f r o m a m i s r e a d i n g in
L u d ' s a l l o t m e n t . T h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n r e a d s , "for L u d it fell the T a u r u s
m o u n t a i n s " (Klin T1D, 1 7 : 1 0 ) , w h i l e Jubilees has "for L u d these e m e r g e d as
the fifth share the m o u n t a i n r a n g e of A s s h u r " ( 9 : 6 ) . T h e A s s h u r M o u n t a i n s
are u n k n o w n f r o m the B i b l e or any o t h e r J e w i s h s o u r c e ; o n the basis of the
G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , I s u b m i t that this reflects a s c r i b a l m i s r e a d i n g : T113
TinK instead of XTin "110.
3. A c c o r d i n g to J u b i l e e s , the K a m a t u r i Islands b e l o n g to S h e m ' s s o n
A r p a c h s h a d ; t h e y w e r e , h o w e v e r , m i s t a k e n l y a p p e n d e d to the p o r t i o n of
Japheth's s o n s , after T i r a s ' s p o r t i o n ( 9 : 1 3 b ) . E v e n t h o u g h the p o s s i b l e p a r a l l e l

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in the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n has not s u r v i v e d , the d i s p o s i t i o n o f these islands

w a s clearly n o t a p p e n d e d to T i r a s ' s p o r t i o n there.
N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g these differences, the parallels b e t w e e n the G e n e s i s
A p o c r y p h o n a n d J u b i l e e s are significant, raising the q u e s t i o n o f the rela­
t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the t w o s o u r c e s . S o m e s c h o l a r s suggest that the a u t h o r of
Jubilees utilized a n d a d a p t e d the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n to his n e e d s , or that
1 9
both authors used a c o m m o n s o u r c e . I a r g u e that the distinct d e v e l o p m e n t
of the w o r l d d i v i s i o n in each w o r k e m e r g e s m o r e s t r o n g l y f r o m the differ­
ences t h a n f r o m the s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n the texts. T h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n
is the o l d e r s o u r c e , in w h i c h the o r i g i n a l I o n i c m a p c a n still b e t r a c e d . T h i s
text w a s later u s e d b y the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s , w h i c h he c o n v e r t e d to fit his
J e w i s h p e r s p e c t i v e , a w a r d i n g S h e m the m a j o r p o r t i o n a n d f u n c t i o n — as he
received all o f A s i a M i n o r , t o g e t h e r w i t h S y r i a , P h o e n i c i a , a n d Palestine —
a n d p l a c i n g J e r u s a l e m at the center of the w o r l d . T h u s , b o t h the identifica­
tion o f m i s t a k e s a n d a c o n c e p t u a l shift in the n a t u r e of the mapa mundi in­
dicate that the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n s e r v e d as a s o u r c e for J u b i l e e s .

B. The Two-Ways Imagery

I c o n c l u d e w i t h a p r e l i m i n a r y a t t e m p t to trace the m o t i f o f the t w o w a y s in

the w o r k s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . In this e x a m i n a t i o n of different aspects o f a
s h a r e d t r a d i t i o n , it is m o r e difficult to s h o w direct i n f l u e n c e . T h e r e f o r e the
d i s c u s s i o n a i m s s i m p l y to c h a r t the uses o f the t r a d i t i o n of the t w o p a t h s in
these r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s texts.
T h e c o n c e p t of w a l k i n g in "the p a t h of t r u t h " has its roots in the b i b l i ­
cal nQX ( " w a y of t r u t h " ) m e n t i o n e d in G e n 24:48. T h e m e t a p h o r o f the
t w o w a y s , of the p a t h s of g o o d a n d o f evil, first a p p e a r s in D e u t 3 0 : 1 5 - 2 0 ,
w h e r e the w a y s of life a n d o f death are related to o b e d i e n c e or d i s o b e d i e n c e
of d i v i n e c o m m a n d m e n t s . T h i s m e t a p h o r also " r u n s like a t h r e a d through
2 0
Prov 1-8." T h e s e a n c i e n t texts (as w e l l as Jer 2 1 : 8 , w h i c h interprets Deut
2 1
30:15 in an i r o n i c e x e g e s i s ) " a p p e a r to e m p l o y the t w o w a y s as a c o n s t r u c t

19. See J. T. van Ruiten, " T h e Division o f the Earth," in Primaeval History Interpreted:
The Rewriting of Genesis 1-11 in the Book of Jubilees, JSJSup 66 (Leiden, Boston, and C o l o g n e :
Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) , 307ff.
20. G . W. E . Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1: A Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch, Chapters 1 -
36, 81-108 (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2 0 0 1 ) , 455.
21. See W. L. Holladay, Jeremiah 1: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah
Chapters 1 - 2 5 , Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1986), 573-74.

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Esther Eshel

for e n v i s i o n i n g alternative b e h a v i o r s r a t h e r t h a n to constitute a fixed t w o -

2 2
ways literary f o r m . " I n his d i s c u s s i o n of later texts u s i n g the s a m e i m a g e ,
dated to the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d ( T o b i t a n d l E n o c h ) , N i c k e l s b u r g s h o w s the
c o n t i n u a t i o n of the b i b l i c a l p a r a l l e l s , w h e r e "the t w o w a y s i m a g e r y is e m ­
23
p l o y e d as a c o n s t r u c t for ethical a d m o n i t i o n s . " A w e l l - k n o w n p a r a l l e l is
f o u n d in l Q S 3 : 1 5 - 4 : 2 6 , as w e l l as in s o m e related early C h r i s t i a n s o u r c e s ,
2 4
a m o n g t h e m B a r n a b a s 1 8 - 2 1 a n d the D i d a c h e 1 - 6 , w h i c h are o u t s i d e the
s c o p e of this article. I n his s t u d y of this m o t i f in early J e w i s h s o u r c e s ,
N i c k e l s b u r g c a m e to the c o n c l u s i o n that "the t w o - w a y s i m a g e r y in b i b l i c a l
a n d p o s t - b i b l i c a l t r a d i t i o n is i n e x t r i c a b l y b o u n d u p w i t h the n o t i o n of di­
v i n e r e c o m p e n s e for h u m a n d e e d s . T h e s e d e e d s are a l l u d e d to, or d e s c r i b e d
in b i n a r y or p o l a r f a s h i o n , a n d r i g h t a n d w r o n g d e e d s b r i n g d i v i n e b l e s s i n g
a n d p u n i s h m e n t respectively." H e further s u g g e s t s : "As J e w i s h t h e o l o g y b e ­
g i n s to t h i n k in t e r m s of an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l j u d g m e n t , the 'life' a n d 'death'
that w a i t at the ends of the w a y s are c o n s t r u c t e d as eternal life a n d eternal
25
destruction."

I s u g g e s t that a d d i t i o n a l , early J e w i s h texts b e i n c o r p o r a t e d in the e x ­

i s t i n g d i s c u s s i o n , n a m e l y , the texts c o n s i d e r e d h e r e : A L D , the Genesis
A p o c r y p h o n , a n d J u b i l e e s , a l o n g s i d e T o b i t . H e r e I c a n o n l y o u t l i n e the first
steps of s u c h a s t u d y of the t w o - w a y s motif, a n d I v i e w this as a w o r k in
progress.
T h e earliest p o s t b i b l i c a l s o u r c e for the t w o - w a y s i m a g e r y is A L D 3.
b
P r e s e r v e d p a r t i a l l y in 4 Q L e v i , this text w a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d by Stone and
G r e e n f i e l d b a s e d on the A t h o s G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t , w h i c h p r e s e r v e s the p r a y e r
2 6
in full. T h i s p r a y e r reads as f o l l o w s :

3:4And n o w m y children are w i t h m e ,

and g r a n t m e all the p a t h s of truth.
3:5Make far from m e , m y L o r d ,

22. G . W. E . Nickelsburg, "Seeking the Origins o f the Two Ways Tradition," in A Mul­
tiform Heritage: Studies on Early Judaism and Christianity in Honor of Robert A. Kraft (At­
lanta: Scholars Press, 1999), 98.
23. Nickelsburg, "Seeking the Origins," 98.
24. Where Kraft found what he called "basic b i n a r y " form; see R. A. Kraft, "Early D e ­
velopments o f the 'Two-Way Tradition(s)' in Retrospect," in For a Later Generation: The
Transformation of Tradition in Israel, Early Judaism, and Early Christianity, ed. R . A . Argall,
B . A . B o w , a n d R . A . Werline (Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity, 2 0 0 0 ) , 137.
25. Nickelsburg, "Seeking the Origins," 108.
26. Greenfield, Stone, a n d Eshel, The Aramaic Levi Document, 33-34, 60-61, 125-30.

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the u n r i g h t e o u s spirit,
a n d evil t h o u g h t a n d f o r n i c a t i o n . . . .
3:6Let there be s h o w n to m e , O L o r d , the h o l y spirit,
and g r a n t m e counsel, and w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e a n d strength,
3:7-8in order to do that w h i c h is pleasing before y o u . . . .
3:9And let n o t any satan have p o w e r over m e ,
to m a k e m e stray f r o m y o u r path.

T h i s prayer, l o c a t e d b e f o r e L e v i ' s d r e a m a n d investiture, o p e n s w i t h " M y

L o r d , y o u k n o w all hearts . . ." ( 3 : 3 ) . T h e u n e x p e c t e d n o t e s t r u c k b y " A n d
n o w m y c h i l d r e n are w i t h m e " (3:4a) w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d b e l o w . A s it s t a n d s ,
this p r a y e r i n c l u d e s : a p e t i t i o n for G o d to s h o w L e v i "all the p a t h s o f truth"
( 3 : 4 b ) , to d i s t a n c e the evil spirit f r o m h i m , to g r a n t h i m the h o l y spirit of
w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h w i l l help h i m act p r o p e r l y b e f o r e G o d (3:6-
8); a n d a plea for d i v i n e p r o t e c t i o n f r o m satan, w h o m a k e s h i m stray f r o m
G o d ' s p a t h ( 3 : 9 ) . A s S t o n e a n d G r e e n f i e l d n o t e : " T h i s is c e r t a i n l y o n e of the
o l d e s t p a s s a g e s in w h i c h t w o spirits are c o n t r a s t e d , a n d if the v i e w o f a t h i r d
c e n t u r y B C E date for ALD is a c c e p t e d , t h e n this c o n c e p t , so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
the Q u m r a n texts, m u s t b e p u t b a c k to that date. T h e t e r m i n o l o g y u s e d here,
2 7
h o w e v e r , is n o t t y p i c a l of the s e c t a r i a n w r i t i n g s f r o m Q u m r a n . " Further­
m o r e , as w e a r g u e in o u r e d i t i o n of A L D , "It is related to the idea of the t w o
w a y s , o n e g o o d a n d o n e b a d . . . b u t is distinct f r o m it in its use o f the i d e a of
28
the t w o s p i r i t s . " T h u s , in w h a t f o l l o w s I w i l l c o n c e n t r a t e o n l y o n the t w o -
29
w a y s i m a g e a n d its p a r a l l e l s .

I d i v e r g e briefly to d i s c u s s L e v i ' s m e n t i o n of his c h i l d r e n at the b e g i n ­

n i n g o f the p r a y e r . In o u r c o m m e n t a r y to A L D 3:4 w e n o t e h o w "the m e n ­
t i o n of L e v i ' s c h i l d r e n at this p o i n t s e e m s o u t o f p l a c e , a n d the r e a s o n for
their i n t r o d u c t i o n is unclear. S u c h a m e n t i o n m i g h t h a v e b e e n m o r e a p p r o ­
3 0
priate in the c o n t e x t of 3 : i 5 . " T h e b e g i n n i n g o f this v e r s e , p r e s e r v e d o n l y in
the M o u n t A t h o s G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t , has a p a r t i a l p a r a l l e l in the A r a m a i c
b
m a n u s c r i p t s f r o m the G e n i z a a n d Q u m r a n . 4 Q L e v i reads as f o l l o w s :

27. M . E . Stone and J . C . Greenfield, " T h e Prayer o f Levi," JBL 112 (1993): 252.
28. Greenfield, S t o n e , a n d Eshel, The Aramaic Levi Document, 34.
29. Other parallels, b u t w i t h o u t the contrastive negative way, are f o u n d in v a r i o u s A r ­
a
a m a i c c o m p o s i t i o n s from Q u m r a n C a v e 4. T h u s , 4 Q p s e u d o - D a n i e l reads, ". . . indeed, the
children o f [ . . . ] the w a y s of truth" (4Q243 7 2 - 3 ) ; a n d 4 Q 2 4 6 2 5 reads: " [ . . . ] a n d all his w a y s
are truth."
30. Greenfield, Stone, a n d Eshel, The Aramaic Levi Document, 125.

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Esther Eshel

pmx twp n m s [ . . . ] 12
x r m n " u ' s p . . . ] 13
12 [. . .] paths of truth. M a k e far
31
13 [. . .] evil [. . .] a n d fornication t u r n a w a y .

A c o m p a r i s o n o f A L D 3:4 to a d d i t i o n a l parallels m a y e x p l a i n the o r i ­

gin of its a n a c h r o n i s t i c call for L e v i ' s s o n s . I suggest that at s o m e p o i n t in the
t r a n s m i s s i o n o f the text, m o s t likely w h e n it w a s a l r e a d y translated into
G r e e k , the copyist, w h o was familiar with other two-ways motifs in
t e s t a m e n t a l c o n t e x t s , such as T o b 4, or even w i t h the later E p i s t l e o f E n o c h ,
or the T e s t a m e n t of A s h e r 1, i n t r o d u c e d a t e s t a m e n t a l f o r m u l a h e r e . I p r o ­
p o s e o n this b a s i s that the o r i g i n a l text m a y h a v e i n c l u d e d o n l y a r e q u e s t
b
f r o m G o d to s h o w or g r a n t L e v i the p a t h s of truth, as f o u n d in 4 Q L e v i . To
s u m m a r i z e , A L D i n c l u d e s w h a t a p p e a r s to be the earliest k n o w n reference to
the t w o w a y s , as w e l l as a g e n e r a l reference to p l e a s i n g G o d b y f o l l o w i n g his
g u i d a n c e a n d w a l k i n g in the r i g h t p a t h .
A n o t h e r early s o u r c e in w h i c h this m o t i f o c c u r s is T o b i t . A s p a r t of his
p r o g r a m m a t i c s t a t e m e n t , T o b i t states: " I , Tobit, w a l k e d the p a t h s o f fidelity
3 2
a n d r i g h t e o u s n e s s all the days of m y life" ( i : 3 ) . T h e same motif appears
3 3
later in Tobit's t e s t a m e n t a r y i n s t r u c t i o n to his son T o b i a s :

B e m i n d f u l of ( G o d ) the L o r d , m y boy, e v e r y day of y o u r life.

D o not seek to sin or transgress H i s c o m m a n d m e n t s .
Practice r i g h t e o u s n e s s all the days of y o u r life,
a n d tread not the paths of w i c k e d n e s s .
For those w h o act w i t h fidelity w i l l p r o s p e r in all they ( y o u ) d o .
34
To all those w h o practice r i g h t e o u s n e s s . ( 4 : 5 - 6 )

For a l m s g i v i n g preserves one from death a n d keeps one f r o m g o i n g

3 5
off into d a r k n e s s . ( 4 : i o )

b
31. M . E . Stone and J. C . Greenfield, "213a. 4 Q L e v i ar," in G . Brooke et al., Qumran
Cave 4:XVII, Parabiblical Texts, Part3, D J D 22 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1996), 28-31.
1 1 1
32. Where G = G ; the translation is based on J. A . Fitzmyer, Tobit, C E J L (Berlin a n d
N e w York: D e Gruyter, 2003), 98.
11 1
33. According to G , which, unless noted, is usually identical with G .
n 1
34. Fitzmyer, Tobit, 163, according to G , where G reads, "For if y o u act in fidelity,
success will attend all y o u do. To all those w h o practice righteousness."
35. Fitzmyer, Tobit, 164.

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A t h i r d reference is f o u n d in Tobit's i n s t r u c t i o n s to T o b i a s : " O n e v e r y o c ­

casion praise G o d and beg H i m that y o u r ways m a y be m a d e straight and
1
all y o u r p a t h s [ G + a n d p l a n s ] m a y l e a d to p r o s p e r i t y " ( 4 : 1 9 ) . W h i l e the
m o t i f o f the t w o w a y s in T o b i t a n d A L D is related to its b i b l i c a l i m a g e r y ,
b o t h w o r k s s h a r e a n e w c o n t e x t for this m o t i f — in a p r a y e r to G o d . B u t
t h e y differ in their r e l a t i o n s h i p to T o r a h . W h e r e a s A L D d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y
refer to the o b s e r v a n c e o f G o d ' s c o m m a n d m e n t s , o n l y to " w h a t is p l e a s i n g
to y o u [ n a m e l y , G o d ] " ( 3 : 7 ) , T o b i t e x p l i c a t e s his p a t h w i t h r e f e r e n c e to his
o b s e r v a n c e of G o d ' s c o m m a n d m e n t s , w h i c h he c o n t r a s t s w i t h the s i n f u l
b e h a v i o r o f the N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m ( 1 : 4 - 9 ) . T h i s e m p h a s i s o n f u l f i l l m e n t
o f the d i v i n e c o m m a n d m e n t s is a b s e n t f r o m the o t h e r w o r k s c o n s i d e r e d
h e r e . F i n a l l y , as N i c k e l s b u r g n o t e s , "the a u t h o r n a r r a t i v i z e s the idea of
w a l k i n g o n the p a t h in his a c c o u n t o f T o b i a s ' s j o u r n e y f r o m N i n e v e h to
3 6
E c b a t a n (cf. 5 : 2 i - 2 2 ) . " T h u s , w h i l e there are p o i n t s o f c o n t a c t between
A L D ' s use o f the t w o - w a y s m o t i f a n d t h a t o f T o b i t , p a r t i c u l a r l y the p r a y e r
c o n t e x t , T o b i t p l a c e s e m p h a s i s o n a n d l i n k s the p a t h s to the o b s e r v a n c e of
the d i v i n e commandments.

A t h i r d a n c i e n t d e s c r i p t i o n of the t w o w a y s a p p e a r s in the G e n e s i s
A p o c r y p h o n , c o l u m n V I , as p a r t of N o a h ' s story, w h i c h starts w i t h his b i r t h ,
as told b y his father L a m e c h ( c o l . I I ) , a n d c o n t i n u e s w i t h N o a h ' s b i o g r a p h y , a
f i r s t - p e r s o n a c c o u n t p r e c e d e d b y the title " [a c o p y o f ] the b o o k o f the w o r d s
3 7
of N o a h " ( V : 2 9 ) . After five m i s s i n g lines, the b i o g r a p h y starts w i t h the fol­
lowing words:

[.. .] A n d in the furnace of m y gestation I flourished to truth; a n d w h e n

I left m y m o t h e r ' s w o m b , I w a s r o o t e d in truth a n d I c o n d u c t e d m y s e l f
in truth all m y days, a n d I w a l k e d in the paths of eternal truth, a n d w i t h
m e w a s the H o l y [One] on the path of the w a y of truth, and to w a r n m e
a w a y from the path of f a l s e h o o d w h i c h leads to everlasting darkness
[. . .] I g i r d e d m y loins in a v i s i o n of truth a n d w i s d o m w h e n there en­
tered [. . .] all the paths of v i o l e n c e . ( V L 1 - 5 )

36. N i c k e l s b u r g , "Seeking the Origins," 99.

37. S o m e argue that this part o f the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n originated as an i n d e p e n d ­
ent c o m p o s i t i o n , p r o b a b l y from the B o o k of N o a h . See R. C . Steiner, " T h e H e a d i n g o f the
Book of the Words of Noah o n a F r a g m e n t of the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n : N e w Light o n a ' L o s t '
Work," DSD 2 (1995): 6 6 - 7 1 . F o r a discussion of the possible existence of a lost b o o k (or
b o o k s ) of N o a h , see Stone's recent study, " B o o k ( s ) A t t r i b u t e d to N o a h , " 5-9, w h e r e he also
relates to earlier studies. See Fitzmyer, " G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , " 3 0 2 - 3 .

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Esther Eshel

T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n is u n i q u e in m a n y w a y s : here w e find for the first t i m e

a full A r a m a i c d e s c r i p t i o n w r i t t e n u s i n g a p o e t i c s t r u c t u r e , s i m i l a r to b i b l i ­
cal stichoi, w i t h parallels a n d c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . W i t h i n these lines w e find the
f o l l o w i n g " w a y s " t e r m i n o l o g y : m i N , V'DtP, HVOH ( t w o o f these —
nVOH a n d 3 ' n j — are H e b r e w w o r d s f o u n d in this A r a m a i c c o m p o s i t i o n ) .
W e also find adjectives d e s c r i b i n g the right w a y , u s i n g OtPIp, "truth," or
fiON, "truth" ( a g a i n , a H e b r e w w o r d ) . T h i s , in t u r n , is c o n t r a s t e d w i t h the
1
adjectives d e s c r i b i n g the w r o n g w a y as "IStt^, "falsehood", "TlttM !, "darkness,"
or O H n , " v i o l e n c e . " 38

N o a h ' s t e s t i m o n y to w a l k i n g in the p a t h o f t r u t h in the G e n e s i s

A p o c r y p h o n has its closest p a r a l l e l in Tob 1:3: " I , Tobit, w a l k e d the p a t h s o f
fidelity a n d r i g h t e o u s n e s s all the days of m y life." U n l i k e Tobit, w h i c h , as
mentioned, relates the p a t h o f r i g h t e o u s n e s s to T o r a h , i n the Genesis
A p o c r y p h o n , as in A L D , n o reference to the d i v i n e c o m m a n d m e n t s is f o u n d .
B u t n o t o n l y is the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f the t w o w a y s
m o r e detailed, it also i n t r o d u c e s a significant n e w e l e m e n t , the eternality o f
b o t h g o o d a n d evil: " I w a l k e d in the p a t h s o f eternal truth," w h i c h is c o n ­
trasted w i t h the " p a t h o f everlasting d a r k n e s s . " A c c o r d i n g l y , the G e n e s i s
A p o c r y p h o n represents the b e s t o w i n g o f an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t h e o l o g y o n the
t w o - w a y s motif.
M y final e x a m p l e c o n c e r n s a l e s s - k n o w n p a r a l l e l f r o m J u b i l e e s . B e ­
c a u s e its t w o - w a y s i m a g e r y is less explicit t h a n in the p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d
w o r k s , I rely o n the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n for its e x t r a p o l a t i o n . A s w e s a w
a b o v e , in its early b i o g r a p h y of N o a h the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n documents
h o w he w a l k e d in the p a t h o f t r u t h . J u b i l e e s ' initial r e c o u n t i n g of the s t o r y of
N o a h ' s a r k relies o n 1 E n o c h ( 6 - 1 6 ; 8 6 - 8 8 ) b u t also q u o t e s G e n 6:8 ( J u b 5:5:
" H e w a s p l e a s e d w i t h N o a h a l o n e " ) . Jubilees r e t u r n s to the N o a h s t o r y in
39
5:19, w h i c h reads: " T o all who corrupted their ways and theirplan(s) before
the f l o o d n o favor w a s s h o w n , except to N o a h a l o n e b e c a u s e favor w a s
s h o w n to h i m for the sake o f his c h i l d r e n w h o m he saved f r o m the f l o o d w a ­
ters for his sake because his mind was righteous in all his ways, as it has b e e n
c o m m a n d e d c o n c e r n i n g h i m . H e d i d n o t transgress f r o m a n y t h i n g that h a d

38. T h i s rich i m a g e r y of the two w a y s , including b o t h H e b r e w and A r a m a i c terms,

b r i n g s to m i n d the n a m e - m i d r a s h o f Levi's sons in A L D (chap. 1 1 ) ; a n d his g r a n d s o n
A m r a m (12:4), w h i c h includes b o t h H e b r e w a n d A r a m a i c e t y m o l o g i e s (Greenfield, Stone,
a n d Eshel, The Aramaic Levi Document, 184-93).
1 1
39. T h e addition of "and p l a n s " seems to have o r i g i n a t e d in Tob 4:19, w h e r e G reads:
" O n every o c c a s i o n praise G o d a n d b e g H i m that y o u r w a y s m a y be m a d e straight a n d all
1
y o u r p a t h s m a y lead to prosperity," a n d G reads: " y o u r paths and plans!'

96
 The Aramaic Levi Document, the Genesis Apocryphon, and Jubilees

b e e n o r d a i n e d for him." I suggest that the t w o - w a y s t e r m i n o l o g y u n d e r l i e s

this d e s c r i p t i o n , in w h i c h N o a h ' s r i g h t e o u s w a y is c o n t r a s t e d to that of oth­
ers w h o c h o o s e the w r o n g w a y , a n d f u r t h e r m o r e , that the a d d i t i o n of
n o n b i b l i c a l e l e m e n t s u s i n g the t w o - w a y s t e r m i n o l o g y to explicate N o a h ' s
r i g h t e o u s n e s s e c h o e s G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , col. V I : " a n d I w a l k e d in the
p a t h s of eternal truth" (1. 2 ) , as o p p o s e d to "the p a t h of f a l s e h o o d w h i c h
4 0
leads to e v e r l a s t i n g d a r k n e s s [. . . ] " (1. 3 ) . H a v i n g d e m o n s t r a t e d that J u b i ­
lees u s e d the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n as a s o u r c e for its m a p of the w o r l d a n d
its d i v i s i o n , I s u r m i s e that Jubilees c o u l d also have a d a p t e d it in its p o r t r a y a l
of N o a h . B o t h texts d e s c r i b e N o a h as w a l k i n g i n the r i g h t e o u s p a t h , b u t J u ­
bilees a g a i n shifts the e m p h a s i s to w h a t is significant to its w o r l d v i e w ,
n a m e l y , that N o a h follows G o d ' s c o m m a n d s : "as it has b e e n commanded
c o n c e r n i n g h i m . H e d i d n o t t r a n s g r e s s f r o m a n y t h i n g that h a d b e e n o r ­
d a i n e d for him." A s w e h a v e seen, this e l e m e n t is also f o u n d in Tobit's b i o g ­
raphy. A n o t h e r e l e m e n t s h a r e d w i t h T o b i t is the existence o f a r e w a r d for fol­
l o w i n g the r i g h t w a y — Jubilees " b e c a u s e f a v o r w a s s h o w n to him," a n d
T o b i t : " F o r t h o s e w h o act w i t h fidelity w i l l p r o s p e r in all they d o . To all those
who practice righteousness" ( 4 : 6 ) . B u t , as opposed to the Genesis
A p o c r y p h o n , this c o n t e x t c o n t a i n s n o e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t h e o l o g y .

Briefly, this p r e l i m i n a r y d i s c u s s i o n of the t w o - w a y s m o t i f in a n c i e n t

p o s t b i b l i c a l s o u r c e s d e m o n s t r a t e s that it a p p e a r s i n s e v e r a l c o n t e x t s : in the
b i o g r a p h y of N o a h ( G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , Tobit, a n d J u b i l e e s ) ; in p r a y e r
contexts ( A r a m a i c L e v i D o c u m e n t a n d T o b i t ) ; a n d in an i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n ­
text ( T o b i t ) . T h e a d d i t i o n o f an e l e m e n t of e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t h e o l o g y to this
m o t i f is f o u n d in G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n . It is n o t p o s s i b l e at this stage of m y
i n q u i r y , h o w e v e r , to s h o w a direct r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the s o u r c e s , t h o u g h I
s u r m i s e that Jubilees m a y h a v e relied o n the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n in its d e ­
s c r i p t i o n of N o a h ' s r i g h t e o u s n e s s .

40. Further, V a n d e r K a m discusses the difficult phrase "favor w a s s h o w n to h i m " (see

J. C . V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees [ L o u v a i n : Peeters, 1 9 8 9 ] , 3 4 ) , h a v i n g the " H e b r e w NtP 3
D^D u n d e r l i n e the E t h i o p i c words," e x p l a i n i n g it in "a positive sense, 'to be g r a c i o u s t o ' ( G e n
3 2 : 2 1 ) . " I w o u l d like to argue that Jubilees here is p r o b a b l y a c o r r u p t e d text. T h e biblical
p h r a s e is Ti jrt NXQ nil ( G e n 6:8), translated b y Jubilees as "he w a s pleased w i t h
N o a h alone," a n d translated literally: " N o a h alone f o u n d favor b e f o r e his e y e s " (5:5;
V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, 33). T h i s verse is referred to in G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n 6:23:
JUttnpl 1 3 T jn m : TUN nrD[tt>K1, "And I N o a h f o u n d favor, greatness a n d truth." We m i g h t
trace the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the Jubilees v e r s i o n as follows: jn NXE w a s u n d e r s t o o d as parallel
1
w i t h jn the latter also f o u n d in the phrase ''SD ? jn e.g., Esther 2:17. T h i s is paral­
1
leled w i t h ""IS ? jn w h e r e •'UQ - ^D"7, thus creating the w r o n g p h r a s e D^D +

97
Esther Eshel

III. Conclusions

This paper traces some literary-conceptual parallels between three ancient

Jewish compositions. Although these parallels do not provide conclusive ev­
idence that both A L D and the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n are older than Jubilees, I
argue that the weight of the evidence shows that Jubilees was at least familiar
with the traditions in these works, and probably with these works them­
selves. I base this conclusion on various literary and topical parallels be­
tween these sources, both where I was able to show scribal mistakes whose
original readings were found in either A L D or the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n , and
ideological alterations made b y Jubilees in line with its worldview. These
ideological changes appear in the cultic instructions delivered to Levi by
Isaac, which Jubilees shifts to A b r a h a m delivering to Isaac, as well as in the
story of N o a h — in both the division of the world to his sons and in the
mapa mundi. I also postulated that Jubilees' reference to Noah's righteous­
ness m a y have been grounded in the two-ways imagery of other works, of
the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n in particular.

In the discussion of the w o r l d m a p I argued that the Genesis

A p o c r y p h o n preserves the oldest m a p , and that Jubilees documents its later
usage. I reached the same conclusions regarding Jubilees' use of the two-
ways imagery. Integral to the Genesis Apocryphon's depiction of N o a h is his
walking in the right way, and divine guidance keeping him away from the
w r o n g path. Jubilees reflects a short reference, both linguistic and concep­
tual, to this portrayal. This reference to the two-ways imagery in connection
with N o a h suggests that the author of Jubilees was familiar with Noah's bi­
ography as depicted b y the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n .

98
The Book of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll

Lawrence H. Schiffman

Various approaches have been put forth since the discovery of the D e a d Sea
1
Scrolls regarding their connection with the b o o k of Jubilees. It has been ar­
2
gued, for example, that Jubilees is actually a "sectarian text," that is, a c o m ­
position of the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y , a v i e w that is v e r y unlikely in light of
3
its use of p r o t o - M a s o r e t i c H e b r e w . It has also been argued that Jubilees is
4
actually the first part of the Temple S c r o l l , a v i e w w e attempted to disprove
on the basis of a careful comparison of the sacrificial calendar of the Temple
5
Scroll with Jubilees. However, despite the ease with which these overstated

1. Cf. L. H . Schiffman, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: The History of Judaism, the
Background of Christianity, the Lost Library of Qumran (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication So­
ciety, 1994), 185-88; J. C. VanderKam, "Jubilees," in EDSS, 1:434-38; see the detailed study o f
D. Hamidovic, Les Traditions du Jubili a Qumran, Orients semitiques (Paris: Geuthner, 2007).
2. E.g., H . Lignee, "La place du livre des Jubiles et d u Rouleau du Temple dans
l'histoire du m o u v e m e n t Ess^nien: Ces deux ouvrages ont-ils &t6 ecrits par le Maitre de Jus­
tice?" RevQ 13 (1988): 331-45.
3. See E . Schurer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 B . C . -
A.D. 135), ed. G. Vermes, F. Millar, with P. Vermes and M. Black, rev. ed., 3 vols, in 4 (Edin­
burgh: T. & T. Clark, 1973-87), 111.1:311-14.
4. B. Z. Wacholder, "The Relationship between n Q T o r a h (the Temple Scroll) and the
Book o f Jubilees: O n e Single o r Two Independent Compositions?" in SBLSP 24 (1985), 205-
16; cf. Wacholder, The Dawn of Qumran: The Sectarian Torah and the Teacher of Righteous­
ness (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1983), 4 1 - 6 2 .
5. L . H . Schiffman, "The Sacrificial System o f the Temple Scroll and the B o o k o f Jubi­
lees," in Society for Biblical Literature Seminar Papers 1985, ed. K. H . Richards (Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1985), 217-33.

99
Lawrence H. Schiffman

c l a i m s c a n b e falsified, t h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n t h a t J u b i l e e s is r e l a t e d to the sect

6
of the s c r o l l s b e c a u s e it w a s f o u n d i n the Q u m r a n l i b r a r y , a l t h o u g h it is c e r ­
t a i n l y to b e c l a s s i f i e d as p a r t o f w h a t w e call the n o n s e c t a r i a n s e c t i o n o f the
7
c o l l e c t i o n . M o s t i n t e r e s t i n g l y , h o w e v e r , it d o e s s e e m to f o l l o w the Z a d o k i t e /
8
S a d d u c e a n a p p r o a c h to J e w i s h l a w f o u n d i n the Q u m r a n s e c t a r i a n texts a n d
9
u s e s the 3 6 4 - d a y " Q u m r a n " c a l e n d a r , a n d w e w i l l see a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r af­
f i n i t i e s . C l o s e s t u d y o f these r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i l l a l l o w u s to get a g l i m p s e o f
the c o m p l e x i t y o f t e x t u a l a n d p e r h a p s s o c i o r e l i g i o u s d i v i s i o n s in a n c i e n t J u ­
d a i s m . In w h a t f o l l o w s w e w i l l c a r e f u l l y o u t l i n e the affinities a n d contrasts
b e t w e e n these t w o w o r k s , d e a l i n g w i t h i s s u e s o f l a n g u a g e a n d s t y l e , t h e o l o g y ,
e a r l y J e w i s h l a w a n d l o r e , c a l e n d a r , a n d the r o l e o f these texts i n the h i s t o r y
1 0
of J u d a i s m .

Language, Style, and Contents

A s the w o r k w a s c l e a r l y c o m p o s e d in H e b r e w , in d i s c u s s i n g its l a n g u a g e a n d

style w e w i l l c o n s i d e r o n l y the s u r v i v i n g H e b r e w f r a g m e n t s w h o s e l a n g u a g e

a n d s t y l e c a n b e c o m p a r e d to t h a t o f the T e m p l e S c r o l l . J u b i l e e s s u r v i v e s i n
1 1
fifteen f r a g m e n t a r y m a n u s c r i p t s , w h e r e a s t h e T e m p l e S c r o l l exists in o n e

m o r e - o r - l e s s c o m p l e t e m a n u s c r i p t ( w i t h t h e first c o l u m n s r e w r i t t e n at s o m e
1 2 1 3
p o i n t as a r e p a i r ) and three fragmentary c o p i e s . N e e d l e s s to say, w h e n w e

6. J. T. M i l i k a n d J. C . V a n d e r K a m , in H . A t t r i d g e et al., Qumran Cave 4. VIII:

Parabiblical Texts, Part I, D J D 13 (Oxford: C l a r e n d o n , 1994); J. C . V a n d e r K a m , Textual and
Historical Studies in the Book of jubilees, H S M 14 ( M i s s o u l a : S c h o l a r s P r e s s , 1 9 7 7 ) ;
H a m i d o v i c , Les Traditions du Jubile a Qumran, 97-172.
7. Cf. D . D i m a n t , " T h e Q u m r a n M a n u s c r i p t s : C o n t e n t s a n d Significance," in Time to
Prepare the Way in the Wilderness: Papers on the Qumran Scrolls by Fellows of the Institute for
Advanced Studies of the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 1989-90, ed. D . Dimant and L . H .
Schiffman, S T D J 16 (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 23-58.
8. See C . A l b e c k , Das Buch der Jubilaen und die Halacha (Berlin: Siebenundvierzigster
B e r i c h t der H o c h s c h u l e fiir die Wissenschaft des J u d e n t u m s in B e r l i n , 1 9 3 0 ) .
9. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , Calendars in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Measuring Time ( L o n d o n a n d
New York: R o u t l e d g e , 1998), 27-33.
1 0 . Cf. J . C . V a n d e r K a m , " T h e Temple Scroll a n d the B o o k o f Jubilees," in Temple
Scroll Studies, e d . G . J. B r o o k e , J S P S u p 7 (Sheffield: JSOT, 1989), 2 1 1 - 3 6 ; J. H . C h a r l e s w o r t h ,
" T h e Date of Jubilees a n d the Temple Scroll," in S B L S P 24 (1985), 193-204.
1 1 . A convenient listing is in H a m i d o v i c , Les Traditions du Jubile a Qumran, 99.
12. Y. Y a d i n , The Temple Scroll, 3 vols. ( J e r u s a l e m : Israel E x p l o r a t i o n Society a n d the
S h r i n e o f the B o o k , 1983), 1:5-12.
13. 4Q524 in E . P u e c h , Qumran Grotte 4.XVIII: Textes hebreux (4Q521-4Q528, 4Q5J6-

10 0
 The Book of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll

c o n s i d e r the contents of Jubilees b e l o w , w e will treat the entire w o r k , r e l y i n g

o n the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n a n d the G r e e k f r a g m e n t s . W e shall also n o t e at the
outset that the b o o k is q u o t e d explicitly in C D 1 6 : 2 - 4 . S o m e h a v e taken this
as an i n d i c a t i o n o f c a n o n i c i t y at Q u m r a n , b e c a u s e of the use of the e x p r e s ­
1
s i o n meduqdaq 'al sefer. *
F o r the m o s t p a r t , the Jubilees m a n u s c r i p t s e v i d e n c e a text w r i t t e n in
b i b l i c a l H e b r e w o r t h o g r a p h y a n d w r i t i n g p r a c t i c e that f o l l o w s essentially the
l a n g u a g e p a t t e r n to w h i c h w e h a v e b e c o m e a c c u s t o m e d f r o m o u r printed
1 5
Bibles. Some orthographic points indicate phonetic c h a n g e s that h a d
taken p l a c e b y the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . , as is even the case in the M a s o r e t i c
text a n d in p r o t o - M a s o r e t i c m a n u s c r i p t s f r o m Q u m r a n . A s can be e x p e c t e d ,
p a s s a g e s that are essentially r e w r i t t e n B i b l e d i s p l a y the l a n g u a g e of the p a s ­
sages t h e y e x p a n d . F o r m s of s y n t a x t e n d i n g t o w a r d M i s h n a i c H e b r e w are a b ­
d
sent. 4 Q 2 1 9 ( J u b ) d o e s e x h i b i t s o m e Q u m r a n H e b r e w f o r m s ; b u t the s y n t a x
1 6
remains "biblical" throughout. T h i s m a n u s c r i p t is therefore v e r y s i m i l a r in
o r t h o g r a p h y to the T e m p l e S c r o l l . P e c u l i a r here is the f o r m -wh for third s i n ­
g u l a r m a s c u l i n e p r o n o m i n a l , objective, a n d p o s s e s s i v e suffix. S o m e s i m i l a r
f 1 7
f o r m s are also f o u n d in 4 Q 2 2 1 ( J u b ) .

T h e T e m p l e Scroll m a n u s c r i p t s are w r i t t e n in w h a t is generally t e r m e d

18
the Q u m r a n w r i t i n g s y s t e m , a l t h o u g h it a l m o s t consistently m a k e s use of the
1 9
f o r m s hw' a n d hy' that s e e m to indicate c o m p o s i t i o n in M a s o r e t i c H e b r e w .
H e r e , h o w e v e r , there is extensive architectural a n d cultic v o c a b u l a r y that evi­
dences the early d e v e l o p m e n t of w o r d s k n o w n to us in M i s h n a i c H e b r e w , as
w e l l as a n u m b e r of uses of the v e r b "to b e " in the future use as a h e l p i n g verb
for future tense. H e r e also, the text betrays the v o c a b u l a r y a n d style o f the b i b ­
20
lical m a t e r i a l that has b e e n rewritten to create a n e w c o m p o s i t i o n .

4Q579), D J D 25 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1998), 85-114; 1 1 Q 2 0 in F. Garcia Martinez, E . J . C .

Tigchelaar, a n d A. S. van der Woude, Qumran Caveu.II (11Q2-18,11Q20-31), D J D 23 (Oxford:
Clarendon, 1998), 357-409; 11Q21 in D J D 23:411-14; cf. S. White, D J D 13:319-33, for the possi­
bility that 4 0 3 6 5 a m a y be a manuscript o f the Temple Scroll. In o u r view this is part o f a
composition that served as a source for the Temple Scroll.
14. V a n d e r K a m , in EDSS, 1:437. O n meduqdaq, see L. H . Schiffman, The Halakhah at
Qumran, S J L A 16 (Leiden: Brill, 1975), 32-33.
15. E.g., 4Q216 in D J D 13:2.
16. D J D 13:40-41.
17. D J D 13:64-65.
18. E . Tov, "The Orthography a n d Language of the H e b r e w Scrolls F o u n d at Q u m r a n
and the Origin o f These Scrolls," Textus 13 (1986): 31-57.
19. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:25-33.
20. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:33-39, 71-88. Cf. L. H . Schiffman, "The Architectural

101
Lawrence H. Schiffman

C l o s e l y related is the q u e s t i o n of c o n t e n t s , w h i c h p o i n t s t r o n g l y to the

totally different p u r p o s e s of the t w o w o r k s . In fact, it is the d i s p a r i t y in c o n ­
tents that led to the s u g g e s t i o n b y W a c h o l d e r that Jubilees m i g h t h a v e b e e n
the first p a r t of the T e m p l e S c r o l l or, better, that the t w o texts are p a r t s o n e
2 1
a n d t w o of a l a r g e r w o r k .
O n o n e level w e c a n say that the contents of the w o r k s are quite differ­
ent, since Jubilees is b u i l t o n the n a r r a t i v e of G e n e s i s a n d the b e g i n n i n g o f
E x o d u s , u p to the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the E g y p t i a n s at the R e d S e a . Jubilees has a
v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t p r o l o g u e d e a l i n g w i t h the role o f M o s e s in r e v e l a t i o n ( c h a p ,
l ) a n d a p p e n d i c e s r e g a r d i n g P a s s o v e r ( c h a p . 4 9 ) , Jubilees ( 5 0 : 1 - 5 ) , a n d the
Sabbath (50:6-13).
22
It is p r e c i s e l y here that the T e m p l e S c r o l l takes u p the s t o r y . It re­
w r i t e s a n d r e - r e d a c t s the Torah's m a t e r i a l starting (in the scroll as p r e s e r v e d )
in E x o d 34 w i t h the c o v e n a n t a n d t h e n c o n t i n u i n g w i t h the c o m m a n d to
b u i l d the t a b e r n a c l e (here the g a r g a n t u a n t e m p l e ) a n d r u n n i n g t h r o u g h the
2 3
m i d d l e of D e u t e r o n o m y ( c h a p . 2 0 ) w h e r e the legal s e c t i o n e n d s . So from a
s i m p l e , s t r u c t u r a l p o i n t o f v i e w , these w o r k s h a v e totally different c o n t e n t s .
H o w e v e r , in reality this is n o t the c a s e . W h i l e the T e m p l e S c r o l l i n ­
cludes o n l y o n e reference to the p a t r i a r c h s , J u b i l e e s i n c l u d e s a fair a m o u n t o f
m a t e r i a l b a s e d o n the l a w s of E x o d u s , L e v i t i c u s , N u m b e r s , a n d D e u t e r o n ­
o m y t h a t c a n b e c o m p a r e d w i t h the T e m p l e S c r o l l . T h i s is b e c a u s e o n e of the
t h e m e s o f Jubilees is that the p a t r i a r c h s o b s e r v e d all the l a w s i n c l u d e d in the
l a t e r - t o - b e - g i v e n T o r a h . H e n c e , m u c h l e g a l m a t e r i a l is r e c o u n t e d in the c o n ­
text of telling the b i b l i c a l stories. F u r t h e r , for the S a b b a t h a n d P a s s o v e r there
are a p p e n d i c e s — m i n i c o d e s — like the serakhim that m a k e u p the Z a d o k i t e
2 4
Fragments (Damascus D o c u m e n t ) . S o m e o f these legal d i s c u s s i o n s r e p r e ­
sent p o l e m i c s against w h a t the a u t h o r c o n s i d e r e d the i l l e g i t i m a t e b e h a v i o r
of his fellow Jews in the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . Yet at the s a m e t i m e , m u c h of this
m a t e r i a l represents s i m p l y the t r a n s p o s i t i o n of J e w i s h legal v i e w s of the

Vocabulary o f the C o p p e r Scroll a n d the Temple Scroll," in Copper Scroll Studies, ed. G . J .
B r o o k e a n d P. R . Davies, J S P S u p 40 (London: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 2 0 0 2 ) , 180-95.
21. See above, n. 4.
22. See the detailed survey of the contents in Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:39-70.
23. Note that the preserved Temple Scroll is not complete at the end. See L. H .
Schiffman, " T h e Unfinished Scroll: A Reconsideration o f the E n d of the Temple Scroll," DSD
15 (2008): 67-78.
24. L. H . Schiffman, "Legal Texts a n d Codification in the D e a d Sea Scrolls," in Dis­
cussing Cultural Influences: Text, Context, and Non-text in Rabbinic Judaism, ed. R. Ulmer,
Studies in Judaism ( L a n h a m , Md.: University Press o f A m e r i c a , 2007), 1-39.

102
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Z a d o k i t e / S a d d u c e a n v a r i e t y into the p a t r i a r c h a l n a r r a t i v e s . In this sense, the

text often f o l l o w s legal v i e w s s i m i l a r to those o f the T e m p l e Scroll, an issue to
which we will return below.

The Theory of Revelation

B o t h Jubilees a n d the T e m p l e S c r o l l have in c o m m o n the g e n e r a l fact that

25
t h e y are essentially d i v i n e p s e u d e p i g r a p h y . B o t h b o o k s p r o v i d e an o p p o r ­
t u n i t y for the a u t h o r to p u t his v i e w s into the m o u t h of G o d , effectively in­
s e r t i n g t h e m into his r e w r i t e of the d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n e m b o d i e d in the o r i g i ­
n a l T o r a h . B o t h a u t h o r s c l a i m that the c o n t e n t o f the n e w , e x p a n d e d T o r a h
26
text represents a true sense o f the m e a n i n g of G o d ' s initial r e v e l a t i o n .
H e r e , h o w e v e r , the s i m i l a r i t y e n d s . E a c h a u t h o r d e v e l o p s a u n i q u e t h e o r y of
r e v e l a t i o n in o r d e r to sanctify a n d c a n o n i z e his o w n a d d e d " T o r a h . "
J u b i l e e s c o n t a i n s an i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r that seeks to solve a w e l l -
k n o w n p r o b l e m in b i b l i c a l exegesis, the fact that G e n e s i s a n d the first p a r t o f
E x o d u s are c o m p o s e d as a s t o r y that is n o t f r a m e d w i t h i n d i c a t i o n s of d i v i n e
27
or M o s a i c a u t h o r i t y . T h e rest o f the c a n o n i c a l T o r a h is r e g u l a r l y l a b e l e d as
G o d ' s w o r d s to M o s e s or M o s e s ' o w n w o r d s ( D e u t e r o n o m y ) . Often com­
m a n d s a p p e a r as f i r s t - p e r s o n d i v i n e s p e e c h . H o w e v e r , the p a t r i a r c h a l a n d
E x o d u s n a r r a t i v e s are e x c e p t i o n s . H e n c e , Jubilees i n c l u d e s a p r o l o g u e d e ­
c l a r i n g that G o d r e v e a l e d the G e n e s i s stories, here in their e x p a n d e d f o r m , to
M o s e s o n S i n a i . E v e n if o n e a r g u e s that the p r o l o g u e is n o t o r i g i n a l , this is
the clear i m p l i c a t i o n of the entire first chapter. In this chapter M o s e s is b i d ­
den to w r i t e all G o d ' s r e v e l a t i o n into a b o o k ( w . 1 - 7 a n d 2 6 ) . C l e a r l y , this in­
cludes a r e w r i t t e n G e n e s i s - E x o d u s n a r r a t i v e . T h e n the " A n g e l of the P r e s ­
ence" is c o m m a n d e d b y G o d to dictate to M o s e s f r o m the h e a v e n l y tablets
w h a t a p p e a r s to be the a u t h o r ' s e x p a n d e d G e n e s i s - E x o d u s . T h e n the a n g e l
takes this text a n d , in the b e g i n n i n g of c h a p . 2, c o m m a n d s M o s e s a c c o r d i n g

25. L. H . Schiffman, " T h e Temple Scroll a n d the Halakhic Pseudepigrapha o f the Sec­
ond Temple Period," a n d M . J. Bernstein, "Pseudepigraphy in the Q u m r a n Scrolls: Catego­
ries a n d Functions," both in Pseudepigraphic Perspectives: The Apocrypha and Pseudepigra­
pha in the Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. E . G . C h a z o n a n d M . Stone, with A . Pinnick, S T D J
31 (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 121-31 a n d 1-26, respectively.
26. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " T h e Angel of the Presence in the B o o k o f Jubilees," DSD 7
(2000): 378-93.
27. Cf. M . Nahmanides, Perush ha-Ramban 'al ha-Torah, ed. C . B . Chavel (Jerusalem:
Mossad Harav Kook, 1958/59), 1:1-3.

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Lawrence H. Schiffman

to G o d ' s i n s t r u c t i o n to w r i t e the s t o r y o f creation a n d the a c c o u n t of the

S a b b a t h , p r e s u m a b l y in the e x p a n d e d v e r s i o n . T h e n the n a r r a t i v e p r o c e e d s
as if it w e r e the text that the a n g e l c o m m a n d e d M o s e s to w r i t e , w i t h o c c a ­
s i o n a l i n s e r t i o n of c o m m e n t s b y the a n g e l . T h e angel's d i c t a t i o n to M o s e s re­
a p p e a r s t h r o u g h o u t to e m p h a s i z e central commandments.
W e therefore h a v e the f o l l o w i n g p r o c e s s o f r e v e l a t i o n c l a i m e d for the
b o o k : ( 1 ) G o d r e v e a l e d it to M o s e s at Sinai; ( 2 ) G o d c o m m a n d e d M o s e s to
w r i t e it in a b o o k ; (3) G o d a c c o m p l i s h e d this b y o r d e r i n g the A n g e l o f P r e s ­
ence to dictate the b o o k to M o s e s from the tablets; (4) the a n g e l dictated the
b o o k . Jubilees s t r o n g l y a r g u e s that the r e v e l a t i o n c a m e t h r o u g h M o s e s , w h o
serves as an i n t e r m e d i a r y b e t w e e n G o d a n d I s r a e l . H o w e v e r , the text goes
2 8
even further. In a c c o r d w i t h s o m e H e l l e n i s t i c a p p r o a c h e s , the text inserts
a n o t h e r i n t e r m e d i a r y b e t w e e n G o d a n d M o s e s , a p p a r e n t l y to a v o i d a n t h r o ­
p o m o r p h i s m . H e n c e , r e v e l a t i o n here g o e s f r o m G o d to the A n g e l of P r e s ­
ence, t h e n to M o s e s a n d to Israel. A l l r e v e l a t i o n takes p l a c e at S i n a i , i n c l u d ­
ing w h a t is in the c a n o n i c a l b o o k a n d w h a t is a d d e d , but here i m m e d i a c y is
the n a m e o f the g a m e . F u r t h e r , the a u t h o r s e e m s to d i s t i n g u i s h the c a n o n i c a l
T o r a h f r o m his a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l , a l t h o u g h this d e p e n d s o n h o w y o u inter­
2 9
pret the difficult t e r m s torah, te'udah, a n d mitzvah (Jub 2:22-24).

T h i s c o m p l e x r e v e l a t o r y d y n a m i c m u s t b e s h a r p l y c o n t r a s t e d w i t h the
T e m p l e S c r o l l . I n the T e m p l e S c r o l l , the g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e of the a u t h o r w a s
to recast the s e c t i o n s of the T o r a h w h e r e M o s e s a p p e a r s into d i v i n e first-
30
person discourse. T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y clear in the w a y M o s e s has b e e n e l i m i ­
n a t e d even f r o m D e u t e r o n o m y , w h e r e he a p p e a r s as the s p e a k e r / a u t h o r in
the c a n o n i c a l v e r s i o n . T h e a u t h o r of the T e m p l e S c r o l l w a n t s to solve the
q u e s t i o n o f w h y , if D e u t e r o n o m y is d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n , it a p p e a r s as a direct
s p e e c h of M o s e s . H e s o l v e s the p r o b l e m b y e l i m i n a t i n g its i m m e d i a c y
w h o l e s a l e . G o d s p e a k s directly to Israel. O n l y o n c e d o e s the a u t h o r err a n d
refer to " y o u r brother," as if he w e r e s p e a k i n g to M o s e s a n d r e f e r r i n g to
a
Aaron ( n Q T 4 4 : 5 ) . T h e t h e o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n of the r e m o v a l of M o s e s is
clear. T h e a u t h o r / r e d a c t o r v i e w s his text's s c r i p t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d l a w
as a direct r e v e l a t i o n o f G o d to the c h i l d r e n of Israel at Sinai w i t h n o inter-

28. See R. H . Charles, The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis (Jerusalem: Makor,
1 9 6 1 / 6 2 ) , 8 to verse 27.
29. These terms are found in the H e b r e w text o f 4Q216 V I I I 1 3 - 1 7 (Milik a n d
V a n d e r K a m , in D J D 1 3 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) .
30. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:71-73; B . A . Levine, " T h e Temple Scroll: Aspects o f Its
Historical Provenance a n d Literary Character," BASOR 232 (1978): 5-23, a n d Yadin's response
in The Temple Scroll, 1:406-7.

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m e d i a r y . T h i s v i e w contrasts r a d i c a l l y w i t h that o f J u b i l e e s . Jubilees has

a d d e d a n e w angelic i n t e r m e d i a r y b e t w e e n G o d a n d M o s e s . T h e T e m p l e
S c r o l l has r e m o v e d M o s e s , so that there is n o i n t e r m e d i a r y b e t w e e n G o d
himself and Israel.

Messianic Theology

The b o o k o f J u b i l e e s i n c l u d e s e x t e n s i v e m a t e r i a l i n d i c a t i n g the author's

v i e w s o n the E n d of D a y s . T h e b o o k e x p e c t s , as p a r t of its ex eventu "proph­
ecy," t h a t Israel w i l l fail to fulfill the w o r d s of G o d ' s c o v e n a n t ( 2 3 : 1 6 , 1 9 ; 1 5 : 3 3 -
3 4 ) . C h a p s . 1 a n d 23 i n d i c a t e that great m i s f o r t u n e will c o m e u p o n Israel b e ­
cause o f its apostasy. H o w e v e r , b o t h c h a p t e r s also e x p e c t r e p e n t a n c e a n d the
onset of a n e w age, u s h e r e d in b y s t u d y o f the l a w a n d o b s e r v a n c e o f G o d ' s
r i t u a l a n d m o r a l c o m m a n d m e n t s . P e o p l e w i l l live lives o f h a p p i n e s s w i t h a
life s p a n of 1,000 y e a r s . N e i t h e r a m e s s i a h n o r r e s u r r e c t i o n o f the d e a d is
m e n t i o n e d . Essentially, the p r o p e r o b s e r v a n c e s of G o d ' s l a w b y the p e o p l e is
31
the d e s i r e d e x p e c t e d e s c h a t o n . J u b 1:29 d e s c r i b e s that t i m e as f o l l o w s : "the
day of the [ n e w ] c r e a t i o n w h e n the h e a v e n s a n d e a r t h shall b e r e n e w e d . . .
u n t i l the s a n c t u a r y of the L o r d s h a l l b e m a d e in J e r u s a l e m o n Mount
3 2
Zion."

E s c h a t o l o g i c a l issues are h i n t e d at o n l y t w i c e in the T e m p l e S c r o l l .

L i k e J u b i l e e s , the T e m p l e S c r o l l d o e s n o t m e n t i o n either the m e s s i a h o r res­
u r r e c t i o n of the d e a d . In c o l u m n 2 9 , the T e m p l e S c r o l l m a k e s b r i e f refer­
ence to the sacrificial p r a c t i c e s it r e q u i r e s a n d the a r c h i t e c t u r a l p l a n it p u t s
f o r t h for the t e m p l e as b e i n g in force " u p u n t i l the d a y o f the b l e s s i n g " (so
3 3 3 4
Yadin) or " [ n e w ] c r e a t i o n " (so Q i m r o n ) . T h e v e r b a l s i m i l a r i t y (if o n e
r e a d s w i t h Q i m r o n a g a i n s t Y a d i n ) is s t r i k i n g . In the T e m p l e S c r o l l , it is a p ­
p a r e n t l y e x p e c t e d that the E n d of D a y s w o u l d b r i n g w i t h it a n e w t e m p l e ,
3 5
b u i l t b y G o d , to r e p l a c e the p r e s e n t i m p e r f e c t , m a n - m a d e t e m p l e . This

31. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , "Jubilees, B o o k of," in ABD 3:1031-32.

32. Charles, Jubilees, 9 - 1 0 .
33. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 2:129.
34. E . Q i m r o n , The Temple Scroll: A Critical Edition with Extensive Reconstructions
(Beersheva and Jerusalem: B e n - G u r i o n University o f the Negev a n d Israel Exploration Soci­
ety, 1996), 44.
35. Cf. L . H . Schiffman, " T h e T h e o l o g y of the Temple Scroll," JQR 85 ( Q u m r a n
Studies, 1994): 109-23; D . R. Schwartz, " T h e Three Temples o f 4Qflorilegium," RevQ 10
(1979): 83-92; M . O. Wise, "4QFlorilegium a n d the Temple of Man," RevQ 15 (1991): 103-32;

105
Lawrence H. Schiffman

3 6
p a s s a g e m a k e s clear, c o n t r a r y to s o m e s c h o l a r s , that the T e m p l e S c r o l l is
n o t p r e s e n t i n g a v i s i o n for the E n d o f D a y s b u t , rather, for the t e m p l e a n d
J e w i s h l a w for the p r e s e n t . T h i s is i n d e e d a c o m m o n e l e m e n t , as J u b i l e e s
also is calling for full a n d c o r r e c t o b s e r v a n c e o f the law in the present
p r e m e s s i a n i c a g e . In this respect, b o t h texts call for r a d i c a l c h a n g e in Israel's
p r e s e n t life in the here a n d n o w . N o n e t h e l e s s , o n b a l a n c e , w e find i n c o n g r u ­
ity, since the u l t i m a t e r e d e m p t i o n o f the E n d o f D a y s is n o t taken u p at all
in the T e m p l e S c r o l l .

Calendar

C h a p t e r 6 of Jubilees is essentially a p o l e m i c a g a i n s t the l u n i - s o l a r c a l e n d a r

3 7
k n o w n from rabbinic J u d a i s m . It a d v o c a t e s the 3 6 4 - d a y c a l e n d a r o f solar
m o n t h s a n d solar y e a r s that w e g e n e r a l l y term the " Q u m r a n calendar." T h e
a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s sees the l u n a r cycle as c o n f u s i n g the h o l i d a y s a n d m a k i n g
t h e m c o m e o u t on the w r o n g d a y s . H e refers to E n o c h ( J u b 4 : 1 7 - 1 8 ) , i n d i c a t ­
ing that he b a s e d his c a l e n d a r o n the E n o c h b o o k l e t s that c i r c u l a t e d at his
t i m e . Jubilees d e s i g n a t e s the 31st days o f m o n t h s 3, 6, 9, a n d 1 2 as D a y s of R e ­
m e m b r a n c e . T h e c a l e n d a r w a s d e s i g n e d so that S h a v u o t h a l w a y s fell o n a
Sunday.
T h e v i e w p u t f o r w a r d here, a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h the T e m p l e S c r o l l a n d
the b o o k of Jubilees share the s a m e s e c t a r i a n calendar, even if s o m e o f the
festivals are n o t the s a m e as y o u w i l l see b e l o w , c a n n o t be c o n c l u s i v e l y
p r o v e n f r o m the T e m p l e S c r o l l a l o n e . In p u t t i n g f o r w a r d this v i e w , s c h o l a r s
h a v e b e e n g u i d e d b y a c a l e n d r i c a l f r a g m e n t f r o m C a v e 4 that p r o v i d e d a date
3 8
for the O i l Festival ( 6 / 2 ) , w h i c h w a s o n l y e x p l i c a b l e a s s u m i n g the T e m p l e
S c r o l l to share the c a l e n d a r o f J u b i l e e s a n d E n o c h . A full r e v i e w of this e v i ­
dence a n d its r a m i f i c a t i o n s , as w e l l as the s c h o l a r l y debate a b o u t it, has b e e n
p r e s e n t e d b y J a m e s V a n d e r K a m , a n d there is n o n e e d to r e v i e w the a r g u -

G. J. Brooke, Exegesis at Qumran: 4QFlorilegium in Its Jewish Context, J S O T S u p 29 (Sheffield:

JSOT Press, 1985), 178-97.
36. Wacholder, The Dawn of Qumran, 2 1 - 3 0 : M . O. Wise, " T h e Eschatological Vision
of the Temple Scroll," JNES 49 (1990): 155-72.
37. J. M . B a u m g a r t e n , "The Calendars o f the B o o k of Jubilees a n d the Temple Scroll,"
V T 3 7 (1987): 71-78; J. C. V a n d e r K a m , Calendars in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Measuring Time, Lit­
erature o f the D e a d Sea Scrolls (London a n d N e w York: Routledge, 1998), 27-33.
a
38. J. M . Baumgarten, " 4 Q H a l a k a h 5, the L a w o f iadash, a n d the Pentacontad Calen­
dar," in Studies in Qumran Law (Leiden: Brill, 1977), 131-42; also JJS 27 (1976): 36-46.

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3 9
ments here. R a t h e r , I s h o u l d like to c o m m e n t on the g e n e r a l s c h o l a r l y a m ­
b i e n c e in w h i c h w e n o w see s u c h q u e s t i o n s .
4 0
E v e r since the p u b l i c a t i o n of 4 Q M M T , m a n y o f us h a v e b e e n in­
v o l v e d in an o n g o i n g d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p of the legal t r a d i t i o n s
in that d o c u m e n t to those o f the T e m p l e S c r o l l a n d the other s e c t a r i a n legal
d o c u m e n t s . It has n o w b e c o m e clear, as a result of the c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f quite
4 1
a n u m b e r of s c h o l a r s , that the g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f A b r a h a m G e i g e r r e g a r d ­
42
i n g t w o basic s c h o o l s of J e w i s h l a w in s e c o n d t e m p l e t i m e s w a s c o r r e c t . We
may t e r m o n e s c h o o l the P h a r i s a i c - R a b b i n i c a n d the other the Z a d o k i t e /
S a d d u c e a n . W h i l e the f o r m e r s y s t e m w a s k n o w n to us, despite the c h r o n o ­
l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s , f r o m r e p o r t s in the N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d r a b b i n i c literature,
the latter system w a s little k n o w n . W h i l e s o m e s c h o l a r s still d i s a g r e e w i t h
this o v e r a l l thesis, this is the o n l y w a y to e x p l a i n the affinities that w e w i l l o b ­
s e r v e b e l o w r e g a r d i n g the c a l e n d a r o f festivals. D e s p i t e the fact that the b o o k
of Jubilees a n d the T e m p l e S c r o l l ( a n d for that m a t t e r o t h e r Q u m r a n texts)
do i n d e e d share a c o m m o n calendar, the specifics o f their F e s t i v a l C a l e n d a r ,
the lists of offerings, a n d the r e g u l a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g those offerings are n o t
the s a m e . N o n e t h e l e s s , the c o m m o n calendar, c o m m o n a p p r o a c h e s to the
d e r i v a t i o n of l a w a d h e r i n g closely to the b i b l i c a l text, a n d certain specific
h a l a k i c v i e w s unify this s e c o n d t r e n d . H e n c e , w e s h o u l d n o t b e s u r p r i s e d to
find that a c o m m o n c a l e n d a r does n o t g u a r a n t e e a n entirely c o m m o n h a l a ­
k a h , despite the existence of n u m e r o u s a g r e e m e n t s in v a r i o u s areas of J e w i s h
4 3
law.

39. See above, n. 9.

40. E . Q i m r o n a n d J. Strugnell, Qumran Cave 4.V: Miqsat Ma'aie ha-Torah, D J D 10
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 44-63.
41. See, for example, Y. Sussmann, "Heqer Toldot ha-Halakhah u-Megillot M i d b a r
Yehudah: H i r h u r i m Talmudiyim R i s h o n i m le-'Or Megillat Miqsat Ma'ase h a - T o r a h " Tarbiz
59 (1989/90): 1 1 - 7 6 ; Sussmann, " T h e History o f the Halakha a n d the Dead Sea Scrolls: Pre­
liminary Talmudic Observations o n Miqsat Ma'ase ha-Torah ( 4 Q M M T ) " in Qumran Cave
4.V: Miqsat Ma'ase ha-Torah, ed. E . Q i m r o n and J. Strugnell, D J D 10 (Oxford: Clarendon,
1994)5 179-200; Reading 4QMMT: New Perspectives on Qumran Law and History, ed. M . J.
Bernstein a n d J. K a m p e n , S B L S y m S 2 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1996).
42. A . Geiger, Ha-Miqra' ve-Targumav be-Ziqatam le-Hitpathutah ha-Penimitshel ha-
Yahadut, trans. Y. L. B a r u c h (Jerusalem: Bialik Foundation, 1948/49), 69-102.
43. Cf. L. H . Schiffman, " T h e Temple Scroll and the Systems of Jewish L a w in the Sec­
o n d Temple Period," in Temple Scroll Studies, 239-55.

107
Lawrence H. Schiffman

Halakah

Because I have previously published a detailed study comparing the sacrifi­

44
cial laws of the b o o k of Jubilees and those of the Temple S c r o l l , m y inten­
tion here is to summarize that study, providing just a few of the examples
that I discussed there. It must be stressed that the method of legal derivation
is as important as the result. W e must look at h o w each document inter­
preted Scripture. If a c o m m o n exegetical tradition or method can be found
in these works, it might serve to clarify the relationship of one document to
another.
I will present here just a few examples in detail, to allow readers to
judge the nature of the research presented there. Afterward, I will review
some of the discussion of m y study that has taken place since. First, however,
I will present the table of correspondences on sacrificial matters between the
b o o k of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll ( T S ) :

Daily Offering T S 13:10-16 Jub 6:14

Sabbath Sacrifices TS 13:17-14:2 Jub 50:10-11
New Month Sacrifice T S 14:2-8 Jub 31:1-3
First D a y of First Month TS 14:9-15:2 Jub 6:23-29
Jub 7:2-5
Jub 13:8-9
Days of Ordination TS 15:3-17:4 Jub 30:18
Jub 31:13-15
Jub 32:1-9
Passover Sacrifices T S 17:6-16 Jub 49:1-23
Sacrifices on Bringing
Omer T S 18:1-10
First Fruits of Wheat T S 18:10-19:9 Jub 6:17-22
Jub 15:1-2
Jub 16:13
Jub 22:1-6
Jub 14:19-20
Jub 32:12-14
Jub 44:4
New Wine T S 19:11-21:10 Jub 7:36
Jub 32:12-14

44. See above, n. 5.

108
 The Book of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll

New Oil TS 21:12-23:2 Jub 7:36

Jub 3 2 : 1 2 - 1 4
W o o d Offering TS 23:1-25:1 Jub 2 1 : 1 2 - 1 4
D a y of R e m e m b r a n c e T S 25:2-10 Jub 6:23-29
Jub 1 2 : 1 6
Jub 31:3
D a y of A t o n e m e n t TS 25:10-27:10 Jub 3 4 : 1 2 - 1 9
S u k k o t a n d S h e m i n i Atzeret
TS 27:10—29:1 Jub 1 6 : 1 9 - 3 1
Jub 8:18
Jub 32:27-29

O u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the festival sacrificial l a w s of the b o o k of Jubilees

a n d the T e m p l e S c r o l l f o u n d s o m e cases o f a g r e e m e n t , a n d s o m e of absolute
d i s a g r e e m e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , the t w o s o u r c e s d i s a g r e e a b o u t the d a i l y s a c r i ­
fice. J u b 6:14 refers to the d a i l y sacrifice, m o r n i n g a n d e v e n i n g , in c o n n e c t i o n
w i t h the c o v e n a n t that G o d m a d e w i t h N o a h after the f l o o d . T h e text is n o t
explicit as to w h e t h e r the offering is to b e p r o v i d e d b y the priests or p a i d for
o u t of p u b l i c f u n d s , a m a t t e r o f g r e a t c o n t r o v e r s y in r a b b i n i c a c c o u n t s o f the
4 5
B o e t h u s i a n s (or S a d d u c e e s in s o m e t e x t s ) . N o n e t h e l e s s , v. 13 indicates that
the c o m m a n d m e n t o f d a i l y sacrifice has b e e n g i v e n to the c h i l d r e n of Israel.
A c c o r d i n g to v. 1 4 , " T h e y shall o b s e r v e it . . . that t h e y m a y c o n t i n u e s u p p l i ­
c a t i n g . . . that t h e y m a y k e e p it." T h i s e m p h a s i s o n the collective o b l i g a t i o n
of Israel c a n o n l y i n d i c a t e that the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s , like the P h a r i s e e s , re­
q u i r e d that the daily offerings b e a c o m m u n a l l y d i s c h a r g e d o b l i g a t i o n p r o ­
v i d e d b y the p e o p l e as a w h o l e . Jubilees i n d i c a t e s that the sacrifices s e r v e to
"seek f o r g i v e n e s s o n y o u r ( N o a h ' s ) b e h a l f p e r p e t u a l l y before the L o r d , " an
idea for w h i c h n o p a r a l l e l c a n b e f o u n d in the B i b l e .

T e m p l e S c r o l l 1 3 : 1 0 - 1 6 presents the l a w s of the daily sacrifice, b a s e d o n

E x o d 29:38-42 a n d N u m 28:3-8. It is i m p o s s i b l e to tell b e c a u s e of a b r e a k in
the text w h e t h e r the a u t h o r used the p l u r a l f o r m u l a t i o n o f N u m b e r s or the
s i n g u l a r of E x o d u s . S o m e s u p p o r t for the n o t i o n that the a u t h o r w a s of the
o p i n i o n that the offerings c o u l d b e c o n t r i b u t e d f r o m p r i v a t e funds c o m e s
f r o m the p r o v i s i o n that the h i d e of the b u r n t offering m a y b e k e p t b y the

45. L. Finkelstein, The Pharisees: The Sociological Background of Their Faith, 2 vols., 3d
ed., M o r r i s Loeb Series (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1966), 7 1 0 - 1 6 ;
V. N o a m , Megillat Ta'anit: ha-Nusahim, Pishram, Toledotehem, be-eeruf Mahadurah
Biqqortit (Jerusalem: Yad B e n - Z v i Press, 2003), 165-73.

109
Lawrence H. Schiffman

priest w h o offers it. T h i s p r e s c r i p t i o n is b a s e d on L e v 7:8, w h i c h refers to a

p r i v a t e b u r n t offering ('olat 'ish). If the priest is to k e e p the h i d e , t h e n the
a n i m a l m u s t h a v e b e e n his p e r s o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n . If so, the a u t h o r of the
T e m p l e S c r o l l a g r e e d w i t h the B o e t h u s i a n s ( o r S a d d u c e e s ) on this q u e s t i o n .
Jubilees, as w a s s h o w n a b o v e , t o o k the o p p o s i t e p o s i t i o n , t h a t of the P h a r i ­
sees, r e q u i r i n g that the offering c o m e from p u b l i c f u n d s . O u r t w o s o u r c e s ,
then, are in f u n d a m e n t a l d i s a g r e e m e n t r e g a r d i n g the n a t u r e of the d a i l y s a c ­
rifice.
In m a n y areas, there is s u b s t a n t i a l i n c o n g r u i t y b e t w e e n these t w o
s o u r c e s ; that w h i c h is i m p o r t a n t to o n e s o u r c e is s i m p l y n o t treated in the
other. S u c h a s i t u a t i o n o b t a i n s in the sacrifice for the n e w m o n t h . J u b 3 1 : 1 , 3
m e n t i o n s the n e w m o o n in the c o n t e x t o f J a c o b ' s sacrifice at B e t h e l o n the
n e w m o o n of the s e v e n t h m o n t h . H e r e , J a c o b is d e p i c t e d as telling the m e m ­
b e r s of his h o u s e h o l d to p u r i f y t h e m s e l v e s a n d get r e a d y to travel to B e t h e l
w h e r e he w i l l r e p a y his debt to G o d (cf. G e n 3 5 : 2 - 4 ) . T h i s o c c u r s o n the n e w
m o o n o f the seventh m o n t h , w h i c h is o n e of the four " n e w y e a r s " e n u m e r ­
ated b y the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s . It is therefore i m p o s s i b l e to k n o w if the p u r i f i ­
c a t i o n ritual d e s c r i b e d in v. 1 is i n t e n d e d for n e w m o o n s or if it is c o n n e c t e d
w i t h the N e w Year festival of the s e v e n t h m o n t h .
T e m p l e S c r o l l 1 4 : 2 - 8 details the offerings for the n e w m o o n . H e r e the
a u t h o r has altered the l a n g u a g e o f the P e n t a t e u c h , r e p h r a s i n g e x t e n s i v e l y the
c o m m a n d s o f N u m 2 8 : 1 1 - 1 5 a n d N u m 1 5 : 1 - 1 3 . Y a d i n e x p l a i n s that the a u t h o r
used N u m 15 to a l l o w h i m to e n u m e r a t e the cereal a n d d r i n k offering for
each a n i m a l in t u r n , as o p p o s e d to m e n t i o n i n g all the cereal offerings first
4 6
a n d then all the d r i n k offerings, as is d o n e in N u m 2 8 .
Actually, the a u t h o r w a s attracted to N u m 15 for m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t
r e a s o n s . T h e a m o u n t of oil for the offerings is n o w h e r e specified in N u m 28,
o n l y that for the l i b a t i o n of w i n e . T h e a u t h o r used N u m 15, in w h i c h the v e r y
s a m e a n i m a l s a p p e a r w i t h the s a m e a l l o c a t i o n s of flour a n d w i n e , to deter­
m i n e the a m o u n t s of oil since these are explicitly stated there. It w a s not the
desire to r e o r d e r the m a t e r i a l that directed the a u t h o r o f the T e m p l e S c r o l l to
this p a s s a g e but rather the s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f the e x a c t recipe for the oil of the
cereal offering. W h e n he shifted to this p a s s a g e , the a u t h o r e n d e d u p w i t h its
f o r m u l a t i o n a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n as w e l l .
In any case, there is insufficient e v i d e n c e o n w h i c h to base a n y c o m ­
p a r i s o n of the texts. Jubilees m a y refer to p u r i f i c a t i o n for the n e w m o o n a n d
the offering of sacrifices. T h e T e m p l e S c r o l l presents a c o m p l e t e l y w o r k e d -

46. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 2:56-57.

110
 The Book of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll

out ritual b a s e d on P e n t a t e u c h a l s o u r c e s . S o m e of these cases n o d o u b t re­

sult f r o m the differing e m p h a s e s of the t w o d o c u m e n t s . Jubilees a t t e m p t s to
retell the p a t r i a r c h a l n a r r a t i v e s so as to a t t r i b u t e to t h e m a d h e r e n c e to the
author's p a r t i c u l a r v i e w s o n q u e s t i o n s of J e w i s h l a w a n d a p a r t i c u l a r
c a l e n d r i c s y s t e m . T h e T e m p l e S c r o l l p r e s e n t s a c o d e o f p r a c t i c e for a
p r e m e s s i a n i c T e m p l e that its a u t h o r h o p e d to see b u i l t a n d that he e x p e c t e d
w o u l d f u n c t i o n a c c o r d i n g to his c o d e .
At the s a m e t i m e , m a n y of these i n c o n g r u i t i e s p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t dif­
ferences in o p i n i o n or at least in e m p h a s i s . F o r e x a m p l e , J u b 5 0 : 1 0 - 1 1 i n d i ­
cates that the d a i l y offering m a y n o t b e set aside in f a v o r of the S a b b a t h s a c ­
rifice. R a t h e r , it serves as a m e a n s o f a t o n e m e n t , a n d it m u s t b e offered each
day, i n c l u d i n g o n the S a b b a t h . T e m p l e S c r o l l 1 3 : 1 7 - 1 4 : 2 is a p a r a p h r a s e o f
N u m 2 8 : 9 - 1 0 . H o w e v e r , the T e m p l e S c r o l l p r o v i d e s n o i n f o r m a t i o n o n the
d i s p o s i t i o n o f offerings o t h e r t h a n to repeat the b i b l i c a l m a t e r i a l that itself
g a v e rise to the p r o b l e m in the first p l a c e . P e r h a p s the T e m p l e S c r o l l agrees
w i t h the v i e w of Jubilees o n S a b b a t h sacrifices, a l t h o u g h definitive e v i d e n c e
4 7
is l a c k i n g .
The cases of c o m p l e t e a g r e e m e n t testify to c o m m o n t r a d i t i o n s in s o m e
areas, a n d in others result f r o m c o m m o n exegetical t e c h n i q u e s a p p l i e d to the
v e r y s a m e b i b l i c a l texts. J u b 4 9 : 1 - 2 3 c o n t a i n s a l o n g d i s c u s s i o n of the celebra­
48
tion of the festival o f P a s s o v e r . M o s t of the m a t e r i a l is a s i m p l e retelling of
the contents o f E x o d 1 2 . J u b 49:6 describes the o b s e r v a n c e of the first P a s s ­
over, i n c l u d i n g the eating o f the p a s c h a l l a m b , d r i n k i n g of w i n e , p r a i s i n g a n d
b l e s s i n g G o d , a n d g i v i n g t h a n k s . T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n certainly recalls a P a s s o v e r
celebration s i m i l a r to that e n v i s a g e d in r a b b i n i c literature, w h i c h i n c l u d e d
the p a s c h a l sacrifice, the f o u r c u p s of w i n e , the c o m m a n d m e n t to retell the
s t o r y of the e x o d u s , a n d the recitation of the Hallel P s a l m s . V. 10 e x p l a i n s the
difficult ben ha-'arbayim, literally, " b e t w e e n the evenings," of E x o d 12:6: the
sacrifice is to be o b s e r v e d " f r o m the third p a r t of the d a y to the third p a r t of
the n i g h t " (cf. Jub 4 9 : 1 9 ) . T h i s r u l i n g is e x p l a i n e d in w . 1 1 - 1 2 as follows: the
p a s c h a l sacrifice s h o u l d b e s l a u g h t e r e d in the last third of the fourteenth of
N i s a n a n d is to be eaten in the first third of the n i g h t of the fifteenth. S i n c e the
festival o c c u r s fairly close to the e q u i n o x , it w o u l d b e fairly accurate to say
that the sacrifice m u s t take place b e t w e e n two o ' c l o c k a n d sunset (at s i x ) a n d
the p a s c h a l l a m b m u s t be eaten b e t w e e n sunset (six) a n d ten o ' c l o c k in the

47. Schiffman, The Halakhah at Qumran, 128-31.

48. Cf. B . H a l p e r n - A m a r u , " T h e Festivals of Pesah a n d M a s s o t in the B o o k o f Jubi­
lees," in the present v o l u m e .

Ill
Lawrence H. Schiffman

e v e n i n g . Thereafter it is c o n s i d e r e d notar, that w h i c h has b e e n left over b e ­

y o n d the t i m e before w h i c h it m u s t be eaten, a n d m u s t b e b u r n e d .
A c c o r d i n g to J u b i l e e s , the P a s s o v e r sacrifice m u s t b e eaten in the s a n c ­
tuary, in the " c o u r t of the h o u s e w h i c h has b e e n s a n c t i f i e d " ( w . 1 6 - 2 0 ) . O n l y
those over the age o f t w e n t y are to eat of the p a s c h a l l a m b , a n d eating is
p r o b a b l y l i m i t e d to m a l e s (v. 1 7 ) . T h i s sacrifice m a y not b e m a d e in any o t h e r
cities, o n l y at the t a b e r n a c l e or at the t e m p l e . In v. 22 there b e g i n s the c o m ­
m a n d of the F e s t i v a l of U n l e a v e n e d B r e a d (cf. L e v 2 3 : 6 ) . It is to be a s e v e n -
4 9
d a y festival. E a c h d a y a sacrifice is to b e b r o u g h t (v. 2 2 ) .
50
T e m p l e Scroll 1 7 : 6 - 1 6 describes the Passover c e l e b r a t i o n s . The Temple
Scroll requires that the p a s c h a l offering b e sacrificed before the evening sacri­
fice (miniiat ha-'erev). T h i s is in o p p o s i t i o n to Tannaitic h a l a k a h , w h i c h re­
quires that the minuah b e offered before the p a s c h a l l a m b . O n this matter, the
T e m p l e Scroll a n d Jubilees m a y agree since Jubilees requires the offering in the
last third of the day, i.e., after 2:00 P . M . , a n d w e k n o w that the minuahwzs nor­
m a l l y offered at a b o u t 3:30. O n the other h a n d , it is possible that Jubilees, like
51
the Tannaitic t r a d i t i o n , e x p e c t e d that in order to a c c o m m o d a t e the p a s c h a l
offering, the daily tamid sacrifice w a s offered early o n the fourteenth of N i s a n .
L i k e the b o o k o f J u b i l e e s , the T e m p l e S c r o l l r e q u i r e s that the p a s c h a l
l a m b b e eaten o n l y b y those a b o v e twenty. Y a d i n suggests that this r u l i n g is
a s w e a s
b a s e d o n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of E x o d 3 0 : 1 4 , a n d N u m 1 : 2 - 3 , U Exod
5 2
12:6. A c c o r d i n g to the ( a l m o s t definite) r e s t o r a t i o n o f Q i m r o n , o n l y m a l e s
5 3
are i n c l u d e d in the commandment.
T h e r e is a m a j o r difference c o n c e r n i n g the t i m e o f eating of the p a s ­
chal l a m b . Jubilees r e q u i r e s that the offering b e eaten b y 1 0 : 0 0 P . M . , the e n d
of a third of the n i g h t . A l t h o u g h the T o r a h a l l o w e d the p a s c h a l sacrifice to b e
eaten u n t i l the m o r n i n g ( E x o d 1 2 : 1 0 ) , the T a n n a i m r e q u i r e d that it be eaten
b e f o r e m i d n i g h t , "in o r d e r to separate a p e r s o n f r o m the p o s s i b i l i t y o f t r a n s ­
54
gression." T h e T e m p l e S c r o l l a l l o w s it to b e eaten all n i g h t , or at least, n o
m e n t i o n is m a d e of any o t h e r r u l i n g .

49. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, C S C O 511, Scriptores Aethiopici 88

(Louvain: Peeters, 1989), 324.
50. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:96-99; 2:72-75.
51. m. Pesahim 5:1.
52. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:96.
53. Q i m r o n , The Temple Scroll, 27.
54. m. Berakhot 1:1, according to the reading o f the Talmud Yerushalmi a n d Mekhilta'
of R. Ishmael B o 6. Cf. Albeck, "Hashlamot ve-Tosafot, Zera'im," Shishah Sidre Mishnah, 6
vols. (Jerusalem: Bialik Institute; Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1954), 1:326.

112
 The Book of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll

T h e T e m p l e S c r o l l a n d the b o o k o f Jubilees agree that the p a s c h a l l a m b

m u s t b e eaten w i t h i n the t e m p l e p r e c i n c t s . Y a d i n suggests D e u t 1 6 : 7 as the
s o u r c e of this law a n d notes that the K a r a i t e s a g r e e . T h e T a n n a i m , o n the
5 5
other h a n d , a l l o w it to b e eaten a n y w h e r e in J e r u s a l e m . B o t h texts e c h o L e v
23:6-8 in d e s c r i b i n g the e n s u i n g festival as a s e v e n - d a y feast of u n l e a v e n e d
b r e a d . Sacrifices are to be offered on each d a y a c c o r d i n g to b o t h w o r k s . T h e
extensive c e r e m o n y for the O m e r festival m e n t i o n e d in T e m p l e S c r o l l 1 8 : 1 - 1 0
has n o e q u i v a l e n t w h a t s o e v e r in the b o o k of J u b i l e e s .
T h e case of the P a s s o v e r c e l e b r a t i o n affords an e x a m p l e o f an area in
w h i c h s o m e s i g n i f i c a n t p r e s c r i p t i o n s of Jubilees a n d the T e m p l e S c r o l l are in
c o m p l e t e a g r e e m e n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , there are still s o m e matters u p o n w h i c h
5 6
t h e y offer different o p i n i o n s .
T h e J u d a i s m o f the S e c o n d C o m m o n w e a l t h p e r i o d w a s o n e of v a r i e ­
gated sects a n d i d e o l o g i e s . T h a t there w a s i n d e e d s o m e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
these t w o texts is a p p a r e n t from their i n c l u s i o n in the l i b r a r y o f the Q u m r a n
c o m m u n i t y . We see the h a l a k i c t r a d i t i o n s of these t w o texts as d e r i v e d f r o m
o u t s i d e the c o m m u n i t y , p e r h a p s from its a n t e c e d e n t s that w e r e f o l l o w e r s o f
the c o m m o n Z a d o k i t e / S a d d u c e a n a p p r o a c h . T h e sect w o u l d h a v e r e a d a n d
s t u d i e d these m a t e r i a l s p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e o f the affinities t h e y s h a r e d w i t h its
o w n beliefs a n d p r i n c i p l e s . T h e b o o k of Jubilees a n d the s o u r c e s o f the T e m ­
ple S c r o l l constitute p a r t o f the w o r l d f r o m w h i c h the Q u m r a n sect e m e r g e d
a n d in w h i c h it s t r o v e to attain its o w n s p i r i t u a l ideals. E a c h of these texts
r e p r e s e n t s a n i n d e p e n d e n t v i e w o f the festival sacrificial cycle, b a s e d on exe­
gesis of the s c r i p t u r a l texts a n d a certain s h a r e d c o m m o n Z a d o k i t e / S a d d u ­
cean h e r i t a g e . T h e r e c a n b e n o possibility, h o w e v e r , of seeing the sacrificial
5 7
c o d e s of Jubilees as b a s e d o n t h o s e of the T e m p l e S c r o l l or v i c e v e r s a .

55. m. Zevahim 5:8.

56. Cf. J. M i l g r o m , " T h e Concept o f Impurity in Jubilees and the Temple Scroll!' RevQ
16, no. 62 (1993): 277-84; M . Himmelfarb, "Sexual Relations and Purity in the Temple Scroll
and the B o o k of Jubilees," DSD 6, no. 1 (1999): 1 1 - 3 6 ; L. Doering, "Purity and Impurity in the
B o o k of Jubilees," in the present v o l u m e .
57. O u r study of the sacrificial law o f the A r a m a i c Levi D o c u m e n t indicates that its
law includes m a n y aspects o f the Zadokite/Sadducean trend that it has s o m e h o w c o m b i n e d
with Pharisaic-rabbinic prescriptions on other issues. Cf. L . H . Schiffman, "Sacrificial
H a l a k h a h in the F r a g m e n t s o f the Aramaic Levi Document from Q u m r a n , the C a i r o
Genizah, a n d Mt. A t h o s Monastery," in Reworking the Bible: Apocryphal and Related Texts at
Qumran; Proceedings of a Joint Symposium by the Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea
Scrolls and Associated Literature and the Hebrew University Institute for Advanced Studies Re­
search Group on Qumran, 15-17 January, 2002, ed. E . G . C h a z o n , D. Dimant, a n d R. A .
Clements, S T D J 58 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 5 ) , 177-202.

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Lawrence H. Schiffman

A t this p o i n t , w e w i s h to take u p J a m e s V a n d e r K a m ' s d i s a g r e e m e n t

w i t h o u r c o n c l u s i o n s . H e has set t h e m forth in a careful i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the
festival c a l e n d a r of the T e m p l e S c r o l l a n d the b o o k of Jubilees in w h i c h he
58
directly r e s p o n d s to m y e a r l i e r - m e n t i o n e d a r t i c l e . V a n d e r K a m a r g u e s that
the differences that I h a v e n o t e d m a y be a c c o u n t e d for b y t a k i n g into c o n s i d ­
eration a v a r i e t y of factors, m o s t n o t a b l y the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f Jubilees o n
the G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e , w h i c h lacks m a n y of the h a l a k i c details that are dis­
c u s s e d in the T e m p l e S c r o l l . I h a v e r e r e a d this a r g u m e n t a n d still do n o t
agree. T h e v e r y n a m e s o f the festivals c l a i m e d b y Jubilees to h a v e b e e n o b ­
s e r v e d b y the p a t r i a r c h s are d e r i v e d f r o m e l s e w h e r e in the T o r a h . If these fes­
tivals c o u l d b e i m p o r t e d into the p a t r i a r c h a l n a r r a t i v e s , w h y c o u l d n o t their
details h a v e b e e n as well? V a n d e r K a m w a n t s to a r g u e that despite s o m e dif­
ferences that he is w i l l i n g to r e c o g n i z e , the festival c a l e n d a r s are essentially
i d e n t i c a l . T h i s a r g u m e n t m a y b o i l d o w n to w h e t h e r the glass is h a l f e m p t y o r
half full, b u t I t h i n k o n reflection that b o t h of o u r earlier studies w e r e s o m e ­
w h a t off the m a r k . I t h i n k w e b o t h a s s u m e d that w h a t w a s u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n
w a s the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t w o d i s p a r a t e w o r k s to o n e another. H e n c e , w e
s o u g h t large n u m b e r s of differences or g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t to i n d i c a t e affinity
or d i s a g r e e m e n t . N o w w e realize that affinity n e e d o n l y be a m o n g w h a t w e
m i g h t call a family, a t r a d i t i o n , that is, to w h a t f a m i l y o f a n c i e n t h a l a k a h a
text b e l o n g s . O n c e w e h a v e p l a c e d the T e m p l e S c r o l l a n d Jubilees in the s a m e
family, w h a t e v e r specific differences w e m a y u n c o v e r m a y n o w b e u n d e r ­
s t o o d as t e s t i m o n y to the diversity w i t h i n s u c h s u b - c o r p o r a of a n c i e n t J e w ­
ish legal t h i n k i n g . Just as the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n a n d the b o o k of Jubilees
n e e d n o t agree in their " a g g a d i c " u n d e r s t a n d i n g of G e n e s i s , so the T e m p l e
S c r o l l a n d Jubilees n e e d n o t a g r e e in their l e g a l r u l i n g s to b e p a r t o f the s a m e
trend.

Conclusion

T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of Jubilees a n d the T e m p l e S c r o l l is c o m p l e x . T h e t w o texts

share a c o m m o n calendar, but have different t h e o l o g i e s , contents, in s o m e
cases sacrificial laws, a n d e x p r e s s differing ideas a b o u t e s c h a t o l o g y . T h i s
does n o t , h o w e v e r , m e a n that the texts are u n r e l a t e d . T h e y b o t h b e l o n g to
the c o m m o n c u l t u r e a n d t r a d i t i o n of a g r o u p of s e c t a r i a n g r o u p s to w h i c h
o u r Q u m r a n s e c t a r i a n s , the a u t h o r of the s o u r c e s of the T e m p l e S c r o l l , a n d

58. V a n d e r K a m , " T h e Temple Scroll," 225-31.

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 The Book of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll

the author of Jubilees belonged. C o m m o n teachings and aspirations united

these groups. Further, Jubilees and the Temple Scroll are both forms of re­
written Torah, one rewriting w h a t we might call (borrowing rabbinic termi­
nology) the "aggadic" parts of the Torah and the other rewriting the halakic
parts of the Torah. But the relationship between these documents is certainly
not as close as, say, the relationship between the Temple Scroll and 4 Q M M T .
In m y view, the Temple Scroll was put together mostly from pre-Qumranian
Sadducean type legal sources and the book of Jubilees emerged from similar
circles. However, these are certainly not compositions of the same group, be
it the Q u m r a n sect or some predecessor.

"5
Jubilees, Sirach, and Sapiential Tradition

Benjamin G. Wright III

At first blush Jubilees and Jewish wisdom literature would appear to have lit­
tle in c o m m o n . W i s d o m and w i s d o m language do not appear in Jubilees,
whose p r i m a r y concern seems halakic. A s a rough indicator, one need only
scan the margins of Orval Wintermute's OTP translation of Jubilees, where
he notes related passages in biblical, early Jewish, and Christian texts. O f the
dozens of passages listed there, maybe three or four come from the corpus
usually identified as w i s d o m . B y contrast, 1 E n o c h , which Jubilees knows,
1
displays quite a n u m b e r of similarities to Jewish w i s d o m .
Yet content and genre might be less important considerations for
thinking about Jubilees and Jewish w i s d o m than the strategies they adopt to
solve c o m m o n problems. Looking at Jubilees and Jewish wisdom together
bears some potentially significant fruit. Jubilees, for example, employs some
aspects of w i s d o m discourse, particularly in the final speeches of its major
patriarchal figures to their sons, that function to convince the reader to
adopt the book's values and ideology. In such contexts of passing d o w n in­
struction from a father (and in Jubilees a mother in one instance) to a son,
c o m m o n discursive elements with wisdom do not surprise, even if the con­
tent in Jubilees does not always look very wisdom-like.
One particular complex in Jubilees, however, highlights some broader

1. See G. W. E. Nickelsburg, "Enochic Wisdom: An Alternative to the Mosaic Torah?"

in Hesed ve-emet Studies in Honor of Ernest S. Frerichs, ed. J. Magness and S. Gitin, BJS 10
(Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998), 123-32.

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 Jubilees, Sirach, and Sapiential Tradition

issues in early J e w i s h literature. Oft n o t e d has b e e n the central role in J u b i ­

lees p l a y e d b y the h e a v e n l y tablets a n d the w r i t t e n t r a n s m i s s i o n o f w h a t is
f o u n d t h e r e o n . In a d d i t i o n to the specific h a l a k i c r e g u l a t i o n s e n j o i n e d in J u ­
bilees, o n e i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m h a s b e e n h o w J u b i l e e s l e g i t i m a t e s its o w n
p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the l a w as b i n d i n g o n all of Israel. O n e tack has
b e e n to a r g u e that M o s e s t o o k d o w n these laws (i.e., J u b i l e e s ' i n t e r p r e t a ­
t i o n s ) at the d i c t a t i o n of the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e w h o w a s t r a n s m i t t i n g
w h a t w a s w r i t t e n o n the h e a v e n l y tablets. T h u s , the h a l a k i c c l a i m s of Jubilees
h a v e e q u a l status to the T o r a h of M o s e s , since b o t h Jubilees a n d the T o r a h
s t e m f r o m t h e m . T h a t is, J u b i l e e s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s are n o t really interpreta­
t i o n s , b u t their p r i m o r d i a l o r i g i n s o n the h e a v e n l y tablets afford t h e m d i v i n e
a u t h o r i z a t i o n . If w e l o o k to o n e o f the q u i n t e s s e n t i a l w i s d o m texts o f early
J u d a i s m , o n e p r e d a t i n g J u b i l e e s b y o n l y a f e w d e c a d e s , the W i s d o m of B e n
Sira, w e can identify a s i m i l a r s t r a t e g y for l e g i t i m a t i n g the a u t h o r ' s i n t e r p r e ­
t a t i o n s . O n l y in this case p r i m o r d i a l W i s d o m serves as the authorizing
mechanism.

Finally, in J u b i l e e s , w h i l e all the m a j o r figures w r i t e , s o m e do m o r e ;

t h e y r e a d a n d study. B e s i d e s their other r o l e s , t h e y p l a y the p a r t of the i d e a l
s c r i b e . In w r i t i n g , r e a d i n g , a n d s t u d y i n g , the h e r o e s o f J u b i l e e s b e c o m e the
a u t h o r i t a t i v e v o i c e s o f the t r a d i t i o n that g u a r d it against c o r r u p t i o n o r ille­
g i t i m a t e u s e . A s such t h e y f u n c t i o n as e x e m p l a r s for c o n t e m p o r a r y scribes to
e m u l a t e in their o w n g u a r d i a n s h i p of the t r a d i t i o n t r a n s m i t t e d in J u b i l e e s .
T h e y f o r m a c h a i n o f t r a n s m i s s i o n , e n s u r i n g that w h a t c a m e f r o m the heav­
enly tablets h a s b e e n h a n d e d d o w n accurately, but t h e y also act as e x a m p l e s
to f o l l o w so as to assure those in the p r e s e n t that the a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n
2
remains unsullied.

I. "And Now, M y Children"

T h r o u g h o u t Jubilees o n e c o u l d isolate i n d i v i d u a l passages that parallel m a t e ­

rial in w i s d o m texts. T h e y are few, h o w e v e r , a n d do n o t characterize Jubilees
in any g e n e r a l sense. S o , to give o n e e x a m p l e , in three p a s s a g e s (5:16; 2 1 : 4 ;
33:18) Jubilees e m p h a s i z e s that G o d does n o t "accept gifts," that is, take b r i b e s ,
b u t G o d j u d g e s righteously. J u b 5:16 is t y p i c a l : " A n d he is n o t o n e w h o accepts

2. F o r r e a s o n s of space, I use B e n Sira as m y text o f c o m p a r i s o n . O t h e r s m i g h t illu­

m i n a t e these strategies further. 4 Q I n s t r u c t i o n w o u l d m a k e an excellent a d d i t i o n to this
discussion.

117
Benjamin G. Wright III

p e r s o n s (i.e. is p a r t i a l ) , a n d he is n o t o n e w h o accepts gifts w h e n he says that

3
he w i l l execute j u d g m e n t o n each o n e . " We find an i d e n t i c a l s e n t i m e n t in Sir
35:14 e x p r e s s e d in v e r y s i m i l a r l a n g u a g e : " D o n o t offer h i m a b r i b e , for he w i l l
n o t accept it; a n d do n o t rely on a d i s h o n e s t sacrifice; for the L o r d is the j u d g e ,
a n d w i t h h i m there is n o partiality." W h i l e w e c o u l d c a t a l o g u e such parallel
passages, I d o n o t t h i n k any list w o u l d reveal m u c h of s u b s t a n c e a b o u t J u b i ­
lees a n d a n y relation it m i g h t have to sapiential t r a d i t i o n .
J u b i l e e s does e m p l o y a v a r i a n t o f a literary s t r a t e g y often f o u n d in w i s ­
d o m texts — the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the sage a n d disciple as father a n d s o n . In
w i s d o m literature the sage's use of direct a d d r e s s ( " M y s o n " ) c o n s t r u c t s the
d i s c i p l e as his c h i l d , a n d the sage t h e r e b y a s s u m e s the a u t h o r i t y o f the stu­
dent's p a r e n t . A t the s a m e t i m e , the " I " a n d " y o u " of the direct a d d r e s s f u n c ­
t i o n as e m p t y signs t h r o u g h w h i c h the v o c a t i v e s a n d i m p e r a t i v e s a d d r e s s the
4
reader, a n d in this w a y the text " r e c r u i t s " its reader, w h o m u s t r e s p o n d . The
texts in w h i c h w e find this f a t h e r - s o n d i s c o u r s e e m p l o y v a r i o u s d i s c u r s i v e
tactics "to i n s c r i b e the reader's filial s u b j e c t i v i t y a n d h e n c e the a u t h o r i t y o f
5
the a u t h o r ' s t e a c h i n g . " O n e e x a m p l e is the m e t a p h o r of w a l k i n g a p a t h or
r o a d , w h i c h c o n s t r u c t s the s t u d e n t as a traveler t r a v e r s i n g the a c c e p t a b l e
p a t h o f life ( a n d w h i c h a p p e a r s in J u b 2 1 : 2 2 ) .
A v a r i a t i o n of this f a t h e r - s o n d i s c o u r s e a p p e a r s in s o m e n a r r a t i v e texts
w h e r e a father s p e a k i n g to his c h i l d r e n o c c u p i e s a p r o m i n e n t place in the
n a r r a t i v e . S o m e p a s s a g e s , like T o b 1 4 or 1 E n 8 2 : 1 - 4 , constitute p a r t s o f l a r g e r
a n d m o r e diverse w o r k s . In other texts, like the T e s t a m e n t s o f the Twelve P a ­
t r i a r c h s , the f a t h e r - s o n s p e e c h constitutes the o v e r a r c h i n g f r a m e w o r k . T h e
n a r r a t i v e s often d i s p l a y s o m e o f the s a m e features a n d t o p i c s as the " I - y o u "
d i s c o u r s e of the s a p i e n t i a l w o r k s in o r d e r to place the r e a d e r in the p o s i t i o n
of the a u t h o r ' s "son," but t h e y a c c o m p l i s h the a i m o f e n g a g i n g the r e a d e r a
bit differently. R a t h e r t h a n the s e c o n d - p e r s o n a d d r e s s o f the sage that c o n ­
fronts the r e a d e r directly, a t h i r d - p e r s o n father t r a n s m i t s t e a c h i n g to his
s o n ( s ) , w h i c h he c o m m a n d s that t h e y teach their c h i l d r e n a n d their c h i l d r e n
a n d their c h i l d r e n after t h e m . T h e r e a d e r s t a n d s at the e n d of a l o n g c h a i n o f

3. Translations from Jubilees are from Wintermute in OTP.

4. See m y article " F r o m Generation to Generation: T h e Sage as Father in Early Jewish
Literature," in Biblical Traditions in Transmission: Essays in Honour of Michael A. Knibb, ed.
C. H e m p e l a n d J. M . Lieu, JSJSup i l l (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 6 ) , 309-32. For m u c h o f the theoreti­
cal discussion I rely o n C . N e w s o m , "Women a n d the Discourse of Patriarchal W i s d o m : A
Study o f Proverbs 1 - 9 , " in Gender and Difference in Ancient Israel, ed. P. L. D a y (Minneapolis:
Fortress, 1989), 142-60.
5. Wright, " F r o m Generation to Generation," 315.

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 Jubilees, Sirach, and Sapiential Tradition

t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t e a c h i n g f r o m fathers to s o n s , a n d the text thus c o n s t r u c t s

the r e a d e r as a d e s c e n d a n t of the n a r r a t i v e father. W h a t p e r h a p s creates the
h i g h e s t degree of o b l i g a t i o n in the r e a d e r to a d o p t the v a l u e s of the n a r r a t i v e
father is the father h a n d i n g writings to his s o n s that m u s t b e t r a n s m i t t e d to
s u b s e q u e n t g e n e r a t i o n s , since the reader, w h o is p r e s u m a b l y r e a d i n g or lis­
t e n i n g to that b o o k , h a s a p a l p a b l e c o n n e c t i o n to the i n s t r u c t i o n being
6
handed down.
In the t e s t a m e n t a r y s p e e c h e s of fathers to their s o n s in J u b i l e e s , w e see
s o m e t h i n g of this s a m e d e v i c e at w o r k , a l t h o u g h it is n o t f o r e g r o u n d e d here
as i n l E n o c h or the T e s t a m e n t s of the Twelve P a t r i a r c h s . In Jubilees these
s p e e c h e s c o n t a i n quite a n u m b e r of i m p o r t a n t h a l a k i c m a t t e r s , o b s e r v a n c e
of w h i c h the father-son t e s t a m e n t a r y s p e e c h r e i n f o r c e s . T w o m e c h a n i s m s
o p e r a t e in the Jubilees s p e e c h e s . First, the c o n t e x t , like b o t h s e c o n d - a n d
t h i r d - p e r s o n f a t h e r - s o n c o n s t r u c t s , is o n e o f i n s t r u c t i o n w h e r e the father e x ­
plicitly notes that the t e a c h i n g is n o t o n l y for his i m m e d i a t e p r o g e n y b u t also
for s u b s e q u e n t g e n e r a t i o n s . T h u s , the reader, w h o a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y identifies
h i m s e l f / h e r s e l f as a d e s c e n d a n t o f the n a r r a t i v e figure, b e c o m e s o n e o f the
c h i l d r e n o f the text a n d is t h u s o b l i g a t e d to o b e y the father's t e a c h i n g . S e c ­
o n d , J u b i l e e s n o t e s in at least o n e case that a patriarch's b o o k s w e r e i n t e n d e d
to b e t r a n s m i t t e d to s u b s e q u e n t g e n e r a t i o n s .

T w o e x a m p l e s s h o w h o w the c o n t e x t o f J u b i l e e s p u t s r e a d e r s i n the p o ­
sition o f the patriarch's c h i l d r e n . N o a h ' s final s p e e c h to his c h i l d r e n b e g i n s
in 7:20 w i t h a n a r r a t i v e r e v i e w o f the c a u s e s o f the f l o o d , w h i c h G o d
w r o u g h t " o n a c c o u n t of the b l o o d that t h e y p o u r e d o u t in the m i d s t o f the
l a n d " ( 7 : 2 5 ) . T h e text then s w i t c h e s to N o a h s p e a k i n g in the first p e r s o n . H e
tells his s o n s that he has o b s e r v e d their d e e d s , a n d he fears that w h e n he dies
" y o u w i l l p o u r o u t the b l o o d of m e n u p o n the earth. A n d y o u w i l l be blotted
out f r o m the surface o f the earth" ( 7 : 2 7 ) . J u b 7:29-33 c o n t a i n s a series o f c o m ­
m a n d s in b o t h third p e r s o n ("no m a n w h o . . .") a n d s e c o n d p e r s o n ( " y o u
shall n o t be like . . . " ) , a n d 7:31 c o n t i n u e s , " C o v e r the b l o o d , b e c a u s e I w a s
c o m m a n d e d to testify to y o u and to your children together with all flesh? So,
in 7:34 w h e n N o a h a d d r e s s e s " m y children," a l t h o u g h it is p a r a l l e l to the a d ­
dress in 7:26, the i n t e r v e n i n g v. 31 has created a m b i g u i t y a b o u t whether
N o a h is a d d r e s s i n g his n a r r a t i v e c h i l d r e n o n l y or w h e t h e r his d e s c e n d a n t s ,
the b o o k ' s r e a d e r s , are also i n c l u d e d . N o a h c o m m a n d s that his c h i l d r e n "do
j u s t i c e a n d r i g h t e o u s n e s s so that y o u m a y be p l a n t e d in r i g h t e o u s n e s s on the
surface o f the w h o l e earth." L a w s a b o u t firstfruits, w h i c h are to b e offered

6. Wright, " F r o m G e n e r a t i o n to G e n e r a t i o n , " 3 2 7 - 3 1 .

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Benjamin G. Wright III

" u p o n the altar of the L o r d , " follow, a n d the " s e r v a n t s o f the h o u s e of the
L o r d " w i l l eat a n y t h i n g left over. W h a t l o o k s like an a n a c h r o n i s t i c reference
to priests a n d the t e m p l e is essentially n o t , since the reader, for w h o m priests
a n d t e m p l e are a c o n t e m p o r a r y reality, has b e e n i n c l u d e d a m o n g the chil­
dren a d d r e s s e d b y the a n c i e n t figure.
W h e r e a s N o a h ' s s p e e c h creates a m b i g u i t y a b o u t the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f
the " c h i l d r e n " to w h o m the p a t r i a r c h s p e a k s , that i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is clearer in
the n a r r a t i v e a b o u t A b r a h a m , a n d the w o r k of c o n s t r u c t i n g the r e a d e r as
o n e w h o falls in A b r a h a m ' s line b e g i n s early. In 1 2 : 2 3 , e m p l o y i n g the l a n ­
g u a g e of G e n 1 2 : 3 , G o d calls A b r a h a m a n d p r o m i s e s to bless h i m a n d all the
n a t i o n s . T h e n J u b i l e e s a d d s , " A n d I shall be G o d for y o u a n d y o u r s o n a n d
for the s o n o f y o u r s o n a n d for all o f y o u r seed." Thereafter, m e n t i o n o f
A b r a h a m ' s " s e e d " m u s t b e r e a d in the light o f this s t a t e m e n t , w h i c h the a u ­
t h o r i n t e n d e d to i n c l u d e the reader. T h e a u t h o r further c i r c u m s c r i b e s the
J e w i s h r e a d e r in the c o m m a n d m e n t to c i r c u m c i s e , w h i c h applies to "the
s o n s o f Israel," a n o t h e r a n a c h r o n i s m for the " A b r a h a m " o f the n a r r a t i v e , b u t
n o t for o u r a u t h o r . W h e n A b r a h a m finally b i d s farewell to his c h i l d r e n , he
commands them,

that they s h o u l d g u a r d the w a y of the L o r d so that they m i g h t do righ­

teousness a n d each m i g h t love his n e i g h b o r , a n d that it s h o u l d be thus
a m o n g all m e n so that o n e m i g h t p r o c e e d to act justly a n d rightly to­
w a r d t h e m u p o n the earth, a n d that they s h o u l d c i r c u m c i s e their sons in
the c o v e n a n t w h i c h he m a d e w i t h t h e m , a n d that they s h o u l d n o t cross
over either to the right or left from all of the w a y s w h i c h the L o r d c o m ­
m a n d e d us a n d that we s h o u l d keep ourselves from all f o r n i c a t i o n a n d
p o l l u t i o n , a n d that we s h o u l d set aside from a m o n g us all f o r n i c a t i o n
and p o l l u t i o n . (20:2-3, e m p h a s i s m i n e )

B y this t i m e the reader is w e l l p r e p a r e d for this s u d d e n shift in p e r s o n . After

all, the m e m b e r s of J u b i l e e s ' a u d i e n c e are p r e d i s p o s e d to s e e i n g t h e m s e l v e s
as c h i l d r e n of A b r a h a m . T h e r h e t o r i c a l s c h e m e e x p l o i t s that p r e d i s p o s i t i o n
in o r d e r to m a k e A b r a h a m s p e a k directly to all his c h i l d r e n , b o t h r e m o t e a n d
c o n t e m p o r a r y , v i a an extensive list of w a r n i n g s a n d a d m o n i t i o n s that i n ­
cludes a v o i d i n g f o r n i c a t i o n , k e e p i n g a w a y f r o m i d o l s , a n d p r o p e r l y w o r s h i p ­
ing G o d .
A s e c o n d strategy for f o r g i n g the p a r e n t - c h i l d b o n d that places the
r e a d e r in the o b l i g e d p o s i t i o n e m p h a s i z e s the p a s s i n g d o w n o f b o o k s f r o m
the p a t r i a r c h a l father. T h e b o o k that the r e a d e r p o s s e s s e s or h e a r s is the

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 Jubilees, Sirach, and Sapiential Tradition

s a m e o n e o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n b y the father figure of the text. S o in l E n 8 2 : 1 - 3

E n o c h gives b o o k s to M e t h u s e l a h in w h i c h he has r e c o r d e d all the w i s d o m
he has r e v e a l e d to M e t h u s e l a h , "so that y o u m a y give it to the g e n e r a t i o n s of
the w o r l d . W i s d o m I h a v e g i v e n to y o u a n d to y o u r c h i l d r e n a n d to those
w h o w i l l be y o u r c h i l d r e n so that they m a y give this w i s d o m w h i c h is b e y o n d
7
their t h o u g h t to their c h i l d r e n for the g e n e r a t i o n s . "
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , there is n o t h i n g this e x p l i c i t in J u b i l e e s , b u t the i m ­
p o r t a n c e of w r i t i n g a n d the p r e s e n c e of s e v e r a l b o o k s , w h i c h reflect w h a t is
w r i t t e n in the h e a v e n l y tablets, suggest that J u b i l e e s itself is the e n d p r o d u c t
of a c h a i n of t r a n s m i s s i o n that o r i g i n a t e d w i t h p a t r i a r c h a l f i g u r e s . H e r e ,
t h o u g h , w e m u s t d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n e s t a b l i s h i n g the a u t h o r i t y o f J u b i l e e s
b a s e d o n the p r e e x i s t i n g h e a v e n l y tablets a n d c o n s t r u c t i n g the r e a d e r as a
d e s c e n d a n t of the p a t r i a r c h a l father for the p u r p o s e of o b l i g a t i n g h i m / h e r
to a c q u i e s c e to w h a t is in the b o o k ( s ) , since the w r i t t e n text s u b s t i t u t e s for
the father's v o i c e . T h a t is, the b o o k that is p a s s e d d o w n enables i n t e r v e n i n g
g e n e r a t i o n s to be s k i p p e d so t h a t the p a t r i a r c h s p e a k s d i r e c t l y to his "child."
In o n e s u g g e s t i v e p a s s a g e ( 4 5 : 1 5 ) , u p o n J a c o b ' s d e a t h " h e g a v e all o f his
b o o k s a n d his fathers' b o o k s to L e v i , his s o n , so t h a t he m i g h t p r e s e r v e
t h e m a n d r e n e w t h e m for his s o n s until this day!' T h e e x a c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e ­
t w e e n these b o o k s a n d J u b i l e e s r e m a i n s u n c l e a r , e x c e p t t h a t in this i n s t a n c e
the t r a d i t i o n i n h e r i t e d f r o m the a n c e s t o r s is p r e s e r v e d i n a p r i e s t l y c o n t e x t ,
one that p r e s u m a b l y represents s o m e t h i n g of Jubilees' self-understanding,
8
a n d t h u s h a s s o m e r e l a t i o n s h i p to J u b i l e e s itself. In fact, m o s t o f the m a j o r
figures i n J u b i l e e s w r i t e b o o k s , in s o m e cases m o r e t h a n o n e , b u t J u b i l e e s
d o e s n o t p r e s e n t t h e m as i d e n t i c a l to itself. In fact, t h e y m u s t b e different
f r o m J u b i l e e s , even if t h e y reflect the h e a v e n l y tablets in s o m e w a y , since
M o s e s acts as the a m a n u e n s i s for the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e in w r i t i n g the
b o o k . I n d e e d , J u b i l e e s itself is n e v e r p o r t r a y e d as a b o o k that M o s e s h a s
t r a n s m i t t e d to his c h i l d r e n .

So the t w o strategies that w e see in s o m e w i s d o m a n d n a r r a t i v e litera­

t u r e that c o n s t r u c t the reader as the child o f the "father" o f the text a p p e a r
o n l y in a s o m e w h a t a t t e n u a t e d w a y in J u b i l e e s . A l t h o u g h t h e y do n o t f u n c ­
tion centrally in the b o o k as m e c h a n i s m s for a u t h o r i z i n g its i d e o l o g y , t h e y
play a supporting role.

7. Translation is from G . W. E . N i c k e l s b u r g a n d J. C . V a n d e r K a m , / Enoch: A New

Translation ( M i n n e a p o l i s : Fortress, 2 0 0 4 ) .
8. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , The Book of jubilees (Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 2 0 0 1 ) ,
81,120.

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II. "Therefore It Is Commanded in the Heavenly Tablets"

(Jubilees 3:31)

In t h i n k i n g a b o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n J u b i l e e s a n d J e w i s h w i s d o m , I
h a v e f o u n d the w o r k o f H i n d y N a j m a n p r o d u c t i v e . S h e b e g i n s h e r article
"Interpretation as P r i m o r d i a l W r i t i n g : J u b i l e e s a n d Its A u t h o r i t y C o n ­
f e r r i n g S t r a t e g i e s " w i t h the f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n : " W r i t i n g s f r o m the S e c ­
o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d c o n s i s t e n t l y i n v o k e d the T o r a h of M o s e s as a u t h o r i t a ­
tive s a c r e d w r i t i n g . A l t h o u g h the t r a d i t i o n w a s s h a r e d , a t t e m p t s to m a k e
S c r i p t u r e r e l e v a n t a n d a c c e s s i b l e g e n e r a t e d d i v e r s e v i e w s a b o u t h o w to i n ­
t e r p r e t a n d a p p l y this a u t h o r i t a t i v e w r i t i n g . A s a result d i s t i n c t i v e i n t e r ­
p r e t a t i o n s a n d p r a c t i c e s e m e r g e d . It b e c a m e e s s e n t i a l that w r i t e r s j u s t i f y
9
their interpretations." Jubilees, along with several other second temple
w o r k s , p u r s u e d a s t r a t e g y t h a t c r e a t e d "an a u t h o r i z i n g l i n k to the a l r e a d y
1 0
accepted Torah of M o s e s . " J u b i l e e s ' a u t h o r p r e s e n t s the w o r k as r e v e l a ­
t i o n g i v e n to M o s e s f r o m the h e a v e n l y tablets, f r o m w h i c h also the T o r a h
of M o s e s d e r i v e d . T h u s , J u b i l e e s c o m b i n e s c l a i m s to the a u t h o r i t y o f its i n ­
t e r p r e t a t i o n s w i t h its s e l f - p r e s e n t a t i o n as s a c r e d w r i t i n g w h o s e u l t i m a t e
o r i g i n s lie in the s a m e p l a c e as the T o r a h o f M o s e s — the h e a v e n l y tablets
f r o m w h i c h the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e d i c t a t e s to M o s e s . F o r N a j m a n , J u b i ­
l e e s ' a u t h o r d e v e l o p s f o u r p r i m a r y s t r a t e g i e s for c o n f e r r i n g a u t h o r i t y o n
his w o r k . T w o o f these are o f interest h e r e : ( 1 ) "Jubilees repeatedly claims
t h a t it r e p r o d u c e s m a t e r i a l that h a d b e e n w r i t t e n d o w n l o n g b e f o r e o n the
' h e a v e n l y tablets,' a g r e a t c o r p u s o f d i v i n e t e a c h i n g s k e p t in h e a v e n " ; a n d
( 2 ) " T h e entire c o n t e n t of the b o o k of Jubilees w a s d i c t a t e d b y the a n g e l o f
the p r e s e n c e at G o d ' s o w n c o m m a n d . H e n c e it is itself the p r o d u c t o f d i ­
11
vine revelation."

A l t h o u g h s c h o l a r s often m a k e m u c h of g e n r e in s e c o n d t e m p l e liter­
a t u r e , I a m s t r u c k b y the w a y different kinds o f texts r e s o r t to s i m i l a r
m e c h a n i s m s for r e s o l v i n g c o m m o n d i f f i c u l t i e s . F o r m y p u r p o s e s , I w a n t to
l o o k at h o w B e n S i r a a p p r o a c h e s the p r o b l e m o f a u t h o r i z i n g his i n t e r p r e ­
t a t i o n s of T o r a h , s i n c e I t h i n k his s o l u t i o n c o m p a r e s w i t h t h a t of J u b i l e e s .
E v e n t h o u g h he r e g a r d s the T o r a h o f M o s e s as s a c r e d a n d authoritative,

9. H i n d y N a j m a n , "Interpretation as Primordial Writing: Jubilees a n d Its Authority

Conferring Strategies," / S / 3 0 (1999): 379-410 (here 379).
10. Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing," 379. See also, Najman, Seconding
Sinai: The Development of Mosaic Discourse in Second Temple Judaism, JSJSup 77 (Leiden a n d
Boston: Brill, 2003).
11. N a j m a n , "Interpretation as Primordial Writing," 380.

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12
B e n Sira f a m o u s l y d o e s n o t q u o t e f r o m it e x p l i c i t l y . L i k e the a u t h o r o f
J u b i l e e s , t h o u g h , B e n S i r a i n t e r p r e t s this a u t h o r i t a t i v e c o r p u s , w h e t h e r he
is c l a r i f y i n g w h a t it m e a n s to h o n o r p a r e n t s ( 3 : 1 - 1 6 ) o r a l l u d i n g to the d e ­
s t r u c t i o n o f S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h ( 1 6 : 8 ) . H e d o e s n o t cite an authorita­
tive text to u n d e r w r i t e his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , b u t r a t h e r he a p p e a l s to p r i m o r ­
dial W i s d o m as h i s s o u r c e of authority. Whereas Jubilees' halakic
p r e s c r i p t i o n s r e s i d e d o n the p r i m o r d i a l h e a v e n l y tablets l o n g b e f o r e the
a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e d i c t a t e d t h e m to M o s e s (the first o f N a j m a n ' s strate­
g i e s ) , B e n Sira a p p e a l s to W i s d o m , w h i c h also e x i s t e d p r i m o r d i a l l y w i t h
G o d , as his s o u r c e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
In a s i m i l a r w a y that in Jubilees the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e links the
h e a v e n l y r e a l m w i t h the earthly, a s s u r i n g the a c c u r a c y o f w h a t M o s e s w r i t e s ,
so p r i m o r d i a l W i s d o m links h e a v e n a n d earth, a u t h o r i z i n g B e n Sira's teach­
ing. Sir 24 is p e r h a p s the locus classicus for u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w B e n Sira
theologizes about W i s d o m — and not without g o o d reason. W i s d o m speaks
o n h e r o w n behalf; she b e g i n s b y d e s c r i b i n g h e r p r e s e n c e t h r o u g h o u t all the
e a r t h ( w . 1 - 6 ) . S h e t h e n seeks "rest" (v. 7 ) . B u t w h e r e ? G o d sends her to I s ­
rael, specifically to the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e w h e r e she m i n i s t e r s " b e f o r e h i m "
( w . 1 0 - 1 2 ) . T h e eternal a n d p r i m o r d i a l W i s d o m is established in the t e m p l e ,
w h e r e she f l o u r i s h e s ( w . 1 3 - 1 7 ) .
G i v e n her p r e s e n c e in the t e m p l e , o n e m i g h t e x p e c t B e n Sira to m a k e
e x p l i c i t s o m e priestly c o n n e c t i o n w i t h W i s d o m , b u t in w . 1 9 - 2 2 W i s d o m
13
calls to a n y o n e w h o desires h e r . T h e s e verses f o r m a s e g u e to the n e x t place
that o n e finds W i s d o m , the M o s a i c T o r a h : "All these things are the b o o k of
the c o v e n a n t o f the M o s t H i g h G o d , a law that M o s e s c o m m a n d e d us, an i n ­
h e r i t a n c e for the g a t h e r i n g s of J a c o b " (v. 2 3 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the phrase
"these t h i n g s " is r a t h e r v a g u e , but it m u s t refer to w h a t B e n Sira has j u s t said
a b o u t W i s d o m . H e r p r e s e n c e n o t o n l y l e g i t i m a t e s the t e m p l e cult, but she is
also e m b o d i e d in the T o r a h , a n d her access is n o t restricted o n l y to priests.
A s i n J u b i l e e s , in S i r a c h the law, in a sense, exists b e f o r e the S i n a i event. U n ­
like J u b i l e e s , h o w e v e r , B e n Sira d o e s n o t e n v i s i o n a n o t h e r r e v e l a t i o n to M o ­
ses, b u t he identifies p r i m o r d i a l W i s d o m as a heavenly, p r e e x i s t e n t feature o f
the M o s a i c T o r a h . T h i s idea has p o w e r f u l c o n s e q u e n c e s , as w e shall s h o r t l y

12. F o r problems with the w o r d "canonical" in this context, see especially Robert A .
Kraft, "5.1 Scripture a n d C a n o n in Jewish A p o c r y p h a a n d Pseudepigrapha," in Hebrew Bible/
Old Testament: The History of Its Interpretation, vol. 1, From the Beginnings to the Middle Ages
(Until 1300), ed. M a g n e Sasbo (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1996), 67-83.
13. T h e connection is m a d e in the praise of S i m o n II (chap. 50), which contains simi­
lar imagery to chap. 24.

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Benjamin G. Wright III

see. T h e g r a m m a r of t h e next three verses in Greek indicates that Ben Sira is

14
referring to the l a w :

2slt (i.e. the law) fills wisdom like Phison

and like Tigris in days of new things.

26lt supplies understanding like Euphrates

and like Jordan in days of harvest,

nit shines forth education like light,

like Geon in days of vintage.

The focus then returns to W o m a n W i s d o m :

2 8 T h e first man did not complete knowing her,

and so the last one did not track her out,

29for her thought was filled from the sea,

and her counsel from the great abyss.

Ben Sira continues the fluvial imagery of w . 2 8 - 2 9 , b u t this time in a self-

reference:

3 o A n d I, like a canal from a river

and a water channel, issued forth into an orchard.

31I said, "I will water m y garden,

and I will drench m y flower bed."
A n d look! T h e canal turned into a river for me,
and m y river turned into a sea.

32Still I will again make education enlighten like dawn,

and I will shine them forth to far off.

33Still I will again pour out teaching like prophecy,

and I will leave it behind for generations of eternity.

34See that I have not toiled for myself alone

but for all who seek it (or, her) out.

14. N o Hebrew survives for chap. 24. Translations from the Greek o f Sirach are mine,
taken from A. Pietersma and B. G. Wright, eds., A New English Translation of the Septuagint
(New York: Oxford, forthcoming).

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B e n Sira's w a t e r y o d y s s e y e n d s at the sea, the p l a c e o f W i s d o m ' s t h o u g h t .

O n l y then can he e n g a g e in the activities o f the sage o u t l i n e d in w . 3 2 - 3 4 . In
this central chapter of the b o o k B e n Sira c l a i m s to h a v e t a p p e d the p r i m o r ­
dial W i s d o m e m b o d i e d in T o r a h . In fact, his t e a c h i n g b e c o m e s the c o n d u i t
to W i s d o m for a n y o n e w h o w o u l d seek h e r (v. 3 4 ) . T h e d i s c o u r s e of c h a p . 24
m a k e s the a d j u r a t i o n s to seek W i s d o m f o u n d e l s e w h e r e in the b o o k all the
more meaningful.
B e n Sira's a u t h o r i z i n g strategy in chap. 24, then, w o r k s v e r y m u c h like
the first of the strategies that N a j m a n discovers in jubilees. F o r B e n Sira, au­
t h o r i t y is n o t as b o u n d u p in writtenness as is true of Jubilees, even t h o u g h he
does s p e a k of the T o r a h o f M o s e s as a b o o k a n d he refers to his o w n teaching as
i n s c r i b e d "in this b o o k " (50:27). B u t the a u t h o r i t y for his teaching does derive,
as i n Jubilees, f r o m a p r i m o r d i a l s o u r c e that existed l o n g before the actual T o ­
rah of M o s e s . U n l i k e the h e a v e n l y tablets, w h i c h N a j m a n calls "a great c o r p u s
of teachings kept in heaven," W i s d o m is not a c o r p u s of teachings but is the di­
v i n e presence that inhabits the T o r a h . F i n d W i s d o m , as B e n Sira clearly thinks
he h a s , a n d o n e has access to w h a t Torah is all a b o u t . T h u s , w h e r e a s Jubilees
authorizes its teaching b y a p p e a l i n g to the h e a v e n l y tablets, B e n Sira legiti­
m a t e s the activities a n d teaching of all the sages, not j u s t his o w n , since h y p o -
thetically a n y o n e w h o s i n g l e - m i n d e d l y p u r s u e s W i s d o m can possess her.

T h e s e c o n d of J u b i l e e s ' a u t h o r i t y - c o n f e r r i n g strategies is that Jubilees

is the p r o d u c t o f d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n . T h e a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e ensures the a c ­
c u r a c y o f w h a t is dictated to M o s e s , w h o t r a n s c r i b e s it all faithfully. H e r e the
angel's i n t e r m e d i a r y f u n c t i o n reinforces the a u t h o r i t y of the r e v e l a t i o n as
d i v i n e . J a m e s V a n d e r K a m has d e m o n s t r a t e d that the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e
n o t o n l y s p e a k s in G o d ' s n a m e b u t also p e r f o r m s acts a t t r i b u t e d e l s e w h e r e to
1 5
God. A s b o t h V a n d e r K a m a n d N a j m a n a r g u e , s u c h i n t i m a c y w i t h G o d en­
h a n c e s J u b i l e e s ' a u t h o r i t y a n d f r a m e s it as r e v e l a t i o n f r o m the deity g i v e n to
1 6
Israel v i a the s c r i b a l h a n d of M o s e s .
B e n Sira does n o t f r a m e his w o r k as the p r o d u c t of r e v e l a t o r y activity,
b u t n o n e t h e l e s s he does t r y to c o n n e c t his teaching w i t h r e v e l a t i o n . We h a v e
seen that in the d i s c o u r s e of 2 4 : 3 0 - 3 4 he derives his t e a c h i n g f r o m W i s d o m ,
w h i c h is e m b o d i e d in T o r a h . A s a result, he c a n c h a r a c t e r i z e his teaching as
p r o p h e c y . Later, in c h a p . 3 9 , B e n Sira d e s c r i b e s the a c t i v i t y of the s c r i b e / s a g e .

15. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " T h e A n g e l of the Presence in the B o o k of Jubilees," DSD 7

( 2 0 0 0 ) : 378-93.
16. V a n d e r K a m , "Angel o f the Presence," 392-93; N a j m a n , Seconding Sinai, 6 0 - 6 3 ;
N a j m a n , "Interpretation as P r i m o r d i a l Writing," 4 0 0 - 4 0 3 .

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T w o e l e m e n t s stand out. First, the sage studies "the w i s d o m of all the an­
cients, a n d he w i l l b e o c c u p i e d w i t h p r o p h e c i e s " (v. l ) . H e delves into o b ­
scure s a y i n g s a n d tries to u n c o v e r the m e a n i n g of r i d d l e s . B u t s e c o n d , the
sage p r a y s to G o d a n d confesses his s i n s . T h e n ,

6lf the great L o r d w a n t s ,

he will b e filled w i t h a spirit of u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
H e w i l l p o u r forth w o r d s of his w i s d o m ,
and in prayer he will a c k n o w l e d g e the L o r d .

7He will direct c o u n s e l a n d k n o w l e d g e ,

a n d o n his h i d d e n things he will think.

sHe will illuminate the instruction of his teaching,

17
a n d in the law of the L o r d ' s covenant he will b o a s t .

R e m a r k a b l y , this p a s s a g e b e g i n s w i t h G o d g i v i n g i n s p i r a t i o n to the sage. H e

t h e n p o u r s forth w i s d o m a n d t e a c h i n g . T h e s h o r t p a r a g r a p h ends w i t h the
claim "in the l a w of the L o r d ' s c o v e n a n t he w i l l boast." T h i s reference to the
T o r a h reinforces the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n T o r a h , w h e r e p r i m o r d i a l W i s d o m
resides, a n d B e n Sira's i n s p i r e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . We k n o w that B e n Sira w a s
n o t e n a m o r e d of c l a i m s to h e a v e n l y j o u r n e y s a n d v i s i o n s (see for instance
1 8
3 : 2 1 - 2 4 ) or of k n o w l e d g e c l a i m e d to c o m e f r o m d r e a m s ( 3 4 : 1 - 8 ) . If p r i m o r ­
dial W i s d o m is to be f o u n d in the T o r a h of M o s e s a n d the s a y i n g s o f the sages
w h o interpret it, then the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n c o n c e n t r a t e d s t u d y a n d d i v i n e
i n s p i r a t i o n a n d p r o p h e c y m a k e s sense. It is n o s u r p r i s e that B e n Sira m i g h t
w a r n his disciples against p u r s u i n g s p e c u l a t i v e or r e v e l a t o r y e x p e r i e n c e s :
" T h e things that have b e e n p r e s c r i b e d for y o u , t h i n k a b o u t these" ( 3 : 2 2 a ) .

III. "Write for Yourself All These Words" (Jubilees 1:7)

O n e c a n n o t read Jubilees w i t h o u t b e i n g i m p r e s s e d b y the i m p o r t a n c e of w r i t ­

ing in the b o o k . M o r e n o t a b l e is the series o f p e o p l e w h o w r i t e . B e g i n n i n g

17. Translation is from the Greek. N o Hebrew is extant.

18. O n this issue, see m y article "Putting the Puzzle Together: S o m e Suggestions con­
cerning the Social Location o f the W i s d o m o f B e n Sira," in Conflicted Boundaries in Wisdom
and Apocalypticism, ed. B. G . Wright a n d L. M . Wills, S B L S y m S 35 (Atlanta: Society o f Bibli­
cal Literature, 2005), 89-112.

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w i t h E n o c h , "the first w h o learned w r i t i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e a n d w i s d o m , " c o n ­

t i n u i n g to N o a h a n d e x t e n d i n g u p to M o s e s , the putative a u t h o r of Jubilees,
the m a i n figures o f Israelite h i s t o r y p r e s e r v e a n d t r a n s m i t texts, w h i c h c o n ­
tain m a n y topics central to J u b i l e e s . T h u s , E n o c h w r i t e s a b o o k that c o n t a i n s
"the s i g n s of the h e a v e n a c c o r d i n g to the o r d e r o f their m o n t h s , " i.e.,
calendrical matters ( 4 : 1 7 ) . After M o s e s , p e r h a p s the m o s t interesting w r i t e r in
Jubilees is A b r a h a m . In 12:25 G o d c o m m a n d s the angel of the p r e s e n c e to en­
able A b r a h a m to h e a r a n d s p e a k H e b r e w , "the l a n g u a g e of creation." A b r a ­
h a m takes his father's b o o k s , w h i c h are in H e b r e w . H e copies t h e m ; then he
studies t h e m . In the p r o c e s s of s t u d y the a n g e l causes h i m "to k n o w e v e r y ­
thing w h i c h he w a s u n a b l e to u n d e r s t a n d " ( 1 2 : 2 7 ) . P r e s u m a b l y Terah's b o o k s
reflect the h e a v e n l y tablets, a n d t h r o u g h o u t the n a r r a t i v e A b r a h a m faithfully
k e e p s v a r i o u s ritual l a w s a n d o b s e r v a n c e s , such as c i r c u m c i s i o n a n d the feasts
of S u k k o t h a n d S h a v u o t h , w h i c h o n e suspects w e r e o r d a i n e d in the b o o k s
A b r a h a m inherited. In his l o n g farewell, A b r a h a m enjoins first his children,
then I s a a c , a n d then J a c o b to do justice a n d r i g h t e o u s n e s s , a c t i o n s that he
amplifies at great length a n d w i t h m u c h h a l a k i c detail.

T h e figures in Jubilees w h o e n g a g e in w r i t i n g f o r m an a u t h o r i t a t i v e a n d
t r u s t w o r t h y chain of t r a n s m i s s i o n of m a t e r i a l f r o m the h e a v e n l y tablets,
w h i c h c u l m i n a t e s in the revelation to M o s e s . In these instances, a synergistic
r e l a t i o n s h i p o b t a i n s b e t w e e n the characters in Jubilees a n d their w o r t h i n e s s
to receive laws d e r i v e d f r o m the h e a v e n l y tablets a n d then to t r a n s m i t t h e m .
T h a t they are d e e m e d w o r t h y of the h e a v e n l y tablets a n d that they faithfully
keep the laws c o n t a i n e d therein m a k e s t h e m e x e m p l a r s for a n y o n e r e a d i n g
the b o o k . T h e y also serve as e x e m p l a r s in a n o t h e r way. In J u b i l e e s , the act of
w r i t i n g certifies faithful c o p y i n g a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n as m u c h as it signals c o m ­
p o s i t i o n . T h a t is, w r i t i n g f u n c t i o n s as a m e a n s of a c c u r a t e l y p r e s e r v i n g
t h r o u g h the g e n e r a t i o n s the contents o f the h e a v e n l y tablets. S o N o a h can a p ­
p e a l to w h a t E n o c h c o m m a n d e d M e t h u s e l a h , a n d M e t h u s e l a h , L a m e c h , a n d
L a m e c h , N o a h (8:38-39). A b r a h a m discovers sacrificial l a w " w r i t t e n in the
b o o k s of m y forefathers in the w o r d s of E n o c h a n d in the w o r d s of N o a h "
( 2 1 : 1 1 ) . M o s e s takes dictation; A b r a h a m copies Terah's b o o k s ; J a c o b copies
d o w n e v e r y t h i n g he reads (on the angelic seven tablets) a n d hears in a d r e a m
(32:26); he also gives "all of his b o o k s a n d his fathers' b o o k s " to L e v i in o r d e r
that L e v i can " p r e s e r v e t h e m a n d r e n e w t h e m " ( 4 5 : 1 5 ) . T h e s e p e o p l e represent
ideal scribes w h o accurately p r e s e r v e a n d t r a n s m i t the contents of the heav­
enly tablets; they are the p r o p e r g u a r d i a n s of the s a c r e d authoritative texts.

T h e a u t h o r of Jubilees m a k e s a k i n d o f t w o f o l d claim then. First, s c r i b a l

activity as u n d e r t a k e n b y the e x e m p l a r s in the book has p r e s e r v e d u n s u l l i e d

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the c o n t e n t s of the h e a v e n l y tablets, w h i c h are d i v i n e . S e c o n d , the a u t h o r is at

the s a m e t i m e p r e s e n t i n g an a u t h o r i z i n g case for his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , w h i c h he
has c o n s t r u c t e d as a u t h o r i t a t i v e r e v e l a t i o n faithfully p a s s e d d o w n . B y this
strategy the s c r i b a l a u t h o r of Jubilees can b o t h a c k n o w l e d g e the sanctity o f
the M o s a i c T o r a h and p r e s e r v e the a u t h o r i t a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of T o r a h ,
w h i c h in Jubilees stands a l o n g s i d e the T o r a h of M o s e s , since their o r i g i n s are
b o t h in the h e a v e n l y tablets.
It is n o t too m u c h of a stretch to see a s i m i l a r s t r a t e g y at w o r k in B e n
S i r a . In his d e s c r i p t i o n of the s c r i b e / s a g e , B e n Sira d i s t i n g u i s h e s the ideal
s c r i b e f r o m the l a b o r e r . T h e scribe's w i s d o m d e p e n d s o n leisure t i m e ( 3 8 : 2 4 ) .
O n l y the s c r i b e c a n sit in c o u n c i l s or d e c i d e legal cases; o n l y the s c r i b e s t a n d s
a m o n g r u l e r s e x p o u n d i n g d i s c i p l i n e o r j u d g m e n t ( 3 8 : 3 2 - 3 3 ) . After d e s c r i b ­
i n g t h o s e w h o l a b o r , B e n Sira e x c l a i m s , " H o w different the o n e w h o d e v o t e s
h i m s e l f to the s t u d y o f the l a w of the M o s t H i g h G o d ! " (38:34). Sir 3 9 : 1 - 3 s u g ­
gests that the s c r i b e p r e s e r v e s a n d p e n e t r a t e s w h a t has b e e n h a n d e d d o w n ,
q u a l i f y i n g h i m to serve a m o n g r u l e r s a n d n o b l e s ( 3 9 : 4 ) . A s a result,

39:9Many w i l l praise his u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,

a n d it w i l l n e v e r be blotted out;
his m e m o r i a l w i l l not depart,
a n d his n a m e w i l l live for g e n e r a t i o n s of g e n e r a t i o n s .

39:ioNations will n a r r a t e his w i s d o m ,

a n d an a s s e m b l y w i l l p r o c l a i m his p r a i s e .

3 9 : i i l f he abides, he w i l l leave b e h i n d a n a m e greater than a t h o u s a n d ,

a n d if he rests, it w i l l be favorable for h i m .

H o w different i n d e e d is the s c r i b e ! A s B e n Sira tells it, the s c r i b e is best p o s i ­

t i o n e d a n d m o s t able to learn w i s d o m , w h i c h , of c o u r s e , c o n n e c t s h i m w i t h
p r o p e r o b s e r v a n c e of the law. B e n Sira t r a n s m i t s this w i s d o m — that is, the
a u t h o r i t a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the l a w — in his t e a c h i n g .
B e n Sira also e m p l o y s the c o n c e p t of "fear of the L o r d , " so central to
his b o o k , to e n h a n c e the status o f the i d e a l s c r i b e . H e m a k e s clear that "fear
of the L o r d , " a m u l t i v a l e n t n o t i o n for h i m , s u p e r s e d e s all s o c i a l status a n d
class. W h i l e s e v e r a l p a s s a g e s s u g g e s t that a n y o n e can cultivate p r o p e r "fear
2 2
of the L o r d " (cf. 1 0 : 1 9 , ; 2 5 : 1 0 - 1 1 ) , if w e l o o k a bit m o r e closely, w e find that
o n l y the s c r i b e is in a p o s i t i o n to a c h i e v e it. F o r B e n S i r a , "fear of the L o r d "
p r i m a r i l y m e a n s f i n d i n g a n d a c q u i r i n g w i s d o m a n d k e e p i n g the c o m m a n d -

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m e n t s . S i r 19:20 p e r h a p s s u m s it u p best: " T h e w h o l e of w i s d o m is fear of the

L o r d , a n d in all w i s d o m there is the fulfillment o f the Law." W h o is m o r e able
to a c c o m p l i s h this t h a n the scribe? L a b o r e r s c a n n o t seek w i s d o m ; there is
n o t t i m e . T h e rich a n d p o w e r f u l e n c o u n t e r m o r e p r e s s i n g d e m a n d s that p r e ­
v e n t t h e m f r o m such p u r s u i t s . C l a u d i a C a m p a n d I h a v e a r g u e d that the idea
of "fear of the L o r d " helps B e n Sira to r a t i o n a l i z e certain s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s
that he j u d g e s p r o b l e m a t i c , a n d it elevates the status o f the s c r i b e in his s o ­
1 9
cial w o r l d . B u t like J u b i l e e s , B e n Sira's s c r i b e is the g u a r d i a n of w i s d o m
a n d the k e e p i n g of the l a w — a l o n g with its p r o p e r / a u t h o r i z e d interpreta­
t i o n . H e a r g u e s for this c l a i m in a w a y v e r y different f r o m J u b i l e e s , h o w e v e r .
B o t h Jubilees a n d B e n Sira c o n s t r u c t the s c r i b e as the g u a r d i a n of t r a d i t i o n
a n d a u t h o r i z e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In Jubilees the e x e m p l a r s are the a n c i e n t fig­
ures w h o k e p t the laws a n d r e c e i v e d the h e a v e n l y tablets, b u t in B e n Sira it is
the i d e a l s c r i b e . I s u s p e c t , t h o u g h , that even m o r e t h a n an i d e a l figure, B e n
Sira is p r e s e n t i n g h i m s e l f to his disciples as the e x e m p l a r , the o n e w h o n e e d s
2 0
to b e e m u l a t e d .

IV. Jubilees and Wisdom

W h i l e I h a v e n o t e x h a u s t e d here w h a t c o u l d b e said a b o u t Jubilees a n d

s a p i e n t i a l t r a d i t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y as w e see it in B e n Sira, w h a t I h a v e s k e t c h e d
out suggests that a t t e n d i n g p r i m a r i l y to g e n r e differences m i g h t m a s k o t h e r
s i g n i f i c a n t aspects of o u r literature. O n e n e e d o n l y r e a d Jubilees a n d B e n
Sira, for e x a m p l e , to see that they are f o r m a l l y quite different. Yet, c o m m o n
q u e s t i o n s a n d p r o b l e m s s e e m to o c c u p y b o t h of t h e m . H o w d o e s o n e legiti­
m a t e a n d a u t h o r i z e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f an a u t h o r i t a t i v e text? H o w can t h e y
c o n v i n c e a reader to accept their p o s i t i o n s ? W h o are the a p p r o p r i a t e g u a r d ­
i a n s of the t r a d i t i o n as it has b e e n h a n d e d d o w n , a n d w h o are the a u t h o r i z e d
interpreters of that t r a d i t i o n ? To a n s w e r these q u e s t i o n s , the a u t h o r of J u b i ­
lees a n d B e n Sira r e s o r t to s i m i l a r strategies, even if t h e y execute t h e m differ­
ently. In this light, then, w h a t e v e r f o r m a l d i s t i n c t i o n s w e r e c o g n i z e b e t w e e n
these two w o r k s p o t e n t i a l l y distract us f r o m n o t i c i n g their c o m m o n p r o b ­
l e m s a n d their i n d i v i d u a l s o l u t i o n s to t h e m .

1 9 . B . G . Wright III a n d C . V. C a m p , " ' W h o H a s B e e n Tested b y G o l d a n d F o u n d Per­

fect?* B e n Sira's D i s c o u r s e of R i c h e s a n d Poverty," Hen 23 ( 2 0 0 1 ) : 153-74.
20. B e n Sira's self-presentation raises interesting q u e s t i o n s for N a j m a n ' s c o n n e c t i o n
of e x e m p l a r i t y w i t h the issue o f pseudepigraphy. See her chapter in this v o l u m e as well as
her other w o r k cited there.

129
Benjamin G. Wright III

To c o n c l u d e , I w a n t to present o n e short illustration of h o w d e e p l y e m ­

b e d d e d the issue of f o r m a n d genre is in s c h o l a r s h i p . C a n a W e r m a n has sug­
gested a g e n e a l o g i c a l relationship b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d w i s d o m literature. She
w r i t e s , " I w o u l d like to suggest that the Book ofjubileesis also a d e v e l o p m e n t o f
w i s d o m literature, t h o u g h from a s o u r c e other t h a n P r o v e r b s . W i s d o m is n o t
m e n t i o n e d in Jubilees;Torah a n d Te'udah — T o r a h a n d p r e d e s t i n e d h i s t o r y —
replace W i s d o m . T o r a h a n d Te'udah'm Jubileesis [sic] an entity that existed b e ­
fore creation. . . . T h e h i s t o r y of the w o r l d , p r e d e s t i n e d a n d e n g r a v e d on the
heavenly tablets, u n f o l d s in the created w o r l d . T o r a h , i.e., cultic laws, shapes
2 1
this w o r l d . " She argues that Jubilees e m p h a s i z e s the historical d i m e n s i o n so
that "a thoughtful e x a m i n a t i o n o f h i s t o r y w i l l p r o v i d e the correct interpreta­
tion of the biblical laws a n d will ensure correct c o n d u c t in life." A n d so Jubilees
"contains a sapiential m e s s a g e ; it calls o n w i s e m e n to m e d i t a t e o n h i s t o r y a n d
22
to a p p l y their c o n c l u s i o n s to the interpretation o f l a w . "

D e s p i t e the fact that W e r m a n sees s o m e s i m i l a r aspects in the s a p i e n ­

tial literature o f Q u m r a n , a n d , o f c o u r s e , 4 Q I n s t r u c t i o n ' s raz nihyeh is a
p r i m e e x a m p l e , I do n o t see the necessity o f c l a i m i n g that J u b i l e e s is s o m e ­
h o w w i s d o m literature or a d e s c e n d a n t of w i s d o m literature b e c a u s e o n e c a n
identify these s i m i l a r i t i e s . To say that T o r a h a n d p r e d e s t i n e d h i s t o r y " r e p l a c e
W i s d o m " suggests that o t h e r w i s e Jubilees a n d B e n Sira are quite close — a
s u g g e s t i o n I f i n d difficult to s u s t a i n . To c o n c l u d e , as she d o e s , "As B e n Sira
e m e r g e d from P r o v e r b s , so Jubilees e m e r g e d f r o m the s a p i e n t i a l literature
n o w f o u n d at Q u m r a n , " necessitates d r i v i n g a w e d g e b e t w e e n B e n Sira a n d
the Q u m r a n w i s d o m texts that i g n o r e s the extensive s i m i l a r i t i e s a m o n g all
of t h e m , a w e d g e that I t h i n k u n n e c e s s a r y a n d c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e . It s e e m s
m o r e likely that Jubilees and the w i s d o m texts f r o m Q u m r a n and B e n Sira all
a d d r e s s p r o b l e m s that other s e c o n d t e m p l e texts h a v e in c o m m o n w i t h t h e m
as w e l l . I do n o t see a n y n e e d to a r g u e for s o m e g e n e t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
2 3
J u b i l e e s a n d w i s d o m in o r d e r to m a k e sense out of w h a t t h e y s h a r e . One of
the t h i n g s I find so f a s c i n a t i n g a b o u t these texts, a n d that c e r t a i n l y d e s e r v e s
m o r e study, is the creative v a r i e t y of w a y s , b o t h s i m i l a r a n d d i s s i m i l a r , that
their a u t h o r s a n d t r a d e n t s f o u n d to a d d r e s s t h e m .

21. C . Werman, "What Is the Book of HaguV in Sapiential Perspectives: Wisdom Litera­
ture in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. J. J. Collins, G . E . Sterling, a n d R. A . Clements, S T D J
51 (Leiden a n d Boston: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) , 125-40 (here 126).
22. Werman, "Book of Hagu," 126-27.
23. For over a decade the W i s d o m a n d Apocalypticism in Early Judaism a n d Chris­
tianity G r o u p o f the S B L has been w o r k i n g to deconstruct the categories " w i s d o m " a n d
"apocalyptic." See Wright a n d Wills, Conflicted Boundaries in Wisdom and Apocalypticism.

130
The Heavenly Counterpart of Moses
in the Book of Jubilees

Andrei A. Orlov

One of the enigmatic characters in the book of Jubilees is the angel of the pres­
ence w h o dictates to Moses heavenly revelation. T h e book provides neither the
angel's name nor a clear picture of his celestial roles and offices. Complicating
the picture is the angel's arrogation, in certain passages of the text, of what the
1
Bible claims are God's words or deeds. In Jub 6:22, for example, the angel ut­
ters the following: "For I have written (this) in the book of the first law in
which I wrote for you that you should celebrate it at each of its times one day
in a year. I have told you about its sacrifice so that the Israelites m a y continue
to remember and celebrate it throughout their generations during this month
2
— one day each year." James VanderKam observes that according to these
sentences "the angel of the presence wrote the first law, that is, the Pentateuch,
including the section about the Festival of Weeks in the cultic calendars (Lev.
23:15-21 and N u m . 28:26-31, where the sacrifices are specified)." VanderKam
further notes that "these passages are represented as direct revelations by G o d
3
to Moses in Leviticus and N u m b e r s , not as statements from an angel."

1. J. C. VanderKam, "The Angel o f the Presence in the Book o f Jubilees," DSD 7

(2000): 378-93 (here 390).
2. J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, 2 vols., CSCO 510-11, Scriptores Aethiopici
87-88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989), 2:40.
3. VanderKam, "Angel o f the Presence," 391.

This essay represents the revised version of my article published in Bib 88 (2007): 153-73.1 am
thankful to the editors o f Biblica for permission to reproduce the material in this publication.

131
Andrei A. Orlov

Jub 3 0 : 1 2 , w h i c h retells a n d m o d i f i e s G e n 3 4 , r e p e a t s the angel's

a u t h o r i a l c l a i m : " F o r this r e a s o n I h a v e w r i t t e n for y o u in the w o r d s of the
law e v e r y t h i n g that the S h e c h e m i t e s d i d to D i n a h a n d h o w J a c o b ' s s o n s said:
'We will n o t give o u r d a u g h t e r to a m a n w h o h a s a f o r e s k i n b e c a u s e for us
4
that w o u l d be a d i s g r a c e f u l t h i n g . ' "
E v e n m o r e p u z z l i n g is that in these p a s s a g e s the a n g e l insists on p e r ­
s o n a l l y writing the d i v i n e w o r d s , t h u s c l a i m i n g the role of the celestial s c r i b e
5
in a f a s h i o n s i m i l a r to M o s e s . A l s o s t r i k i n g is that this n a m e l e s s a n g e l i c
s c r i b e posits h i m s e l f as the w r i t e r of the P e n t a t e u c h ( " F o r I h a v e w r i t t e n
(this) in the b o o k of the first l a w " ) , the a u t h o r s h i p of w h i c h the t r a d i t i o n as­
cribes to the s o n o f A m r a m . W h a t are w e to m a k e o f these a u t h o r i a l c l a i m s
by the a n g e l of the presence?
Is it p o s s i b l e that in this p u z z l i n g a c c o u n t a b o u t t w o p r o t a g o n i s t s , o n e
h u m a n a n d the o t h e r a n g e l i c — b o t h of w h o m are scribes a n d a u t h o r s of the
s a m e " l a w " — w e h a v e an a l l u s i o n to the idea of the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t o f
6
a seer in the f o r m o f the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e ? In J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c a n d
early m y s t i c a l literature s u c h h e a v e n l y d o u b l e s in the f o r m o f angels of the
p r e s e n c e are often p r e s e n t e d as celestial s c r i b e s . T h e p u r p o s e o f this p a p e r is
to p r o v i d e c o n c e p t u a l b a c k g r o u n d for the idea o f the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e
as the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t of M o s e s in the b o o k of J u b i l e e s .

I. The Background: The Heavenly Counterpart

of the Seer in the Jacob and the Enoch Traditions

B e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g to a close analysis of the t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t the h e a v e n l y

c o u n t e r p a r t of M o s e s a n d its p o s s i b l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the a n g e l of the

4. V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, 195.

5. T h e scribal office of Moses is reaffirmed throughout the text. Already in the begin­
ning (Jub 1:5, 7, 26) he receives a chain of c o m m a n d s to write d o w n the revelation dictated
by the angel.
6. O n the angelology of the b o o k of Jubilees see R. H . Charles, The Book of Jubilees or the
Little Genesis (London: Black, 1902), lvi-lviii; M . Testuz, Les idees religieuses du livre des Jubiles
(Geneva: Droz, 1960), 75-92; K . Berger, "Das Buch der Jubilaen," in JSHRZ 2.3 (Gutersloh:
Gutersloher Verlaghaus G e r d N o h n , 1981), 322-24; D. Dimant, "The Sons of Heaven: The T h e ­
ory o f the Angels in the B o o k of Jubilees in Light of the Writings o f the Q u m r a n C o m m u n i t y "
(in Hebrew), in A Tribute to Sarah: Studies in Jewish Philosophy and Cabala Presented to Profes­
sor Sara A. Heller-Wilensky, ed. M . Idel, D. Dimant, a n d S. Rosenberg (Jerusalem: Magnes,
1994), 97-118; VanderKam, "Angel of the Presence," 378-93; H . Najman, "Angels at Sinai: Exege­
sis, Theology a n d Interpretive Authority," DSD 7 (2000): 313-33.

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 The Heavenly Counterpart of Moses in the Book of Jubilees

p r e s e n c e , w e w i l l p r o v i d e a s h o r t e x c u r s u s o n the b a c k g r o u n d o f the i d e a o f

the celestial d o u b l e o f a seer. O n e o f the s p e c i m e n s o f this t r a d i t i o n is f o u n d

i n the t a r g u m i c e l a b o r a t i o n s o f the s t o r y o f the p a t r i a r c h J a c o b that d e p i c t

his h e a v e n l y i d e n t i t y as his " i m a g e " e n g r a v e d o n the T h r o n e o f G l o r y .

The Jacob Traditions

T h e t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e h e a v e n l y " i m a g e " o f J a c o b are p r e s e n t in s e v e r a l

7 s
targumic texts, including Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, Targum Neofiti } and
9
Fragmentary Targum.

F o r e x a m p l e , i n Targum Pseudo-Jonathan for G e n 2 8 : 1 2 , the f o l l o w i n g

description can be found: " H e [Jacob] had a dream, and behold, a ladder

w a s f i x e d in the e a r t h w i t h its t o p r e a c h i n g t o w a r d the h e a v e n s . . . a n d on

t h a t d a y t h e y ( a n g e l s ) a s c e n d e d to the h e a v e n s o n h i g h , a n d s a i d , ' C o m e a n d

see J a c o b the p i o u s , w h o s e i m a g e is f i x e d ( e n g r a v e d ) i n the T h r o n e o f G l o r y ,

1 0
a n d w h o m y o u h a v e d e s i r e d to s e e . ' " Besides the tradition of " e n g r a v i n g "

7. T h e same tradition c a n b e f o u n d in the rabbinic literature. Genesis Rabbah 68:12

reads: . . thus it says, Israel in w h o m I w i l l b e glorified (Isa. x l i x , 3 ) ; it is t h o u , [said the an­
gels,] w h o s e features are engraved o n high; they ascended o n h i g h a n d saw his features a n d
they descended b e l o w a n d f o u n d h i m sleeping." Midrash Rabbah, 1 0 vols. ( L o n d o n : S o n c i n o
Press, 1 9 6 1 ) , 2:626. O n J a c o b s i m a g e on the T h r o n e of G l o r y , see also Genesis Rabbah 78:3;
82:2; Numbers Rabbah 4:1; b. Hullin 9 1 b ; Pirqe Rabbi Eliezer 35. O n the traditions a b o u t Ja­
cob's i m a g e engraved on the T h r o n e , see E . R . Wolfson, Along the Path: Studies in Kabbalistic
Myth, Symbolism, and Hermeneutics (Albany: State University of N e w York Press, 1995), 1 - 6 2 ,
111-86.
8. "And he d r e a m e d , a n d b e h o l d , a ladder w a s fixed o n the earth a n d its head reached
to the height of the heavens; a n d b e h o l d , the angels that h a d a c c o m p a n i e d h i m from the
h o u s e o f his father ascended to b e a r g o o d tidings to the angels on high, saying: ' C o m e a n d
see the p i o u s m a n w h o s e i m a g e is engraved in the throne o f G l o r y , w h o m y o u desired to see.'
A n d b e h o l d , the angels from before the L o r d ascended a n d descended a n d o b s e r v e d him."
Targum Neofiti 1: Genesis, trans. M . M c N a m a r a , M . S . C . , A r a m a i c Bible l A (Collegeville,
M i n n . : Liturgical Press, 1992), 1 4 0 .
9. "And he d r e a m t that there w a s a ladder set on the g r o u n d , w h o s e top reached to­
w a r d s the heavens; a n d behold the angels that h a d a c c o m p a n i e d h i m from his father s h o u s e
ascended to a n n o u n c e to the angels of the heights: ' C o m e a n d see the p i o u s m a n , w h o s e i m ­
age is fixed to the throne of g l o r y . . . M . L . K l e i n , The Fragment-Targums of the Pentateuch
according to Their Extant Sources, 2 vols., A B 76 ( R o m e : Biblical Institute Press, 1 9 8 0 ) , 1:57
and 2:20.
1 0 . Targum Pseudo-Jonathan: Genesis, trans. M . Maher, M . S . C . , A r a m a i c Bible 1 B
(Collegeville, M i n n . : Liturgical Press, 1 9 9 2 ) , 9 9 - 1 0 0 .

133
Andrei A. Orlov

on the T h r o n e , s o m e J e w i s h m a t e r i a l s p o i n t to an even m o r e r a d i c a l identifi­

c a t i o n o f J a c o b ' s i m a g e w i t h Kavod, an a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c e x t e n s i o n o f the
Deity, often labeled there as the F a c e of G o d . Jarl F o s s u m ' s research d e m o n ­
strates that in s o m e t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t J a c o b ' s i m a g e , his celestial " i m a g e " o r
" l i k e n e s s " is d e p i c t e d n o t s i m p l y as e n g r a v e d o n the h e a v e n l y t h r o n e , b u t as
1 1
seated u p o n the t h r o n e of g l o r y . F o s s u m a r g u e s that this s e c o n d t r a d i t i o n
is o r i g i n a l . C h r i s t o p h e r R o w l a n d offers a s i m i l a r v i e w in p r o p o s i n g to see J a ­
cob's i m a g e as " i d e n t i c a l w i t h the f o r m o f G o d o n the t h r o n e of g l o r y ( E z e k .
12
1.26f.)."

The Enoch Traditions

S c h o l a r s h a v e p r e v i o u s l y n o t e d that E n o c h i c m a t e r i a l s w e r e also c o g n i z a n t
of the t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t the h e a v e n l y d o u b l e o f a seer. T h u s , the idea a b o u t
the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t of the v i s i o n a r y a p p e a r s to b e p r e s e n t i n o n e of the
1 3
b o o k l e t s of 1 ( E t h i o p i c ) E n o c h . It h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d that the S i m i l i t u d e s
s e e m s to e n t e r t a i n the idea of the h e a v e n l y t w i n of a v i s i o n a r y w h e n it i d e n ­
tifies E n o c h w i t h the S o n o f M a n . S t u d e n t s o f the E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s h a v e
b e e n l o n g p u z z l e d b y the idea that the S o n o f M a n , w h o in the p r e v i o u s
chapters of the S i m i l i t u d e s is d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m E n o c h , s u d d e n l y b e c o m e s
identified in l E n 7 1 w i t h the p a t r i a r c h . J a m e s V a n d e r K a m suggests that this
p u z z l e can be e x p l a i n e d b y the J e w i s h n o t i o n , attested in s e v e r a l a n c i e n t J e w ­
ish texts, that a creature of flesh a n d b l o o d c o u l d h a v e a h e a v e n l y d o u b l e or
14
counterpart. To p r o v i d e an e x a m p l e , V a n d e r K a m p o i n t s to traditions
15
a b o u t J a c o b in w h i c h the patriarch's "features are e n g r a v e d o n h i g h . " He

11. J. F o s s u m , The Image of the Invisible God: Essays on the Influence of Jewish Mysti­
cism on Early Christology, N T O A 30 ( F r i b o u r g : Universitatsverlag Freiburg Schweiz;
Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1995), 140-41.
12. C . R o w l a n d , " J o h n 1.51, Jewish Apocalyptic a n d Targumic Tradition," NTS 30
(1984): 504.
13. See J. V a n d e r K a m , "Righteous O n e , Messiah, C h o s e n O n e , a n d S o n o f M a n in
1 E n o c h 3 7 - 7 1 , " in The Messiah: Developments in Earliest Judaism and Christianity; The First
Princeton Symposium on Judaism and Christian Origins, ed. J. H . Charlesworth et al. ( M i n n e ­
apolis: Fortress, 1992), 182-83; M . K n i b b , "Messianism in the Pseudepigrapha in the Light o f
the Scrolls," DSD 2 (1995): 177-80; F o s s u m , The Image, 144-45; C . H . T. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-
Acts: Angels, Christology, and Soteriology, W U N T , ser. 2:94 (Tubingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1997),
151.
14. V a n d e r K a m , "Righteous One," 182-83.
15. V a n d e r K a m , "Righteous One," 182-83.

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 The Heavenly Counterpart of Moses in the Book of Jubilees

e m p h a s i z e s that this t h e m e o f the v i s i o n a r y ' s i g n o r a n c e of his h i g h e r a n g e l i c

i d e n t i t y is o b s e r v a b l e , for e x a m p l e , in the P r a y e r o f J o s e p h .
I h a v e a r g u e d that the idea of the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t of the v i s i o n a r y
is also present in a n o t h e r s e c o n d t e m p l e E n o c h i c text — 2 ( S l a v o n i c ) A p o c a ­
1 6
l y p s e of E n o c h . 2 E n 39:3-6 depicts the p a t r i a r c h w h o , d u r i n g his s h o r t trip
to the earth, retells to his c h i l d r e n his earlier e n c o u n t e r w i t h the F a c e . E n o c h
relates:

Y o u , m y children, y o u see m y face, a h u m a n b e i n g created j u s t like y o u r ­

selves; I a m o n e w h o has seen the face of the L o r d , like iron m a d e b u r n ­
ing hot b y a fire, emitting s p a r k s . F o r y o u gaze into m y eyes, a h u m a n b e ­
ing created just like yourselves; but I have gazed into the eyes of the
L o r d , like the rays of the shining s u n a n d terrifying the eyes of a h u m a n
b e i n g . Y o u , m y children, y o u see m y right h a n d b e c k o n i n g y o u , a h u m a n
b e i n g created identical to y o u r s e l v e s ; b u t I have seen the right h a n d of
the L o r d , b e c k o n i n g m e , w h o fills heaven. Y o u see the extent of m y body,
the s a m e as y o u r o w n ; but I have seen the extent of the L o r d , w i t h o u t
1 7
m e a s u r e a n d w i t h o u t analogy, w h o has n o e n d .

E n o c h ' s d e s c r i p t i o n reveals a c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n the t w o identities of the

v i s i o n a r y : the e a r t h l y E n o c h ("a h u m a n b e i n g created j u s t like y o u r s e l v e s " )
a n d his h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t ("the o n e w h o has seen the Face of G o d " ) .
E n o c h d e s c r i b e s h i m s e l f in t w o different m o d e s of existence: as a h u m a n b e ­
ing w h o n o w s t a n d s before his c h i l d r e n w i t h a h u m a n face a n d b o d y and as a
celestial creature w h o has seen G o d ' s face in the h e a v e n l y r e a l m . T h e s e d e ­
s c r i p t i o n s of t w o c o n d i t i o n s ( e a r t h l y a n d celestial) o c c u r r e p e a t e d l y in tan­
d e m . It is p o s s i b l e that the p u r p o s e of E n o c h ' s i n s t r u c t i o n to his children is
n o t to stress the difference b e t w e e n his h u m a n b o d y a n d the L o r d ' s b o d y , but
to e m p h a s i z e the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n this E n o c h , a h u m a n b e i n g "created
j u s t like y o u r s e l v e s , " a n d the other a n g e l i c E n o c h w h o has s t o o d before the
L o r d ' s face. E n o c h ' s p r e v i o u s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n into the g l o r i o u s o n e a n d his
i n i t i a t i o n into the s e r v a n t of the d i v i n e p r e s e n c e in 2 E n 22:7 s u p p o r t this
s u g g e s t i o n . It is u n l i k e l y that E n o c h has s o m e h o w " c o m p l e t e l y " a b a n d o n e d
his s u p r a - a n g e l i c status a n d his u n i q u e place before the F a c e of the L o r d

16. A . Orlov, The Enoch-Metatron Tradition, T S A J 107 (Tubingen: Mohr/Siebeck,

2005), 165-76; Orlov, " T h e Face as the Heavenly C o u n t e r p a r t o f the Visionary in the Slavonic
Ladder of Jacob? in From Apocalypticism to Merkabah Mysticism: Studies in the Slavonic
Pseudepigrapha, ed. A . Orlov, JSJSup 114 (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 399-419.
17. F. Andersen, " 2 (Slavonic Apocalypse o f ) Enoch," in OTP, 1:91-221 (here 163).

135
Andrei A. Orlov

g r a n t e d to h i m in the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s . A n a c c o u n t of E n o c h ' s p e r m a n e n t
i n s t a l l a t i o n c a n be f o u n d in c h a p . 36 w h e r e the L o r d tells E n o c h , b e f o r e his
s h o r t v i s i t to the earth, that a p l a c e has b e e n p r e p a r e d for h i m a n d that he
18
w i l l b e in front of the L o r d ' s face " f r o m now a n d f o r e v e r . " W h a t is i m p o r ­
t a n t here is that the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the v i s i o n a r y w i t h his h e a v e n l y d o u b l e
i n v o l v e s the i n s t a l l a t i o n of the seer into the office of the a n g e l (or the p r i n c e )
of the p r e s e n c e (sar happanim). T h e i m p o r t a n c e of this a c c o u n t for the idea
of the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t i n 2 E n o c h is a p p a r e n t b e c a u s e it p o i n t s to the
s i m u l t a n e o u s existence o f E n o c h ' s a n g e l i c d o u b l e installed in h e a v e n a n d its
h u m a n counterpart, w h o m G o d sends periodically on missionary errands.
T a r g u m i c a n d r a b b i n i c a c c o u n t s a b o u t J a c o b also attest to this v i e w of the
h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t w h e n they depict angels b e h o l d i n g J a c o b as o n e w h o at
o n e a n d the s a m e t i m e is b o t h installed in h e a v e n a n d s l e e p i n g o n earth. I n
r e l a t i o n to this p a r a d o x i c a l s i t u a t i o n , in w h i c h the seer is able n o t o n l y to b e
u n i f i e d w i t h his h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t in the f o r m o f the a n g e l o f the p r e s ­
ence but also to retain the ability to travel b a c k into the earthly r e a l m , J o n a ­
t h a n S m i t h o b s e r v e s that "the c o m p l e t e p a t t e r n is m o s t a p p a r e n t in the v a r i ­
o u s texts that w i t n e s s to the c o m p l e x E n o c h t r a d i t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y 2 Enoch.
H e r e E n o c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y a m a n (ch. 1 ) w h o a s c e n d e d to h e a v e n a n d b e ­
c a m e a n a n g e l (22:9, cf. 3 E n lorjf. a n d 4 8 C ) , r e t u r n e d to earth as a m a n
( 3 3 : 1 1 ) , a n d finally r e t u r n e d a g a i n to h e a v e n to r e s u m e his a n g e l i c station
19
(67:18)."

W h a t is also i m p o r t a n t in 2 E n o c h ' s a c c o u n t for o u r o n g o i n g i n v e s t i g a ­

tion is that w h i l e the " h e a v e n l y v e r s i o n " of E n o c h is installed in h e a v e n , his
"earthly v e r s i o n " is d i s p a t c h e d b y G o d to a n o t h e r l o w e r realm w i t h the m i s ­
s i o n to deliver the h a n d w r i t i n g s m a d e b y the translated h e r o in h e a v e n . I n
2 E n 3 3 : 3 - 1 0 , for e x a m p l e , the L o r d e n d o w s E n o c h w i t h the m i s s i o n o f dis­
t r i b u t i n g the h e a v e n l y w r i t i n g s on earth:

A n d now, E n o c h , whatever I have e x p l a i n e d to y o u , a n d whatever y o u

have seen in the heavens, a n d whatever y o u have seen on earth, and w h a t ­
ever J have written in the books — b y m y s u p r e m e w i s d o m I have con­
trived it all. . . . A p p l y y o u r m i n d , E n o c h , a n d a c k n o w l e d g e the O n e w h o
is speaking to y o u . A n d y o u take the books which I (!) have written. . . .
A n d y o u go d o w n onto the earth a n d tell y o u r sons all that I have told
y o u . . . . A n d deliver to t h e m the b o o k s in y o u r h a n d w r i t i n g s , and they

18. 2 E n 36:3. A n d e r s e n , " 2 E n o c h , " 1 6 1 , e m p h a s i s m i n e .

19. J. Z . S m i t h , "Prayer of Joseph," in OTP, 2:699-714 (here 7 0 5 ) .

136
 The Heavenly Counterpart of Moses in the Book of Jubilees

will read t h e m and k n o w their Creator. . . . A n d distribute the b o o k s in

y o u r h a n d w r i t i n g s to y o u r children a n d ( y o u r ) children to (their) chil­
20
dren; a n d the parents will read ( t h e m ) from generation to g e n e r a t i o n .

T h i s a c c o u n t is s t r i k i n g in that w h i l e c o m m a n d i n g the a d e p t to travel

to the l o w e r r e a l m w i t h the h e a v e n l y b o o k s , G o d h i m s e l f s e e m s to a s s u m e
the seer's u p p e r s c r i b a l identity. T h e D e i t y tells E n o c h , w h o is p r e v i o u s l y d e ­
2 1
p i c t e d as the s c r i b e of the b o o k s , that he w r o t e these b o o k s . T h i s s i t u a t i o n
is r e m i n i s c e n t o f s o m e d e v e l o p m e n t s f o u n d in Jubilees w h e r e the a n g e l of
the p r e s e n c e also s e e m s to take o n the celestial s c r i b a l i d e n t i t y o f M o s e s . It is
also n o t e w o r t h y that in J u b i l e e s , as in 2 E n o c h , the b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n the
u p p e r s c r i b a l i d e n t i t y of the v i s i o n a r y w h o c l a i m s to b e the w r i t e r o f "the
2 2
first l a w " a n d the D e i t y a p p e a r b l u r r e d .
In 2 E n 33 w h e r e the d i v i n e s c r i b a l figure c o m m a n d s the seventh ante­
d i l u v i a n h e r o to deliver the b o o k i n his ( E n o c h ' s ) h a n d w r i t i n g s , o n e p o s s i b l y
w i t n e s s e s the u n i q u e , p a r a d o x i c a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n the u p p e r a n d
the l o w e r s c r i b a l identities.
T h e fact that in 2 E n 33 the p a t r i a r c h is d i s p a t c h e d to e a r t h to deliver
the b o o k s in " h i s h a n d w r i t i n g s , " the a u t h o r s h i p o f w h i c h the text a s s i g n s to
the Deity, is also w o r t h y of a t t e n t i o n g i v e n that in the t r a d i t i o n s attested in
J u b i l e e s , w h e r e M o s e s a p p e a r s as a h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t , the a n g e l of the
p r e s e n c e c l a i m s a u t h o r s h i p of the m a t e r i a l s that the t r a d i t i o n e x p l i c i t l y a s ­
signs to M o s e s . H e r e , as in 2 E n o c h , b o o k a u t h o r s h i p c a n b e seen as a p r o c e s s
e x e c u t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y b y b o t h e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y a u t h o r s , t h o u g h it is
the f u n c t i o n of the e a r t h l y c o u n t e r p a r t to deliver the b o o k s to h u m a n s .

Angels of the Presence

It is s i g n i f i c a n t that in b o t h E n o c h a n d J a c o b t r a d i t i o n s the t h e m e o f the

h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t is conflated w i t h the i m a g e r y of the angels of the p r e s -

20. 2 E n 33:3-10 (the shorter r e c e n s i o n ) . A n d e r s e n , " 2 E n o c h , " 157, e m p h a s i s m i n e .

21. See 2 En 23:6: " I w r o t e e v e r y t h i n g accurately. A n d I w r o t e 366 b o o k s . " A n d e r s e n ,
" 2 E n o c h , " 140.
22. Cf. Jub 6:22 a n d 30:12. O n the b l u r r e d b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n the angel o f the pres­
ence a n d the D e i t y in Jubilees, see V a n d e r K a m , "Angel of the Presence," 390-92. It s h o u l d be
n o t e d that the tendency to identify the seer s h e a v e n l y identity w i t h the D e i t y o r his anthro­
p o m o r p h i c extent ( k n o w n as his Kavod o r the F a c e ) is discernible in all accounts dealing
w i t h the heavenly counterpart.

137
Andrei A. Orlov

e n c e . F o r o u r s t u d y of the t r a d i t i o n in J u b i l e e s , w h e r e the a n g e l of the p r e s ­

ence m i g h t b e s e r v i n g as the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t of the s o n o f A m r a m , it is
i m p o r t a n t to n o t e that b o t h J a c o b a n d E n o c h t r a d i t i o n s identify the heav­
enly c o u n t e r p a r t s o f the seers as angelic s e r v a n t s of the p r e s e n c e .
T h u s , in 2 E n o c h the s e v e n t h a n t e d i l u v i a n h e r o is d e p i c t e d as the an­
23
gelic s e r v a n t of the p r e s e n c e p e r m a n e n t l y installed in front of G o d ' s f a c e .
T h e S l a v o n i c a p o c a l y p s e repeats a g a i n a n d a g a i n that the seer is installed b e ­
fore the d i v i n e F a c e f r o m " n o w a n d forever." T h e later merkabah develop­
m e n t s reaffirm this p r o m i n e n t office o f E n o c h ' s u p p e r identity in the f o r m
of a n g e l M e t a t r o n , p o r t r a y i n g h i m as a s p e c i a l s e r v a n t o f the d i v i n e p r e s ­
ence, sar happanim.
In the J a c o b t r a d i t i o n s the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t of the s o n of I s a a c is
also d e p i c t e d as the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e . T h u s , in the P r a y e r of J o s e p h , the
text that gives o n e o f the m o s t s t r i k i n g d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the p r e e x i s t e n t heav­
enly d o u b l e of J a c o b , the h e a v e n l y v e r s i o n of the p a t r i a r c h reveals his i d e n ­
tity as the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e : " I , Israel, the a r c h a n g e l of the p o w e r o f the
L o r d a n d the chief c a p t a i n a m o n g the s o n s of G o d . . . the first minister before
24,
the face of God?
T h e i m a g e r y of angels of the p r e s e n c e or the F a c e l o o m s l a r g e in the
t r a d i t i o n s o f the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t . W h a t is s t r i k i n g here is n o t o n l y that
the h e a v e n l y d o u b l e o f the v i s i o n a r y is f a s h i o n e d as the a n g e l (or the p r i n c e )
of the p r e s e n c e , b u t also that the a n g e l i c g u i d e s w h o a c q u a i n t the seer w i t h
his u p p e r celestial i d e n t i t y a n d its offices are d e p i c t e d as angels o f the p r e s ­
e n c e . I n this respect the figure of the a n g e l i c s e r v a n t of the d i v i n e p r e s e n c e is
especially i m p o r t a n t . B o t h J a c o b a n d E n o c h m a t e r i a l s c o n t a i n numerous
references to the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e u n d e r the n a m e U r i e l , w h o is also
k n o w n in v a r i o u s t r a d i t i o n s u n d e r the n a m e s o f P h a n u e l a n d S a r i e l .
2 5
In 2 E n 2 2 - 2 3 , U r i e l p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t role d u r i n g E n o c h ' s initia­
2 6
t i o n s n e a r the T h r o n e o f G l o r y . H e i n s t r u c t s E n o c h a b o u t different s u b -

23. 2 E n 21:3: "And the L o r d sent one of his g l o r i o u s ones, the archangel G a b r i e l . A n d
he said to m e , ' B e brave, E n o c h ! D o n ' t b e frightened! Stand u p , a n d c o m e w i t h m e a n d stand
in front o f the face o f the L o r d forever.'" 2 E n 22:6: "And the L o r d said to his servants, s o u n d ­
ing them out, 'Let E n o c h j o i n in and stand in front of m y face f o r e v e r ! ' " 2 En 36:3: " B e c a u s e a
place has been prepared for y o u , and y o u will be in front o f m y face from n o w a n d forever."
A n d e r s e n , " 2 E n o c h , " 136, 138, a n d 161.
24. S m i t h , "Prayer of Joseph," 713.
25. Slav. Vereveil.
26. T h e b e g i n n i n g o f this tradition can be f o u n d in the A s t r o n o m i c a l B o o k w h e r e
E n o c h writes the instructions of the angel Uriel regarding the secrets o f heavenly b o d i e s a n d

138
 The Heavenly Counterpart of Moses in the Book of Jubilees

jects of esoteric k n o w l e d g e to p r e p a r e h i m for v a r i o u s celestial offices, in­

c l u d i n g the office of the h e a v e n l y s c r i b e , l E n 7 1 also refers to the s a m e angel
b u t n a m e s h i m P h a n u e l . In the S i m i l i t u d e s he o c c u p i e s an i m p o r t a n t place
a m o n g the four p r i n c i p a l angels, n a m e l y , the place u s u a l l y a s s i g n e d to U r i e l .
In fact, the angelic n a m e P h a n u e l m i g h t be a title that e m p h a s i z e s the celes­
27
tial status o f U r i e l / S a r i e l as o n e of the s e r v a n t s o f the d i v i n e Panim.
T h e title P h a n u e l is r e m i n i s c e n t o f the t e r m i n o l o g y f o u n d in v a r i o u s
J a c o b a c c o u n t s . In G e n 32:31 J a c o b n a m e s the p l a c e of his w r e s t l i n g w i t h G o d
Peniel — the F a c e of G o d . S c h o l a r s believe that the angelic n a m e Phanuel
28
a n d the place P e n i e l are e t y m o l o g i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d .
T h i s reference to U r i e l / S a r i e l / P h a n u e l as the a n g e l w h o i n s t r u c t s / w r e s ­
tles w i t h J a c o b a n d a n n o u n c e s to h i m his n e w angelic status a n d n a m e is
documented in several other sources, including Targum Neofiti and the
P r a y e r of J o s e p h . I n the P r a y e r of J o s e p h , for e x a m p l e , J a c o b - I s r a e l reveals
that " U r i e l , the angel of G o d , c a m e forth a n d said that ' I [ J a c o b - I s r a e l ] h a d
d e s c e n d e d to e a r t h a n d I h a d t a b e r n a c l e d a m o n g m e n a n d that I h a d b e e n
called b y the n a m e o f Jacob.' H e e n v i e d m e a n d f o u g h t w i t h m e a n d w r e s t l e d
2 9
with m e . "
In the S l a v o n i c L a d d e r of J a c o b , a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t text attesting to the
idea of the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t , Jacob's identification w i t h his h e a v e n l y
c o u n t e r p a r t , the angel Israel, a g a i n i n v o l v e s the i n i t i a t o r y e n c o u n t e r w i t h the
angel S a r i e l , the angel of the d i v i n e p r e s e n c e or the F a c e . T h e s a m e state of
events is o b s e r v a b l e in E n o c h i c m a t e r i a l s w h e r e U r i e l serves as a p r i n c i p a l
h e a v e n l y g u i d e to a n o t h e r p r o m i n e n t v i s i o n a r y w h o h a s also acquired
k n o w l e d g e a b o u t his o w n h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t , n a m e l y , E n o c h / M e t a t r o n .
T h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d t r a d i t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g to the angels o f the presence are
i m p o r t a n t for o u r o n g o i n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the a n g e l i c figure in J u b i l e e s in
v i e w o f their role in a c c e s s i o n to the u p p e r identity of the seer.

their m o v e m e n t s . M . K n i b b , The Ethiopic Book of Enoch: A New Edition in the Light of the Ar­
amaic Dead Sea Fragments, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1978), 2:173.
27. Hekhalot Rabbati (Synopse $ 1 0 8 ) refers to the angel Suria/Suriel as the Prince o f
the Face. O n the identification o f Sariel with the Prince o f the presence, see H . Odeberg,
3 Enoch or the Hebrew Book of Enoch (New York: Ktav, 1973), 99; Smith, "Prayer o f Joseph,"
709.
28. G . Vermes suggests that the angelic n a m e Phanuel "is dependent o n the Peniel/
Penuel o f Genesis 32." See G . Vermes, " T h e Impact of the Dead Sea Scrolls o n Jewish
Studies," JJS 26 (1975): 13.
29. Smith, "Prayer of Joseph," 713.

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Andrei A. Orlov

II. The Heavenly Counterpart of Moses

The Exagoge of Ezekiel the Tragedian

W i t h this e x a m i n a t i o n into the b a c k g r o u n d of the t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t the heav­

enly c o u n t e r p a r t f o u n d in the E n o c h a n d the J a c o b m a t e r i a l s in p l a c e , w e
w i l l n o w p r o c e e d to s o m e M o s a i c a c c o u n t s that also attest to the idea o f the
celestial d o u b l e o f the s o n of A m r a m . O n e s u c h early M o s a i c t e s t i m o n y has
s u r v i v e d as a p a r t o f the d r a m a Exagoge, a w r i t i n g attributed to E z e k i e l the
T r a g e d i a n , w h i c h depicts the p r o p h e t ' s e x p e r i e n c e at Sinai as his celestial en­
3 0
t h r o n e m e n t . P r e s e r v e d in f r a g m e n t a r y f o r m in E u s e b i u s of C a e s a r e a ' s
Praeparatio evangelica, the Exagoge 67-90 r e a d s :

M o s e s : I had a v i s i o n of a great t h r o n e on the top of M o u n t Sinai a n d it

reached till the folds of heaven. A n o b l e m a n w a s sitting o n it, w i t h a
c r o w n a n d a large scepter in his left h a n d . H e b e c k o n e d to m e w i t h his
right h a n d , so I a p p r o a c h e d and stood before the t h r o n e . H e gave m e the
scepter a n d instructed m e to sit o n the great t h r o n e . T h e n he gave m e a
royal c r o w n a n d got u p from the t h r o n e . I b e h e l d the w h o l e earth all
a r o u n d a n d s a w b e n e a t h the earth a n d a b o v e the h e a v e n s . A m u l t i t u d e
of stars fell before m y knees a n d I c o u n t e d t h e m all. T h e y p a r a d e d past
m e like a battalion of m e n . T h e n I a w o k e from m y sleep in fear.
R a g u e l : M y friend, this is a g o o d sign from G o d . M a y I live to see the
day w h e n these things are fulfilled. Y o u w i l l establish a great throne, be­
c o m e a j u d g e a n d leader of m e n . A s for y o u r v i s i o n of the w h o l e earth,
the w o r l d b e l o w a n d that a b o v e the heavens — this signifies that y o u w i l l
3 1
see w h a t is, w h a t has been a n d w h a t shall b e .

S c h o l a r s a r g u e that, g i v e n its q u o t a t i o n b y A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r (ca.

8 0 - 4 0 B . C . E . ) , this M o s a i c a c c o u n t is a w i t n e s s to t r a d i t i o n s of the s e c o n d
3 2
century B . C . E . S u c h d a t i n g p u t s this a c c o u n t in close c h r o n o l o g i c a l p r o x ­
i m i t y to the b o o k of J u b i l e e s . It is also n o t e w o r t h y that b o t h texts ( J u b i l e e s

30. Eusebius preserves the seventeen fragments containing 269 iambic trimeter
verses. Unfortunately, the limited scope o f o u r investigation does not allow us to reflect o n
the broader context o f M o s e s ' dream in the Exagoge.
31. H . Jacobson, The Exagoge of Ezekiel (Cambridge: C a m b r i d g e University Press,
1983). 54-55-
32. C . R. Holladay, Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors, vol. 2, Poets, S B L T T 3 0 ,
Pseudepigrapha Series 12 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989), 308-12.

140
 The Heavenly Counterpart of Moses in the Book of Jubilees

a n d Exagoge) exhibit a c o m m o n t e n d e n c y to a d a p t s o m e E n o c h i c m o t i f s a n d
t h e m e s into the f r a m e w o r k of the M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n .
T h e Exagoge 6 7 - 9 0 d e p i c t s M o s e s ' d r e a m in w h i c h he sees an en­
t h r o n e d celestial figure w h o v a c a t e s his h e a v e n l y seat a n d h a n d s o v e r to the
s o n o f A m r a m his r o y a l attributes. T h e p l a c e m e n t of M o s e s o n the g r e a t
t h r o n e in the Exagoge a c c o u n t a n d his d o n n i n g of the r o y a l regalia h a v e of­
ten b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d b y s c h o l a r s as the p r o p h e t ' s o c c u p a t i o n of the seat of
the D e i t y . Pieter v a n der H o r s t r e m a r k s that in the Exagoge Moses becomes
33
"an a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c h y p o s t a s i s of G o d h i m s e l f . "
T h e u n i q u e n e s s of the m o t i f of G o d v a c a t i n g the t h r o n e a n d transfer­
r i n g o c c u p a n c y to s o m e o n e else has l o n g p u z z l e d s c h o l a r s . A n a t t e m p t to
deal w i t h this e n i g m a b y b r i n g i n g in the i m a g e r y of the v i c e - r e g e n t d o e s n o t
c o m p l e t e l y solve the p r o b l e m ; the v i c e - r e g e n t s in J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s (for e x ­
a m p l e , M e t a t r o n ) do n o t n o r m a l l y o c c u p y G o d ' s t h r o n e b u t instead h a v e
their o w n g l o r i o u s chair that s o m e t i m e s serves as a replica of the d i v i n e Seat.
T h e e n i g m a t i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the p r o p h e t w i t h the d i v i n e F o r m c a n best
b e e x p l a i n e d , n o t t h r o u g h the c o n c e p t o f a v i c e - r e g e n t , b u t r a t h e r through
the n o t i o n of the h e a v e n l y t w i n or counterpart.
In v i e w of the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t the h e a v e n l y t w i n s of
E n o c h a n d J a c o b , it is p o s s i b l e that the Exagoge o f E z e k i e l the T r a g e d i a n also
attests to the idea of the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t o f the seer w h e n it identifies
M o s e s w i t h the g l o r i o u s a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c e x t e n s i o n . A s w e recall, the text
depicts M o s e s ' v i s i o n of "a n o b l e m a n " w i t h a c r o w n a n d a large scepter in
the left h a n d installed o n the g r e a t t h r o n e . In the c o u r s e of the seer's initia­
t i o n , the attributes of this " n o b l e m a n , " i n c l u d i n g the r o y a l c r o w n a n d the
scepter, are t r a n s f e r r e d to M o s e s , w h o is i n s t r u c t e d to sit o n the t h r o n e for­
m e r l y o c c u p i e d by the n o b l e m a n . T h e n a r r a t i v e t h u s clearly identifies the
v i s i o n a r y w i t h his h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t , in the c o u r s e of w h i c h the seer liter­
ally takes the place a n d the attributes o f his u p p e r identity. M o s e s ' e n t h r o n e ­
m e n t is r e m i n i s c e n t of J a c o b ' s story, w h e r e J a c o b ' s h e a v e n l y identity is d e ­
picted as b e i n g " e n g r a v e d " or " e n t h r o n e d " o n the d i v i n e Seat. T h e a c c o u n t
also e m p h a s i z e s that M o s e s a c q u i r e d his v i s i o n in a d r e a m b y r e p o r t i n g that
he a w o k e f r o m his sleep in fear. H e r e , as in the J a c o b t r a d i t i o n , w h i l e the seer
is s l e e p i n g o n earth his c o u n t e r p a r t in the u p p e r r e a l m is identified w i t h the
Kavod.

33. P. W. v a n der Horst, " S o m e Notes o n the Exagoge o f Ezekiel," Mnemosyne 37

(1984): 364-65 (here 3 6 4 ) .

141
Andrei A. Orlov

Conclusion

O n e of the i m p o r t a n t characteristics of the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d v i s i o n a r y a c ­

c o u n t s in w h i c h adepts b e c o m e identified w i t h their h e a v e n l y d o u b l e s is the
t r a n s f e r e n c e o f p r o m i n e n t celestial offices to the n e w s e r v a n t s of the p r e s ­
e n c e . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , transference of the offices is d i s c e r n i b l e in the
Exagoge w h e r e the " h e a v e n l y m a n " h a n d s over to the seer his celestial regalia,
scepter a n d c r o w n , a n d then s u r r e n d e r s his h e a v e n l y seat, w h i c h the E n o c h -
M e t a t r o n t r a d i t i o n often identifies w i t h the d u t y of the celestial s c r i b e . I n ­
d e e d , the s c r i b a l role m a y r e p r e s e n t o n e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t offices that
angels of the p r e s e n c e often s u r r e n d e r to the n e w s e r v a n t s of the F a c e . T h u s ,
for e x a m p l e , 2 E n o c h d e s c r i b e s the i n i t i a t i o n of the seer b y Vereveil ( U r i e l )
in the c o u r s e of w h i c h this a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e , p o r t r a y e d in 2 E n o c h as a
" h e a v e n l y recorder," c o n v e y s to the t r a n s l a t e d p a t r i a r c h k n o w l e d g e a n d skills
p e r t a i n i n g to the s c r i b a l d u t i e s . W h a t is i m p o r t a n t in this a c c o u n t is its e m ­
p h a s i s o n the act of t r a n s f e r e n c e of the s c r i b a l duties f r o m Vereveil ( U r i e l ) to
E n o c h , w h e n the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e s u r r e n d e r s to the h e r o the celestial li­
3 4
b r a r y a n d even the p e n f r o m his h a n d .

T h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s are i n t r i g u i n g a n d m a y p r o v i d e s o m e insights
into the p u z z l i n g t r a d i t i o n a b o u t the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e in the b o o k o f J u ­
35
bilees. J u b i l e e s , like the E n o c h i c a c c o u n t , has t w o s c r i b a l figures; o n e o f
t h e m is the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e a n d the other is a h u m a n b e i n g . Yet the e x ­
act r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n these t w o figures is difficult to establish in v i e w o f
the s c a r c i t y a n d a m b i g u i t y o f the r e l e v a n t d e p i c t i o n s . D o e s the a n g e l of the
p r e s e n c e in Jubilees p o s e , o n the f a s h i o n of U r i e l , as a celestial s c r i b e w h o is
r e s p o n s i b l e for i n i t i a t i o n o f the a d e p t into the s c r i b a l duties? O r does he r e p ­
resent the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t of M o s e s w h o is clearly d i s t i n g u i s h e d at this
p o i n t f r o m the seer? A clear distance b e t w e e n the seer a n d his celestial i d e n ­
tity is n o t u n l i k e l y in the c o n t e x t o f the t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t the h e a v e n l y c o u n -

34. 2 E n 2 2 : 1 0 - 1 1 (the shorter r e c e n s i o n ) : " T h e L o r d s u m m o n e d Vereveil, o n e of his

archangels, w h o w a s w i s e , who records all the Lord's deeds. A n d the L o r d said to Vereveil,
' B r i n g out the b o o k s from storehouses, a n d give a p e n to E n o c h and read h i m the b o o k s . '
A n d Vereveil h u r r i e d and b r o u g h t m e the b o o k s mottled with m y r r h . A n d he gave m e the
pen from his hand." A n d e r s e n , "2 E n o c h , " 141.
35. W h e n o n e l o o k s m o r e closely at the angelic i m a g e r y reflected in the b o o k o f Jubi­
lees, it is intriguing that M o s e s ' angelic guide is defined as an angel o f the presence. A s has al­
ready b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d , the process o f establishing t w i n s h i p w i t h the heavenly c o u n t e r ­
part not o n l y reflects the initiatory p r o c e d u r e o f b e c o m i n g a S e r v a n t o f the Face, it also
always p r e s u p p o s e s the initiation p e r f o r m e d b y another angelic servant o f the Face.

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 The Heavenly Counterpart of Moses in the Book of Jubilees

t e r p a r t . In fact, this distance b e t w e e n the t w o identities — o n e in the figure

of the a n g e l a n d the other in the figure of a h e r o — represents a s t a n d a r d
feature o f s u c h a c c o u n t s . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , the a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d a c c o u n t
f r o m the B o o k of the S i m i l i t u d e s clearly d i s t i n g u i s h e s E n o c h f r o m his heav­
enly c o u n t e r p a r t in the f o r m of the angelic s o n of m a n t h r o u g h o u t the
w h o l e n a r r a t i v e u n t i l the final u n i f i c a t i o n in the last c h a p t e r of the b o o k .
T h e g a p b e t w e e n the celestial a n d e a r t h l y identities o f the seer is also dis­
c e r n i b l e in the t a r g u m i c a c c o u n t s a b o u t J a c o b ' s h e a v e n l y d o u b l e w h e r e the
d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o identities is h i g h l i g h t e d b y a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the
angels w h o b e h o l d J a c o b s l e e p i n g o n earth a n d at the s a m e t i m e installed in
h e a v e n . A d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n the identity o f the seer a n d his h e a v e n l y t w i n is
also o b s e r v a b l e in the Exagoge w h e r e the h e a v e n l y m a n transfers to M o s e s
his regalia a n d v a c a t e s for h i m his h e a v e n l y seat.

T h e r e is, m o r e o v e r , a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t p o i n t in the stories a b o u t the

h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t s that c o u l d p r o v i d e p o r t e n t o u s i n s i g h t into the n a t u r e
of p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c a l a c c o u n t s w h e r e these stories are f o u n d . T h i s aspect
p e r t a i n s to the issue o f the s o - c a l l e d e m u l a t i o n of the b i b l i c a l e x e m p l a r s in
these p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c a l a c c o u n t s t h a t a l l o w s their a u t h o r s to u n v e i l n e w
3 6
r e v e l a t i o n s in the n a m e o f s o m e p r o m i n e n t a u t h o r i t y of the p a s t . The
i d e n t i t y o f the celestial s c r i b e in the f o r m o f the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e m i g h t
further o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the e n i g m a t i c p r o c e s s of m y s t i c a l a n d l i t e r a r y
e m u l a t i o n o f the e x e m p l a r y figure, the c r y p t i c m e c h a n i c s of w h i c h often re­
m a i n b e y o n d the g r a s p o f o u r p o s t m o d e r n sensibilities.
C o u l d the t r a d i t i o n of u n i f i c a t i o n o f the b i b l i c a l h e r o w i t h his angelic
c o u n t e r p a r t b e p a r t of this p r o c e s s of e m u l a t i o n of the e x e m p l a r b y an a d ­
3 7
ept? C o u l d the i n t e r m e d i a t e a u t h o r i t a t i v e p o s i t i o n of the a n g e l of the p r e s ­
ence, p r e d e s t i n e d to s t a n d " f r o m n o w a n d f o r e v e r " b e t w e e n the D e i t y h i m ­
self a n d the b i b l i c a l h e r o , s e r v e here as the safe h a v e n of the a u t h o r ' s identity,

36. O n the process o f the emulation o f the biblical exemplars in the second temple lit­
erature, see H . Najman, Seconding Sinai: The Development of Mosaic Discourse in Second
Temple Judaism, JSJSup 77 (Leiden: Brill, 2003); Najman, "Torah o f Moses: P s e u d o n y m o u s
Attribution in Second Temple Writings," in The Interpretation of Scripture in Early Judaism
and Christianity: Studies in Language and Tradition, ed. C . A . Evans, J S P S u p 33 (Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic, 2 0 0 0 ) , 202-16; Najman, "Authoritative Writing a n d Interpretation: A
Study in the History of Scripture" (Ph.D. diss., H a r v a r d University, 1998).
37. This "intermediate" authoritative stand is often further reinforced b y the author­
ity o f the Deity himself through the identification o f the heavenly counterparts with the di­
vine form. O n this process, see o u r previous discussion about the blurring of boundaries be­
tween the heavenly counterparts a n d the Deity.

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Andrei A. Orlov

thus representing the important locus of mystical and literary emulation? Is

it possible that in Jubilees, as in other pseudepigraphical accounts, the figure
of the angel of the presence serves as a transformative and literary device
that allows an adept to enter the assembly of immortal beings consisting of
the heroes of both the celestial and the literary world?
Is it possible that in the traditions of heavenly counterparts where the
two characters of the story, one of w h o m is represented by a biblical exem­
plar, become eventually unified and acquire a single identity, w e are able to
draw nearer to the very heart of the pseudepigraphical enterprise? In this re­
spect it does not appear to be coincidental that these transformational ac­
counts dealing with the heavenly doubles of their adepts are permeated with
the aesthetics of penmanship and the imagery of the literary enterprise. In
the course of these mystical and literary metamorphoses, the heavenly figure
surrenders his scribal seat, the library of the celestial books, and even per­
sonal writing tools to the other, earthly identity w h o n o w becomes the new
guardian of the literary tradition.

144
Jubilees and the Samaritan Tradition

Lester L. Grabbe

One of the research delights with which m a n y have occupied themselves in

recent years is "comparative midrash," "comparative haggadah," and inter­
pretative tradition. T h e most interesting focus of such w o r k is the book of
1
Genesis, which has so often been the basis for haggadic traditions. A prime
example of "rewritten Bible," the b o o k of Jubilees cries out for comparison
with other traditions relating to Genesis. Because the Samaritan tradition is
still not very well k n o wn , though, little seems to have been done about com­
paring the Jubilees traditions with those a m o n g the Samaritans. A compre­
hensive, detailed comparison is beyond the scope of the present article, but
m y aim is to look at some main areas where parallels exist and ask whether
Jubilees and the Samaritan tradition spring from c o m m o n roots.
The only study of which I am aware in this area came to negative con­
2
clusions: the book of Jubilees is definitely not S a m a r i t a n . It indeed seems

1. In the late 1970s I proposed a project to compile a catalogue o f interpretative tradi­

tions on Genesis. The idea was presented to a meeting o f Philo scholars brought together by
Professor Burton Mack of the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity at Claremont, to a fair
a m o u n t o f skepticism as to the feasibility o f such a project. I nevertheless discussed it with
several specialists who agreed to take part, but my own academic situation was overtaken by
events: I moved to the U.K., my time was taken up with a new academic post, and m y re­
search interests moved down new paths. I a m not sure I have ever given up the idea, but the
task would be a huge one, even if one stopped at 70 c.E. — if it went forward into the rab­
binic and patristic periods, it would be enormous.
2. R. Pummer, "The Book of Jubilees and the Samaritans," EgT 10 (1979): 147-78. This
article did not c o m e to m y attention until m y research on the present paper was virtually

145
Lester L. Grabbe

o n the surface that Jubilees is n o t a S a m a r i t a n w o r k , b u t m y a i m is s o m e w h a t

different. T h e fact that Jubilees is p r o b a b l y n o t S a m a r i t a n does n o t b y itself
rule out that it a n d the S a m a r i t a n s share h a g g a d i c a n d interpretative tradi­
t i o n s . We k n o w f r o m half a c e n t u r y of s t u d y that even t h o u g h the Q u m r a n
g r o u p w a s p r o b a b l y an isolated c o m m u n i t y a n d m o v e m e n t — at least ac­
c o r d i n g to the m a j o r i t y o f s c h o l a r s — they still p r e s e r v e d m a n y literary a n d
t h e o l o g i c a l parallels w i t h other Jews a n d J e w i s h g r o u p s . It w o u l d h a r d l y be
s u r p r i s i n g if Jubilees h a d s o m e c o m m o n m a t e r i a l w i t h the S a m a r i t a n s , b u t
w e c a n n o t k n o w u n t i l the m a t t e r is i n v e s t i g a t e d .
T h e r e is a m a j o r p r o b l e m in any c o m p a r i s o n : the lack o f g o o d i n f o r ­
m a t i o n o n the d e v e l o p m e n t of m a n y S a m a r i t a n beliefs. M o s t of the S a m a r i ­
tan literature c a n n o t b e dated earlier t h a n the fourth c e n t u r y C . E . , a n d it is
n o t p o s s i b l e to trace m u c h of S a m a r i t a n t h e o l o g y b e y o n d that date to an
earlier p e r i o d . T h u s , if o n e w a n t s to k n o w w h e t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r S a m a r i t a n
t r a d i t i o n w a s as early as Jubilees — or p e r h a p s even earlier — or o n l y d e v e l ­
o p e d m u c h later, in m a n y cases w e c a n n o t give a satisfactory a n s w e r . F o r this
r e a s o n , in the p r e s e n t s t u d y I g e n e r a l l y do n o t talk a b o u t d e v e l o p m e n t s o f
t h o u g h t or w h e t h e r the S a m a r i t a n t r a d i t i o n is likely to b e early or n o t . O n l y
in the p e r i o d from the f o u r t h c e n t u r y to the present can e v o l u t i o n a n d d e ­
v e l o p m e n t be s k e t c h e d w i t h a n y c o n f i d e n c e .
F r o m a t y p o l o g i c a l p o i n t of v i e w , the S a m a r i t a n s l o o k like a J e w i s h
sect — or f r o m their p o i n t of v i e w , J u d a i s m is an Israelite sect w h i l e they are
o r t h o d o x . Still, it is n o t a l w a y s easy to k n o w w h a t the S a m a r i t a n s b e l i e v e or
h a v e b e l i e v e d in certain b a s i c areas. A p r o b l e m for a s t u d y such as this is the
lack of g o o d e d i t i o n s a n d even b a s i c s c h o l a r s h i p o n S a m a r i t a n w r i t i n g s .
M a n y of the S a m a r i t a n s o u r c e s are late, even from the twentieth century.
T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t s u c h s o u r c e s do n o t c o n t a i n a n c i e n t e l e m e n t s , b u t
c o m p a r e d w i t h m u c h J e w i s h literature, the S a m a r i t a n w r i t i n g s are c o m p a r a ­
tively u n s t u d i e d . T h e r e are n o t m a n y S a m a r i t a n specialists, a n d analysis of
m u c h S a m a r i t a n literature has b a r e l y b e g u n . A b a s i c t o o l of research is A
Companion to Samaritan Studies, as w e l l as the c o l l e c t i o n of essays entitled
3
The Samaritans. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , there is n o critical e d i t i o n of the S a m a r i t a n

complete; whether I w o u l d have continued with the project if I h a d seen P u m m e r ' s study
earlier is an a c a d e m i c question that I cannot answer.
3. A . D. C r o w n , R . P u m m e r , a n d A . Tal, eds., A Companion to Samaritan Studies
( T u b i n g e n : M o h r Siebeck, 1993); A . D . C r o w n , ed., The Samaritans ( T u b i n g e n : M o h r Sie-
beck, 1989). See also the article s u r v e y i n g recent study: I. H j e l m , "What D o S a m a r i t a n s a n d
Jews H a v e in C o m m o n ? Recent Trends in S a m a r i t a n Studies," Currents in Biblical Research 3
(2004-5): 9-59. F o r a translation of a n u m b e r of S a m a r i t a n d o c u m e n t s , see J. B o w m a n , Sa-

146
 Jubilees and the Samaritan Tradition

4
Pentateuch. T h e supposed critical edition b y A . von G a l l is based on several

manuscripts, but the editor m a d e arbitrary emendations, especially in the

orthography. A . Tal has produced an edition based on manuscript no. 6 of

the Samaritan synagogue in S h e c h e m , w h i c h will be the basic text used
5
h e r e . Editions of other Samaritan writings will be noted w h e n they are re­
6
ferred to. Fortunately, for Jubilees w e are in a better p o s i t i o n .

Chronology

It is interesting that chronology is i m p o r t a n t both to the b o o k of Jubilees

7
and such Samaritan writings as the Tulidah and the Asatir} T h e Asatir is es­

sentially a paraphrase of m u c h of Genesis, and is thus a literary parallel to

Jubilees. T h i s suggests that it m i g h t provide traditions in c o m m o n with J u ­

bilees. Both put a lot of chronological detail into their text. M o d e r n scholars

can either regard this as a waste of space on inconsequential information or

assume that the writers thought such data was important. It is well k n o w n

maritan Documents Relating to Their History, Religion, and Life, Pittsburgh Original Texts
and Translations 2 (Pittsburgh: Pickwick, 1977).
4. A. F. v o n Gall, ed., Der Hebraische Pentateuch der Samaritaner (Giessen: Topel-
m a n n , 1918; reprint, Berlin: T o p e l m a n n , 1966).
5. A. Tal, ed., The Samaritan Pentateuch Edited according to MS 6 (C) of the Shekhem
Synagogue, Texts and Studies in Hebrew Language and Related Subjects 8 (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv
University Press, 1994).
6. Text and translations o f the Ethiopic text are cited from J. C. VanderKam, ed., The
Book of Jubilees: Text and English Translation, 2 vols., C S C O 510-11, Scriptores Aethiopici 87-
88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989).
7. N o n e o f the editions o f the Tulidah is satisfactory (also called Chronicle 3 in the
numbering by J. Macdonald [ The Theology of the Samaritans, N T L (London: S C M , 1964),
4 4 - 4 9 ] ) ' The published editions include A. Neubauer, "Chronique samaritaine, suivie d'un
appendice contenant de courtes notices sur quelques autres ouvrages samaritains," JA 14
(1869): 385-470 (text and French translation); M. Heidenheim, "Die Samaritan. Chronik des
Hohenpriesters Elasar," Vierteljahrsschrift fur deutsch und englisch-theologische Forschung
und Kritik 4 (1871): 347-89 (German translation only); J. B o w m a n , Transcript of the Original
Text of the Samaritan Chronicle Tolidah (Leeds: University o f Leeds, 1954 [text only, using a
different manuscript from Neubauer; apparently a number o f transcription e r r o r s ] ) .
8. These are part o f the so-called Samaritan chronicles. The Asatir is labeled Chroni­
cle 1 in Macdonald's scheme o f chronicle references (see previous note). A standard edition o f
the Asatir is M. Gaster, The Asatir: The Samaritan Book of the "Secrets of Moses" Together with
the Pitron or Samaritan Commentary and the Samaritan Story of the Death of Moses (London:
Royal Asiatic Society, 1927). A better edition o f the text is Z . Ben-Hayyim, "TODS 1 3 0 , "
Tarbiz 14 (1942-43): 104-90; Tarbiz 15 (1943-44): 71-87.

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Lester L. Grabbe

that Jubilees is named for a chronological system based on a forty-nine-year

cycle of jubilees. This might seem strange since the Pentateuch appears to
envisage a fifty-year cycle (Lev 2 5 : 8 - 1 2 ) . It also has often been commented
that antediluvian patriarchs have three different chronological schemes,
with each major version of Gen 1 - 1 0 having its o w n system of counting the
9
ages of the patriarchs. T h e following table shows the chronological data
from A d a m to Jacob in the three versions. ( N . B . the dates are all A . M . [anno
mundi, the era counting from creation]. T h e data in column 4 [Jubilees] has
been reconstructed from the dates found in the table on pp. 1 5 0 - 5 1 . )

Biblical Text SP LXX MT Jubilees

5:3: Adam begets Seth
5:6: Seth begets Enosh 130 230 130 130
5:9: Enosh begets Kenan 105 205 105 98
5:12: Kenan begets Mahalalel 90 190 90 97
5:15: Mahalalel begets Jared 70 170 70 70
5:18: Jared begets Enoch 65 165 65 66
5:21: Enoch begets Methuselah 62 162 162 61
5:25: Methuselah begets Lamech 65 165 65 65
5:28: Lamech begets Noah 67 167 187 65
[5:32; 11:10: Noah begets Shem] 53 188 182 49-55
7:11: Noah's age when flood came [502] [502] [502] [500-506]
11:10: Shem's age at the time of the flood 600 600 600 601-7
11:10: Shem begets Arpachshad 98 98 98 101
11:12: Arpachshad begets Shelah
[Cainan LXX, Jubilees] 100 100 100 103
[11:13: Cainan begets Shelah LXX, Jubilees] 135 [135] 35 [65]
11:14: Shelah begets Eber [130] [57]
11:16: Eber begets Peleg 130 130 30 71
11:18: Peleg begets Reu 134 134 34 64
11:20: Reu begets Serug 130 130 30 12 [sic]
11:22: Serug begets Nahor 132 132 32 108
11:24: Nahor begets Terah 130 130 30 57
79 79* 29 62

"variant 179

9. A basic study o f various chronographic systems in early Jewish writings is L. L.

Grabbe, "Chronography in Hellenistic Jewish Historiography," in Society of Biblical Literature
1979 Seminar Papers, ed. P. J. Achtemeier, SBLSPS17 (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1979), 2:43-68.

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 Jubilees and the Samaritan Tradition

Biblical Text SP LXX MT Jubilees

11:26: Terah begets Abram (11:32; 12:4) 130
17:17; 21:5: Abraham begets Isaac 70 100 130 70
25:26: Isaac begets Jacob 100 60 100 112
60 60 58
Jubilees has figures that only occasionally agree with the Samaritan
Pentateuch, the Septuagint, or the Masoretic text. In most cases, though, it is
closest to the Samaritan Pentateuch up until the flood, but after the flood it
seems to go its o w n way. This will be investigated in the next section.
One area where Jubilees contains information not found in the bibli­
cal text is that relating to the time when the sons of Jacob were born. T h e
only other early Jewish writing providing such data is Demetrius the
Chronographer, fragments of which are preserved in Eusebius's Praeparatio
10
evangelica:

Biblical Text Jubilees* Demetrius**

29:32: Reuben born (Leah)
29:33: Simeon born (Leah)
29:34: Levi born (Leah)
29:35: Judah born (Leah)
30:6: Dan born (Bilhah)
30:8: Naphtali born (Bilhah)
30:11: Gad born (Zilpah)
30:13: Asher born (Zilpah)
30:18: Issachar born (Leah)
30:20: Zebulun born (Leah)
30:21: Dinah born (Leah)
30:23-24: Joseph born (Rachel)
35:18: Benjamin born (Rachel)
28:11:44.3.1:9/14(2122 A . M . ) 9.21.3: 8:10
28:13:44.3.3:10/21 (2124) 9.21.3: 9:8
28:14:44.3.6:1/1 (2127) 9.21.3: 10:6
28:15: 44.4.1:3/15 (2129) 9.21.3: 11:4
28:18:44.3.6:6/9 (2127) [9.21.5: 14:8;
originally 11:4?]
28:19:44.4.2:7/5(2130) 9.21.3: [12:2; see 9.21.8]
28:20:44.4.3:8/12 (2131) 9.21.3: 12:2
28:21:44.4.5:11/2 (2133) 9.21.3: 12:12
28:22:44.4.4:5/4(2132) 9.21.4: 12:12
28:23:44.4.6:7/7 (2134) 9.21.5: 13:10
ditto (twins) 9.21.5: [14:8; see 9.21.8]
28:24:44.4.6:4/1 (2134) 9.21.5: 14:8
32:33:44.6.1:8/11 (2143) 9.21.10: [30:??]

*{Order of dates: jubilee.week.year:month/day)

**Praep. ev. (year:month)

There are problems because the text of Demetrius has clearly suffered
some damage in transmission and thus does not always make sense. Editors

lo. On Demetrius, see C. R. Holladay, Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors, vol.
l, Historians, Texts and Translations 20, Pseudepigrapha Series 10 (Atlanta: Scholars Press,
1983), 51-91; J. Hanson, "Demetrius the Chronographer," in OTP, 2:843-54.

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Lester L. Grabbe

tend to emend the text to a lesser or greater extent. Even though the emenda­
tions differ from editor to editor, the general understanding appears to be
reasonably consistent. This is because it quickly becomes apparent that
Demetrius is assuming ten months between births even though several of
the children were born at the same time. W h e n the two texts are carefully
compared, though, there is no correspondence between Demetrius and Jubi­
lees and no evidence of a connection. T h e two calculations seem indepen­
dent of one another.
A n area where both Jubilees and Samaritan sources seem to have
something in c o m m o n is the jubilee year. T h e Samaritan Tulidah gives the
jubilee a pivotal role in its chronological scheme. T h e Samaritans, however,
seem not to have counted the jubilee in the same w a y that the book of Jubi­
lees does. According to Tulidah 5 - 6 , five jubilees make 246 years. This is be­
cause the first jubilee is counted as 50 years but subsequent ones are counted
as 49 years. T h e reason for this is not explained, but apparently the same cal­
culation is used for every five jubilees. T h u s ten jubilees are 4 9 2 years and
twenty are 984 years; however, the sixtieth jubilee is inconsistently counted
as 2,951 instead of 2,952, and the sixty-fifth as 3,196 instead of 3,198. Again,
there is no explanation. In any event, the Tulidah and Jubilees are very close
up to the Noachic deluge.

Jubilees and the Asatir

Although the Asatir runs parallel to Jubilees, it is surprising how little over­
lap there is. Both evidently have interpretative material from their respective
traditions, but the traditions are different. Below is a table summarizing this
detail:

Jubilees SP
SP Samaritan Tradition: Asatir

3:15: Adam and Eve in Garden 7 years [1:25: Adam a n d Eve 8 days in Garden]

4:1: Cain born in 6 4 - 7 0 A . M . ; Abel in 7 1 - 7 7

4:1: Awan daughter o f Adam and Eve

Eve 1:3: Al'alah
Altaian twin sister o f Cain; Makeda twin

sister o f Abel

4:2: Cain slays Abel ( 9 9 - 1 0 5 A . M . ) 1:24: Cain slays Abel ( 3 0 A . M . )

4:7: Seth born in 130 A . M . 130 1:26: A d a m begets Seth ( 1 3 0 A . M . )

4:8: Azura daughter o f Adam and Eve

4:9: Cain marries his sister Awan [1.4: Cain lives in city n a m e d Nikl]

4:9: Cain builds city called Enoch

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 Jubilees and the Samaritan Tradition

Jubilees SP Samaritan Tradition: Asatir

4:11: Seth marries his sister Azura

4:11: Seth begets Enosh ( 2 2 8 A . M . ) 235

4:13: Enos begets Kenan ( 3 2 5 A . M . ) 325

4:14: Kenan begets Mahalalel ( 3 9 5 A . M . ) 395

4:15: Mahalalel begets Jared ( 4 6 1 A . M . ) 460

4:16: Jared begets E n o c h ( 5 2 2 A . M . ) 522

4:20: E n o c h begets Methuselah ( 5 8 7 A . M . ) 587

2 : 3 2 , 3 3 - 3 9 : Enoch dies

4:27: Methuselah begets L a m e c h ( 6 5 2 A . M . ) 654

4:28: L a m e c h begets Noah ( 7 0 1 - 7 0 7 A . M . ) 707

4:30: day o f testimony in heaven = 1,000 years

4:33: Noah begets Shem ( 1 2 0 7 A . M . ) 11209]

5:23: Flood c o m e s ( 1 3 0 8 A . M . ) 1307 4:21: from creation to day o f visitation:

1,307 years

7:18: Shem begets A r p a c h s h a d ( 1 3 1 0 A . M . ) 1309

8:1: Arpachshad begets Cainan ( 1 3 7 5 A . M . ) * 4 : 3 1 - 3 2 ; 5 : 1 2 - 2 8 : Nimrod

8:5: Cainan begets Shelah ( 1 4 3 2 A . M . ) 1444

8:7: Shelah begets Eber ( 1 5 0 3 A . M . ) 1574

8:8: Eber begets Peleg ( 1 5 6 7 A . M . ) 1708

8 : 1 1 - 9 : 1 3 : Noah divides the earth [4:13: Noah divides earth 6 2 years after flood]

a m o n g his 3 sons

10:18: Peleg begets Reu ( 1 5 7 9 A . M . ) . 1838 [4:19: after division of e a r t h , 4 , 2 9 3 years

remaining o f 6 , 0 0 0 ]

11:1: Reu begets Serug ( 1 6 8 7 A . M . ) 1970

11:8: Serug begets Nahor ( 1 7 4 4 A . M . ) 2100

11:10: Nahor begets Terah ( 1 8 0 6 A . M . ) 2179

11:14: Terah begets Abram ( 1 8 7 6 A . M . ) 2249

1 6 : 1 3 - 1 5 : A b r a m begets Isaac ( 1 9 8 8 A . M . ) 2349

(13:16; 15:1)

19:13: Isaac begets Jacob and Esau 2409

(2046 A . M . ) (19:1)

11:20: Moses foretold what would happen in

next 3 , 2 0 4 years

*No Cainan in SP; Arpachshad begets Shelah.

Both the Asatir and Jubilees contain a good deal of detail not found in
the text of Genesis. Yet neither tends to have m u c h overlap. Sometimes they

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Lester L. Grabbe

b o t h a d d detail to the text (e.g., the n a m e s of the w i v e s m a r r i e d b y the

a n t e d i l u v i a l p a t r i a r c h s or the cities built b y t h e m ) , but the details h a v e n o re­
lation to o n e another. T o p i c s that are e v i d e n t l y i m p o r t a n t to o n e ( b e c a u s e
space is d e v o t e d to t h e m ) do n o t o c c u r in the other or are m e n t i o n e d o n l y
v e r y briefly. F o r e x a m p l e , Jubilees d o e s not s e e m to be interested in N i m r o d .
1 1
T h i s is in c o n t r a s t to the l e g e n d f o u n d in s o m e other J e w i s h w r i t i n g s , but a
d e v e l o p e d l e g e n d o c c u r s in the Asatir. O n the other h a n d , Jubilees c o n t a i n s
e x p a n d e d stories a b o u t J a c o b ' s w a r s w i t h the A m o r i t e s (34:2-9) a n d w i t h
E s a u a n d his s o n s ( 3 7 - 3 8 ) , w h i c h h a v e n o place in the Asatir n o r any other
Samaritan writing.
O n the c h r o n o l o g i c a l side, the p r e v i o u s section n o t e d that the S a m a r i ­
tans also use the j u b i l e e , b u t t h e y calculate the first j u b i l e e as fifty y e a r s , then
f o r t y - n i n e y e a r s until the fifth j u b i l e e . W h e t h e r b e c a u s e of this or in spite o f
it, the f l o o d o c c u r s in 1 3 0 8 A . M . in Jubilees a n d 1 3 0 7 in the Asatir a n d other
S a m a r i t a n s o u r c e s . T h e p r e f l o o d g e n e a l o g i e s o f Jubilees are close to the S a ­
m a r i t a n P e n t a t e u c h , b u t w i t h little e x a c t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . F r o m the f l o o d o n ,
h o w e v e r , the S a m a r i t a n P e n t a t e u c h tends to agree w i t h the Septuagint,
w h e r e a s Jubilees tends to use s m a l l e r figures (but still greater t h a n t h o s e i n
the M a s o r e t i c text) a n d is quite different f r o m the S a m a r i t a n . Jubilees does
h a v e o n e a g r e e m e n t w i t h the S e p t u a g i n t : it i n c l u d e s C a i n a n between
A r p a c h s h a d a n d S h e l a h (in c o n t r a s t to b o t h the S P a n d the M T , w h i c h m a k e
S h e l a h the s o n o f A r p a c h s h a d ) . A s t u d y m u c h n e e d e d is a t h o r o u g h investi­
g a t i o n o f the Jubilees c h r o n o l o g y to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r i n t e r n a l p a t t e r n s are
o p e r a t i n g . O n e factor that c o m p l i c a t e s any a t t e m p t to discern p a t t e r n s in the
figures of Jubilees is that the Jubilees c h r o n o l o g y is n o t a l w a y s i n t e r n a l l y
consistent. We h a v e the o b v i o u s error in the case of Peleg, w h o has a s o n at
age t w e l v e ( 1 0 : 1 8 ) . B u t other p r o b l e m a t i c figures relate to A b r a h a m ' s age
w h e n he begets I s h m a e l (14:24) and then I s a a c ( 1 6 : 1 3 - 1 5 ) .

T h e c o n c e p t of h u m a n h i s t o r y e n c o m p a s s i n g 6,000 y e a r s , o n the a n a l ­
o g y of the w e e k , e n d i n g w i t h a 1 , 0 0 0 - y e a r "sabbath," is w e l l k n o w n f r o m later
1 2
Jewish and Christian w r i t i n g s . We find the s a m e c h r o n o l o g i c a l s c h e m e in
the Asatir (4:19; 1 1 : 2 0 ) , t h o u g h this is p r o b a b l y a m e d i e v a l w r i t i n g . W a s the
c o n c e p t f o u n d as early as the b o o k o f Jubilees? J u b 4:30 s p e a k s of a d a y
e q u a l i n g 1,000 y e a r s in the t e s t i m o n y of h e a v e n . T h e full s c h e m e of 6,000

11. See L. Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews, J: Bible Times and Characters from the Cre­
ation to Jacob, trans. Henrietta Szold (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of A m e r i c a ,
1909), 177-217; Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews, V: Notes to Volumes I and I], from the Creation to
the Exodus (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society o f A m e r i c a , 1925), 198-218.
12. See G r a b b e , "Chronography," 2:51-55.

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 Jubilees and the Samaritan Tradition

y e a r s of h u m a n h i s t o r y before the e s c h a t o n is n o t spelled o u t i n J u b i l e e s ,

w h i c h m e a n s that w e c a n n o t b e certain it existed for the w r i t e r o f that b o o k .
B u t there is a p o s s i b l e p a r a l l e l h e r e .

Calendar

A l o n g w i t h c h r o n o l o g y , b o t h Jubilees a n d the Asatir are c o n c e r n e d a b o u t the

calendar. Jubilees states as f o l l o w s :

6:3oAll the days of the c o m m a n d m e n t s will be 52 w e e k s o f days; (they will

m a k e ) the entire year c o m p l e t e . 6:3iSo it has b e e n engraved a n d o r d a i n e d
on the heavenly tablets. O n e is n o t allowed to transgress a single year,
year b y year. 6:32Now y o u c o m m a n d the Israelites to keep the years in this
n u m b e r — 364 days. T h e n the year will be c o m p l e t e a n d it will n o t dis­
turb its time from its days o r from its festivals b e c a u s e e v e r y t h i n g will
h a p p e n in h a r m o n y with their testimony. . . . 6:36There will b e p e o p l e
w h o carefully observe the m o o n w i t h l u n a r o b s e r v a t i o n s b e c a u s e it is
c o r r u p t (with respect to) the seasons a n d is early from year to year b y
ten days.

A s is w e l l k n o w n , Jubilees f o l l o w e d a s o l a r c a l e n d a r o f 364 days (slightly

s h o r t o f the true solar y e a r o f a b o u t 365.25 d a y s ) that c o u l d c o n v e n i e n t l y b e
d i v i d e d into 52 weeks a n d four q u a r t e r s o f 13 w e e k s (91 days) each. T h e l u n a r
c a l e n d a r w a s specifically rejected.
T h e details o f the S a m a r i t a n c a l e n d a r are n o t easily g l e a n e d f r o m the
Asatir o r many other S a m a r i t a n d o c u m e n t s , but what soon b e c o m e s clear is
that the S a m a r i t a n s f o l l o w e d a l u n i - s o l a r calendar, i.e., a c a l e n d a r in w h i c h
each m o n t h is d e t e r m i n e d b y the p h a s e s o f the m o o n b u t i n w h i c h the l u n a r
y e a r is r e g u l a r l y adjusted to b r i n g it into line with the solar year. W h a t this
m e a n s i n p r a c t i c e is that a thirteenth m o n t h is intercalated e v e r y t w o o r
three y e a r s , so that o v e r a p e r i o d o f a l m o s t e x a c t l y n i n e t e e n y e a r s , the l u n a r
a n d solar cycles c o m e into a l i g n m e n t . It is the s a m e p r i n c i p l e as the J e w i s h
13
calendar, i n c l u d i n g u s e o f the M e t o n i c cycle a n d the J u l i a n year. W h e r e a s
the m o d e r n J e w i s h c a l e n d a r is n o w c a l c u l a t e d , the p r i n c i p l e s o f the S a m a r i ­
tan c a l e n d a r h a v e b e e n a carefully g u a r d e d secret; h o w e v e r , there is e v i d e n c e

13. F o r m o r e details, see S. Stern, Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish
Calendar 2nd Century BCE-ioth Century CE (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2 0 0 1 ) .

153
Lester L. Grabbe

14
that it is n o w also c a l c u l a t e d . T h e two do not necessarily coincide because
of differences in the p a t t e r n of a d d i n g an i n t e r c a l a r y m o n t h .

Angelology

A l t h o u g h the "fallen a n g e l s " t r a d i t i o n is p e r h a p s n o t as central to Jubilees as

it is to 1 E n o c h , it is still i m p o r t a n t , o c c u r r i n g in m o r e t h a n o n e p a s s a g e :

5:iWhen m a n k i n d b e g a n to m u l t i p l y on the surface of the entire earth a n d

daughters were b o r n to them, the angels of the L o r d — in a certain (year)
of the jubilee — saw that they w e r e beautiful to l o o k at. So they m a r r i e d of
t h e m w h o m e v e r they chose. T h e y gave birth to children for them and they
were g i a n t s . . . . 5:6Against his angels w h o m he h a d sent to the earth he was
a n g r y e n o u g h to u p r o o t t h e m from all their (positions of) authority. H e
told us to tie t h e m u p in the depths of the earth; n o w they are tied w i t h i n
them a n d are alone. 5:7Regarding their children there w e n t out from his
presence an order to strike t h e m w i t h the s w o r d and to r e m o v e them f r o m
beneath the sky. . . . s s H e sent his s w o r d a m o n g t h e m so that they w o u l d
kill one another. T h e y began to kill each other until all of them fell b y the
s w o r d and w e r e obliterated from the earth. 5:ioNow their fathers w e r e
watching, but afterwards they were tied u p in the depths of the earth until
the great day of j u d g m e n t w h e n there will be c o n d e m n a t i o n on all w h o
have corrupted their ways and their actions before the L o r d .

A little further in the n a r r a t i v e a n o t h e r reference o c c u r s :

7:2iFor it w a s on a c c o u n t of these three things that the f l o o d w a s on the

earth, since (it w a s ) due to fornication that the Watchers h a d illicit inter­
course — apart f r o m the m a n d a t e of their a u t h o r i t y — w i t h w o m e n .
W h e n they m a r r i e d of t h e m w h o m e v e r they chose they c o m m i t t e d the
first ( a c t s ) of u n c l e a n n e s s . 7:22They f a t h e r e d (as t h e i r ) sons the
N e p h i l i m . T h e y were all dissimilar (from o n e a n o t h e r ) and w o u l d de­
v o u r o n e a n o t h e r : the giant killed the N a p h i l ; the N a p h i l killed the E l y o ;
the E l y o m a n k i n d ; a n d p e o p l e their fellows.

14. S. Powels, Der Kalender der Samaritaner unhand des Kitab Hisab as-Sinln und
anderer Handschriften, Studia Samaritana 3 (Berlin and N e w York: D e Gruyter, 1977);
Powels, " X I . T h e Samaritan Calendar a n d the Roots of Samaritan Chronology," in The Sa­
maritans, 691-742.

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 Jubilees and the Samaritan Tradition

T h i s t r a d i t i o n o f the fallen angels is characteristic m a i n l y of l E n o c h a n d of

J u b i l e e s . Parts of the "fallen a n g e l s " m y t h are f o u n d here a n d there, b u t the
full m y t h o c c u r s o n l y in these two b o o k s . In Jubilees it is a b b r e v i a t e d , b u t it
a p p e a r s to h a v e m u c h the s a m e c o n t e n t s as that in l E n o c h , as far as w e c a n
tell. A l t h o u g h a S a t a n / d e v i l t r a d i t i o n is w i d e s p r e a d in J u d a i s m a n d later in
15
Christianity, i n c l u d i n g the idea that S a t a n fell from h e a v e n , the "fallen an­
gels" m y t h in these t w o b o o k s takes a p a r t i c u l a r f o r m .
W h e n w e l o o k at the S a m a r i t a n s , w e certainly find angels, but S a m a r i t a n
a n g e l o l o g y as a w h o l e r e m a i n s relatively u n d e v e l o p e d c o m p a r e d to other
1 6
streams of J u d a i s m . T h e S a m a r i t a n tradition has d e v e l o p e d s o m e i n d i v i d u a l
p e r s o n a l angels w i t h n a m e s a n d specific tasks. B u t c o m p a r e d to the angelic
t r a d i t i o n of 1 E n o c h , it is fairly s i m p l e . Particularly i m p o r t a n t is the discourse
1 7
on angels b y A b u ' l H a s a n . T h e r e are four n a m e d angels ( P h a n u e l , A n u s a ,
K a b b a l a , a n d N a s i ) of the g o o d sort. T h e " A n g e l of the P r e s e n c e " (also called
18
G o d ' s Kabod [ " G l o r y " ] ) is i m p o r t a n t in v a r i o u s Pentateuchal p a s s a g e s .
W h a t is m o s t c u r i o u s , t h o u g h , is the n e a r a b s e n c e of evil a n g e l s . A l ­
t h o u g h a few n a m e s occur, a S a t a n / d e v i l t r a d i t i o n is n o t s t r o n g l y d e v e l o p e d
in S a m a r i t a n literature. T h e r e are references to " s o n s of Belial," such as w e
find in the b i b l i c a l text, a n d a reference to A z a z e l , b u t these are m a i n l y c o n ­
fined to the D a y of A t o n e m e n t . A b s e n t is a "fallen a n g e l s " t r a d i t i o n c o m p a ­
r a b l e in a n y w a y to the o n e in J u b i l e e s a n d 1 E n o c h , w h i c h led M a c d o n a l d to
w r i t e , " N o case c a n be m a d e o u t for a S a m a r i t a n belief in evil angels or de­
19
m o n s as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f their s y s t e m of b e l i e f . " T h i s m e a n s that a core
belief of Jubilees has n o real p a r a l l e l in the S a m a r i t a n tradition.

Afterlife

Jubilees has o n e w e l l - k n o w n p a s s a g e a b o u t the afterlife:

23:3oThen the L o r d will heal his servants. T h e y will rise and see great
p e a c e . H e w i l l expel his e n e m i e s . T h e righteous w i l l see (this), offer

15. Cf. L. L. Grabbe, " T h e Scapegoat Ritual: A Study in Early Jewish Interpretation,"
JSJ 18 (1987): 152-67.
16. Macdonald, The Theology, 397-404.
17. See the translation o f a central passage in B o w m a n , Samaritan Documents, 248-51.
18. J. E . Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord: Samaritan and Jewish
Concepts of Intermediation and the Origin of Gnosticism, W U N T 36 (Tubingen: M o h r
Siebeck, 1985), 220-38.
19. Macdonald, The Theology, 404.

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Lester L. Grabbe

praise, a n d be v e r y h a p p y forever a n d ever. T h e y will see all their p u n i s h ­

m e n t s a n d curses on their e n e m i e s . 23:3iTheir b o n e s w i l l rest in the earth
a n d their spirits w i l l be v e r y happy. T h e y w i l l k n o w that the L o r d is o n e
w h o executes j u d g m e n t b u t s h o w s k i n d n e s s to h u n d r e d s a n d t h o u s a n d s
a n d to all w h o love h i m .

T h e s t a n d a r d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n has b e e n that this r e p r e s e n t s a t y p e of " r e s u r r e c ­

t i o n o f the spirit"; i.e., in c o n t r a s t to s o m e f o r m s of J u d a i s m , the b o d y is n o t
r e s u r r e c t e d . It r e m a i n s in the earth b u t the spirit c o n t i n u e s to live, u s u a l l y in
2 0
a celestial r e a l m .
A s w i t h the J e w s , the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l v i e w s of the S a m a r i t a n s d e v e l o p e d
21
over the c e n t u r i e s , a n d t h e r e w e r e differences b e t w e e n the s e c t s . T h e r e are
s o m e r a b b i n i c s t a t e m e n t s to the effect that the S a m a r i t a n s d i d n o t b e l i e v e in
the r e s u r r e c t i o n , a n d in " S a m a r i t a n s o u r c e s f r o m the f o u r t h c e n t u r y to the
f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y the e v i d e n c e for a b e l i e f in r e s u r r e c t i o n is also u n c e r ­
22
tain." H o w e v e r , it a p p e a r s that the D o s i t h e a n s sect d i d b e l i e v e in the r e s u r ­
23
rection. In a n y event, r e s u r r e c t i o n h a s b e c o m e a p a r t o f S a m a r i t a n t h i n k ­
i n g in recent c e n t u r i e s , e v e n if it is difficult to trace it to an earlier p e r i o d .
O n e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is that the o r i g i n a l S a m a r i t a n e s c h a t o l o g y w a s l i m i t e d
a n d set o n the earth; a m o r e t r a n s c e n d e n t v e r s i o n , w i t h the c o n c e p t s of the
D a y of V e n g e a n c e (a s o r t of d a y o f j u d g m e n t or " d a y o f the L o r d " ) a n d the
r e s u r r e c t i o n , d e v e l o p e d later, p e r h a p s s o m e k e y e l e m e n t s as late as m e d i e v a l
or later t i m e s . W h e t h e r the S a m a r i t a n s h a d a b e l i e f like that in J u b i l e e s is u n ­
certain, b u t it is p o s s i b l e .

Messiah/Messianic Kingdom

O n e a s p e c t o f S a m a r i t a n e s c h a t o l o g y is b e l i e f in the T a h e b . T h i s figure is of­

ten c o m p a r e d to the J e w i s h m e s s i a h . T h i s has b e e n d e n i e d b e c a u s e the T a h e b
is b a s i c a l l y an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o p h e t like M o s e s ; h o w e v e r , c o n s i d e r i n g the

20. G . W. E . Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertesta-

mental Judaism, H T S 26 ( C a m b r i d g e : Harvard University Press, 1972), 31-33.
21. F. Dexinger, "V. Samaritan Eschatology," in The Samaritans, 266-92; M . Gaster,
The Samaritan Oral Law and Ancient Traditions, vol. 1, Samaritan Eschatology (London:
Search Publishing C o . , 1932).
22. Dexinger, "V. Samaritan Eschatology," 283.
23. S. J. Isser, The Dositheans: A Samaritan Sect in Late Antiquity, S J L A 17 (Leiden:
Brill, 1976), 143-50.

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 Jubilees and the Samaritan Tradition

v a r i e t i e s o f m e s s i a n i c b e l i e f i n s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m , b e l i e f i n the T a h e b
2 4
does n o t l o o k o u t o f p l a c e . The term "messiah" seems t o b e lacking, but
this is also the case w i t h s o m e J e w i s h figures w h o are l a b e l e d m e s s i a n i c . T h e
T a h e b is a p r o p h e t b u t also a k i n g i n s o m e texts. H e sets u p a k i n g d o m o n
25
earth a n d lives for n o y e a r s , after w h i c h h e dies b e f o r e the e s c h a t o n . One
can c o m p a r e this w i t h the m e s s i a n i c figure i n 4 E z r a 7:28-44 w h o also dies
(after a r e i g n o f 4 0 0 y e a r s ) .
O n e c a n s p e a k o f a sort o f " m e s s i a n i c k i n g d o m " i n J u b i l e e s i n s u c h
p a s s a g e s a s 1:29 a n d 2 3 : 2 6 - 3 1 . T h e r e s e e m s t o b e n o m e s s i a h a s s u c h , h o w e v e r ;
the closest w e c o m e is a reference t o a p r i n c e f r o m the tribe o f J u d a h ( 3 1 : 1 8 -
2 0 ) . T h e w o r d i n g is r a t h e r v a g u e , t h o u g h , a n d it is n o t clearly a m e s s i a h . It
c o u l d b e referring t o the future Israelite k i n g in the i m a g e o f D a v i d . T h e k i n g
w a s o f c o u r s e a n o i n t e d a n d thus a " m e s s i a h , " b u t o n l y i n that sense does a
m e s s i a h s e e m t o b e d i s c u s s e d . In a n y case, Jubilees a n d the S a m a r i t a n s a p ­
p e a r t o h a v e r a t h e r different c o n c e p t s .

Conclusions

N o e v i d e n c e suggests that Jubilees is a S a m a r i t a n w o r k . T h e r e are t o o m a n y

i n c o n g r u i t i e s w i t h S a m a r i t a n beliefs. To take o n e s m a l l e x a m p l e , Jubilees
clearly gives a s p e c i a l p l a c e t o J e r u s a l e m i n 1:28-29:

i : 2 8 " T h e L o r d w i l l a p p e a r in the s i g h t o f all, a n d all w i l l k n o w that I a m

the G o d o f Israel, the father o f all Jacob's children, a n d the king o n M t .
Z i o n for the ages o f eternity. T h e n Z i o n a n d J e r u s a l e m w i l l b e c o m e
holy." i:29The angel o f the presence, w h o w a s g o i n g along i n front o f the
Israelite c a m p , t o o k the tablets ( w h i c h told) o f the d i v i s i o n s o f the years
from the t i m e the l a w a n d the testimony w e r e created — for the w e e k s o f
their j u b i l e e s , year b y year i n their full n u m b e r , a n d their jubilees from
[the time of the creation until] the time o f the n e w creation w h e n the
heavens, the earth, a n d all their creatures w i l l b e r e n e w e d like the p o w e r s
o f the sky a n d like all the creatures o f the earth, until the time w h e n the
temple o f the L o r d w i l l b e created i n J e r u s a l e m o n M t . Z i o n .

24. See L. L. Grabbe, Judaic Religion in the Second Temple Period: Belief and Practice
from the Exile to Yavneh (London a n d N e w York: Routledge, 2 0 0 0 ) , 2 7 1 - 9 1 , a n d the literature
cited there.
25. Dexinger, "V. Samaritan Eschatology," 272-76.

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Lester L. Grabbe

T h e real q u e s t i o n w a s w h e t h e r Jubilees m i g h t h a v e certain s p e c i a l tra­

d i t i o n s o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s in c o m m o n w i t h the S a m a r i t a n t r a d i t i o n , a n d this
w a s the q u e s t i o n investigated in the p r e s e n t p a p e r . It w a s n o t an easy q u e s ­
tion to a n s w e r b e c a u s e m a n y t r a d i t i o n s in Jubilees s e e m to h a v e n o parallels
in the S a m a r i t a n t r a d i t i o n , w h i c h m e a n s that n o c o m p a r i s o n c o u l d be m a d e .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , the t w o w r i t i n g s c o u l d be c o m p a r e d in s e v e r a l areas. T h e fol­
l o w i n g are the g e n e r a l results f r o m the areas s t u d i e d here:

• B o t h J u b i l e e s a n d the S a m a r i t a n t r a d i t i o n h a v e d e v e l o p e d h a g g a d i c
m a t e r i a l relating to the G e n e s i s stories that a d d m u c h interpretative
detail. Yet m u c h o f this does n o t c o r r e s p o n d b e c a u s e o n e has h a g g a d i c
m a t e r i a l w h e r e it is absent in the other. T h i s m e a n s that c o m p a r i s o n is
n o t a l w a y s easy.
• W h e r e b o t h t r a d i t i o n s have c o m p a r a b l e h a g g a d i c e x p a n s i o n , t h e y g e n ­
erally do n o t c o i n c i d e in the details. F o r e x a m p l e , d a u g h t e r s are b o r n to
A d a m a n d E v e a n d b e c o m e the w i v e s of a n t e d i l u v i a l p a t r i a r c h s i n b o t h
t r a d i t i o n s , b u t the n a m e s do n o t m a t c h in the t w o t r a d i t i o n s . S i m i l a r l y ,
b o t h talk o f cities f o u n d e d b y the p r e f l o o d figures, but a g a i n there is n o
c o i n c i d e n c e o f detail.
• Jubilees s e e m s to h a v e a s i m i l a r r e c k o n i n g of the c h r o n o l o g y f r o m cre­
ation to the N o a c h i c deluge, b u t there is h a r d l y a n y a g r e e m e n t o n the
exact figures for the a n t e d i l u v i a n g e n e a l o g i e s . F r o m the f l o o d o n , J u b i ­
lees is quite different, w i t h a m u c h shorter c h r o n o l o g y , differing f r o m
the S a m a r i t a n b y a l m o s t 4 0 0 y e a r s b y the t i m e of A b r a h a m . T h u s , the
a p p r o x i m a t e a g r e e m e n t u p to N o a h ' s flood does not a p p e a r at all signif­
icant, b u t further s t u d y of the v a r i o u s c h r o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s is n e e d e d .
• T h e Jubilees r e c k o n i n g of the ages o f J a c o b ' s s o n s is a l m o s t u n i q u e , but
a p a r a l l e l is f o u n d in D e m e t r i u s the C h r o n o g r a p h e r . T h e t w o s y s t e m s
do n o t a g r e e , t h o u g h .
• T h e j u b i l e e y e a r is i m p o r t a n t to b o t h Jubilees a n d the Samaritan
Tulidah. T h e y use different w a y s of c a l c u l a t i n g the j u b i l e e , h o w e v e r ,
a n d there s e e m s little c o r r e s p o n d e n c e in detail.
• T h e S a m a r i t a n t r a d i t i o n , like the J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n , h a d d e v e l o p e d
a s c h e m e o f 6,000 y e a r s of h u m a n h i s t o r y b e f o r e the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l
m i l l e n n i a l "sabbath." It is n o t entirely clear that s u c h a s c h e m e c a n b e
f o u n d in J u b i l e e s , b u t 4:30 m i g h t h i n t at this c o n c e p t .
• T h e S a m a r i t a n s use a l u n i - s o l a r c a l e n d a r , w i t h m u c h in common
w i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l J e w i s h c a l e n d a r , in c o n t r a s t to the s o l a r c a l e n d a r
of Jubilees.

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 Jubilees and the Samaritan Tradition

• Although the Samaritans had an angelology, it does not seem to have

been very extensively developed. But what is especially missing is a
myth of evil fallen angels such as that in Jubilees and 1 E n o c h .
• T h e Jubilees concept of "resurrection of the spirit" resembles the Sa­
maritan v i e w of the afterlife but probably no m o r e so than it resembles
the Jewish view. Both sets of writing seem to be drawing on a c o m m o n
stock of Jewish beliefs about the afterlife.
• Jubilees does not seem to have a concept of a messianic figure (though
one could argue for a "messianic kingdom"), unlike the Samaritan
Taheb.

T h e present study has been far from exhaustive, but it has looked at
some of the major areas where Jubilees and the Samaritan tradition can be
compared. S o m e examples of coincidence in detail were found, but these
mostly could be explained as accidental or arising from a c o m m o n Jewish
tradition. It would have been interesting if clear examples of parallels could
be found, but so far they have eluded me. M a n y early Jewish traditions have
parallels in the Samaritan tradition and vice versa; the lack of coincidence
between Jubilees and the Samaritan tradition seems in part a reflection of
the fact that Jubilees often has unique traditions when compared with other
early Jewish literature. T h u s , one should be careful about extrapolating from
the situation with Jubilees to other Jewish writings. Each tradition —
whether Jewish or Samaritan — must be examined individually before con­
clusions can be reached.

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P A R T TWO

T H E M E L T I N G OF M O S A I C
AND ENOCHIC TRADITIONS
Enochic Judaism — a Judaism
without the Torah and the Temple?

Helge S. Kvanvig

Master Narrative and Counterstory

T h e biblical image of history is above all created through the addition of the
Pentateuch and the Deuteronomistic W o r k of History. B y this combination
there was created an image of history reaching from creation to exile with
clear accents on foundational events that determined the fate of the people:
election through A b r a h a m , exodus, the Torah on Sinai, conquest, temple,
apostasy, and exile. B y ending in the exile, the narrative ends with a question
mark provoking an answer to all subsequent readers: W h a t is the next turn
of history? W h a t are the traces left in the narrative design of history that
point toward a n e w future?
To present this biblical image of history in compressed form, I have
chosen the covenantal renewal in N e h 8 - 1 0 as a representative text. There for
the first time the basic elements of the biblical image of history are woven
together in one coherent picture in order to advocate a specific religious
identity where the law and the temple play a major role. Neh 8 - 1 0 is accord­
ingly a micronarrative within the biblical macronarrative, and there is a clear
interplay between the origin of the forceful macronarrative and the compos­
ing of N e h 8 - 1 0 . W e consider Neh 8 - 1 0 as representative for a distinct piety
in Judaism. W e treat the narrative in its basic configuration as exemplary; we
do not claim that there is direct genetic relationship between this particular
text and the E n o c h i c writings.
In comparing narratives we need a reflection on how narratives inter-

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Helge S. Kvanvig

act. I h a v e here c h o s e n a t e r m i n o l o g y b o r r o w e d f r o m H . L i n d e m a n n N e l s o n .
She analyzes the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n w h a t she designates as m a s t e r n a r r a ­
1
tives, c o u n t e r s t o r i e s , a n d alternative s t o r i e s . She uses these d e s i g n a t i o n s to
analyze s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , h o w n a r r a t i v e identities c o u l d be o p p r e s s i v e or
l i b e r a t i n g . I use these d e s i g n a t i o n s p u r e l y as literary c a t e g o r i e s . A m a s t e r
n a r r a t i v e is a f o u n d a t i o n a l s t o r y in a larger c o m m u n i t y . It is at i n t e r p l a y w i t h
other n a r r a t i v e s of a s i m i l a r k i n d . T o g e t h e r t h e y s u m m a r i z e s h a r e d u n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g s in the c o m m u n i t y a n d exercise a u t h o r i t y o v e r m o r a l n o r m s . T h e y
2
h a v e the c a p a c i t y to p r e s e n t a w o r l d v i e w that seems self-evident. A
c o u n t e r s t o r y is a s t o r y that contests the w o r l d v i e w of the m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e ,
n o t b y t r y i n g to erase the n a r r a t i v e itself, but b y m a k i n g s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s
in its literary w e b . T h e result is that the n e w restored n a r r a t i v e c o m m u n i ­
cates s o m e t h i n g entirely different. T h e c o u n t e r s t o r y is definitely in o p p o s i ­
tion to the m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e , but n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p o l e m i c a l . It w o r k s c o u n t e r
in a m o r e subtle w a y b y d i s s o l v i n g the c o m m u n i c a t i v e force of the m a s t e r
3
n a r r a t i v e , t h r o u g h d i s p l a c e m e n t of plots a n d c h a r a c t e r s . A l t e r n a t i v e stories
also d e v i a t e f r o m m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e s , b u t they do n o t contest t h e m . T h e y can
a d d , m o v e , a n d r e m o v e features f r o m the m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e to m a k e n e w ac­
cents in it, b u t n o t to dissolve its c o m m u n i c a t i v e force. A l t e r n a t i v e n a r r a t i v e s
c a n live t o g e t h e r a n d l e n d a u t h o r i t y to each other.

C . A . N e w s o m has m a d e a s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r distinction in her b o o k

a b o u t the c o n s t r u c t i o n of r e l i g i o u s identity in Q u m r a n . S h e distinguishes b e ­
tween dominant discourse and counterdiscourse. The Q u m r a n community
created a c o u n t e r d i s c o u r s e over against the d o m i n a n t d i s c o u r s e of the J u d e a n
4
society. H e r definitions of " d o m i n a n t " a n d " c o u n t e r " are close to those
f o u n d in L i n d e m a n n N e l s o n ' s a p p r o a c h , b e a r i n g in m i n d that d i s c o u r s e is a
m u c h b r o a d e r c a t e g o r y t h a n n a r r a t i v e . It is also a m o r e d e m a n d i n g o n e , since
a d o m i n a n t d i s c o u r s e of " n o r m a l " J u d a i s m has to b e c o n s t r u c t e d .
In the f o l l o w i n g w e w i l l a p p l y the c a t e g o r i e s of m a s t e r narrative,
c o u n t e r s t o r y , a n d alternative s t o r y to three texts: N e h 8 - 1 0 , the B o o k of the
W a t c h e r s (1 E n 1 - 3 6 ) , a n d the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks ( 1 E n 9 3 : 1 - 1 0 + 9 1 : 1 1 - 1 7 ) .
T h e focus w i l l be o n h o w the T o r a h a n d the t e m p l e are c o n t e x t u a l i z e d in
these texts.

1. H . L. Nelson, Damaged Identities, Narrative Repair (Ithaca, N.Y., and London: C o r ­

nell University Press, 2001), 6-20, 150-88.
2. Cf. Nelson, Damaged Identities, 6f.
3. Nelson, Damaged Identities, 152ft.
4. C . A . N e w s o m , The Self as Symbolic Space: Constructing Identity and Community at
Qumran (Leiden: Brill, 2004), 17-21.

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 Enochic Judaism — a Judaism without the Torah and the Temple?

Nehemiah 8 - 1 0 : A Master Narrative

T h e w h o l e n a r r a t i v e starts w i t h the r e a d i n g of the T o r a h a n d the c e l e b r a t i o n

of S u k k o t h ( 7 : 7 2 b - 8 : i 8 ) . T h e n c o m e s the p r a y e r w h e r e the foundational
events in h i s t o r y are r e c o r d e d ( 9 : 1 - 3 1 ) : c r e a t i o n , A b r a h a m , e x o d u s , Sinai, w i l ­
derness w a n d e r i n g , c o n q u e s t , life in the l a n d e n d i n g in a final disaster. After
the r e v e l a t i o n of the law at S i n a i , the a p o s t a s y o f the p e o p l e starts a n d in­
creases, especially after the c o n q u e s t . T h e p r a y e r ends in a petition for m e r c y
5
a n d a c o n f e s s i o n ( 9 : 3 2 - 3 7 ) . T h e n a r r a t i v e c o n t i n u e s in N e h 10 b y telling h o w
the p e o p l e j o i n an a g r e e m e n t to follow the T o r a h , w h i c h i n c l u d e s r e n o u n c e ­
m e n t of m i x e d m a r r i a g e s , k e e p i n g the S a b b a t h r e g u l a t i o n s , a n d o b l i g a t i o n s
t o w a r d the t e m p l e .
6
T h e different p a r t s of the u n i t h a v e different o r i g i n s a n d d a t e s . The
w h o l e c o m p o s i t i o n is g e n e r a l l y h e l d to b e o n e of the y o u n g e s t in the H e ­
b r e w B i b l e ; b o t h P a k k a l a a n d B l e n k i n s o p p see it as an i n s e r t i o n after the
7
C h r o n i c l e r ' s r e d a c t i o n of E z r a / N e h e m i a h . We are t h u s m o v e d at least to
the b e g i n n i n g o f the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . T h e date a n d o r i g i n of the p r a y e r in
8
9:5ff. h a v e b e e n i n t e n s i v e l y d e b a t e d . After a l o n g d i s c u s s i o n B o d a dates the
p r a y e r to the p e r i o d that p r e c e d e d E z r a a n d N e h e m i a h , i.e., in the v e r y early
9
p o s t e x i l i c p e r i o d . A n early p o s t e x i l i c date s e e m s unlikely, h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e
t h e p r a y e r u s e s b o t h t h e P r i e s t l y s o u r c e to t h e P e n t a t e u c h and the
D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c W o r k o f H i s t o r y — for i n s t a n c e , it k n o w s the l i t e r a r y u n i t
Exod 19-20.
We w i l l first c o n c e n t r a t e o n the p r a y e r . A l r e a d y v o n R a d in 1 9 7 1 c h a r a c ­
terized the g e n r e of N e h 9 as Gerichtsdoxologie, together w i t h especially E z r a
9:6-15 a n d D a n 9. T h e h i s t o r y of the c o m m u n i t y w a s recalled u n d e r the p e r ­
spective of d i s o b e d i e n c e to the T o r a h a n d c o n t r a s t e d to the p a t i e n c e a n d for­
1 0
giveness of G o d . B o d a f o l l o w s v o n R a d a n d characterizes the p r a y e r as a

5. For the structure, cf. H . G . M . Williamson, "Structure a n d Historiography in Nehe­

miah 9," in Proceedings of the Ninth World Congress of Jewish Studies (Jerusalem: Magnes,
1985), 117-31 (here i 2 o f f ) .
6. Cf. J. Blenkinsopp, Ezra-Nehemiah, O T L (Philadelphia: S C M , 1989), 284ff, 30iff.,
3ioff.
7. J. Pakkala, Ezra the Scribe: The Development of Ezra 7-10 and Nehemiah 8, B Z A W
347 (Berlin: D e Gruyter, 2 0 0 4 ) , 180-211; Blenkinsopp, Ezra-Nehemiah, 54f.
8. Cf. the discussion in M . J. B o d a , Praying the Tradition: The Origin and Use of Tradi­
tion in Nehemiah 9, B Z A W 277 (Berlin: D e Gruyter, 1999), 1 1 - 1 6 .
9. B o d a , Praying the Tradition, 189-97.
10. G . v o n R a d , "Gerichtsdoxologie," in Gesammelte Studien zum alten Testament II
(Munich: Kaiser, 1973), 245-54.

165
Helge S. Kvanvig

11
"penitential p r a y e r . " T h e plots in these p r a y e r s consist of t w o e q u a l l y sig­
nificant e l e m e n t s that constitute the o v e r a l l n a r r a t i v e . T h e r e is a s t o r y p a r t
w h e r e the h i s t o r y of the p e o p l e is recalled u n d e r the p e r s p e c t i v e of guilt, a n d
there is the a c t u a l c o n f e s s i o n of sin, or p e n i t e n c e , w h e r e the o n e w h o en­
treats or the p e o p l e a p p e a l to the m e r c y of G o d . T h e i n t e n t i o n is to create a
t u r n i n g p o i n t in h i s t o r y w h e r e the p e o p l e are freed from the guilt of the past
a n d g i v e n a n e w future of g r a c e .
S o m e i m p o r t a n t accents in this p r e s e n t a t i o n of h i s t o r y link the recall
of h i s t o r y to the present situation of c e r e m o n i a l c o m m i t m e n t . T h e first is
the role of the T o r a h . T h e T o r a h is central in all p a r t s of the n a r r a t i v e : in the
first p a r t in the r e a d i n g of the T o r a h a n d the c e l e b r a t i o n of S u k k o t h ( 7 : 7 2 b -
8:18), in the p r a y e r ( 9 : 3 , 1 3 - 1 4 , 26, 2 9 , 3 4 ) , a n d in the c e r e m o n i a l c o m m i t m e n t
( 1 0 : 2 9 - 3 0 ) . In the o b l i g a t i o n s t o w a r d the t e m p l e the T o r a h is referred to
t w i c e (10:35, 37)- T h i s is especially i m p o r t a n t , b e c a u s e here w h a t b e c a m e the
t w o m o s t i m p o r t a n t institutions in p o s t e x i l i c J u d a h are b r o u g h t together in
o n e unity, the T o r a h a n d the t e m p l e .
T h e s e c o n d accent is the berit, the c o v e n a n t . T h e r e are t w o i m p o r t a n t
o b s e r v a t i o n s to b e m a d e h e r e . First, the c o v e n a n t is m a d e w i t h the p e o p l e
t h r o u g h A b r a h a m , it is n o t l i n k e d to S i n a i . T h e r e f o r e the c o v e n a n t is a b i n d ­
i n g p r o m i s e f r o m G o d ( N e h 9:8). S e c o n d , the c o n t e n t o f the c o v e n a n t is the
l a n d . E v e n t h o u g h the berit is m e n t i o n e d o n l y t w i c e , a b o u t A b r a h a m in 9:8
a n d in the a p p e a l in 9:32, the p r o m i s e of the l a n d is a t h e m e t h r o u g h the
w h o l e recall o f history. T h u s in this h i s t o r i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n t w o b a s i c f o u n ­
d a t i o n s f r o m the past are lifted u p as the c o n d i t i o n s for the p e o p l e ' s s u r v i v a l ,
the p r o m i s e of the l a n d , the berit, a n d the c o m m i t m e n t to the T o r a h .
A s a w h o l e , N e h 8 - 1 0 is the s t o r y a b o u t the rebirth o f the p e o p l e o f
G o d . T h e y w e r e o n c e b o r n t h r o u g h the s a c r e d h i s t o r y of G o d l e a d i n g f r o m
A b r a h a m to S i n a i . T h e n f o l l o w e d a l o n g , d a r k h i s t o r y of r e b e l l i o n w h e r e
t h e y w e r e k e p t alive o n l y t h r o u g h the g r a c e o f G o d . N o w the p e o p l e are at
the t u r n i n g p o i n t of their h i s t o r y a g a i n . T h r o u g h the c o m m i t m e n t to the
T o r a h t h e y w i l l again enter into the h i s t o r y o f g r a c e , freed f r o m their p r e s e n t
o p p r e s s o r s , cf. 9:34; 1 0 : 1 . A s a s t o r y a b o u t rebirth, this is also a s t o r y a b o u t
identity. It lines out w h a t k i n d of p e o p l e f r o m n o w o n b e l o n g to the p e o p l e
of G o d , a n d w h a t characterizes the p e o p l e of G o d . T h e s e characteristics c o n ­
cern b o t h the past a n d the present. T h e n e w i d e n t i t y e m b r a c e s b o t h the h i s ­
t o r y a n d the present c o m m i t m e n t . F r o m n o w o n a true J u d e a n is a p e r s o n
f o r m e d t h r o u g h the h i s t o r y of berit a n d T o r a h ; he is s e p a r a t e d from other

1 1 . B o d a , Praying the Tradition, 26-32.

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 Enochic Judaism — a Judaism without the Torah and the Temple?

p e o p l e l i v i n g in the area t h r o u g h his ethnic purity, his T o r a h o b s e r v a n c e ,

a n d his cultic r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o w a r d the t e m p l e . T h e s e characteristics are
1 2
the core characteristics in w h a t has b e e n labeled c o v e n a n t a l J u d a i s m .
T h e line of d e m a r c a t i o n b e t w e e n the insiders a n d the o u t s i d e r s is
s h a r p l y d r a w n a n d s e e m s a b s o l u t e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , there is an a m b i g u i t y in
this s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n . It is s y m b o l i c rather t h a n real. T h e law in E z r a -
N e h e m i a h is n e v e r exactly defined; it is s i m p l y "the l a w o f M o s e s , " w h i c h
13
clearly has an o p e n n e s s t o w a r d n e w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . T h e r e a d i n g a n d rein­
t e r p r e t a t i o n of the T o r a h is t h u s a p a r t of w h a t N a j m a n d e s i g n a t e s as the
M o s a i c d i s c o u r s e , starting with D e u t e r o n o m y . T h i s d i s c o u r s e has its clear
l i m i t s , b e c a u s e it bases its l e g i t i m a c y on the a u t h o r i t y o f M o s e s , b u t it is flex­
14
ible in the w a y this a u t h o r i t y is c a r r i e d out in the a c t u a l interpretation.
T h u s such i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s are alternative; t h e y exist t o g e t h e r w i t h i n the M o ­
saic d i s c o u r s e . Stories w i t h i n this m a s t e r p a r a d i g m c a n b e at t e n s i o n w i t h
each other, but t h e y derive a u t h o r i t y f r o m a n d l e n d a u t h o r i t y to the M o s a i c
Torah.

The Book of the Watchers

T h e B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s is c o m p o s e d o f three m a i n p a r t s , w h i c h c a n b e a p ­
p r o x i m a t e l y dated f r o m the last p a r t o f the f o u r t h c e n t u r y to the m i d d l e of
the third: the O r a c l e of J u d g m e n t (1 E n 1 - 5 ) , the W a t c h e r S t o r y ( 6 - 1 6 ) , a n d
the J o u r n e y s of E n o c h ( 1 7 - 3 6 ) . T h e W a t c h e r S t o r y c o n t a i n s t w o s e c t i o n s : the
R e b e l l i o n S t o r y ( 6 - 1 1 ) a n d the E n o c h S t o r y ( 1 2 - 1 6 ) .
1 5
T h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e a g r e e m e n t a b o u t the g r o w t h of the b o o k . The
R e b e l l i o n S t o r y ( 6 - 1 1 ) f o r m s the oldest p a r t . T h e n e x t step is the i n c l u s i o n of
this s t o r y in the E n o c h S t o r y ( 1 2 - 1 6 ) , creating the W a t c h e r S t o r y ( 6 - 1 6 ) .
T h e n c o m e s the a d d i n g o f the J o u r n e y s ( 1 7 - 3 6 ) , a n d as the final step the O r ­
acle of J u d g m e n t that i n t r o d u c e s the w h o l e b o o k ( 1 - 5 ) .
T h e core of the b o o k is a c c o r d i n g l y the R e b e l l i o n Story. T h i s s t o r y tells
h o w a p o s t a s y is b r e d into this w o r l d . T h e r e are three codes at play, f o r b i d d e n

12. Cf. the discussion in N e w s o m , Self as Symbolic Space, 23-36.

13. Cf. S. Japhet, " L a w a n d 'the L a w ' in Ezra-Nehemiah," in Proceedings of the Ninth
World Congress of Jewish Studies, 99-115.
14. Cf. H . Najman, Seconding Sinai: The Development of Mosaic Discourse in Second
Temple Judaism, JSJSup 77 (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 1-19.
15. Cf. the discussion in G . W. E . Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1: A Commentary on the Book of
Enoch 1—36, 81-106, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2 0 0 1 ) , 25f.

167
Helge S. Kvanvig

sexuality, v i o l e n c e , a n d illegitimate k n o w l e d g e . In s t r u c t u r e the s t o r y f o l l o w s

16 1 7
the f l o o d s t o r y . T h i s s t o r y is again e x p l i c a t e d in l E n 1 2 - 1 6 a n d 1 - 5 . We
m a y call these t w o sections "alternative stories" if w e c o n c e n t r a t e on the n a r ­
rative e l e m e n t s in 1 - 5 . T h e stories are alternative in the w a y t h e y b o t h use the
R e b e l l i o n S t o r y as m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e , b u t utilize the b a s i c e l e m e n t s o f this
s t o r y in a n e w n a r r a t i v e d e s i g n that does not c o n t r a d i c t the m a s t e r story.
1 E n 1 2 - 1 6 carries the R e b e l l i o n S t o r y further in its m y t h i c a l r e a l m . T h e
b a s i c plot of the s t o r y is the p e n i t e n c e a n d the q u e s t i o n of petition for the
W a t c h e r s a n d their o f f s p r i n g ( 1 3 : 4 - 5 ) . T h e three b a s i c codes f r o m the R e b e l ­
l i o n S t o r y are present, b u t there is a clear e m p h a s i s on f o r b i d d e n s e x u a l i t y as
1 8
t r a n s g r e s s i o n of the d i v i n e o r d e r (12:4; 1 5 : 3 - 7 ) . T h i s t r a n s g r e s s i o n resulted
1 9
in the o r i g i n o f evil spirits on earth ( 1 5 : 8 - 1 6 : 1 ) .
Suter said the W a t c h e r S t o r y w a s f o r m e d as a p o l e m i c against the J e r u ­
s a l e m p r i e s t h o o d , b e c a u s e priests m a r r i e d w o m e n o u t s i d e priestly fami­
20
lies. N i c k e l s b u r g has a r g u e d the s a m e , but c o n f i n e d to the E n o c h Story,
w h i c h s e e m s m o r e likely since the c o d e o f s e x u a l i t y is m o r e f o c u s e d in this
21
section. N i c k e l s b u r g has c a r r i e d the a r g u m e n t further by p o i n t i n g out sev­
eral s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n the E n o c h S t o r y a n d the last chapters in E z r a : b o t h
E n o c h a n d E z r a are titled " s c r i b e " (1 E n 1 2 : 3 - 4 ; E z r a 7 : 6 ) , E n o c h intercedes
for the W a t c h e r s u s i n g w o r d s s i m i l a r to Ezra's p r a y e r o f c o n f e s s i o n (1 E n
1 3 : 4 - 5 ; E z r a 9:6), the plot is s i m i l a r in b o t h , a n d b o t h deal w i t h the t r a n s g r e s ­
2 2
s i o n of m a r r i a g e r u l e s .
T h e parallels to E z r a have m o s t b e a r i n g in relation to the t e m p l e . If the

16. Cf. H . S. Kvanvig, " C o s m i c L a w s a n d C o s m i c Imbalance: W i s d o m , Myth a n d Es­

chatology in the Early Enochic Writings," in The Early Enoch Tradition, ed. G . Boccaccini
(Leiden: Brill, 2007).
17. Cf. D . R. Jackson, Enochic Judaism: Three Defining Paradigm Exemplars (London:
Clark, 2 0 0 4 ) , 3iff.
18. Cf. A. Y. Reed, Fallen Angels and the History of Judaism and Christianity (Cam­
bridge: C a m b r i d g e University Press, 2005), 44-49.
19. H . S. Kvanvig, "Gen 6,3 and the Watcher Story," Hen 25 (2003): 287-92.
20. D. W. Suter, "Fallen Angels, Fallen Priests: T h e Problem o f Family Purity in
1 Enoch," HUCA 50 (1979): 115-35; Suter, "Revisiting 'Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest,'" in The Ori­
gins of Enochic Judaism, ed. G . Boccaccini, H e n o c h (Turin: Silvio Z a m o r a n i , 2002), 137-42.
21. G . W. E . Nickelsburg, "Enoch, Levi a n d Peter: Recipients o f Revelation in Upper
Galilee," JBL 100 (1981): 575-600 (here 5 8 4 f ) . Broader material to support the argument is
presented by M . Himmelfarb, "Levi, Phinehas, and the Problem of Intermarriage at the
T i m e of the Maccabean Revolt," JSQ 6 (1999): 1-24.
22. Nickelsburg, j Enoch 1, 23of. T h e same argument was presented b y H . S. Kvanvig,
Roots of Apocalyptic, W M A N T 61 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1988), 101.

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 Enochic Judaism — a Judaism without the Torah and the Temple?

Watchers are cast in the role of i m p u r e priests, as a parallel to the i m p u r e p e o ­

ple in E z r a , the E n o c h i c text is utterly critical to the l e g i t i m a c y of the cult in
the s e c o n d t e m p l e . If E n o c h a n d E z r a stand parallel as intercessors in plots
w i t h s i m i l a r traits, w e n o t e that the o u t c o m e of the intercession is o p p o s i t e .
T h e s t o r y of E z r a is a s t o r y of penitence like N e h 8 - 1 0 , w h e r e also the p u r i t y
of the p e o p l e is c o n c e r n e d . In b o t h stories the o u t c o m e is f o r g i v e n e s s . T h e
stories create a p o i n t of d e m a r c a t i o n in h i s t o r y w h e r e the positive o u t c o m e
serves to l e g i t i m i z e the practices of the future. T h e story in 1 E n 1 2 - 1 6 w o r k s
in the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . T h e r e is n o forgiveness for the W a t c h e r s / p r i e s t s .
T h e y are still u n d e r c o n d e m n a t i o n . In this sense the W a t c h e r S t o r y functions
as a c o u n t e r s t o r y to stories of p e n i t e n c e a n d forgiveness related to the s e c o n d
t e m p l e . It t u r n s the plot in the o p p o s i t e direction; the petition is d e n i e d .
T h i s i m p l i e d p o l e m i c a g a i n s t the t e m p l e in J e r u s a l e m s e e m s also to be
reflected in the g e o g r a p h i c a l setting of 1 E n 1 2 - 1 6 . E n o c h w e n t to the Waters
of D a n , s o u t h of M o u n t H e r m o n , to receive his r e v e l a t i o n ( 1 3 : 7 ) . A n d f r o m
there he a s c e n d e d to the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e , w h i c h is m o r e c o n n e c t e d to
2 3
M o u n t H e r m o n t h a n to Z i o n . T h e v i s i o n itself s h o w s that E n o c h as a p a ­
t r o n o f the E n o c h i a n s w a s n o t d e p r i v e d access to the t e m p l e , b u t it w a s in
h e a v e n , n o t in J e r u s a l e m .

Since 1 E n 1 - 5 frequently alludes to w r i t i n g s in the H e b r e w B i b l e , it is t e m p t ­

i n g to use t r a d i t i o n s p r e s e n t in these texts as a k e y to i n t e r p r e t the s e c t i o n .
H a r t m a n c l a i m e d that the c o v e n a n t constituted the referential b a c k g r o u n d .
H e f o u n d three specific m a r k e r s in the text that p o i n t e d t o w a r d the c o v e ­
n a n t : the t h e o p h a n y a n d j u d g m e n t c o n n e c t e d to S i n a i (1:4, 9 ) , the t e r m i n o l ­
o g y o f the d e n o u n c e m e n t s p e e c h , a n d the curses a n d b l e s s i n g s , s p r e a d all
24
over 1 E n 2 - 5 , w h i c h b o t h reflected the p a t t e r n of a c o v e n a n t a l r i t u a l . I
t h i n k the m a r k e r s are t o o v a g u e to p o i n t to a specific c o v e n a n t a l ritual, if
s u c h a r i t u a l ever e x i s t e d . T h e closest w e c o m e in the p o s t e x i l i c p e r i o d is the
c e r e m o n y in N e h 8 - 1 0 , w h i c h s h o w s n o links to 1 E n 1 - 5 .
H o f f m a n n f o l l o w s a m o r e g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h . H e suggests that the n o ­
tion o f the M o s a i c T o r a h u n d e r l i e s the w i s d o m t e r m i n o l o g y of the E n o c h i c
w r i t i n g s a n d that this n o t i o n has to be seen as the c o n t e x t at places w h e r e the
25
M o s a i c T o r a h is n o t directly a d d r e s s e d . T h u s he c l a i m s that "die N e n n u n g

23. Cf. N i c k e l s b u r g , " E n o c h , Levi and Peter," 582-87.

24. L. H a r t m a n , Asking for a Meaning: A Study of Enoch 1 - 5 , C o n B N T 12 ( L u n d :
G l e e r u p , 1975), I23f.
25. H . H o f f m a n n , Das Gesetz in der fruhjiidischen Apokalyptik (Gottingen: Vanden-
hoeck, 1999), I26f.

169
Helge S. Kvanvig

26
des B e r g e s Sinai i m p l i z i e r t die G a b e der T o r a . " L i k e w i s e , he c l a i m s that l E n
2 7
5:4 c o n t a i n s a reference to the M o s a i c T o r a h r e v e a l e d at S i n a i . 1 a m severely
in d o u b t that the c o n c e p t of the M o s a i c Torah as w e k n o w it from N e h 8 - 1 0
a n d the P e n t a t e u c h s i m p l y can be taken for g r a n t e d in these p a s s a g e s .
T h e b a c k g r o u n d of 1 E n 1 - 5 is n o t to b e s o u g h t o u t s i d e the E n o c h i c
t r a d i t i o n s , but i n s i d e . 1 E n 1 - 5 is p r i m a r i l y f o r m e d on the basis of the
W a t c h e r S t o r y as a m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e : 1:2 in relation to the v i s i o n in c h a p s . 1 4 -
15, the W a t c h e r s in 1:5, the p r o u d w o r d s a n d the curse in 1:9; 5:5-7 in relation
n o
to 6:3-5; " p e a c e " in 5:4-5 in relation to 1 2 : 5 - 6 ; 1 3 : 1 ; 1 6 : 4 ; the fate o f the r i g h ­
t e o u s in 1:7-8; 5:6-9 in relation to 10:7, 1 6 - 2 2 ; 1 1 : 1 - 2 . T h e b a s i c plot in the t w o
s e c t i o n s is the s a m e . B o t h the Watchers a n d the s i n n e r s have v i o l a t e d the
c o s m i c order; cf. 2 : 1 - 5 : 4 . W h a t takes place in a m y t h i c a l r e a l m in 1 E n 6 - 1 6 is
t r a n s f e r r e d to the h u m a n r e a l m in 1 E n 1 - 5 .
B u t there are s o m e i m p o r t a n t differences. 1 E n 6 - 1 6 tends to depict h u ­
m a n s m o s t as v i c t i m s , w h i l e they are r e s p o n s i b l e for their acts in 1 - 5 . T h e d e ­
s c r i p t i o n of the r i g h t e o u s i n 1 0 : 1 6 - 1 1 : 2 has a m o r e u n i v e r s a l o u t l o o k : "all the
s o n s of m e n w i l l b e c o m e r i g h t e o u s , " 1 0 : 2 1 . 5:5-9 is n a r r o w e r in its o u t l o o k ;
the c h o s e n f o r m a distinct g r o u p over a g a i n s t the s i n n e r s . A n d i n 5:8 w i s d o m
is p r o m i s e d for the c h o s e n , a m o t i f l a c k i n g in 1 0 : 1 6 - 1 1 : 2 . It s e e m s as if 1 E n 1—
5 reflects a later stage in h i s t o r y w h e n the E n o c h i a n s h a v e a m o r e distinct
profile.
T h r e e p a s s a g e s n e e d s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n in r e g a r d to the T o r a h : 1 E n 1 : 4 , 9 ,
a n d 5 : 4 . 1 E n 1:4, 9 describes a t h e o p h a n y w h e r e G o d will c o m e w i t h m y r i a d s
of h o l y o n e s f r o m his h e a v e n l y d w e l l i n g a n d tread o n M o u n t S i n a i to execute
j u d g m e n t . T h i s text has t w o i m p o r t a n t referential b a c k g r o u n d s . First, the
text clearly d r a w s on m o t i f s f o u n d in w h a t s c h o l a r s m a i n t a i n is the oldest S i ­
28
nai tradition. G o d reveals h i m s e l f in a t h e o p h a n y c o m i n g f r o m S i n a i as his
d w e l l i n g to rescue his p e o p l e ( J u d g 5:4-5; D e u t 33:2; Ps 6 8 : 8 - 9 , 1 8 ) . T h e s e m o ­
tifs o f "the G o d o f Sinai," t h e o p h a n y , a n d rescue are c o m b i n e d w i t h the m o ­
tif of j u d g m e n t s i m i l a r to M i c 1:3-4.
T h e s e c o n d i m p o r t a n t b a c k g r o u n d is to be f o u n d in the J o u r n e y s of
E n o c h , w h e r e the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d w e l l i n g places of G o d , the r i g h t e o u s , a n d
the w i c k e d are r e v e a l e d . In 1 E n 2 5 - 2 7 t w o m o u n t a i n s are d e s c r i b e d . T h e first

26. Hoffmann, Das Gesetz in der fruhjitdischen Apokalyptik, 129.

27. Hoffmann, Das Gesetz in der fruhjitdischen Apokalyptik, 131.
28. F. C r u s e m a n n , The Torah: Theology and Social History of Old Testament Law (Ed­
inburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1999), 31-37: K . Koch, "Jahwas Ubersiedlung v o m Wustenberg nach
Kanaan: Z u m Herkunft von Israels Gottesverstandnis," in Der Gott Israels und die Gotter des
Orients (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2007), 171-209 (here 190-92).

170
 Enochic Judaism — a Judaism without the Torah and the Temple?

is "the h i g h m o u n t a i n , " 25:3; the s e c o n d is "the h o l y m o u n t a i n " at the center

of the earth, 2 6 : 1 - 2 . T h e t w o m o u n t a i n s are clearly to be identified as Sinai
2 9
and Z i o n . S i n a i s e e m s also a l l u d e d to as the t h r o n e of G o d in 18:8. B o t h in
18:8 a n d 25:3 the d e s c r i p t i o n of S i n a i has s o m e similarities w i t h w h a t is said
30
a b o u t Sinai in 1:4: it is the l o c a t i o n o f G o d ' s final t h e o p h a n y .
T h e s e c o n d m o u n t a i n is Z i o n . H e r e the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e m p l e of G o d
P a n
w i l l b e situated, 25:5-6, G r : ev r o m p a y i w , TOV OIKOV TOU Oeoti, TO cryiov,
w i t h E t h i o p i c e q u i v a l e n c e s . T h i s is the eternal resting place of the r i g h t e o u s ,
25:5-7, w h i l e the s i n n e r s after the j u d g m e n t are l o c a t e d in the H i n n o m V a l l e y
b e n e a t h , 2 7 : 2 - 5 . T h e text collects from b r o a d t r a d i t i o n s k n o w n from the H e ­
b r e w B i b l e w h e r e Z i o n has the central role in the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d r a m a ; see
for instance the final section of Isaiah, 6 5 : 1 7 - 6 6 : 2 4 .
T h e r e is a c c o r d i n g l y n o n e e d to e x p e c t a reference to the T o r a h in the
p a s s a g e a b o u t Sinai in 1 E n 1:4. T h e p a s s a g e d r a w s o n the p r e s u m a b l y oldest
Sinai t r a d i t i o n w h e r e Sinai is the a b o d e of G o d , w h o reveals h i m s e l f in the-
o p h a n i e s . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , m o r e r e a s o n to ask w h y o n l y Sinai is p i c k e d u p
f r o m the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s c e n e r y in 1 E n 2 5 - 2 7 a n d Z i o n left out. In a b r o a d
t r a d i t i o n in the H e b r e w B i b l e it is Z i o n , a n d n o t S i n a i , that is i n the center of
the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d r a m a . If there is any i m p l i e d p o l e m i c in 1 E n 1 : 4 , 9 , it is in
the e x c l u s i o n of Z i o n in the final j u d g m e n t a n d s a l v a t i o n .
If Sinai isolated d o e s n o t i m p l y the T o r a h in 1 E n 1:4, there is an i m p o r ­
tant link from 1:4 to 1:9 a n d further to 5:4 that m a y establish a T o r a h refer­
e n c e . 1 E n 1:9 c o n c l u d e s the t h e o p h a n y starting in 1:4 b y u n d e r l i n i n g the
w i c k e d w o r d s a n d deeds o f the s i n n e r s . T h e n the deeds o f n a t u r e are listed as
c o n t r a s t in 2 : 1 - 5 : 3 . In 5:4 the deeds of the sinners are p i c k e d u p a g a i n , creat­
3 1
ing a b r i d g e to i : 9 .
T h e central p a s s a g e in 5:4 is c o m m o n l y translated " y o u h a v e n o t acted
a c c o r d i n g to his c o m m a n d m e n t s . " T h e w o r d " c o m m a n d m e n t " translates
E t h i o p i c te'zaz a n d G r e e k evroXf]. T h e G r e e k w o r d is the c o m m o n transla­
tion in L X X for H e b r e w n i X D , the o r d i n a r y w o r d for " c o m m a n d m e n t " that
often parallels "torah" in the H e b r e w B i b l e , frequently in N e h 8 - 1 0 ( 9 : 1 3 , 1 4 ,
29, 34; 1 0 : 3 0 ) . T h e t e r m i n o l o g y of 5:4 is closely c o n n e c t e d to Sinai in 1:4. It is
therefore t e m p t i n g to c o n n e c t S i n a i a n d law, a l t h o u g h o n e c o u l d a r g u e that

29. J. J. Collins, "Before the Fall: T h e Earliest Interpretations o f A d a m and Eve," in

The Idea of Biblical Interpretation: Essays in Honor of James L. Kugel, ed. H . Najman and
J. N e w m a n (Leiden: Brill, 2004), 293-308 (here 302-4); Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 5 4 f , 3i2ff.
30. Cf. K . C . Bautch, A Study of the Geography of 1 Enoch 17-19, JSJSup 81 (Leiden:
Brill, 2003), 120-25.
31. Cf. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, i$jf.

171
Helge S. Kvanvig

the E n o c h i c S i n a i t i c law h a d a n o t h e r c o n t e n t t h a n the M o s a i c o n e . E n o c h

w o u l d , n e v e r t h e l e s s , h a v e j o i n e d the M o s a i c d i s c o u r s e .
H o w e v e r , e n o u g h A r a m a i c text s u r v i v e s in 4 Q 2 0 1 , ii, 1 1 - 1 3 to restore a
quite r e a s o n a b l e A r a m a i c w o r d i n g of the p a s s a g e in the t r a n s i t i o n f r o m 1 E n
5:3 to 5:4: " y e a r [after y e a r his w o r k s do n o t c h a n g e ] , they c a r r y o u t his w o r d .
H o w e v e r , y o u have c h a n g e d y o u r w o r k s [and do n o t c a r r y o u t his w o r d . . . ] . "
The k e y w o r d s are here 1 3 1 3 7 , " w o r k , " a n d "IBNO, " w o r d , s p e e c h , c o m m a n d . "
T h e r e is a direct link in t e r m i n o l o g y b e t w e e n the w o r d of G o d that n a t u r e
f o l l o w s in its w o r k a n d the s a m e w o r d of G o d that the s i n n e r s c h a n g e in
their w o r k . T h e c o n c e p t is G o d ' s rule in n a t u r e , as it is p e r c e i v e d in c r e a t i o n
h y m n s ; cf. Pss 3 3 : 4 - 1 5 a n d 1 4 8 : 5 - 1 3 . O f special interest here are t w o o c c u r ­
rences of me'mar in the Targum of Job, b o t h related to G o d ' s rule in n a t u r e .
In 1 1 Q 1 0 , x x v i i i , 9 it c i r c u m s c r i b e s H e b r e w "71p, G o d ' s " v o i c e " ( J o b 3 7 : 2 ) ; in
x x x i i i , 8 it translates Job's " m o u t h , " HS, in the r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r
Job can be c o m p a r e d w i t h G o d in p o w e r ( J o b 3 9 : 2 7 ) . T h u s me'mar is n o
t e c h n i c a l t e r m for l a w that i m p l i e s a reference to the T o r a h o n S i n a i ; it is a
reference to the c o s m i c o r d e r that a c c o r d i n g to E n o c h s h o u l d rule b o t h n a ­
t u r e a n d h u m a n lives.

The e x a m i n a t i o n o f the B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s p o i n t s in t w o different direc­

t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the t e m p l e a n d the law. T h e r e are e n o u g h r e a s o n s to s u p ­
p o s e t h a t the s c r i b e s o f this b o o k w e r e critical t o w a r d the t e m p l e . It is n o
s u r p r i s e that the t e m p l e is o f c o n c e r n since it is the b a s i c i n s t i t u t i o n of J u d a h
that s h o u l d interest scribes w i t h p r i e s t l y a m b i t i o n s . T h e critical attitude is,
h o w e v e r , n o t p r e s e n t e d in o p e n p o l e m i c . T h e critic w o r k s i n a m o r e subtle
way, as w e h a v e d e s c r i b e d in the relation b e t w e e n m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e a n d
c o u n t e r s t o r y . E s p e c i a l l y t r i c k y here is the p l o t created in 1 E n 1 2 - 1 6 w h e r e the
W a t c h e r s w e r e cast in the roles of priests w h o h a d lost their p u r i t y in the
s a m e m a n n e r as the p e o p l e in stories of p e n i t e n c e , but w e r e d e n i e d f o r g i v e ­
ness a n d placed u n d e r condemnation.
The q u e s t i o n of the T o r a h is different. A s far as I c a n see, there is n o
reference to a M o s a i c T o r a h r e v e a l e d on S i n a i at all. T h i s c o u l d b e seen as a
d e l i b e r a t e d e n i a l of its l e g i t i m a c y . B u t this w o u l d be a c o n c l u s i o n ex silentio.
T h e r e is a c o n s i d e r a b l e difference b e t w e e n the t e m p l e as the b a s i c i n s t i t u ­
tion a n d the T o r a h of M o s e s as a l i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t , k n o w n f r o m N e h 8 - 1 0
a n d the r e d a c t i o n a c t i v i t y in the f o r m a t i o n of the P e n t a t e u c h and the
D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c W o r k of H i s t o r y . T h e silence a b o u t this M o s a i c T o r a h
c o u l d therefore r a t h e r b e d i s r e g a r d e d , b e c a u s e it h a d n o t yet g a i n e d b r o a d
a u t h o r i t y . F o r the oldest p a r t of the b o o k it c o u l d even b e i g n o r a n c e , b e -

172
 Enochic Judaism — a Judaism without the Torah and the Temple?

c a u s e t h e y w e r e n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h the plot created in the D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c

tradition.
I a m therefore hesitant to use the relation to the T o r a h at this early
p o i n t of the E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n as a t o u c h s t o n e for the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n an
E n o c h i c g r o u p a n d o t h e r parts o f the J u d e a n society. I t h i n k N i c k e l s b u r g is
basically r i g h t w h e n he e m p h a s i z e s that it is the special c h a r a c t e r of the
E n o c h i c r e v e a l e d w i s d o m that m a k e s it different f r o m M o s a i c J u d a i s m ,
rather than the lack of the T o r a h , at least at this early p o i n t of the E n o c h i c
3 2
writings. A s a s p e c i a l k i n d of c o m b i n a t i o n of w i s d o m a n d e s c h a t o l o g y , the
early E n o c h i c w r i t i n g s b e l o n g e d to a p a r t i c u l a r w i s d o m t r a d i t i o n . O n l y in
the later d e v e l o p m e n t of this t r a d i t i o n d o e s it m e e t the M o s a i c J u d a i s m , as
33
w e k n o w it f r o m for i n s t a n c e N e h 8 - 1 0 , as a c h a l l e n g e . A t the b e g i n n i n g
there w a s created a m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e of the r e b e l l i o n in h e a v e n w i t h a p l o t
v e r y different f r o m the m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e in N e h 8 - 1 0 a n d s i m i l a r n a r r a t i v e s
in the Priestly a n d D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c t r a d i t i o n s .

The Apocalypse of Weeks

T h e date of the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s (1 E n 9 3 : 1 - 1 0 + 9 1 : 1 1 - 1 7 ) has b e e n se­

34
verely d i s c u s s e d . I a m i n c l i n e d to t h i n k it is a separate u n i t i n c o r p o r a t e d
into the E p i s t l e of E n o c h (1 E n 9 2 - 1 0 5 ) . F u r t h e r , I t h i n k that the l a c k of a n y
35
reference to the M a c c a b e a n revolt p o i n t s to an earlier date t h a n this r e v o l t .
A c c o r d i n g l y , the A p o c a l y p s e is the first text k n o w n that r e c o u n t s the w h o l e
h i s t o r y f r o m proton to eschaton. In the n a r r a t i o n E n o c h predicts the w h o l e
of h i s t o r y o n the b a s i s of w h a t is w r i t t e n on the h e a v e n l y tablets. T h e real au­
t h o r is to b e f o u n d in the seventh o f the ten w e e k s , thus f o r m i n g the past his­
t o r y from the first to the seventh w e e k as vaticinia ex eventu and his future

32. G . W. E . Nickelsburg, "Enochic W i s d o m : A n Alternative to the Mosaic Torah," in

Hesed Ve-Emet: Studies in Honor of Ernest S. Frerichs, ed. J. Magness and S. Gitin (Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1998), 123-31.
33. T h i s w o u l d b e similar to the development in other w i s d o m traditions as they are
described b y Sanders, with the difference that the Enochians never adopted the Mosaic To­
rah in the way it was done in for instance Ben Sira; cf. J. T. Sanders, "When Sacred Canopies
Collide: T h e Reception of the Torah o f Moses in the W i s d o m Literature of the Second Tem­
ple Period," / S / 3 2 (2001): 121-36.
34. Cf. for a recent discussion, C. Berner, Jahre, Jahrewochen und jubilaen, B Z A W 363
(Berlin: D e Gruyter, 2006), 118-25.
35. Cf. Berner, Jahre, Jahrewochen und Jubilaen; Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 44of, 447-49.

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Helge S. Kvanvig

" h i s t o r y " up to the tenth w e e k as real p r e d i c t i o n s . T h i s has the c u r i o u s effect

that the a u t h o r a n d his circle are p l a c e d w i t h i n the n a r r a t e d e v e n t s , a n d n o t
at the e n d of t h e m as is n o r m a l in n a r r a t i v e recalls of history.
In the recall o f past h i s t o r y from the first to the seventh w e e k , n a r r a t i v e
h i s t o r y as w e k n o w it f r o m the H e b r e w B i b l e clearly f o r m s the b a c k b o n e .
T h e r e are s o m e significant parallels to the recall o f h i s t o r y in N e h 9. First,
w i t h the d i s t i n g u i s h e d place of A b r a h a m : in b o t h N e h 9:7-8 a n d in the A p o c ­
a l y p s e , third w e e k , 93:5, future Israel rests on the election of A b r a h a m . S e c ­
o n d , in the d i s t i n g u i s h e d place of the T o r a h : in N e h 9 : 1 3 - 1 4 the r e v e l a t i o n o f
the T o r a h on S i n a i f o r m s the center of the g r a c i o u s acts of G o d , c o n s t i t u t i n g
the p e o p l e . In the A p o c a l y p s e the T o r a h is the s e c o n d f o u n d i n g event after
the election of A b r a h a m ( f o u r t h w e e k , 1 E n 9 3 : 6 ) . O n e c a n d i s c u s s w h e t h e r
36
E t h i o p i c ser'athere a n d in 93:4 s h o u l d m e a n " l a w " o r " c o v e n a n t . " I am in­
clined to translate "law," since there is n o r e c e p t i o n of a c o v e n a n t a l t e r m i n o l ­
3 7
ogy. In any case, this is n o t c r u c i a l , b e c a u s e the S i n a i t i c c o v e n a n t w o u l d i n ­
clude the T o r a h .
T h i r d , in b o t h N e h e m i a h a n d the A p o c a l y p s e there is the n o t i o n o f
a p o s t a s y as the p e o p l e r e s p o n d to the f o u n d i n g acts of G o d . In N e h e m i a h
this starts i m m e d i a t e l y after the gift of the T o r a h a n d i n c r e a s e s d u r i n g the
life in the l a n d ( N e h 9 : 2 6 - 2 9 ) . In the A p o c a l y p s e this is c o n c e n t r a t e d in the
life in the l a n d (the sixth w e e k , 1 E n 93:8). F o u r t h , in b o t h cases the a p o s t a s y
led to a severe disaster as G o d ' s p u n i s h m e n t ( N e h 9:32; 1 E n 93:8). Fifth, in
b o t h cases the p e o p l e r e c o u n t i n g past h i s t o r y are p l a c e d in a s i t u a t i o n o f
t r a n s i t i o n : in N e h e m i a h m a k i n g a v o w to the T o r a h as the basis for a n e w fu­
t u r e in the c o v e n a n t w i t h A b r a h a m ; in the A p o c a l y p s e , the seventh w e e k ,
1 E n 9 3 : 1 0 , the p e o p l e r e a p p e a r as the c h o s e n t h r o u g h A b r a h a m .
T h e r e are s o m e differences b e t w e e n N e h 9 a n d the A p o c a l y p s e . N e h 9
starts w i t h c r e a t i o n ( 9 : 6 ) , w h i c h is n o t told in the A p o c a l y p s e . T h e A p o c a ­
l y p s e r e c o u n t s the f l o o d a n d N o a h ( 9 3 : 4 ) , w h i c h is n o t told in N e h 9. M o r e
n o t e w o r t h y , h o w e v e r , the A p o c a l y p s e lists the first t e m p l e as the t h i r d
f o u n d i n g e v e n t c o n s t i t u t i n g Israel (fifth w e e k , 93:7), w h i l e the first t e m p l e is
p a s s e d in silence in N e h 9 — a l t h o u g h the cult of the s e c o n d t e m p l e is
r o o t e d in the T o r a h in N e h 1 0 : 3 2 - 4 0 . T h e s t r u c t u r e of the s t o r y in N e h 9 is
to list the f o u n d i n g acts o f G o d as told in the classical c r e d o s , a d d i n g S i n a i ,
a n d to c o n t r a s t these acts w i t h the a p o s t a s y o f the p e o p l e in the l a n d . T h e r e
t h e y stress the n e g a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s k n o w n f r o m the D e u t e r o n o m i s t s . In this

36. Cf. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 444, 446.

37. Berner, Jahre, i36f.

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 Enochic Judaism — a Judaism without the Torah and the Temple?

r e s p e c t the A p o c a l y p s e is m o r e in line w i t h the b o o k s of K i n g s and the

Chronicler.
T h e s e differences do n o t d i s t u r b the u n a n i m i t y of the t w o n a r r a t i v e
r e c o r d s of history. If w e r e g a r d N e h 8 - 1 0 as an e x a m p l e of a m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e ,
the A p o c a l y p s e is an alternative n a r r a t i v e . S o m e features are i n c l u d e d , others
are n e g l e c t e d , b u t they b e l o n g to the r e p e r t o i r e o u t of w h i c h N e h 8 - 1 0 is
f o r m e d . A t this p o i n t the A p o c a l y p s e d o e s n o t contest the c o m m u n i c a t i v e
force o f N e h 8 - 1 0 . T h e y b o t h c l a i m that t r u e Israel rests on the election of
A b r a h a m a n d the c o m m i t m e n t to the T o r a h . In this v e i n H o f f m a n n con­
cludes that a l t h o u g h the a p o c a l y p t i c s c l a i m to b e the o n l y t r u e interpreters
of the T o r a h , there is n o d e g r a d a t i o n of or critical attitude t o w a r d the M o ­
3 8
saic T o r a h in the A p o c a l y p s e .
T h e r e are, however, s o m e disturbing elements to be c o n s i d e r e d . T h e first
3 9
is the c o m m u n i c a t i v e f r a m e w o r k of the A p o c a l y p s e . E n o c h addresses his
speech to his sons ( 4 Q 2 1 2 , iii, 1 9 - 2 0 = 1 E n 93:2). T h e s e sons are characterized
as the "sons of r i g h t e o u s n e s s , the chosen of eternity a n d the plant of truth"; cf.
for the last N r Q X ' ' in iii, 1 9 - 2 0 . T h e s a m e w o r d i n g o c c u r s in the election
of A b r a h a m in the third w e e k (93:5), a n d in the election of the c h o s e n ones in
the seventh w e e k ( 9 3 : 1 0 ) ; cf. NH^S? t3t2?p "plant of everlasting r i g h t e o u s ­
w a
ness," in iv, 1 2 - 1 3 . In this y the h i s t o r y of Israel is e m b e d d e d in a speech of
E n o c h , d r a w i n g a line from h i m s e l f a n d his sons to A b r a h a m and to the c h o ­
sen of the seventh w e e k , freed f r o m a " p e r v e r s e generation."
A further c o m p l i c a t i o n b e c o m e s clear w h e n w e c o n s i d e r the s t r u c t u r e
of the w h o l e A p o c a l y p s e . A l t h o u g h it is clear that the p a t t e r n o f unities of
4 0
s e v e n a n d the n u m b e r s e v e n are of u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e , these are n o t the
only structuring e l e m e n t s . V a n d e r K a m has p o i n t e d o u t that b e s i d e s the
s c h e m e s of s e v e n the A p o c a l y p s e is s t r u c t u r e d s y m m e t r i c a l l y in the r e l a t i o n
4 1 42
b e t w e e n the w e e k s . B e r n e r has e l a b o r a t e d this f e a t u r e . The symmetrical

38. Hoffmann, Das Gesetz, 187.

39. Cf. Berner, Jahre, i33f.
40. Cf. K . K o c h , "Sabbatstruktur der Geschichte: D i e sogenannte Zehn-Wochen-
Apokalypse ( l H e n 93,1-10; 9 1 , 1 1 - 1 7 ) u n d das Ringen u m die alttestamentlichen C h r o n o l o g i e n
im spaten Israelitentum," in Vor der Wende der Zeiten (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener,
1996), 45-76; Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination (New York: Crossroad, 1987), 5of; Collins,
Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls (London and N e w York: Routledge, 1997), 52-56;
Berner, Jahre, 156-68; Kvanvig, " C o s m i c Law and C o s m i c Imbalance" (forthcoming).
41. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , "Studies in the A p o c a l y p s e o f Weeks," CBQ 46 (1984): 511-23
(here 5 1 8 - 2 1 ) .
42. Berner, Jahre, 149-55.

175
Helge S. Kvanvig

r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n the w e e k s are, h o w e v e r , c o m p l e x since they o c c u r o n

m a n y levels a n d in m a n y details. We w i l l here c o n c e n t r a t e o n those features
we t h i n k surface in the w a y they m a k e u p the b a c k b o n e .
In the relation b e t w e e n the b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d of the A p o c a l y p s e there
is a proton-eschaton t y p o l o g y . W e t h i n k this b a s i c a l l y parallels the t w o first
w e e k s w i t h the tenth. T h e tenth w e e k i n t r o d u c e s w e e k s w i t h o u t number
filled w i t h r i g h t e o u s n e s s ( 9 1 : 1 7 ) , j u s t as r i g h t e o u s n e s s e n d u r e s in the first
w e e k . T h e tenth w e e k starts w i t h the j u d g m e n t of the W a t c h e r s (91:15),
w h e r e the w o r d f p , "end," o c c u r s (iv, 2 3 ) . T h i s parallels the first e n d in the
43
second week (93:/i).
F r o m the w e e k s 3-5 the f o u n d i n g events of the h i s t o r y of Israel are
listed: the election of A b r a h a m , the r e v e l a t i o n of the T o r a h , a n d the b u i l d i n g
of the t e m p l e ( 9 3 : 5 - 7 ) . T h e s e are f o u n d a t i o n s that are m a d e for the future:
the election of the c h o s e n t h r o u g h A b r a h a m "forever a n d e v e r " (93:5), the
T o r a h "for all g e n e r a t i o n s " (93:6), the t e m p l e " f o r e v e r " (93:7). T h e s e f o u n d ­
ing events are p a r a l l e l e d in two w a y s , first n e g a t i v e l y in the sixth w e e k (93:8),
t h e n p o s i t i v e l y in the s e v e n t h - t o - n i n t h weeks (93:10-91:14).
T h e events in the sixth w e e k c o n t r a d i c t w h a t is stated a b o u t the f o u n ­
d a t i o n a l events in the three w e e k s b e f o r e . First, all w h o live in this w e e k w i l l
b e c o m e b l i n d a n d stray f r o m w i s d o m . T h i s contrasts the v i s i o n s a n d the rev­
4 4
elation o f the T o r a h on S i n a i . T h e s e c o n d c o n t r a s t i n g e l e m e n t is that the
t e m p l e is b u r n t . T h e t h i r d is that the w h o l e race of the c h o s e n p l a n t w i l l be
d i s p e r s e d . T h e s e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s to the everlasting election of the c h o s e n , the
T o r a h for all g e n e r a t i o n s , a n d the t e m p l e forever m a k e u p the basic plot o f
the A p o c a l y p s e .
T h e t e n s i o n is s o l v e d in the three f o l l o w i n g w e e k s , starting w i t h the
s e v e n t h w e e k of the a u t h o r a n d his circle. I n this w e e k the c h o s e n w i l l r e a p ­
p e a r ( 9 3 : 1 0 ) ; in the n e x t w e e k the n e w t e m p l e w i l l b e b u i l t ( 9 1 : 1 3 ) . T h e o n l y
t h i n g m i s s i n g t h e n is the T o r a h for all g e n e r a t i o n s . I n the n i n t h w e e k
w
k ennane Hedeq in E t h i o p i c a n d Dlttfp f T in A r a m a i c (iv, 1 9 - 2 0 ) , " r i g h t e o u s
j u d g m e n t , " w i l l b e r e v e a l e d to all the s o n s of the w h o l e e a r t h ( 9 1 : 1 4 ) . T h e
s a m e E t h i o p i c p h r a s e is u s e d a b o u t A b r a h a m in 93:5. W e do n o t k n o w a n y
places w h e r e A b r a h a m e x e c u t e d j u d g m e n t of any k i n d . W h a t w e k n o w is

43. Cf. Kvanvig, " C o s m i c L a w and C o s m i c Imbalance."

44. T h e blindness o f the p e o p l e thus relates to the Sinai events in the s a m e m a n n e r as
in the A p o c a l y p s e of A n i m a l s , 1 En 89:28-35; cf. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " O p e n and C l o s e d Eyes in
the A n i m a l A p o c a l y p s e (1 E n o c h 8 5 - 9 0 ) , " in The Idea of Biblical Interpretation, 279-92 (here
28off.). T h e o n l y difference is that the law is missing in the A p o c a l y p s e of A n i m a l s . T h e
blindness is related to the vision of G o d at Sinai; cf. 89:31-33.

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 Enochic Judaism — a Judaism without the Torah and the Temple?

that he w a s the revealed of the b o o k s of his forefathers, i n c l u d i n g the p r i m e ­

45
val T o r a h in J u b i 2 : 2 5 - 2 7 . N i c k e l s b u r g interprets the p h r a s e in the c o n t e x t
of T h i r d Isaiah w h e r e all h u m a n i t y w i l l j o i n the T o r a h a n d the c o v e n a n t (Isa
4 6
56:6-7; 6 0 ; 6 6 : i 8 - 2 4 ) . A n a l l u s i o n to the l a w m a y also be i n c l u d e d in the
1
p h r a s e Dttfp m i ? ? , "to the r i g h t e o u s w a y " (iv, 2 2 ) , since the H e b r e w e q u i v a ­
lent "|TT is often u s e d in relation to the T o r a h . A c c o r d i n g l y , there are r e a s o n s
to i n t e r p r e t w h a t is r e v e a l e d in the n i n t h w e e k to all h u m a n i t y , n o t o n l y as
j u d g m e n t , but also as the law, w h i c h f o r m s the basis for j u d g m e n t a n d r i g h ­
t e o u s n e s s . B u t w e m u s t a d m i t , the w o r d i n g is a m b i g u o u s , since the w o r d i n g
f r o m the S i n a i t i c T o r a h in 93:6 is n o t r e p e a t e d .
It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t i c e h o w these r e o c c u r r e n c e s of the c h o s e n o n e s ,
the t e m p l e , a n d the r i g h t e o u s law are a r r a n g e d . T h e o n l y r e o c c u r r e n c e u p to
the t i m e of the a u t h o r is the c h o s e n o n e s , to w h i c h he b e l o n g s himself. T h e y
are elected out of a p e r v e r s e g e n e r a t i o n . T h e two other r e o c c u r r e n c e s lie in
the future. T h e r e o c c u r r e n c e of the law is especially tricky, b e c a u s e the ter­
m i n o l o g y here is n o t taken f r o m the S i n a i t i c T o r a h , b u t from A b r a h a m a n d
the c h o s e n o n e s in the w a y these are d e s c r i b e d in the seventh a n d eighth
w e e k ; cf. 1 E n 9 3 : 1 0 ; 9 1 : 1 2 ; a n d iv, 1 2 - 1 6 . T h e l a w to be r e v e a l e d in the future is
n o t any l o n g e r s i m p l y the law from S i n a i , b u t the o n e r o o t e d in the w i s d o m
f o l l o w i n g the line f r o m E n o c h to A b r a h a m to the c h o s e n o n e s , to w h i c h the
author belongs.
E l e c t i o n t h r o u g h A b r a h a m , election t h r o u g h the T o r a h , a n d election
t h r o u g h the t e m p l e are all c o r n e r s t o n e s in the t w o n a r r a t i v e s N e h 8 - 1 0 a n d
the A p o c a l y p s e . B u t w h e n w e r e a d this from the p e r s p e c t i v e of the p o s t e x i l i c
p e r i o d , w e r e c o g n i z e that a c c o r d i n g to the A p o c a l y p s e there existed o n l y o n e
g r o u p of c h o s e n o n e s in c o n t r a s t to the rest o f the p e o p l e , there existed n o
l e g i t i m a t e t e m p l e , a n d there existed n o l e g i t i m a t e law, at least o u t s i d e the
s e v e n f o l d w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e the c h o s e n w e r e p r o v i d e d . T h u s in rela­
tion to N e h 8 - 1 0 as an e x a m p l e of a m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e , the A p o c a l y p s e dis­
plays all traits of a c o u n t e r s t o r y , c o n t e s t i n g the c o m m u n i c a t i v e force o f the
m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e b y d i s p l a c i n g its plot. T h r o u g h this d i s p l a c e m e n t w e m u s t
c o n c l u d e that the A p o c a l y p s e d i d n o t j o i n the M o s a i c d i s c o u r s e in p o s t e x i l i c
J u d a i s m . It r a t h e r d e r i v e d its a u t h o r i t y from a n d lent its a u t h o r i t y to an
Enochic discourse.

45. Cf. Berner, Jahre, I38f.

46. N i c k e l s b u r g , 1 Enoch 1 , 449. T h e A r a m a i c J^l is attested in the m e a n i n g "law"; cf.
M u r a b b ' a t 20,3.8: y i , "law o f M o s e s " ; cf. K . Beyer, Die aramaischen Texte vom Toten
Meer ( G o t t i n g e n : V a n d e n h o e c k & Ruprecht, 1984), 309.

177
The Concept of Covenant in Jubilees

William K. Gilders

I. Covenant in Jubilees: The Evidence of Jubilees 1

1
Covenant is a key category in the b o o k of Jubilees. Indeed, Jubilees is funda­
2
mentally a covenantal d o c u m e n t . In the present form of the work, the con-

1. This paper draws on and is in dialogue with several studies that focus in some way
on covenant in Jubilees: A. Jaubert, La Notion d'Alliance dan le Juda'isme aux abords de L'Ere
Critienne (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1963), esp. 89-115; B . H a l p e r n - A m a r u , "The Meta-
historical Covenant o f Jubilees!' in H a l p e r n - A m a r u , Rewriting the Bible: Land and Covenant
in Postbiblical Jewish Literature (Valley Forge, Pa.: Trinity, 1994), 25-54; E . Juhl Christiansen,
"Covenant Consciousness in the Book o f Jubilees," in The Covenant in Judaism and Paul: A
Study of Ritual Boundaries as Identity Markers, AGJU (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 67-103; J. C.
VanderKam, "Covenant and Biblical Interpretation in Jubilees 6," in The Dead Sea Scrolls
Fifty Years after Their Discovery, 1947-1997: Proceedings of the Jerusalem Congress, July 20-25,
1997, ed. L. H. Schiffman, E. Tov, and J. C. VanderKam (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Soci­
ety, 2000), 92-104; J. van Ruiten, "The Covenant o f Noah in Jubilees 6.1-38," in The Concept of
the Covenant in the Second Temple Period, ed. S. E . Porter and J. C. R. de R o o , JSJSup (Leiden:
Brill, 2003), 167-90. See also my essay "Blood and Covenant: Interpretive Elaboration on
Genesis 9.4-6 in the Book o f Jubilees," JSP 15 (2006): 83-118.

2. Pace J. M. Scott, who asserts that "Jubilees is not so m u c h a covenantal book as an

apocalypse with a covenantal setting that inherently lends it authority" ("The Chronologies
of the Apocalypse o f Weeks and the Book o f Jubilees," in this v o l u m e ) , covenant is not sim­
ply the context for the revelation to Moses but an essential element o f its content. W h a t is re­
vealed to Moses clarifies the significance, nature, role, and place o f covenant in God's dealing
with the world and with Israel. As VanderKam emphasizes ("Covenant and Biblical Inter­
pretation," 9 2 ) , "Jubilees is a covenant b o o k in its structure and in its content."

178
 The Concept of Covenant in Jubilees

text for the r e v e l a t i o n o f the b o o k itself is the m a k i n g ( o r better, the r e m a k ­

i n g o r the r e n e w a l ) o f c o v e n a n t at S i n a i . T h e date g i v e n for M o s e s ' a s c e n t to
the t o p o f S i n a i to r e c e i v e the tablets o f "the l a w a n d the commandments"
3
(prologue and i:i), the s i x t e e n t h d a y o f the t h i r d m o n t h , is s i g n i f i c a n t i n
this r e g a r d . T h a t is, M o s e s a s c e n d e d the m o u n t the d a y after the c o v e n a n t -
m a k i n g rites h a d b e e n p e r f o r m e d at the f o o t o f S i n a i o n the fifteenth d a y o f
the t h i r d m o n t h , w h i c h J u b i l e e s r e p e a t e d l y i d e n t i f i e s as the d a y o f c o v e n a n t
4
m a k i n g a n d for c o m m e m o r a t i n g a n d r e n e w i n g the c o v e n a n t .

The c o v e n a n t a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the b o o k is c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d i n J u b 1:5,

w h e r e G o d s p e a k s to M o s e s a n d c o m m a n d s h i m to give careful a t t e n t i o n to all
he w i l l b e told, r e c o r d i n g it i n a b o o k for the d e s c e n d a n t s of Israel, w h o w i l l ,
God asserts, v i o l a t e the c o v e n a n t G o d is m a k i n g w i t h t h e m (cf. 1:7 a n d 1 : 2 2 ) .
Nevertheless, G o d makes a firm prior c o m m i t m e n t n o t to b r e a k faith w i t h
t h e m . G o d w i l l n o t a b a n d o n the r e b e l l i o u s c h o s e n p e o p l e : " W r i t e ( t h e m ) i n a
5
b o o k so that their o f f s p r i n g m a y see that I h a v e n o t a b a n d o n e d t h e m b e c a u s e
6
o f all the evil they h a v e d o n e i n s t r a y i n g f r o m the c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n m e a n d
7
you which I am making t o d a y o n M o u n t S i n a i for their offspring."

3. Unless otherwise indicated, English translations o f the Ethiopic version of Jubilees

are from J. C . V a n d e r K a m , The Book of jubilees, C S C O 511, Scriptores Aethiopici 88 ( L o u v a i n :
Peeters, 1989). I will also refer to O. S. Wintermute's English translation ("Jubilees," in OTP,
2 : 5 2 - 1 4 2 ) , K . Berger's G e r m a n rendering (Unterweisung in erzahlender Form: Das Buch der
jubilaen, JSHRZ2.3 [Gutersloh: Gtitersloher Verlagshaus G e r d M o h n , 1 9 8 1 ] ) , a n d the m o d ­
, ,
ern H e b r e w rendering by M . G o l d m a n n ("•' 7DT n "ISO," in •"'JTSTin D'HDOn, ed. A b r a h a m
K a h a n a , 2 vols. [Jerusalem: M a k o r , 1 9 7 8 ] , 1 : 2 1 6 - 3 1 3 ) . F o r the Ethiopic text, I follow J . C .
V a n d e r K a m , The Book of jubilees: A Critical Text, C S C O 5 1 0 , Scriptores Aethiopici 87
(Louvain: Peeters, 1989). F o r the fragmentary H e b r e w m a n u s c r i p t s from Q u m r a n , I have
used the edition of J . C . V a n d e r K a m a n d J. T. Milik in Qumran Cave 4.VIII: Parabiblical
Texts, Part 1, D J D 13 (Oxford: C l a r e n d o n , 1994).

4. O n the identification a n d significance o f the fifteenth day o f the third m o n t h a n d

of the date of M o s e s ' ascent, see Jaubert, Notion dAlliance, 103-4; VanderKam, "Covenant
and Biblical Interpretation," 93; V a n d e r K a m , "Studies on the P r o l o g u e a n d jubilees 1," in For
a Later Generation: The Transformation of Tradition in Israel, Early Judaism, and Early Chris­
tianity, ed. R a n d a l A . Argall, Beverly A. B o w , a n d R o d n e y A. Werline ( H a r r i s b u r g , Pa.: Trin­
ity, 2 0 0 0 ) , 266-79 (here 273-79).
5. H e b . (4Q216 I 1 3 ) , Q n T m , "their generations."
6. V a n d e r K a m correctly, in m y view, renders the Ethiopic / " d ' T * (ser'dt) here to re­
1 -
flect n n in the original Hebrew. See also W i n t e r m u t e . B e r g e r renders it "Ordnung," as if
H e b r e w npn h a d been present. Christiansen ("Covenant Consciousness," 76 n. 35) follows
Berger a n d makes far too m u c h of this translation, arguing that the "covenant" referred to in
Jub 1:5 is to b e distinguished from what h a d been established at the foot of Sinai. For further
discussion of "covenant" terms in Jubilees, see the a p p e n d i x to this chapter.
7. H e b . (4Q216 i 1 4 ) , m i D , "cutting."

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T h e p u r p o s e of the b o o k as a w h o l e is to stand as a w i t n e s s to the Isra­

elites that G o d h a d r e m a i n e d faithful to the c o v e n a n t despite their failures,
that the sufferings o f Israel h a d n o t b e e n the result o f d i v i n e failure, b u t the
p r e d i c t e d a n d p r o m i s e d c o n s e q u e n c e of their c o v e n a n t v i o l a t i o n . T h u s ,
w h e n all the p r e d i c t e d things h a p p e n as a result of Israel's d i s o b e d i e n c e ,
" T h e y w i l l r e c o g n i z e that I h a v e i n d e e d b e e n w i t h t h e m " ( 1 : 6 ) .
T h e first chapter of the b o o k is c r u c i a l for u n d e r s t a n d i n g J u b i l e e s ' c o n ­
cept of c o v e n a n t . It establishes the f r a m e w o r k o f m e a n i n g . G o d is establish­
i n g a c o v e n a n t w i t h Israel in full k n o w l e d g e that they w i l l fail to a d h e r e to it.
B u t this failure has n o u l t i m a t e s i g n i f i c a n c e , b e c a u s e G o d is c o m m i t t e d to
the r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d k n o w s — a n d m a k e s k n o w n to M o s e s — that it w i l l u l ­
t i m a t e l y w o r k : " I will neither a b a n d o n t h e m n o r b e c o m e alienated from
t h e m , for I a m the L o r d their G o d " ( 1 : 1 8 ) .
G o d ' s r e l a t i o n a l identity is essential to J u b i l e e s ' v i e w of c o v e n a n t ; G o d
is c o m m i t t e d to the p e o p l e , c o m m i t t e d to b e i n g their G o d . T h u s , in J u b 1:22-
25 G o d r e s p o n d s to M o s e s ' plea for the p e o p l e b e g g i n g G o d n o t to a l l o w the
p r e d i c t e d disasters to o c c u r . G o d affirms that he k n o w s that Israel w i l l n o t
o b e y u n t i l t h e y h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t to a n a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f their s i n s .
T h e n , w h e n t h e y finally t u r n to G o d , G o d w i l l act to t r a n s f o r m the p e o p l e
into t h o s e w h o are fully able to obey. T h i s p a s s a g e e m p h a s i z e s the u l t i m a t e
a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of G o d ' s p u r p o s e a n d h i g h l i g h t s the n a t u r e of the r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p G o d w i l l establish. It w i l l be a father-child b o n d : " I w i l l b e c o m e their fa­
ther a n d they w i l l b e c o m e m y c h i l d r e n . A l l of t h e m w i l l b e called c h i l d r e n o f
the l i v i n g G o d . E v e r y a n g e l a n d e v e r y spirit w i l l k n o w t h e m . T h e y w i l l k n o w
that t h e y are m y c h i l d r e n a n d that I a m their father in a j u s t a n d p r o p e r w a y
a n d that I love t h e m " (1:24^25).

II. Relationship and Covenant

A t the b e g i n n i n g of Jubilees G o d m a k e s it clear that Israel's v i o l a t i o n of the

c o v e n a n t is i n e v i t a b l e a n d fully k n o w n . G o d ' s insistence that G o d w i l l n o t
a b a n d o n the Israelites, despite their v i o l a t i o n s of the c o v e n a n t , indicates that
the d i v i n e c o m m i t m e n t d e p e n d s o n s o m e t h i n g m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l t h a n the
c o v e n a n t m a d e at S i n a i . It is n o t the c o v e n a n t itself that b i n d s G o d . T h e c o v ­
enant s i m p l y expresses G o d ' s c o m m i t m e n t . T h i s p o i n t is r e i n f o r c e d a n d illu­
m i n a t e d in the s e c o n d chapter of the w o r k , in a p a s s a g e that relativizes the
c o v e n a n t , i n d i c a t i n g that it is o n l y the f o r m a l e n a c t m e n t of a d i v i n e c h o i c e
m a d e l o n g b e f o r e Israel c a m e into e x i s t e n c e . After establishing the S a b b a t h ,

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G o d a n n o u n c e s to the angels, w h o m he has j u s t c o m m a n d e d "to k e e p s a b ­

b a t h w i t h h i m in h e a v e n a n d on earth" ( 2 : 1 8 ) :

I will n o w separate a p e o p l e for m y s e l f from a m o n g m y n a t i o n s . They,

too, will keep sabbath. I will sanctify the p e o p l e for m y s e l f a n d will bless
t h e m as I sanctified the sabbath day. I will sanctify t h e m for myself; in
this w a y I will bless them. T h e y will b e c o m e m y p e o p l e a n d I will b e ­
c o m e their G o d . I have chosen the descendants of J a c o b a m o n g all those
w h o m I have seen. I have r e c o r d e d t h e m as m y first-born s o n a n d have
sanctified t h e m for m y s e l f t h r o u g h o u t the ages of eternity. I will tell
t h e m a b o u t the sabbath days so that they m a y keep sabbath from all
work on them. (2:19-20)

T h e c u l m i n a t i n g act of creation is G o d ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t of the election

o f the d e s c e n d a n t s of J a c o b , G o d ' s d e c i s i o n to establish a u n i q u e relation­
8
ship w i t h t h e m as set a p a r t a n d h a l l o w e d , like the S a b b a t h . A l l that f o l l o w s
in the b o o k m u s t be read in the light of this p r i m o r d i a l announcement,
w h i c h precedes any specific e n a c t m e n t of a c o v e n a n t a n d m a k e s all such en­
a c t m e n t s d e p e n d e n t u p o n it. In s h o r t , the c o v e n a n t d o e s n o t create a rela­
9
t i o n s h i p , it signals i t . J u b i l e e s ' a d o p t i o n o f the b i b l i c a l f a t h e r - s o n c h a r a c t e r ­
i z a t i o n o f the c o v e n a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p — a n d its utter n e g l e c t of the m a r r i a g e
m e t a p h o r — is s i g n i f i c a n t . M a r r i a g e is a r e l a t i o n s h i p that is c o n t r a c t u a l in
n a t u r e a n d c a n b e d i s s o l v e d . T h e p a r e n t - c h i l d b o n d , in contrast, is o r g a n i c
a n d c a n n o t t r u l y b e b r o k e n . T h i s v i e w o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d
Israel is i n t e g r a l to its c o n c e p t of c o v e n a n t .
T h e first two chapters of the w o r k establish that G o d has a m a s t e r
p l a n , w h i c h m u s t b e b r o u g h t to fulfillment. T h e rest o f the w o r k , therefore,
a n d w h a t it says a b o u t c o v e n a n t , m u s t b e r e a d in the light of this k e y t h e m e .

8. It is not accidental, therefore, that the w o r k ends with Sabbath legislation. A s the
b e g i n n i n g of the b o o k m a k e s clear, the establishment o f the Sabbath w a s the m o m e n t of
G o d ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t o f the election o f Israel, and Israel is equated with Sabbath as set apart
a n d hallowed. W h i l e the term "covenant" is absent from the final chapter, the concept is
firmly present. O b s e r v a n c e o f Sabbath m a r k s Israel's u n i q u e relationship w i t h G o d . O n the
Sabbath in Jubilees, and its significance for Israel's identity, see L. D o e r i n g , " T h e C o n c e p t of
the Sabbath in the B o o k o f Jubilees," in Studies in the Book of Jubilees, ed. Matthias A l b a n i ,
J o r g Frey, and A r m i n L a n g e ( T u b i n g e n : J. C . B . M o h r [Paul S i e b e c k ] , 1997), 179-205 (esp. 181,
183, 2 0 1 ) .
9. T h u s , as Scott notes in his article, "the Sinaitic covenant is s o m e w h a t relativized."
H o w e v e r , even as it is somewhat relativized, the covenant is m a d e m o r e significant by b e i n g
tied to a p r i m a l , predestined relationship.

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III. The Establishment of the Covenant

F o l l o w i n g the f l o o d , a c r u c i a l m o m e n t is r e a c h e d in J u b i l e e s . F o r the first

t i m e the d i v i n e p l a n b r e a k s into h u m a n reality w i t h the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a
c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n G o d a n d a h u m a n b e i n g . Jubilees here f o l l o w s its b i b l i c a l
s o u r c e text v e r y closely, for this is the first p o i n t in G e n e s i s w h e r e a c o v e n a n t
is m a d e b e t w e e n G o d a n d h u m a n k i n d . H o w e v e r , Jubilees s i g n i f i c a n t l y alters
the n a t u r e o f this c o v e n a n t b y m a k i n g it the f o u n d a t i o n a l iteration of the ex­
10
clusive c o v e n a n t w i t h I s r a e l . G o d m a k e s a c o v e n a n t w i t h N o a h as the p r o ­
g e n i t o r of Israel, n o t as the p r o g e n i t o r of all h u m a n k i n d . A g a i n , G o d ' s fore­
k n o w l e d g e a n d the p r i m o r d i a l d e c i s i o n are c r u c i a l . G o d k n o w s a l r e a d y that
he w i l l h a v e a r e l a t i o n s h i p o n l y w i t h Israel, a n d the r e a d e r of Jubilees k n o w s
this f r o m h a v i n g r e a d the b e g i n n i n g of the b o o k .
T h e fact that the c o v e n a n t w i t h N o a h is s i m p l y the first t h i s - w o r l d l y it­
eration of the c o v e n a n t w i t h Israel is e m p h a s i z e d b y the explicit l i n k a g e
m a d e b e t w e e n N o a h ' s c o v e n a n t a n d M o s e s ' c o v e n a n t at S i n a i . T h e a n g e l o f
the p r e s e n c e e x p l a i n s to M o s e s that it is p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e N o a h a n d his s o n s
m a d e the c o v e n a n t w i t h an o a t h in the third m o n t h that M o s e s has d o n e the
s a m e ( J u b 6 : 1 1 a ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , the b l o o d rite of the S i n a i c o v e n a n t cere­
m o n y a n d the o n g o i n g Israelite cultic m a n i p u l a t i o n s of sacrificial b l o o d are
linked to the f u n d a m e n t a l p r o v i s i o n o f N o a h ' s c o v e n a n t : the b a n o n c o n ­
s u m i n g a n i m a l b l o o d a n d s h e d d i n g h u m a n b l o o d ( 6 : n b - i 4 ) . L e g i t i m a t e use
11
o f b l o o d s t a n d s over against its p r o h i b i t e d mistreatment.
In J u b i l e e s ' c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the N o a c h i c c o v e n a n t a n d its c o n n e c t i o n
to the S i n a i c o v e n a n t , the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the b i b l i c a l a c c o u n t s of the
N o a c h i c a n d S i n a i c o v e n a n t s is dialectical. It is n o t s i m p l y the case that the
a u t h o r o f Jubilees interprets the S i n a i c o v e n a n t in the light of N o a h ' s c o v e ­
n a n t . R a t h e r , the Sinai c o v e n a n t plays a c r u c i a l role in s h a p i n g J u b i l e e s ' c o n ­
c e p t i o n o f the c o v e n a n t m a d e i m m e d i a t e l y after the f l o o d . O f p a r t i c u l a r sig­
nificance is the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f N o a h ' s sacrifices as p r e c u r s o r s to G o d ' s
announcement of the c o v e n a n t ( J u b 6 : 1 - 4 ) . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the se­
q u e n c e of events p r e s e n t e d in G e n e s i s , g i v i n g t h e m m e a n i n g , reflects the e x ­
plicit j u x t a p o s i t i o n of sacrifice a n d c o v e n a n t - m a k i n g in E x o d 2 4 : 3 - 8 . F u r ­
t h e r m o r e , the a s s e r t i o n that N o a h m a d e his c o v e n a n t w i t h an oath d e p e n d s

1 0 . For Jubilees, there is really only o n e covenant, w h i c h reaches its complete form at
Sinai. See H a l p e r n - A m a r u , "Metahistorical C o v e n a n t , " 28; van Ruiten, " C o v e n a n t of N o a h , "
190.
1 1 . G i l d e r s , " B l o o d and C o v e n a n t , " 95-96.

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on the fact that in E x o d u s the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the c o v e n a n t i n v o l v e s s e v e r a l

v e r b a l d e c l a r a t i o n s of c o m m i t m e n t b y the Israelites, w h i c h c a n be seen as
oaths (see, in p a r t i c u l a r , E x o d 2 4 : 7 ) . Finally, the date of N o a h ' s c o v e n a n t de­
p e n d s o n the dating of the S i n a i c o v e n a n t - m a k i n g to the t h i r d m o n t h ( E x o d
1 9 : 1 ) . O f c o u r s e , Jubilees itself presents the influence as g o i n g entirely in the
o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . E v e r y t h i n g that is d e s c r i b e d in E x o d u s , a c c o r d i n g to J u ­
bilees, d e p e n d s on the o r i g i n a l c o v e n a n t a l event after the f l o o d .
T h e c o m m o n date of the t w o c o v e n a n t events is then m a d e b y Jubilees
to s t e m f r o m the fact that this date h a d a l w a y s b e e n significant. T h e Festival
of S h a v u o t h ("this entire festival") h a d b e e n celebrated in h e a v e n f r o m the
t i m e of c r e a t i o n ( J u b 6 : 1 8 ) . T h u s , w h e n N o a h m a d e sacrifice in the m i d d l e of
the third m o n t h to p u r i f y the earth b e c a u s e of its sins a n d to offer t h a n k s for
his d e l i v e r a n c e , he w a s s i m p l y realizing o n earth w h a t h a d a l r e a d y existed in
h e a v e n . T h e h e a v e n l y b r o k e into the earthly. A g a i n , this fact m u s t be v i e w e d
in the light of the d i v i n e i n t e n t i o n e x p r e s s e d early in the b o o k . B r i n g i n g the
Festival of S h a v u o t h into the w o r l d a n d t y i n g it to an earthly c o v e n a n t is a
step t o w a r d the realization of G o d ' s p l a n to create a n d m a i n t a i n a u n i q u e re­
lationship with Israel.
T h e n a r r o w i n g o f the focus of the c o v e n a n t also c o m e s o u t in the b r i e f
p a r a p h r a s e of G e n 9 : 1 2 - 1 7 in Jub 6 : 1 5 - 1 6 , w h e r e w e are told that the b o w in
the c l o u d s w a s g i v e n b y G o d to N o a h a n d his s o n s as a " s i g n o f the eternal
c o v e n a n t that there w o u l d n o t h e n c e f o r t h be f l o o d w a t e r s o n the earth"
( 6 : 1 6 ) . A b s e n t f r o m the p a r a p h r a s e is the e m p h a s i s in G e n e s i s o n G o d ' s c o m ­
m i t m e n t to all flesh a n d o n the b o w as a m e a n s b y w h i c h G o d w o u l d r e m e m ­
b e r this c o m m i t m e n t .
Jubilees c o n t i n u e s b y d e c l a r i n g , " F o r this r e a s o n it has b e e n o r d a i n e d
a n d w r i t t e n o n the h e a v e n l y tablets that t h e y s h o u l d celebrate the festival of
w e e k s d u r i n g this m o n t h — o n c e a y e a r — to r e n e w the c o v e n a n t each a n d
e v e r y y e a r " ( 6 : 1 7 ) . W h e r e a s in G e n e s i s the c o v e n a n t c o m m i t m e n t is entirely
o n e - s i d e d , G o d p r o m i s i n g n e v e r a g a i n to send a flood to d e s t r o y the earth,
here Jubilees has the o b s e r v a n c e o f a c o v e n a n t - r e n e w a l festival f o l l o w as a
c o n s e q u e n c e of the d i v i n e p r o m i s e , precisely b e c a u s e G o d h a d g i v e n assur­
ance that there w o u l d n e v e r again be a f l o o d .
A s the w o r k c o n t i n u e s , the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the t w o iterations of
the o n e c o v e n a n t is further d e v e l o p e d . M o s e s is m a d e p a r t y to G o d ' s fore­
k n o w l e d g e . Just as G o d k n o w s that Israel w i l l fail to o b e y the c o v e n a n t , so
G o d k n e w , w h e n m a k i n g the c o v e n a n t w i t h N o a h , that its p r o v i s i o n s w o u l d
b e a b a n d o n e d a n d w o u l d have to be restored ( 6 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) . A g a i n , the c o v e n a n t
itself is n o g u a r a n t e e of h u m a n faithfulness, a n d n o d e t e r m i n a n t of d i v i n e

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loyalty. It is s i m p l y the e x p r e s s i o n w i t h i n the w o r l d of that l o y a l t y a n d of the

d i v i n e desire for a r e s p o n d i n g h u m a n faithfulness.

IV. The Reestablishment of the Covenant

T h e n a r r a t i v e sets o u t the p r o c e s s of h u m a n failure. T h e n it describes the res­

toration of the c o v e n a n t a l relationship. First, A b r a m s h o w s h i m s e l f to be a
w o r t h y heir to N o a h . F r o m c h i l d h o o d he recognizes that h u m a n i t y has g o n e
astray, a n d he reaches out to G o d in his y o u t h ( J u b 1 1 : 1 6 - 1 7 ) . Finally, A b r a m
calls o u t to G o d for g u i d a n c e ( J u b 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 1 ) , a n d G o d r e s p o n d s ( 1 2 : 2 2 - 2 4 ) .
G o d ' s call to A b r a m b e g i n s m o r e or less as it does in G e n e s i s ( 1 2 : 1 - 3 ) . B u t then
Jubilees m a k e s a c r u c i a l a d d i t i o n . G o d a n n o u n c e s that he will have a special
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h A b r a m a n d his d e s c e n d a n t s : " I will b e c o m e G o d for y o u ,
y o u r s o n , y o u r g r a n d s o n , a n d all y o u r d e s c e n d a n t s . . . . F r o m n o w until all the
g e n e r a t i o n s of the earth I a m y o u r G o d " ( J u b 1 2 : 2 4 ) . H e r e , crucially, G o d
shares his p r i m o r d i a l d e c i s i o n w i t h its object a n d a n n o u n c e s the r e l a t i o n s h i p .
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p n o w exists in h u m a n reality, a n d it exists a p a r t f r o m a n y for­
m a l e n a c t m e n t of the c o v e n a n t . T h a t f o r m a l e n a c t m e n t will c o m e later.
Jub 1 4 : 1 - 2 0 is b a s e d o n G e n 1 5 : 1 - 2 1 a n d d e s c r i b e s the f o r m a l c o v e n a n t
r e n e w a l , w h i c h c o n f i r m s a n d affirms the r e l a t i o n s h i p for A b r a m a n d his de­
s c e n d a n t s . T h e a d d i t i o n s a n d m o d i f i c a t i o n s m a d e to the b i b l i c a l s o u r c e re­
flect J u b i l e e s ' v i e w of c o v e n a n t . First, Jubilees gives a date for the c o v e n a n t
event, the m i d d l e of the third m o n t h ( 1 4 : 1 0 ) , a n d m a k e s it clear that this date
is significant; the c o v e n a n t is m a d e w i t h A b r a m o n the s a m e date as the c o v ­
e n a n t w a s m a d e w i t h N o a h ( 1 4 : 2 0 ) . T h e result is that A b r a m r e n e w s the
l a p s e d c o v e n a n t festival ( 1 4 : 2 0 a ) . I n d e e d , Jubilees m a y declare that A b r a m ' s
1 2
action r e n e w e d the c o v e n a n t itself ( 1 4 : 2 0 b ) .
F o l l o w i n g N o a h ' s e x a m p l e , a n d a n t i c i p a t i n g the a c t i o n s of M o s e s ,
A b r a m sets the stage for the r e n e w a l of the c o v e n a n t b y offering sacrifice,
g u i d e d in this a c t i v i t y b y G o d . Jubilees takes the a m b i g u o u s l y sacrificial rit­
u a l o f G e n e s i s a n d m a k e s it u n a m b i g u o u s l y sacrificial. A b r a m b u i l d s an al­
tar, a n d w h e n he slaughters the specified v i c t i m s he applies their b l o o d to
the altar ( J u b 1 4 : 1 1 ) , a n d at the c u l m i n a t i o n of the r i t u a l p r o c e s s he offers the

12. T h e E t h i o p i c version, as translated by V a n d e r K a m , says that A b r a m "renewed the

festival (fl*iA) and the o r d i n a n c e {/"Ch't) for himself forever." W i n t e r m u t e also renders
/"C^-r* as "ordinance," and B e r g e r has "Ordnung." H o w e v e r , it is certainly possible to trans­
late "covenant" here and to a s s u m e that the original H e b r e w had n^TD. For further discus­
sion of this point, see the a p p e n d i x to this essay.

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v i c t i m s u p in the altar fire, a l o n g w i t h cereal offerings a n d w i n e ( 1 4 : 1 9 ) . H e r e

w e see a g a i n the b a s i c p a t t e r n that is c r u c i a l for J u b i l e e s . T h e e n a c t i n g of
c o v e n a n t b y G o d always f o l l o w s from a n d is i n t i m a t e l y b o u n d up w i t h sacri­
fice. In the n e x t chapter, reflecting this p a t t e r n , Jubilees a d d s sacrifice w h e r e
it is c o m p l e t e l y absent in the b i b l i c a l s o u r c e text.

V. Covenant and Circumcision

Jub 15 is b a s e d o n G e n 1 7 , a central c o v e n a n t a l p a s s a g e in G e n e s i s . Jubilees

b u i l d s on the c o v e n a n t a l e m p h a s i s of the s o u r c e text in s o m e significant
w a y s . First, as I h a v e n o t e d , the a u t h o r a d d s sacrificial a c t i o n s as p r e c u r s o r s
to the t h e o p h a n y a n d a n n o u n c e m e n t of the c o v e n a n t ( J u b 1 5 : 2 ) . F u r t h e r ­
m o r e , the a u t h o r p r o v i d e s the c r u c i a l date for A b r a m ' s sacrificial p e r f o r ­
m a n c e , the m i d d l e of the third m o n t h , in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the festival of
firstfruits, the c o v e n a n t festival ( 1 5 : 1 ) . I n this chapter A b r a m is s h o w n as act­
ing o n his o w n initiative, faithfully a d h e r i n g to the p r o v i s i o n s o f the r e n e w e d
c o v e n a n t he has i n h e r i t e d f r o m N o a h . H e celebrates the p r i m a r y festival of
G o d ' s c o v e n a n t (cf. 1 : 1 0 ) o n the specified date, d o i n g w h a t N o a h ' s other de­
s c e n d a n t s h a d failed to d o , t h e r e b y r e n e w i n g the c o v e n a n t (cf. 6 : 1 7 ) . G o d ' s
r e s p o n s e is to r e n e w the c o v e n a n t with A b r a m , a d d i n g to it a p r o v i s i o n , the
sign of c i r c u m c i s i o n .
T h i s sign, h o w e v e r , is n o t really n e w , as the e l a b o r a t i o n a d d e d to the
b i b l i c a l s o u r c e text m a k e s clear. C i r c u m c i s i o n , as a w a y to m a r k the elect as
distinct f r o m the rest of h u m a n k i n d , f u n c t i o n s to assimilate t h e m to the su­
p e r n a t u r a l r e a l m . T h e angels, a c c o r d i n g to J u b i l e e s , w e r e created c i r c u m ­
c i s e d . C i r c u m c i s i o n of those w h o b e l o n g to the elect p e o p l e a l l o w s t h e m to
1 3
share in this h e a v e n l y p e r f e c t i o n ( 1 5 : 2 7 ) . W h e r e a s in G e n 17 c i r c u m c i s i o n is
a m a r k o f m e m b e r s h i p in the c h o s e n f a m i l y o f A b r a h a m , d i s t i n g u i s h i n g its
m e m b e r s f r o m n o n m e m b e r s , in J u b i l e e s c i r c u m c i s i o n t r a n s f o r m s a h u m a n
b o d y to the likeness of the angelic b o d y , effecting an o n t o l o g i c a l c h a n g e . It
also, even m o r e crucially, b i n d s the c i r c u m c i s e d m a l e to G o d : "he b e l o n g s to
the L o r d " ( J u b 1 5 : 2 6 b ) . G e n 17 m a k e s n o m e n t i o n o f a b o n d w i t h G o d . A g a i n ,
the c o v e n a n t is n o t itself the r e l a t i o n s h i p . It is the e n a c t m e n t of that rela­
t i o n s h i p . G o d has c h o s e n Israel to be his u n i q u e p o s s e s s i o n , to h o l d the sta-

13. C h r i s t i a n s e n , " C o v e n a n t C o n s c i o u s n e s s , " 98-99. C i r c u m c i s i o n also p r o t e c t s

against d e m o n i c forces. See G i a n a n t o n i o B o r g o n o v o , " J u b i l e e s ' R a p p r o c h e m e n t o f E n o c h i c
a n d M o s a i c Traditions," Hen 3 0 , n o . 2 (2008).

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William K. Gilders

tus of G o d ' s f i r s t b o r n s o n . T h e rite of c i r c u m c i s i o n v i s i b l y m a r k s that d i v i n e

14
c h o i c e . It is a "rite of a f f i r m a t i o n . "
Since the m a r k m a k e s a d i v i n e c h o i c e effective in the w o r l d , a n d since
the existence of the m a r k d e p e n d s o n h u m a n a c t i o n , failure to o b e y the
c o m m a n d m e n t w i l l result in loss of the c o v e n a n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h o s e w h o
are u n c i r c u m c i s e d fail to b e c o m e or r e m a i n m e m b e r s of the c a t e g o r y o f
1 5
those w h o b e l o n g to G o d , "the s o n s of the c o v e n a n t " ( 1 5 : 2 6 a ) . They be­
c o m e s i m p l y like the rest of h u m a n i t y , w h o are d o o m e d — b y d i v i n e decree
— to r e m a i n alienated f r o m G o d . M o r e o v e r , those w h o h a d the p o t e n t i a l to
b e " s o n s of the c o v e n a n t " b u t failed to be c i r c u m c i s e d will suffer d e s t r u c t i o n
as a result of their a l i e n a t i o n (15:26b; see also 1 5 : 3 4 ) , m a k i n g their fate w o r s e
t h a n that o f G e n t i l e h u m a n i t y .
A g a i n , in g i v i n g the p r a c t i c e of c i r c u m c i s i o n , G o d k n o w s that Israel
w i l l fail to adhere to the c o m m a n d m e n t that g u a r a n t e e s their c o v e n a n t a l
i d e n t i t y ( 1 5 : 3 3 ) . D i r e c o n s e q u e n c e s w i l l f o l l o w for the p e o p l e o f Israel ( 1 5 : 3 4 ) .
B u t , a g a i n , this p r e d i c a t i o n has to b e r e a d in the light o f the g u a r a n t e e s e x ­
p r e s s e d at the b e g i n n i n g of the b o o k . G o d w i l l s u c c e e d in b r i n g i n g into exis­
tence an Israel c a p a b l e of l i v i n g in r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d . T h e n , c i r c u m c i ­
s i o n will be faithfully o b s e r v e d .

V I . Jacob as the Covenantal Focus

For all his s i g n i f i c a n c e , A b r a h a m is n o t the central focus o f G o d ' s c o v e n a n t a l

a t t e n t i o n . R a t h e r , it is J a c o b , the e p o n y m o u s a n c e s t o r o f the c h o s e n p e o p l e ,
1 6
w h o is at the center of G o d ' s p l a n . T h i s has a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e clear in J u b
2 , w h e r e G o d a n n o u n c e s his election o f "the d e s c e n d a n t s o f J a c o b " (v. 2 0 ) ,
a n d it is then w o r k e d o u t in the p a r t s of the b o o k b a s e d on the J a c o b n a r r a ­
tives i n G e n e s i s .
W o r t h y of special n o t e in this c o n n e c t i o n is J u b 4 4 : 1 - 6 , w h i c h is b a s e d o n
G e n 4 6 : 1 - 4 . T h e changes a n d additions m a d e to the biblical base text reflect J u ­
bilees' specific c o v e n a n t a l e m p h a s e s . First, Jubilees supplies the date for the b e ­
g i n n i n g of Jacob's j o u r n e y to B e e r S h e v a — the first day of the third m o n t h —
a n d for Jacob's sacrifices there — the seventh of the m o n t h . T h e text then adds

14. T h i s is Christiansen's apt characterization ( " C o v e n a n t C o n s c i o u s n e s s , " 96, 1 0 1 ) .

1 5 . 1 follow Wintermute's translation here. O n "sons o f the covenant," see the a p p e n ­
dix to this paper.
16. O n Jacob's covenantal significance for Jubilees, see H a l p e r n - A m a r u , " M e t a -
historical C o v e n a n t , " 3 6 - 4 1 ; Christiansen, " C o v e n a n t C o n s c i o u s n e s s , " 80-82, 88-89.

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the i n f o r m a t i o n that J a c o b w a s hesitant to c o n t i n u e d o w n to E g y p t , a n d that

he w a i t e d at B e e r S h e v a for s o m e k i n d of d i v i n e r e s p o n s e to his anxiety. T h i s
a d d i t i o n serves to e x p l a i n the t h e o p h a n y that o c c u r s there. In Jubilees, it
c o m e s as G o d ' s r e s p o n s e to Jacob's hesitation. B u t there is m o r e . W h i l e w a i t i n g
for an a n s w e r to his c o n c e r n s , Jubilees tells us, J a c o b celebrated the festival of
the firstfruits of w h e a t (using old g r a i n , since the f a m i n e m a d e it i m p o s s i b l e to
get n e w g r a i n ) . Faithful to his role as the bearer of the c o v e n a n t a l relationship,
J a c o b observes the c o v e n a n t a l festival, w h i c h r e n e w s the c o v e n a n t ( J u b 6 : 1 7 ) .
T h e n , o n the sixteenth of the m o n t h , the d a y after the festival, G o d speaks to
J a c o b (44:5). T h e pattern is familiar: the c o v e n a n t festival is o b s e r v e d , and then
G o d a p p e a r s to enact or affirm the c o v e n a n t . In this case, the c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
past c o v e n a n t a l t h e o p h a n i e s is reinforced b y a c h a n g e the a u t h o r m a k e s to the
b a s e text. In G e n e s i s (46:2), G o d speaks to J a c o b in a d r e a m . B u t in Jubilees
(44:5), G o d a p p e a r s to J a c o b (hh-tCh?"), just as he h a d a p p e a r e d to A b r a h a m
(cf. Jub 15:3 a n d G e n 1 7 : 1 ) . J a c o b experiences the s a m e direct c o m m u n i c a t i o n
his g r a n d f a t h e r did. W h i l e the term " c o v e n a n t " does n o t o c c u r in this passage,
c o v e n a n t is clearly its focusing c o n c e r n , a n d this focus is affirmed b y the au­
thor's r e w o r k i n g of the biblical source so that G o d ' s direct t h e o p h a n y c o m e s ,
as in the past, in r e s p o n s e to the c o v e n a n t a l festival.

V I I . Distinctive Features of Jubilees' Concept of Covenant

T h e a t t e n t i o n g i v e n to c o v e n a n t in Jubilees indicates its i m p o r t a n c e to the

w o r k ' s a u t h o r . A t the s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , Jubilees insists that the c o v e n a n t
d o e s n o t create G o d ' s u n i q u e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Israel. R a t h e r , it enacts that
r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h i c h preexists the c o v e n a n t . I n d e e d , the r e l a t i o n s h i p even
preexists the p e o p l e w i t h w h o m the c o v e n a n t is m a d e . T h e o f f s p r i n g of J a ­
cob are d e s i g n a t e d b y G o d to h o l d the status of G o d ' s f i r s t b o r n s o n — the
heir — at the c u l m i n a t i o n o f c r e a t i o n . B e i n g G o d ' s s o n m a k e s Israel like
G o d . Israel's s a n c t i f i c a t i o n is at o n c e a c o n d i t i o n a n d result of the u n i q u e re­
l a t i o n s h i p . C o v e n a n t b r i n g s the r e l a t i o n s h i p into t e m p o r a l e x p r e s s i o n a n d
p r o v i d e s the m e a n s of realizing the n e c e s s a r y s a n c t i f i c a t i o n o f I s r a e l .
T h e N o a c h i c c o v e n a n t is the first iteration of c o v e n a n t a n d the basis of
s u b s e q u e n t c o v e n a n t s , w h i c h are therefore n o t n e w c o v e n a n t s , but s i m p l y
reiterations of that o r i g i n a l c o v e n a n t . W h a t this m e a n s is that a c o v e n a n t
m a d e — in t h e o r y — w i t h all h u m a n k i n d b e c o m e s a c o v e n a n t o n l y w i t h Is­
rael. G o d ' s u n i v e r s a l c o m m i t m e n t to the w h o l e of c r e a t i o n finds e x p r e s s i o n
in a special c o m m i t m e n t to o n e p a r t of h u m a n i t y . T h i s c o m m i t m e n t w i l l

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n e v e r c h a n g e , as J u b i l e e s ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s t a t e m e n t s m a k e clear. T h e full real­

i z a t i o n of G o d ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Israel w i l l be Israel's e x p a n s i o n a n d d o m i ­
n a t i o n o v e r the w h o l e earth a n d all w h o are n o t p a r t of Israel (see, e.g., J u b
32:18-19).
W h i l e Ps 50:5 is n e v e r directly q u o t e d in Jubilees, the a u t h o r of Jubilees
w o u l d surely have affirmed its b a s i c thrust, that c o v e n a n t is m a d e w i t h s a c r i ­
17
fice. R e a d i n g G e n 8 : 2 0 - 9 : 1 7 in the light of E x o d 24:3-8, the a u t h o r of Jubilees
established a b a s i c p a t t e r n : G o d a l w a y s s p o k e the t e r m s of the c o v e n a n t after
sacrifice h a d b e e n m a d e . T h i s p a t t e r n s h a p e s the retelling of several G e n e s i s
n a r r a t i v e s . T h u s , the ritual d e s c r i b e d in G e n 15 is explicitly treated as sacrifi­
cial in Jubilees, a n d a sacrificial p e r f o r m a n c e is a d d e d to the n a r r a t i v e of the
c o v e n a n t of c i r c u m c i s i o n b a s e d on G e n 1 7 . O n e p o s s i b l e r e a s o n for this e m ­
p h a s i s o n sacrifice is tied to the sacrificial use of b l o o d . T h i s l e g i t i m a t e use
stands o v e r against illegitimate t r e a t m e n t of h u m a n a n d a n i m a l b l o o d , a n d
serves as a sign a n d r e m i n d e r of the f u n d a m e n t a l c o v e n a n t a l o b l i g a t i o n to a b ­
stain f r o m s h e d d i n g h u m a n b l o o d a n d f r o m c o n s u m i n g a n i m a l b l o o d . It also
a p p e a r s that Jubilees u n d e r s t a n d s sacrifice in relational t e r m s . It is the m e a n s
b y w h i c h a h u m a n b e i n g expresses a desire for or a c o m m i t m e n t to a r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p to G o d . G o d r e s p o n d s to such h u m a n o v e r t u r e s b y a f f i r m i n g the desired
r e l a t i o n s h i p t h r o u g h establishing or reestablishing c o v e n a n t .

Appendix: Occurrences of "Covenant"

in Ethiopic and Hebrew Jubilees

B y m y c o u n t , the E t h i o p i c w o r d h.^"> (kidan) o c c u r s a total of t h i r t y - t w o

t i m e s in E t h i o p i c J u b i l e e s . N i n e t e e n t i m e s it a p p e a r s w i t h o u t a suffix (6:4,
1 0 b , 1 1 [ 2 X ] , 1 6 , 1 7 , 3 5 ; 1 4 : 1 8 , 20 [ 2 x ] ; 1 5 : 1 9 , 2 6 , 28, 29; 1 6 : 1 4 ; 2 1 : 1 1 ; 23:19 [ 2 x ] ;
3 0 : 2 1 ) ; n i n e t i m e s w i t h the f i r s t - p e r s o n s i n g u l a r suffix ( " m y c o v e n a n t " ; 1 : 1 0 ;
15:4, 9 , 1 1 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 9 , 2 1 ; 2 4 : 1 1 ) ; three t i m e s it has the t h i r d m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r
suffix ("his c o v e n a n t " ; 15:34; 2 1 : 4 ; 2 2 : 1 5 ) ; a n d o n c e it a p p e a r s w i t h the s e c o n d
1 8
m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r suffix ( " y o u r c o v e n a n t " ; 2 2 : 3 0 ) . In e v e r y case, it refers
1 9
to a c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n G o d a n d h u m a n b e i n g s .

, ,l
17. n3T- 7S7 T T H l 'HID ''"TOn 7-1DDX ("Gather to m e m y devoted ones, w h o m a d e
m y covenant with sacrifice").
18. T h i s s u m m a r y o f occurrences of corrects o m i s s i o n s and errors in v a n
Ruiten's otherwise extremely helpful s u m m a r y o f covenantal language in Jubilees ( " C o v e ­
nant o f N o a h , " 1 6 8 - 7 0 ) .
19. A s v a n Ruiten notes ("Covenant of Noah," 168), Jubilees never uses the w o r d for a

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 The Concept of Covenant in Jubilees

T h e r e s e e m s to be n o d i s p u t e a m o n g s t interpreters that h.fit in all its

o c c u r r e n c e s in Jubilees s t a n d s for H e b r e w 1 T H 3 . A n u m b e r of lines of e v i ­
d e n c e s u p p o r t this c o n s e n s u s . First, in the E t h i o p i c P e n t a t e u c h , fre­
q u e n t l y r e n d e r s H e b r e w J T H D . S e c o n d , in cases w h e r e Jubilees s e e m s to
q u o t e b i b l i c a l texts directly, the E t h i o p i c m o s t often has tuftl w h e r e the b i b ­
1
lical s o u r c e text has n T 3 . T h i r d , a n d m o s t decisively, a Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t o f
2 0
Jubilees in H e b r e w reads T P T D w h e r e the E t h i o p i c reads h . f l ' J f .
-
However, another Ethiopic word, / " C l ^ (ser'at), appears several
t i m e s i n J u b i l e e s w h e r e it s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e that the o r i g i n a l H e ­
b r e w w o u l d have h a d 1THD. T h e difficulty here is that f"C°i-\- also r e n d e r s
H e b r e w n p n , w h i c h is m a d e clear b y the fact that 4 Q 2 1 6 ii 8 has T H p n w h e r e
the E t h i o p i c ( J u b 1:10) has / " C V ^ - P . T h u s , there are g r o u n d s for u n c e r t a i n t y
a b o u t w h i c h w o r d s t o o d in the o r i g i n a l H e b r e w . A s a result, s c h o l a r s differ in
their a p p r o a c h to t r a n s l a t i n g /"CI'K
T h u s , W i n t e r m u t e a n d V a n d e r K a m b o t h r e n d e r / " C l t as " c o v e n a n t "
in J u b 1:5 a n d 2 3 : 1 6 , a n d V a n d e r K a m r e t r o v e r t s the E t h i o p i c to JTHDn in his
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of 4 Q 2 1 6 i 14, w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s to J u b 1:5. T h i s m o v e is s u p ­
p o r t e d b y the fact that m i D a p p e a r s clearly o n the H e b r e w f r a g m e n t , a n d
this v e r b c o m m o n l y takes TTHn as its o b j e c t in the H e b r e w B i b l e . In contrast,
-
B e r g e r r e n d e r s / " C l - t as " O r d n u n g " in J u b 1:5 a n d 2 3 : 1 6 , a n d e v e r y w h e r e
else it o c c u r s in the text.
In t e n s i o n w i t h their t r a n s l a t i o n o f in J u b 1:5 a n d 2 3 : 1 6 , b u t in
agreement with Berger's approach, Wintermute and V a n d e r K a m distinguish
b e t w e e n / " C l - J - a n d K^Tr in their t r a n s l a t i o n s o f J u b 1 5 . B o t h r e n d e r h . ^ ?
-
w i t h "covenant," b u t W i n t e r m u t e renders / " C I - ) with "ordinance" and
V a n d e r K a m uses "pact," e v e n t h o u g h the E t h i o p i c w o r d s t a n d s in J u b i l e e s
w h e r e the b i b l i c a l s o u r c e text has 1 1 ' " I D .
In their t r a n s l a t i o n of the m a t e r i a l a d d e d o n t o the b i b l i c a l b a s e text
(Jub 15:25-34), they maintain this distinction, except that in 1 5 : 2 6
W i n t e r m u t e r e n d e r s (D"(ff. • /^C'i't as "the s o n s o f the c o v e n a n t " w h i l e
V a n d e r K a m has "the p e o p l e of the pact."
-
It is certainly the case that there are o c c u r r e n c e s of / " C I I in J u b i l e e s
w h e r e it is u n l i k e l y or e v e n i m p o s s i b l e that D ' T D s t o o d in the o r i g i n a l H e ­
b r e w . H o w e v e r , in a n u m b e r of instances it s e e m s a p p r o p r i a t e to c o n c l u d e

pact o r a g r e e m e n t between p e o p l e , in contrast to G e n e s i s , where r P I D several times desig­

2
nates such an agreement (see G e n 14:13; 21:27, 3 : 26:28; 3 1 : 4 4 ) .
20. 4Q216 ii 8, as reconstructed by V a n d e r K a m , reads 'nlXajrlKl Tllpn [nx 131»]
, ,
['Bnj? I1S1 ' m m © nxi ] n'-|3 '[737B n S l , w i t h n n 3 in the Hebrew where the Ethiopic
has Mlt.

189
William K. Gilders

that did a p p e a r in the H e b r e w . T h e E t h i o p i c version's use of two w o r d s

to r e n d e r JVnD likely arose f r o m a translator's desire for l i t e r a r y v a r i a t i o n .
C o m p a r e for this p h e n o m e n o n J u b 6:14, w h e r e t w o different E t h i o p i c v e r b s
are u s e d w h e r e the H e b r e w a l m o s t certainly h a d "HSD t w o t i m e s ( a n d cf. L X X
2 1
E x o d 29:36-37, w h e r e t w o different G r e e k v e r b s r e n d e r 1 2 3 ) . N o t e , also,
that the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n o f G e n 1 7 uses three different w o r d s to r e n d e r
1
X T H D : h . ' S ? ( 1 7 : 2 , 4, 7a, 1 3 b , 1 9 b , 2 1 ) , / " C l - r (17:10, 11, 13a, 1 4 , 1 9 a ) , and thl
2 2
(17:7b, 9 ) -
H e r e , I list the o c c u r r e n c e s of / " C I ' T ' w h e r e I v i e w the presence o f
J T H 3 in the o r i g i n a l H e b r e w as b e i n g m o s t likely, a n d indicate briefly the e v ­
i d e n c e or r e a s o n s for this c o n c l u s i o n .
Jub 1:5: T h i s verse is e q u i v a l e n t to 4 Q 2 1 6 i 1 4 , w h e r e I l T D a p p e a r s . T h e
H e b r e w ITHn is the e x p e c t e d object for this v e r b in this context. A s I n o t e d
-
above, Wintermute and V a n d e r K a m both render / " C l ^ here as "covenant."
Jub 1 4 : 2 0 : T h i s verse refers to A b r a m as r e n e w i n g the c o v e n a n t a l festi­
val in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h G o d ' s m a k i n g a c o v e n a n t w i t h h i m . Since the p u r ­
p o s e of h u m a n o b s e r v a n c e of this festival, a c c o r d i n g to J u b i l e e s , is the re­
n e w a l o f the c o v e n a n t ( 6 : 1 7 ) , it is a p p r o p r i a t e h e r e to see J u b i l e e s as
s p e c i f y i n g that A b r a m ' s o b s e r v a n c e of the festival a c h i e v e d this effect. I n ­
d e e d , a p a r t f r o m u s i n g A^d-t instead of h . ' S ? , the f o r m u l a t i o n in J u b 1 4 : 2 0
is identical to w h a t a p p e a r s in J u b 6:17 (see also 2 2 : 1 5 , 3 ° ) - T h u s , it is a p p r o ­
-
priate to r e n d e r / " C I - ) here as " c o v e n a n t " a n d to a s s u m e that the o r i g i n a l
Hebrew had I T H 3 .
Jub 15:6: T h i s v e r s e is e q u i v a l e n t to G e n 1 7 : 4 , w h i c h has 'ITHS w h e r e
the E t h i o p i c Jubilees reads / " C l ^ f . G o l d m a n n ' s H e b r e w t r a n s l a t i o n follows
G e n e s i s here.
Jub 15:9: T h i s verse is e q u i v a l e n t to G e n 1 7 : 7 , w h i c h h a s r P I D t w i c e .
T h e first o c c u r r e n c e , T f H D . , is clearly r e n d e r e d b y E t h i o p i c h . # 7 P . T h e sec­
1
o n d o c c u r r e n c e , i n the e x p r e s s i o n 0*7157 ITHD, ?, is clearly reflected in the
E t h i o p i c / " C I * : H °i 9°.
Jub 1 5 : 1 1 : T h i s v e r s e consists of G e n 1 7 : 9 , 1 0 b , a n d 1 1 . T h e e q u i v a l e n t of
Gen 1 7 : 1 0 a is m i s s i n g , a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y s i m p l y d u e to s c r i b a l e r r o r , a
h a p l o g r a p h y resulting f r o m a scribe's eye j u m p i n g f r o m T H I I N at the e n d of
G e n 17:9 to T H r l N at the b e g i n n i n g o f G e n 1 7 : 1 0 b , o m i t t i n g e v e r y t h i n g in b e -

21. F o r further detail on the different renderings o f 1 D 3 in Jubilees, see G i l d e r s ,

" B l o o d and Covenant," 98-99.
22. It should be noted that this variation cannot reflect the influence of L X X , since it
is consistent in having 5ia0fJKr| throughout G e n 17.

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 The Concept of Covenant in Jubilees

t w e e n . At the b e g i n n i n g of J u b 15:9 h . # ? P stands w h e r e G e n 17:9 has T P I D .

T h e o c c u r r e n c e of V I ' 1 3 at the b e g i n n i n g of G e n 1 7 : 1 0 is n o t r e p r o d u c e d in
1
Jubilees d u e to the h a p l o g r a p h y . G e n 1 7 : 1 1 has A ' 1 3 fllX ? w h i l e the E t h i o p i c
;
reads th9°C-t- •• / " C i - H : H °i 9°, w h i c h indicates the a d d i t i o n of 0*7157 in
- 0
the H e b r e w text of J u b i l e e s . C o m p a r e J u b 15:28, w h e r e w e find • J K 9 C ' M ( •'
h.&t, w h i c h m u s t reflect s o m e t h i n g like nXTH/ntn n ' T S n n i X .
Jub 1 5 : 1 3 : T h i s verse is e q u i v a l e n t to G e n 1 7 : 1 3 , a n d there is a v i r t u a l l y
w o r d - f o r - w o r d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the b i b l i c a l H e b r e w text a n d the
E t h i o p i c . T h u s , it is m o s t likely that the H e b r e w o f Jubilees s i m p l y r e p r o ­
d u c e d w h a t a p p e a r s in the b i b l i c a l s o u r c e , such that D3"H1>33 V I ' 1 3 nnVH
D^IS? n n 3 7 1
s t a n d s b e h i n d the E t h i o p i c fflJcVhrn-? : h . f l ? f : fl>-n+ ••
f»?\\ar>- : / " C I * : H 1 9°, despite the fact that the E t h i o p i c r e n d e r s the
t w o o c c u r r e n c e s of J T H 3 w i t h t w o different E t h i o p i c t e r m s . C o m p a r e Jub
0
1 5 : 1 9 , w h i c h has wh'KD-9 • h . ^ 7 f : 9°nA,W- : h . 3 V : H °i 9° w h e r e G e n 1 7 : 1 9
reads D^IJ? n 1 3 7 inN V P I S - I I K V I Q p m , r e n d e r i n g b o t h o c c u r r e n c e s of
, 1

J T H 3 in this case w i t h h . ' S ? .

Jub 15:25: T h i s is a m o r e p r o b l e m a t i c e x a m p l e than those d i s c u s s e d
a b o v e , since this v e r s e b e g i n s the a d d i t i o n s to the b i b l i c a l b a s e text a n d there
is n o H e b r e w text w i t h w h i c h to c o m p a r e the E t h i o p i c . A d m i t t e d l y , " o r d i ­
n a n c e " (as in b o t h W i n t e r m u t e ' s a n d V a n d e r K a m ' s t r a n s l a t i o n s ) a p p a r e n t l y
m a k e s m o r e sense here, since the w o r d / " C l ' h refers to the commanded
p r a c t i c e (rhl) a n d is said to be " o r d a i n e d a n d w r i t t e n o n the h e a v e n l y tab­
lets." I p r o p o s e that here D^IS? flpn m a y v e r y w e l l h a v e a p p e a r e d in the o r i g i ­
nal H e b r e w . 2 3
H o w e v e r , it is w o r t h y o f n o t e that the e x p r e s s i o n n^iy nn3
does a p p e a r in the P e n t a t e u c h in s u c h a w a y that its m e a n i n g c o u l d b e taken
as "eternal c o v e n a n t a l o r d i n a n c e " ( E x o d 3 1 : 1 6 ) . T h u s , it is p o s s i b l e that the
a u t h o r of Jubilees u s e d it here in that sense a n d that the o r i g i n a l H e b r e w d i d
read
Jub 15:26: W i n t e r m u t e is a l m o s t certainly c o r r e c t to take dy-frf. :
/ " C I ' J - as s t a n d i n g for H e b r e w lTH3[ri] ' 3 3 ("the s o n s of the c o v e n a n t " ) ,
g i v e n that the t e r m " s o n s " m o s t n a t u r a l l y i n d i c a t e s m e m b e r s h i p or p a r t i c i ­
p a t i o n , n o t in the o r d i n a n c e o f c i r c u m c i s i o n itself, b u t in the c o v e n a n t it
l
s e r v e s . It is also w o r t h n o t i n g that the E t h i o p i c v e r b u s e d here, •h lP.R
(takdyada), u s u a l l y has h.£"> as its object.
; a
Jub 15:28: In this verse w e h a v e th9 C-t-ll • u.^">, w h i c h as I n o t e d
,
a b o v e m u s t reflect s o m e t h i n g like nXTH/ntn n T 3 H fllS, followed by

1
23. F o r D ? ^ Dpn in the Pentateuch, see, e.g., E x o d 1 2 : 1 4 , 1 7 ; 27:21; 29:9; Lev 3:17; 7:36;
16:29, 3 1 , 34; 17:7; N u m 15:15; 1 9 : 1 0 , 2 1 .

191
William K. Gilders

/"C1^ H I J " . A s in 15:25, it is possible that this latter expression repre­

sents nVlS? Dpn. However, it is also possible that the H e b r e w had n ' 1 3
1
D ^ i y f ? ] , again reflecting E x o d 31:16.
Jub 23:16: A s I noted above, both Wintermute and VanderKam render
/"Cl^ here as "covenant." This verse refers to abandoning the cove­
nant "which G o d made" (H+»LF X. • hllLh-ttthC). Again, the Ethiopic uses
language that refers to covenant, and this suggests that the original Hebrew
read D'HI^K ma -wx nnan rm.

192
From a Movement of Dissent to a Distinct Form
of Judaism: The Heavenly Tablets in Jubilees
as the Foundation of a Competing Halakah

Gabriele Boccaccini

1. Jubilees: Neither "Rewritten Torah" nor "New Torah"

In 1 9 9 7 M i c h a e l T h o m a s D a v i s translated into E n g l i s h a n d m a d e available to

the i n t e r n a t i o n a l a u d i e n c e a 1 9 8 4 S p a n i s h article b y F l o r e n t i n o Garcia
M a r t i n e z , w h i c h still r e m a i n s the m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y o n the h e a v e n l y
1
tablets in J u b i l e e s . G a r c i a M a r t i n e z p o i n t e d o u t that the f u n c t i o n o f the
h e a v e n l y tablets in Jubilees c o u l d n o t b e r e d u c e d to their b e i n g "the d i v i n e ,
2
p r e e x i s t i n g a r c h e t y p e of the [ M o s a i c ] T o r a h . " In m o s t cases "the i n s t r u c ­
tions c o n t a i n e d in these tablets do not c o i n c i d e w i t h the b i b l i c a l text" a n d
3
introduce "new halakhot." G a r c i a M a r t i n e z c o n c l u d e d his analysis b y af­
f i r m i n g that " i n m o r e t h a n h a l f of the cases in Jubilees . . . the H e a v e n l y T a b ­
lets f u n c t i o n in the s a m e w a y as the O r a l T o r a h . . . in R a b b i n i c J u d a i s m . T h e
H e a v e n l y Tablets constitute a h e r m e n e u t i c a l r e c o u r s e w h i c h p e r m i t s the p r e ­
s e n t a t i o n of the 'correct' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the L a w a d a p t i n g it to the c h a n g ­
4
ing s i t u a t i o n s of life."

1. F. G a r c i a M a r t i n e z , " T h e H e a v e n l y Tablets in the B o o k o f Jubilees," in Studies in the

Book of Jubilees, ed. M . Albani et a l . , T S A J 65 ( T u b i n g e n : M o h r Siebeck, 1997), 243-59; in S p a n ­
ish: " L a s Tablas Celestes en el Libro de los Jubileos," in Palabrasy Vida, ed. A . Vagas M a c h u c a
a n d G . R u i z ( M a d r i d : U n i v e r s i d a d de C o m i l l a s , 1984), 333-49. F o r an earlier treatment of the
subject, see R. E p p e l , "Les tables de la L o i et les tables celestes," RHPR 17 (1937): 4 0 1 - 1 2 .
2. G a r c i a M a r t i n e z , " T h e H e a v e n l y Tablets," 243.
3. G a r c i a M a r t i n e z , " T h e H e a v e n l y Tablets," 251 a n d 255.
4. G a r c i a M a r t i n e z , " T h e H e a v e n l y Tablets," 248.

193
Gabriele Boccaccini

F o l l o w i n g G a r c i a M a r t i n e z ' s w o r k , in 1998 and 1999 M a r t h a H i m m e l ­

farb, H i n d y N a j m a n , a n d G a b r i e l e B o c c a c c i n i — w o r k i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f
o n e a n o t h e r — r e a c h e d s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s that, w h i l e c o n f i r m i n g
G a r c i a M a r t i n e z ' s o v e r a l l analysis of the h e a v e n l y tablets in J u b i l e e s , p o i n t e d
5
to a different r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the M o s a i c T o r a h . We all
e m p h a s i z e d that, c o n t r a r y to the r a b b i n i c v i e w o f the oral T o r a h , J u b i l e e s '
c o n c e p t of the h e a v e n l y tablets w a s not m e a n t to e n h a n c e the centrality o f
the M o s a i c T o r a h . In d e s c r i b i n g the attitude of the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s , w e
c a m e to the v e r y s a m e c o n c l u s i o n , f o r m u l a t e d even w i t h the v e r y s a m e v o ­
c a b u l a r y — as a result of the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the c o n c e p t of the h e a v e n l y
tablets, the " u n i q u e n e s s " of the M o s a i c T o r a h w a s "lost," " d o w n g r a d e d , "
"relativized," " u n d e r m i n e d . "

Gabriele Boccaccini (1998):

Jubilees c l a i m s that the Z a d o k i t e t o r a h d o e s n o t c o n t a i n G o d ' s entire

w i l l ; it is o n l y o n e of several i n c o m p l e t e v e r s i o n s o f the h e a v e n l y tab­
lets. . . . T h e Z a d o k i t e t o r a h d o e s n o t even c o n t a i n the entire r e v e l a t i o n
given to M o s e s ; it is o n l y "the b o o k of the first T o r a h " ( 6 : 2 2 ) , w i t h J u ­
bilees also c l a i m i n g a M o s a i c o r i g i n . . . . T h e centrality a n d uniqueness
of the Z a d o k i t e t o r a h are lost in its b e i n g o n l y o n e d o c u m e n t in a
larger written tradition, including Enochic documents and Jubi­
lees. . . . T h e h e a v e n l y tablets are the o n l y a n d a l l - i n c l u s i v e r e p o s i t o r y
6
of G o d ' s r e v e l a t i o n .

Martha Himmelfarb (1999):

T h e heavenly tablets serve as a source of divine authority that t r u m p s

the a u t h o r i t y of the Torah. T h u s they put Jubilees a n d the Torah on a
similar footing. B o t h are s u b o r d i n a t e to the heavenly archive that appar­
ently contains e v e r y t h i n g that appears in either of t h e m a n d m o r e as
well. F r o m this angle of v i s i o n , then the existence of a heavenly p r o t o ­
t y p e of the Torah serves not to strengthen the authority of the Torah but

5. G . Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998);

M . Himmelfarb, "Torah, Testimony, a n d Heavenly Tablets: T h e C l a i m o f Authority o f the
B o o k of Jubilees," in A Multiform Heritage (Festschrift Robert A. Kraft), ed. B . G . Wright (At­
lanta: Scholars Press, 1999), 19-29; H . Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing: Jubi­
lees a n d Its Authority Conferring Strategies," JSJ 30 (1999): 379-410.
6. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, 9 0 , emphasis added.

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 From a Movement of Dissent to a Distinct Form of Judaism

to relativize it. . . . Jubilees suggests that even as a b o o k of law the Torah

has limitations. N o t only h a d other b o o k s already revealed s o m e of its
contents (the s a m e is true for Jubilees itself), but there are laws e n g r a v e d
on the heavenly tablets that are not to be f o u n d in the T o r a h . T h u s Jubi­
lees demotes the Torah b y undermining its claims to uniqueness and
7
completeness, c l a i m i n g for itself a separate but equal s p h e r e .

Hindy Najman (1999):

L o n g before M o s e s ascended M o u n t Sinai, the calendrical a n d historical

tradition inscribed u p o n the heavenly tablets w a s transmitted, in the
f o r m of a written tradition, to E n o c h and then N o a h and the patri­
archs. . . . While the authority of M o s e s ' revelation at Sinai is invoked o n
behalf of the solar calendar, that authority is at the s a m e time down­
graded. M o s e s w a s not unique; he w a s o n e of the m a n y b o o k i s h heroes
c h a r g e d w i t h the transcription of heavenly t a b l e t s . . . . Jubilees' insistence
on the pre-Sinaitic origin of its heavenly tradition . . . underminejs] the
8
special authority that h a d b e e n accorded to the M o s a i c T o r a h .

W e all a g r e e d that l a b e l i n g Jubilees as " r e w r i t t e n T o r a h " w o u l d b e i m ­

9
p r o p e r a n d " m i s l e a d i n g , " as the d o c u m e n t w a s n o t " m o t i v a t e d b y an o u t ­
b u r s t o f c u r i o s i t y a n d trust in the i n e x h a u s t i b l e c o m p r e h e n s i v e n e s s of the
10
Mosaic revelation." O n the other h a n d , Jubilees w a s n o t even the " s u p e r -
c a n o n i c a l text" that B e n Z i o n W a c h o l d e r b e l i e v e d it to be, a i m e d to " r e p l a c e "
the M o s a i c T o r a h as a m o r e a u t h o r i t a t i v e a n d reliable t e s t i m o n y of G o d ' s
1 1
will. N o t h i n g in the text of Jubilees suggests that the M o s a i c T o r a h s h o u l d
b e a b a n d o n e d or d i s r e g a r d e d . "In c o n t r a s t to the f a m i l i a r C h r i s t i a n c l a i m to
s u p e r s e d e the S i n a i t i c c o v e n a n t with a n e w c o v e n a n t . . . J u b i l e e s b e l o n g s to a
f a m i l y of texts that c l a i m s an e q u i v a l e n t o r p e r h a p s even a h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y
t h a n that a c c o r d e d to M o s a i c r e v e l a t i o n insofar as the H e a v e n l y Tablets w e r e

7. Himmelfarb, "Torah," 27-28.

8. Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing," 385, 388, 4 1 0 .
9. Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing," 409 {pace J. C. Endres, Biblical In­
terpretation in the Book of Jubilees, C B Q M S 18 [Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Associa­
tion of A m e r i c a , 1987]).
10. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, 89-90.
11. B . Z . Wacholder, "Jubilees as the Super C a n o n : Torah-Admonitions versus Torah
C o m m a n d m e n t , " in Legal Texts and Legal Issues, ed. M . Bernstein et al., S T D J 23 (Leiden:
Brill, 1997), 195-211.

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Gabriele Boccaccini

12
r e v e a l e d p r i o r to S i n a i t i c r e v e l a t i o n . " In s u m : the author of Jubilees wanted
neither to strengthen the Pentateuch nor to replace it.
A t first sight the w o r k o f the a u t h o r of Jubilees m a y a p p e a r s i m i l a r to
that of an exegete w h o " m o v e s t h r o u g h the f a m i l i a r texts . . . solves v a r i o u s
p r o b l e m s that arise f r o m t h e m a n d at t i m e s p r o v i d e s l o n g e r clarifications re­
g a r d i n g the m e a n i n g a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e of the b i b l i c a l events a n d charac­
13
ters." Yet, this w a s not the a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s ' s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e d o c ­
1 4
u m e n t w a s n e i t h e r a n e w b o o k o f C h r o n i c l e s , as R . H . C h a r l e s i n t e n d e d ,
n o r an early m i d r a s h that m a k e s explicit w h a t is s u p p o s e d l y already i m p l i c i t
in the text a n d clarifies the u n w r i t t e n , o u t of r e s p e c t for the a u t h o r i t y and
u n i q u e n e s s o f the M o s a i c T o r a h . " U n l i k e C h r o n i c l e s , Jubilees presents itself
15
as a r e v e l a t i o n f r o m an a n g e l . "
J u b i l e e s c l a i m s to c o n t a i n a w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n that p r e d a t e s S i n a i — a
t r a d i t i o n that s t a r t e d , l o n g b e f o r e the e x o d u s , w i t h E n o c h , a n d w a s i m p l e ­
m e n t e d b y N o a h , A b r a h a m , J a c o b , a n d L e v i a n d his s o n s . T h i s parallel w r i t ­
ten t r a d i t i o n w a s finally r e v e a l e d to M o s e s o n M o u n t S i n a i a l o n g w i t h the
P e n t a t e u c h , o r "the b o o k o f the first T o r a h " ( J u b 6 : 2 2 ) .
T h e existence o f the h e a v e n l y tablets as the celestial u r t e x t e x p l a i n s
b o t h the s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d the differences b e t w e e n M o s a i c a n d E n o c h i c t r a d i ­
t i o n s . T h e y are s i m i l a r i n a s m u c h as t h e y b o t h d e p e n d o n the s a m e s o u r c e .
T h e y are different i n a s m u c h as n e i t h e r is a full c o p y of the celestial a r c h e ­
t y p e . " J u b i l e e s u n d e r s t a n d s the H e a v e n l y Tablets as an a r c h i v e o f d i v i n e
k n o w l e d g e . T h e T o r a h a n d Jubilees even in c o m b i n a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e o n l y a
16
l i m i t e d p u b l i c a t i o n of its c o n t e n t s . " T h e h e a v e n l y tablets, n o t Jubilees or
the M o s a i c T o r a h , are the o n l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e p o s i t o r y o f G o d ' s w i l l .

2. Mosaic or Enochic?

W h a t m a k e s the b o o k o f Jubilees u n i q u e is the explicit reference to b o t h the

M o s a i c T o r a h , the P e n t a t e u c h (a t r a d i t i o n that h i s t o r i c a l l y w a s h a n d e d d o w n

1 2 . N a j m a n , "Interpretation as P r i m o r d i a l Writing," 394. See also H i m m e l f a r b , " T o ­

rah," 28: "Wacholder's claim that Jubilees represents itself as s u p e r - c a n o n i c a l is inaccurate";
a n d J . C . V a n d e r k a m , The Book of Jubilees (Sheffield: A c a d e m i c , 2 0 0 1 ) , 12: "[Jubilees'] p u r ­
p o s e w a s not to replace the first b o o k s of the Bible."
13. V a n d e r K a m , The Book of jubilees, 1 2 .
14. R . H . C h a r l e s , APOT, 2:7: " T h e a u t h o r of Jubilees s o u g h t to do for G e n e s i s w h a t
the C h r o n i c l e r h a d d o n e for S a m u e l a n d Kings."
15. V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, 135.
1 6 . H i m m e l f a r b , "Torah," 28.

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 From a Movement of Dissent to a Distinct Form of Judaism

by the Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d ) , a n d the E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n , as p r e s e r v e d in the

b o o k s o f E n o c h (a p a r a l l e l p r e - M a c c a b e a n t r a d i t i o n with strong anti-
1 7
Zadokite elements). In earlier texts, M o s a i c a n d E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s s h o w
e v i d e n c e of m u t u a l i n f l u e n c e , even c o m p e t i t i o n a n d dissent, b u t as far as w e
k n o w , Jubilees is the first d o c u m e n t to m e n t i o n e x p l i c i t l y b o t h traditions
a n d to a d d r e s s t h e o r e t i c a l l y the p r o b l e m o f their r e l a t i o n s h i p .
A s w i t h any m e r g i n g of t r a d i t i o n s , the q u e s t i o n of w h i c h c o m p o n e n t
(the Z a d o k i t e or the E n o c h i c ) p r e v a i l e d in their m e e t i n g f r o m the i d e o l o g i ­
cal p o i n t of v i e w is delicate a n d v e r y difficult to assess.
If w e l o o k at the figures of E n o c h a n d M o s e s , there is n o d o u b t that in
the n a r r a t i v e of Jubilees the figure o f M o s e s s u p e r s e d e s E n o c h as the central
m e d i a t o r a n d S i n a i e m e r g e s as the p r i v i l e g e d p l a c e of r e v e l a t i o n , as J o h n
1 8
B e r g s m a a n d D o r o t h y Peters c o r r e c t l y p o i n t o u t . E n o c h w a s "the first w h o
l e a r n e d w r i t i n g " ( J u b 4 : 1 7 ) , b u t it w a s M o s e s w h o on M o u n t S i n a i w a s the re­
p o s i t o r y of b o t h the P e n t a t e u c h a n d J u b i l e e s . M o s e s ( n o t E n o c h ) is the trait
d'union of b o t h t r a d i t i o n s . T h e role of E n o c h as r e v e a l e r r e m a i n s c o n f i n e d to
p r o g e n i t o r o f o n e t r a d i t i o n only, that of J u b i l e e s .
O n the other h a n d , if w e l o o k at the ideologies of E n o c h and M o s e s , we
h a v e a different p i c t u r e . T h e r e c o g n i t i o n of the p r i m a c y o f M o s e s as the cen­
tral r e v e l a t o r y figure d o e s not m e a n u n c r i t i c a l a c c e p t a n c e o f the Z a d o k i t e
w o r l d v i e w . O n the c o n t r a r y , b y t a k i n g u p the m y t h o f the fallen angels ( J u b
7 : i 2 f f . ) , Jubilees shares the g e n e r a t i v e idea o f E n o c h i c J u d a i s m , that the u n i ­
v e r s e a n d h i s t o r y are u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e of r e b e l l i o u s d e m o n i c forces. A s a
c o n s e q u e n c e , h i s t o r y is c o n d e m n e d to be a p r o c e s s o f decline a n d d e g e n e r a ­
tion until the t i m e o f G o d ' s final v i n d i c a t i o n — an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a n d a p o c ­
a l y p t i c " c o u n t e r s t o r y " that is totally e x t r a n e o u s to the " m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e " of
the M o s a i c T o r a h a n d d r a m a t i c a l l y alters its t h e o l o g i c a l o u t l o o k .
In m y Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, after s t r e s s i n g these m a n y ele­
m e n t s o f c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n the E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n and Jubilees, I con­
c l u d e d t h a t J u b i l e e s w a s the w o r k o f an a u t h o r w h o , f o l l o w i n g the t r a d i ­
tion of E n o c h , succeeded "in h a r m o n i z i n g M o s a i c revelation and E n o c h i c
19
r e v e l a t i o n , a n d in s u b o r d i n a t i n g the f o r m e r to the l a t t e r . " I n this s e n s e I
w a r n e d that the e x a l t a t i o n o f M o s e s a n d "the a c c e p t a n c e o f the M o s a i c

17. G . Boccaccini, Roots of Rabbinic Judaism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2 0 0 2 ) .

18. John S. B e r g s m a , " T h e Relationship between Jubilees a n d the Early Enochic B o o k s
(Astronomical B o o k a n d B o o k of the Watchers)," in this volume; Dorothy Peters, " N o a h
Traditions in Jubilees: Evidence for the Struggle between Enochic a n d Mosaic Authority,"
Hen 31, no. 1 (2009).
19. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, 90.

197
Gabriele Boccaccini

revelation [i.e., the Pentateuch] must not obfuscate the real intentions of
20
the author."
Other authors have reached similar conclusions in their analyses, no­
tably:

Andreas Bedenbender ( 2 0 0 0 )

l E n o c h 1 - 5 and the later E n o c h literature testify to a process of

21
"Mosaisierung des Wachterbuches."

Helge Kvanvig ( 2 0 0 4 ) :

The author mediates between two basic different attitudes toward the
divine revelation, the Mosaic known from the Pentateuch, and the
Enochic, known from the Enochic books. T h e Pentateuch is used exten­
sively both in regard to its laws and to its narrative, that forms the back­
bone of the story in Jubilees, but the perspective is Enochian Jubilees
mediates between the Mosaic and Enochic traditions, using Moses to
22
emphasize the importance of E n o c h .

David Jackson ( 2 0 0 4 ) :

Jubilees seems to be the earliest attempt to read the Mosaic Torah within
the framework of the calendar and paradigm exemplars of the Books of
23
Enoch.

Paolo Sacchi (2005):

Jubilees explicitly acknowledges the law of Moses, though considering it

subordinate to the laws of the heavenly tablets which are eternal. . . .
Zadokite tradition is accepted, but it is inserted into the Enochic theol-

20. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, 89.

21. A. Bedenbender, Der Gottder Welt trittauf den Sinai. Entstehung, Entwicklung und
Funktionsweise der fruhjudischen Apokalyptik (Berlin: Institut Kirche und Judentum, 2 0 0 0 ) ,
215-30.
22. H . S. Kvanvig, "Jubilees — between E n o c h and Moses: A Narrative Reading," JSJ
35, no. 3 (2004): 243-61 (here 260, 2 4 3 ) .
23. D. Jackson, Enochic Judaism: Three Defining Paradigm Exemplars (London: T. 8t T.
Clark, 2 0 0 4 ) , 170.

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 From a Movement of Dissent to a Distinct Form of Judaism

ogy. . . . T h e author's a i m in Jubilees is to unify the theologies of

2 4
Enochism and Z a d o k i t i s m .

M y interest w a s p r i m a r i l y in l o c a t i n g J u b i l e e s as an essential l i n k
w i t h i n the c h a i n o f d o c u m e n t s ( i n c l u d i n g E n o c h i c texts) l e a d i n g m o r e d i ­
rectly to the e m e r g e n c e of the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y . W h a t m y " s y s t e m i c
a n a l y s i s " m a d e a p p a r e n t w a s the g r o w t h of an intellectual m o v e m e n t , n o t
the h i s t o r y of a single, h o m o g e n e o u s s o c i a l g r o u p . T h e " Q u m r a n c h a i n of
d o c u m e n t s " w a s n o t i n t e n d e d to suggest that m e m b e r s of the s a m e g r o u p
w r o t e o n e after the other the entire literature. In this sense m y w o r k w a s an
e x p a n s i o n a n d clarification o f an i n t u i t i o n a l r e a d y f o r m u l a t e d in 1958 b y
F r a n k M . C r o s s in the aftermath o f the d i s c o v e r y of the D e a d Sea S c r o l l s :
" T h e c o n c r e t e contacts in t h e o l o g y , t e r m i n o l o g y , c a l e n d r i c a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s ,
a n d p r i e s t l y interests, b e t w e e n the e d i t i o n s of E n o c h , J u b i l e e s , a n d the Testa­
m e n t s of L e v i a n d N a p h t a l i f o u n d at Q u m r a n o n the o n e h a n d , a n d the d e ­
m o n s t r a b l y s e c t a r i a n w o r k s o f Q u m r a n o n the other, are so s y s t e m a t i c a n d
d e t a i l e d that w e m u s t p l a c e the c o m p o s i t i o n o f these w o r k s w i t h i n a single
25
line o f t r a d i t i o n . "

M o r e decidedly, D a v i d J a c k s o n has seen in J u b i l e e s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f

E n o c h i c J u d a i s m ("It is n o t so m u c h that 1 E n o c h o r J u b i l e e s are w o r k s o f the
Q u m r a n sect, but r a t h e r that the Q u m r a n s e c t a r i a n w o r k s are w o r k s of
2 6
Enochic Judaism"), a p o s i t i o n he reiterated at the c o n f e r e n c e : " J u b i l e e s
represents a s i g n i f i c a n t a n d g r o u n d b r e a k i n g stage of d e v e l o p m e n t in the
e a r l y h i s t o r y of E n o c h i c J u d a i s m . "
W h i l e a g r e e i n g on the existence of a v e r y close r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n J u ­
bilees a n d E n o c h i c J u d a i s m , I a m hesitant to f o l l o w J a c k s o n in labeling J u b i ­
lees as o n e of the " w o r k s of E n o c h i c J u d a i s m . " In spite of its a n t i - Z a d o k i t e at­
titude a n d its d e p e n d e n c e o n E n o c h i c c o n c e p t s , there are t o o m a n y e l e m e n t s
of discontinuity, t o o m a n y things that Jubilees a p p a r e n t l y did n o t like in the
earlier E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n . T h e differences are m a n y a n d p r o f o u n d ( b o t h J o h n
B e r g s m a a n d A n n e t t e R e e d h i g h l i g h t t h e m in their c o n t r i b u t i o n s to this v o l ­
u m e ) , a n d all of t h e m go in the d i r e c t i o n of e n h a n c i n g h u m a n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
a n d s a f e g u a r d i n g the eternal v a l i d i t y o f G o d ' s c o v e n a n t w i t h Israel.

24. P. Sacchi, " H i s t o r y o f the Earliest E n o c h i c Texts," in Enoch and Qumran Origins:
New Light on a Forgotten Connection, ed. G . B o c c a c c i n i ( G r a n d R a p i d s : E e r d m a n s , 2 0 0 5 ) ,
4 0 1 - 7 (here 4 0 4 ) .
25. F. M . C r o s s , The Ancient Library oj Qumran ( G a r d e n City, N.Y.: D o u b l e d a y , 1958),
148.
26. Jackson, Enochic Judaism, 221.

199
Gabriele Boccaccini

B e s i d e s , w h i l e it is true that the u n i q u e n e s s o f the M o s a i c T o r a h is

s o m e h o w d i m i n i s h e d i n J u b i l e e s , the s a m e a p p l i e s to the E n o c h i c b o o k s ; " n o
w r i t i n g , E n o c h i c o r M o s a i c , is the exact t r a n s c r i p t o f the H e a v e n l y Tablets;
27
the m o s t that e v e n J u b i l e e s c a n do is to q u o t e t h e m o c c a s i o n a l l y . "

3. Neither Mosaic nor Enochic:

A Synthesis of Mosaic and Enochic Traditions

We t h e n m e e t in Jubilees a text that m e r g e s E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n s , a

s t r a n g e text in w h i c h M o s a i c a n d E n o c h i c e l e m e n t s a p p e a r side b y side. If
M o s e s is the chief revealer, E n o c h can b e said to b e the l e a d i n g t h e o l o g i a n . If
M o s e s is the speaker, E n o c h is his g h o s t w r i t e r . If M o s e s is the k i n g , E n o c h is
his e m i n e n c e g r i s e . Jubilees is i n d e e d a p u z z l i n g text w h e r e , as A n n e t t e R e e d ,
in h e r p a p e r p r e s e n t e d at the c o n f e r e n c e , says, " p e r s u a s i v e a r g u m e n t s for the
s u p e r i o r i t y of o n e [ M o s e s ] c a n r e a d i l y be m a t c h e d b y p e r s u a s i v e a r g u m e n t s
for the s u p e r i o r i t y of the o t h e r [ E n o c h ] . "
M a y b e the p r o b l e m of w h o p r e v a i l e d ( E n o c h o r M o s e s ) is a false p r o b ­
l e m . Were it a g a m e , w e w o u l d say it w a s a tie — n o clear w i n n e r , n o clear
loser. Is it not after all w h a t w e s h o u l d e x p e c t f r o m a w e l l - c o n c e i v e d synthesis?
T h e M o s a i c T o r a h is c o n s p i c u o u s l y absent i n the early E n o c h i c litera­
t u r e . M a n y scholars h a v e tried to solve the " m y s t e r y " of this a b s e n c e . In his
p a p e r presented at the conference, H e l g e K v a n v i g is " h e s i t a n t " to infer ex
silentio "a deliberate denial of its legitimacy," a n d w i t h G e o r g e N i c k e l s b u r g
tends to see the lack of reference to the M o s a i c T o r a h as a c o n s e q u e n c e of "the
2 8
special character of the E n o c h i c revealed w i s d o m . " I find these arguments
p e r s u a s i v e a n d in n o w a y c o n t r a d i c t o r y to the idea that the E n o c h i a n s w e r e
i n d e e d an a n t i - Z a d o k i t e m o v e m e n t o f dissent. W h a t a p p e a r s i n c o n c e i v a b l e to
m e is that a Z a d o k i t e priest — w h i l e offering the m o r n i n g sacrifice in the
t e m p l e — c o u l d p r e a c h that this w o r l d w a s the perfect a n d eternal o r d e r reg­
ulated b y the M o s a i c T o r a h a n d in the e v e n i n g , s i m p l y to d e n o u n c e priestly
e n d o g a m y , c o n t r a d i c t h i m s e l f a n d claim that the d i v i n e o r d e r h a d b e e n irre­
m e d i a b l y c o r r u p t e d b y the sin of fallen angels. I do not see h o w w i t h Seth
S c h w a r t z w e c o u l d r e d u c e the entire a p o c a l y p t i c literature to "the p r o d u c t o f

27. B o c c a c c i n i , Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, 89; see also H i m m e l f a r b , "Torah," 28.
28. See G . W. E . Nickelsburg, " E n o c h i c W i s d o m : A n Alternative to the M o s a i c Torah,"
in Hesed Ve-Emet: Studies in Honor of Ernest S. Frerichs, B J S 320 (Atlanta: Scholars Press,
1998), 1 2 3 - 3 2 .

200
 From a Movement of Dissent to a Distinct Form of Judaism

the s a m e s c r i b a l a n d priestly elites a n d subelites w h o p r o d u c e d J e w i s h litera­

ture in general," a n d d i s m i s s the s u b v e r s i v e character of the E n o c h i c literature
29
as a m e r e optical illusion, "a trick of p e r s p e c t i v e . " W h a t e v e r the m o t i v a t i o n s
of its p r o m o t e r s w e r e , since its i n c e p t i o n " E n o c h i c J u d a i s m " e x p r e s s e d in its
" c o u n t e r s t o r y " a p a r a d i g m of d i s r u p t i o n that c h a l l e n g e d the M o s a i c " m a s t e r
n a r r a t i v e " a n d d e n i e d the Z a d o k i t e p a r a d i g m of order.
In C o l l i n s ' s w o r d s ,

T h e idea of a m o v e m e n t w i t h i n J u d a i s m that is not centered on the M o ­

saic Torah m a y seem a n o m a l o u s in the context of the Hellenistic age, but
it w a s not w i t h o u t precedent. T h e biblical w i s d o m literature distin­
g u i s h e d precisely b y its lack of explicit reference to either the M o s a i c T o ­
rah or the history of Israel, and it retains this character as late as the b o o k
of Qoheleth, w h i c h m a y be r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h the early E n o c h
l i t e r a t u r e . . . . J u d a i s m in the early second century B C E w a s not u n i f o r m l y
Torah centered, even a m o n g those w h o were familiar w i t h the Torah a n d
respected it as o n e source of w i s d o m a m o n g others. I w o u l d agree then,
with B o c c a c c i n i a n d others, that the E n o c h literature reflects a distinctive
3 0
f o r m of J u d a i s m in the late third/early s e c o n d century B C E .

W h i l e "the i n v o c a t i o n of the p r e - d i l u v i a n E n o c h rather t h a n M o s e s as

the revealer of essential w i s d o m " is o n e of "the d i s t i n g u i s h i n g traits of this
31
f o r m of J u d a i s m , " it w o u l d b e incorrect, h o w e v e r , to talk o f E n o c h i c J u d a i s m
as "a J u d a i s m w i t h o u t the Torah." T h e p r o b l e m w a s not the M o s a i c T o r a h ; "at
32
n o p o i n t is there any p o l e m i c against the M o s a i c T o r a h . " T h e c o n c e r n of the
E n o c h i a n s w a s rather their o w n v i c t i m i z a t i o n , w h i c h they t o o k as a p a r a d i g m
of the v i c t i m i z a t i o n of all of h u m a n k i n d . A g r o u p of priests w h o felt e x c l u d e d
f r o m , or m a r g i n a l i z e d w i t h i n , the Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d gave c o s m i c d i m e n s i o n
to their e x c l u s i o n . F r o m their s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g they derived the i m p o s s i b i l ­
ity of f o l l o w i n g any laws ( i n c l u d i n g the M o s a i c T o r a h ) in a universe that h a d

29. S. Schwartz, Imperialism and Jewish Society, 200 BCE to 640 CE (Princeton: Prince­
ton University Press, 2 0 0 1 ) , 1 5 , 2 . E . P. Sanders also viewed Jubilees as representative of "com­
m o n Judaism"; see E . P. Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977),
362-86.
30. J. J. Collins, " H o w Distinctive Was Enochic Judaism?" in Meghillot: Studies in the
Dead Sea Scrolls V-VI, ed. M . B a r - A s h e r a n d E . Tov (Haifa: University o f Haifa, 2 0 0 7 ) , 17-34
(here 32-33).
31. Collins, " H o w Distinctive," 33.
32. Collins, " H o w Distinctive," 3 1 .

201
Gabriele Boccaccini

b e e n disrupted b y the presence of evil. In m y o p i n i o n , this is the reason w h y

there is n o explicit a n t i - M o s a i c p o l e m i c and, as K v a n v i g says, "there is n o
E n o c h i c p u r i t y c o d e , n o E n o c h i c Torah." T h e w i s d o m the E n o c h i a n s received
p r e v e n t e d t h e m from d e v e l o p i n g any c o m p e t i n g h a l a k a h . T h e i r revelation w a s
telling t h e m that the w o r l d w a s n o t w h a t it s h o u l d have b e e n .
G r a n t M a c a s k i l l e m p h a s i z e s that " E n o c h i c J u d a i s m a n d Z a d o k i t e J u ­
3 3
daism had actually m u c h m o r e c o m m o n g r o u n d " than generally t h o u g h t .
I t h i n k he is c o r r e c t . Yet, this d o e s n o t e l i m i n a t e the E n o c h i c n o n c o n f o r m i s t
attitude. T w o g r o u p s that share the s a m e priestly w o r l d v i e w a n d — ideally
— the s a m e h a l a k a h m a y w e l l find t h e m s e l v e s at o d d s w i t h each other. W h i l e
o p p o s i n g the Z a d o k i t e l e a d e r s h i p , the early Enochians were not competing
with Moses, they were merely complaining. T h e y s a w an illegitimate priest­
h o o d s e r v i n g i n the t e m p l e a n d evil s p r e a d i n g o n e a r t h o u t of G o d ' s c o n t r o l .
C o n t r a r y to w h a t the Z a d o k i t e s c l a i m e d , t h e y c o n c l u d e d that the L a w o f
M o s e s w a s n o t r u l i n g o n earth. A s l o n g as the M o s a i c T o r a h w a s the l a w o f
the Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d , a n y r a p p r o c h e m e n t w a s i m p o s s i b l e .
T h e M a c c a b e a n r e v o l t m a r k e d a t u r n i n g p o i n t . Ironically, the t r a g i c
events o f those y e a r s h e l p e d s t r e n g t h e n b o t h E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n s .
O n o n e h a n d , the collapse of the Z a d o k i t e o r d e r a n d the h a r d s h i p o f
the p e r s e c u t i o n c o n f i r m e d the E n o c h i c v i e w that the w o r l d w a s p r o f o u n d l y
c o r r u p t e d a n d evil. T h e l e g i t i m a c y o f the Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d relied essen­
tially o n their c o n t i n u o u s success; their d o w n f a l l p r o v e d their i l l e g i t i m a c y .
O n the other h a n d , the M o s a i c T o r a h u n d e r w e n t a r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r m a ­
tion f r o m b e i n g the l a w of the r u l i n g p r i e s t h o o d to b e c o m i n g the n a t i o n a l
law of Israel. " T h e g r e a t n e s s of the M a c c a b e e s w a s to p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s n o t
as the leaders of a r i v a l priestly family, as t h e y w e r e , but as c h a m p i o n s of the
n a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n a g a i n s t the G r e e k s . . . . It w a s t h r o u g h the e x p e r i e n c e o f
the M a c c a b e a n revolt that the Z a d o k i t e t o r a h b e c a m e the J e w i s h t o r a h tout
34
court as the essential e l e m e n t o f J e w i s h n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y . " It w a s n o w p o s s i ­
ble to be " p r o - M o s a i c " w i t h o u t b e i n g " p r o - Z a d o k i t e . "
T h e n e w s i t u a t i o n o p e n e d the p a t h to a p r o c e s s of r a p p r o c h e m e n t b e ­
t w e e n E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n s , w h i c h is e v i d e n t in m a n y s o u r c e s o f
the p e r i o d , i n c l u d i n g E n o c h i c literature. T h e b o o k s of D a n i e l a n d D r e a m
V i s i o n s offer e x a m p l e s of texts w h e r e M o s a i c a n d E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s are in­
t e g r a t e d . B u t n e i t h e r text p r o d u c e d a real s y n t h e s i s .

33. G r a n t M a c a s k i l l , "Priestly Purity, M o s a i c Torah, a n d the E m e r g e n c e of E n o c h i c

Judaism," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .
34. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, 91.

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 From a Movement of Dissent to a Distinct Form of Judaism

In D r e a m V i s i o n s the M o s a i c T o r a h s i m p l y offers the h i s t o r i c a l f r a m e ­

w o r k that s u p p o r t s the E n o c h i c p r i n c i p l e s of d e g e n e r a t i o n . I s r a e l is affected
b y evil as m u c h as a n y o n e else. T h e r e is n o alternative h a l a k a h . T h e r e is o n l y
the r e p e a t e d m e s s a g e that b e i n g r i g h t e o u s , or d o i n g a n y g o o d , is a difficult if
n o t i m p o s s i b l e task b e c a u s e of the c o r r u p t i o n of the u n i v e r s e . E v i l is a s o r t
of g e n e t i c disease that s p r e a d s g e n e r a t i o n after g e n e r a t i o n , a n d there is n o
m e d i c i n e . T h e r i g h t e o u s n e s s o f the c h o s e n p e o p l e m a y m a k e t h e m better off
t h a n the rest of h u m a n k i n d (they are " s h e e p " i n s t e a d of " c a m e l s " or "ele­
p h a n t s " ) , but it does n o t a b s o l u t e l y spare t h e m f r o m evil (they h a v e lost their
o r i g i n a l n a t u r e o f " b u l l s " a n d are r u l e d b y d e m o n i c f o r c e s ) .
D a n i e l does n o t present his " w i s d o m " as a n e w r e v e l a t i o n but as a p o s t -
Sinaitic "interpretation." T h i s interpretation i n c l u d e s even the full u n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g of the true m e a n i n g of ancient S c r i p t u r e s (in D a n 9 the seer u n d e r ­
stands J e r e m i a h in light of L e v 2 6 ) . D a n i e l is in n o w a y the recipient of an o r a l
or w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n that parallels S c r i p t u r e . D a n i e l is a p o s t - S i n a i t i c p r o p h e t ,
w h o lived l o n g after M o s e s a n d the T o r a h . Its w i s d o m challenges neither the
l e g i t i m a c y o f the Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d n o r the centrality o f the T o r a h . It nei­
ther replaces n o r d o w n p l a y s the T o r a h ; it interprets the T o r a h . S o m e k e y p r i n ­
ciples of E n o c h i c J u d a i s m ( d e g e n e r a t i o n o f history, d e m o n i c forces, e n d o f
t i m e s , etc.) are i n t r o d u c e d as if they w e r e i n h e r e n t to S c r i p t u r e .

4. A Sectarian-Born Movement, Eager to Become Normative

W h i l e D r e a m V i s i o n s a n d D a n i e l p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e of a m e r g i n g of E n o c h i c
a n d M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n s , n e i t h e r offers a real synthesis in w h i c h b o t h E n o c h
a n d M o s e s m a i n t a i n their a u t o n o m y a n d l e g i t i m a c y . In the n a m e o f M o s e s
only, D a n i e l r e a f f i r m e d the v a l i d i t y of the M o s a i c h a l a k a h a n d d e f e n d e d the
Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d b u t c o u l d o n l y offer a p e r s p e c t i v e of suffering a n d m a r ­
t y r d o m in this w o r l d . In the n a m e of E n o c h only, D r e a m V i s i o n s reiterated
the c r i t i c i s m t o w a r d the Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d a n d its s k e p t i c i s m o n the effec­
tiveness of the M o s a i c h a l a k a h b u t offered n o alternative h a l a k a h if n o t the
h o p e for G o d ' s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n .
N o t e v e r y b o d y w a s p e r s u a d e d . In the aftermath of the M a c c a b e a n re­
v o l t a g r o u p of priests ( i n f l u e n c e d or i n s p i r e d b y E n o c h i c p r i n c i p l e s ) s a w in
the d e m i s e of the H o u s e o f Z a d o k n o t o n l y the c o n f i r m a t i o n o f their anti-
Z a d o k i t e attitudes b u t for the first t i m e the c o n c r e t e p o s s i b i l i t y of b u i l d i n g a
p o s i t i v e alternative in this w o r l d . In their u n d e r s t a n d i n g , the M a c c a b e a n e x ­
p e r i e n c e p r o v e d that the w o r l d w a s as evil as the earlier E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n

203
Gabriele Boccaccini

c l a i m e d b u t the s i t u a t i o n w a s not as h o p e l e s s . T h e y did not d e n y that de­

m o n s p l a y e d a v e r y i m p o r t a n t role in b r i n g i n g evil to earth — w h o c o u l d
h a v e d e n i e d it in the w a k e o f the t r a g e d y of those days? — yet t h e y c l a i m e d
that the d e m o n s ' role w a s l i m i t e d to the o u t s i d e w o r l d a n d to the traitors o f
35
Israel. T h e " t r u e " Israelites h a d after all the p o s s i b i l i t y to take their destiny
in their o w n h a n d s , p r o v i d e d they r e m a i n e d s e p a r a t e d f r o m the i m p u r i t y o f
the G e n t i l e s .
T h e b a l a n c e d s y n t h e s i s of E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c e l e m e n t s a l l o w e d t h e m
to t r a n s f o r m w h a t w a s a tiny m o v e m e n t o f dissent a n d protest o f d i s e n f r a n ­
c h i s e d priests into a n e w f o r m of J u d a i s m , "a f o r m o c c u p y i n g a s p a c e b e ­
3 6
tween Enochic and Zadokite J u d a i s m , " which (being both Zadokite and
E n o c h i c ) s h o u l d n o l o n g e r b e labeled either Z a d o k i t e or E n o c h i c . In the
n a m e of M o s e s a n d E n o c h , Jubilees c o u l d s t r e n g t h e n G o d ' s c o n t r o l over the
universe through a strict h i s t o r i c a l a n d c a l e n d r i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m , while
m a i n t a i n i n g the idea of c o r r u p t i o n a n d decline of history. B y m a k i n g G o d ' s
c o v e n a n t w i t h Israel n o t a h i s t o r i c a l d e a l but o n e o f the u n c h a n g e a b l e a n d
p r e o r d a i n e d rules of the u n i v e r s e , Jubilees m a d e a s t r o n g p o i n t that the sin
of the fallen angels h a d n o t d e s t r o y e d the u n i q u e n e s s o f the c h o s e n p e o p l e
but affected o n l y the rest o f the w o r l d . A s the c o v e n a n t w a s u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y
offered (the Jews are b o r n in the c o v e n a n t ) a n d n o c o r r u p t i o n h a d d i s r u p t e d
the c o v e n a n t , the p r o b l e m w a s n o w h o w to r e m a i n b l a m e l e s s in the c o v e n a n t
in a c o r r u p t w o r l d .

T h a t is the great g e n i u s of J u b i l e e s . T h e c o v e n a n t s t a n d s f i r m l y n o t be­

cause the u n i v e r s e is u n c o r r u p t e d and incorruptible (as the Zadokites
c l a i m e d ) b u t in spite of the c o r r u p t i o n of the u n i v e r s e . C o n t r a r y to the
E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n , Israel is n o t defenseless. T h e r e is a " m e d i c i n e " g i v e n to the
s o n s o f N o a h a n d the c o v e n a n t e m b r a c e s a n d p r o t e c t s the c i r c u m c i s e d J e w s ,
unless they e x p o s e t h e m s e l v e s to the i m p u r i t y of the o u t s i d e w o r l d that is
d o m i n a t e d b y evil forces. A s the c h o s e n p e o p l e are subjected to the d e m o n s
only if t h e y do n o t f o l l o w G o d ' s w i l l , the p a t h is o p e n e d to a d i s c u s s i o n o n
w h i c h b e h a v i o r s h o u l d b e k e p t in o r d e r "to stay in" a n d w h i c h b e h a v i o r in­
stead causes a p o s t a s y a n d leads Israel "out." T h e "shift in f o c u s : f r o m the
threat o f d e m o n s to the d a n g e r of a s s o c i a t i n g w i t h Gentiles," w h i c h R e e d
h i g h l i g h t e d at the c o n f e r e n c e , is a shift f r o m a passive to a p r o a c t i v e attitude
t o w a r d the p r e s e n c e of evil t h a t early E n o c h i a n s h a d so d r a m a t i c a l l y de-

35. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " T h e D e m o n s in the ' B o o k o f Jubilees,'" in Die Damonen, ed.

A r m i n L a n g e et al. ( T u b i n g e n : M o h r Siebeck, 2 0 0 3 ) , 339-64.
36. Sacchi, "History," 404.

204
 From a Movement of Dissent to a Distinct Form of Judaism

n o u n c e d — a shift that lays the f o u n d a t i o n s for the d e v e l o p m e n t of an alter­

native h a l a k a h ( w h a t the E n o c h i a n s h a d n e v e r d o n e b e f o r e ) . J u b i l e e s o v e r ­
c o m e s the sense o f d e s p a i r a n d h o p e l e s s n e s s o f the E n o c h literature a n d calls
p e o p l e to f o l l o w alternative r u l e s . W h o e v e r w a s b e h i n d J u b i l e e s , t h e y w e r e
tired of o n l y c o m p l a i n i n g a n d b e i n g r e s i g n e d , a n d m u c h m o r e eager to c o m ­
pete aggressively.
T h e c o n c e p t of the h e a v e n l y tablets is at the f o u n d a t i o n of the entire
i d e o l o g i c a l b u i l d i n g of Jubilees. It w a s the c o r n e r s t o n e that m a d e p o s s i b l e a
synthesis of E n o c h i c and Mosaic principles, where both c o m p o n e n t s were
g i v e n e q u a l dignity. It w a s the f o u n d a t i o n that m a d e p o s s i b l e the d e v e l o p ­
m e n t of a c o m p e t i n g h a l a k a h , w h i c h w a s n o t c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m the
M o s a i c T o r a h , w h i l e able to " c o r r e c t " a n d integrate m a n y of the key e l e m e n t s
of the M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n ( c a l e n d a r , p u r i t y laws, etc.).

5 . A Reform Movement, Becoming (against Its Hopes)

Partisan (and Sectarian)

A l l interpreters r e c o g n i z e that the a u t h o r of Jubilees addresses h i m s e l f to the

J e w i s h p e o p l e as a w h o l e ( n o t to a m i n o r i t y g r o u p o r a g r o u p of c h o s e n
3 7
a m o n g the c h o s e n ) . A s R e g e v p r e s e n t e d at the conference, " J u b i l e e s r e p r e ­
sents a g r o u p w h i c h a i m s to c h a n g e s o c i e t y rather t h a n w i t h d r a w from it." In
the aftermath of the M a c c a b e a n revolt, this attitude left o p e n three o u t c o m e s :

a. If J u b i l e e s ' p r o g r a m w e r e a c c e p t e d b y the m a j o r i t y o f the J e w i s h p e o p l e

(as the a u t h o r o b v i o u s l y e x p e c t e d ) , J u b i l e e s a n d its h a l a k a h w o u l d b e ­
come normative.
b . If J u b i l e e s ' p r o g r a m g a i n e d n o s i g n i f i c a n t a c c e p t a n c e (in spite of the
a u t h o r ' s c o n f i d e n c e ) , the m o v e m e n t w o u l d d i s a p p e a r in total failure.
c. If J u b i l e e s ' p r o g r a m w e r e e m b r a c e d o n l y b y a m i l i t a n t m i n o r i t y , it
w o u l d s u r v i v e as the p l a t f o r m of a p a r t y o r a sect, d i s t i n g u i s h e d or s e p ­
arated ( m o r e or less r a d i c a l l y ) f r o m the rest of the p e o p l e .

T h e s t u d y o f s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m tells us that J u b i l e e s n e v e r r e a c h e d an
u n d i s p u t e d status of S c r i p t u r e , c o m p a r a b l e to that of the P e n t a t e u c h . A clear
d i s t i n c t i o n m u s t b e m a d e b e t w e e n w h a t J u b i l e e s w a n t e d to b e a n d w h a t it

37. M . H i m m e l f a r b , "Jubilees a n d Sectarianism," in Enoch and Qumran Origins: New

Light on a Forgotten Connection, ed. G . B o c c a c c i n i ( G r a n d R a p i d s : E e r d m a n s , 2 0 0 5 ) , 1 2 9 - 3 1 .

205
Gabriele Boccaccini

w a s . J a c k s o n is c o r r e c t w h e n he m a i n t a i n s that r e c o g n i z i n g the " n o n s e c t a r -

i a n " or " p r e s e c t a r i a n " c h a r a c t e r of Jubilees does n o t m e a n to state that the
d o c u m e n t w a s n o r m a t i v e , w i d e s p r e a d , c o m m o n to all J e w i s h g r o u p s of the
t i m e , or representative of the c o m m o n J e w i s h h e r i t a g e in s e c o n d t e m p l e J u ­
3 8
daism. O n the other h a n d , the p o p u l a r i t y of J u b i l e e s , far b e y o n d the m a n y
copies f o u n d at Q u m r a n a n d v i c i n i t y , d o e s p r o v e that its l e g a c y s u r v i v e d in
i n f l u e n t i a l circles o f s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m , n o t o n l y in s e c t a r i a n c l i q u e s .
B o r n to be a n o r m a t i v e text, Jubilees d i d n o t g a i n u n i v e r s a l r e c o g n i t i o n .
U s e d in s e c t a r i a n m i l i e u s , Jubilees w a s n o t restricted to t h e m . T h e alternative
is n o t b e t w e e n b e i n g " n o r m a t i v e " a n d b e i n g "sectarian." J u b i l e e s w a s n e i ­
ther; it lived the g l o r i o u s career of a " p a r t i s a n " text.
Since the b e g i n n i n g o f m o d e r n research o n J u b i l e e s , s c h o l a r s h a v e
t r i e d to identify the " p a r t y " that p r o d u c e d a n d t r a n s m i t t e d J u b i l e e s . T h e
p r i e s t l y c h a r a c t e r of the text m a d e s o m e o f the earlier interpreters, such as
R u d o l f L e s z y n s k y a n d G e o r g e H e r b e r t B o x , l o o k at J u b i l e e s as a S a d d u c e a n
39
text. B u t the o b v i o u s p r i e s t l y c h a r a c t e r o f Jubilees d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n ­
dicate c o n t i n u i t y w i t h the Z a d o k i t e t r a d i t i o n , w h i l e the e m p h a s i s o n the s o ­
lar c a l e n d a r a n d the p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s of J u b i l e e s ' h a l a k a h s h o w s that the d o c u ­
m e n t w a s at o d d s w i t h the r u l i n g a u t h o r i t i e s o f the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e .
As w e h a v e seen, F l o r e n t i n o G a r c i a M a r t i n e z ( w h o w r o t e his article in
the early 1 9 8 0 s ) stressed the s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n the f u n c t i o n o f the h e a v e n l y
tablets in Jubilees a n d that of the oral T o r a h in r a b b i n i c literature (Aboth 1 : 1 )
a n d of the " t e a c h i n g s of the fathers" of the P h a r i s e e s ( J o s e p h u s , Ant 13.297).
T h e r e w a s in fact a l o n g t r a d i t i o n c o n n e c t i n g Jubilees w i t h the P h a r i s e e s , a
t r a d i t i o n that started w i t h A u g u s t D i l l m a n n , the father of m o d e r n research
o n the d o c u m e n t , a n d w a s c o n s o l i d a t e d b y the t w o m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h e d inter­
preters a n d translators of Jubilees o f the early t w e n t i e t h century, F r a n c o i s
4 0
Martin and Robert H e n r y C h a r l e s . T h e d i s c o v e r y o f the D e a d Sea Scrolls
m a d e it a p p a r e n t that the w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n of Jubilees c o n t a i n e d h a l a k a h
41
that in n o w a y w a s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h that of the P h a r i s e e s . B u t for s o m e

38. Jackson, Enochic Judaism, 2-13.

39. R . Leszynsky, Die Sadduzaer (Berlin: Mayer & Miiller, 1912), 179-236; G . H . B o x ,
"Introduction to the B o o k o f Jubilees," in R. H . Charles, The Book of Jubilees or the Little
Genesis (London: S P C K , 1917), vii-xxxiii.
40. Charles, APOT, 2:1-82; F. Martin, "Le Livre des Jubiles. But et procedes de l'auteur.
Ses doctrines," RB 8 (1911): 321-44, 502-33; A. Dillmann a n d H . Ronsch, Das Buch der Jubilaen
(Leipzig: Fues, 1874).
41. E . Rivkin, " T h e B o o k o f Jubilees: A n Anti-Pharisaic Pseudepigraph," Erlsr 16
(1982): 193-98-

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 From a Movement of Dissent to a Distinct Form of Judaism

t i m e Jubilees c o n t i n u e d to b e c o m m o n l y p r e s e n t e d , if n o t as a P h a r i s a i c text,
as the p r e c u r s o r of r a b b i n i c h a g g a d a h or at least a t e s t i m o n y of the a n t i q u i t y
4 2
of the r a b b i n i c c o n c e p t of the o r a l T o r a h .
H o w e v e r , b o t h the " t e a c h i n g s of the fathers" o f the P h a r i s e e s a n d the
r a b b i n i c c o n c e p t of the o r a l T o r a h are a s y m m e t r i c a l t e r m s of c o m p a r i s o n .
T h e " t e a c h i n g s of the fathers" are said to b e h a n d e d d o w n in an o r a l ( n o t
w r i t t e n ) f a s h i o n b y "a c h a i n of t r a d i t i o n " b u t are n o t said to d e r i v e f r o m a
h e a v e n l y a r c h e t y p e or to be r e v e a l e d on M o u n t S i n a i . N o t even the core of
the M i s h n a h m a k e s this c l a i m , except for a few h a l a k o t h . It is o n l y w i t h
Aboth that for the first t i m e w e h a v e the idea that "the t e a c h i n g s of the fa­
thers" are also " T o r a h , " w h i c h w i l l lead to the d e v e l o p m e n t of the r a b b i n i c
c o n c e p t of the " d u a l Torah," as the o r a l a n d w r i t t e n sides of the " p r e e x i s t e n t
43
Torah." B u t for Jubilees w h a t is p r e e x i s t e n t are the h e a v e n l y tablets, n o t the
M o s a i c T o r a h . O n M o u n t S i n a i M o s e s r e c e i v e d " t w o " written traditions,
b o t h o f t h e m e q u a l l y b a s e d o n the s a m e h e a v e n l y u r t e x t . A s N a j m a n has ef­
fectively p o i n t e d out, the o p p o s i t e m e t a p h o r s of " o r a l i t y " a n d " w r i t t e n n e s s "
h i g h l i g h t m o r e t h a n a n y t h i n g else the different attitudes a n d strategies o f J u ­
bilees a n d the r a b b i s w h i l e facing "the c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the a u ­
44
t h o r i t y o f s a c r e d w r i t i n g a n d the a u t h o r i t y of interpretation."

To better u n d e r s t a n d the place of J u b i l e e s in a n c i e n t J e w i s h t h o u g h t ,

w e h a v e to l o o k e l s e w h e r e . F r o m a n c i e n t J e w i s h s o u r c e s w e k n o w t h a t there
w a s a g r o u p of Jews w h o in the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . p a r t e d f r o m the rest o f
the p e o p l e . T h e y w e r e called " E s s e n e s . " T h e s t r i k i n g i d e o l o g i c a l s i m i l a r i t i e s
b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the E s s e n e s d i d n o t g o u n n o t i c e d e v e n before the 1950s
4 5
by authors like A d o l f J e l l i n e k a n d A b r a h a m E p s t e i n , and were only
46
s t r e n g t h e n e d b y the d i s c o v e r y of the D e a d Sea S c r o l l s . James VanderKam's
consistent c o n c l u s i o n since his earliest studies in the 1 9 7 0 s that "the a u t h o r
b e l o n g e d to or w a s an i m m e d i a t e f o r e r u n n e r o f the b r a n c h o f J u d a i s m that

42. Joseph P. Schultz, "Two V i e w s of the Patriarchs: Noachides a n d Pre-Sinai Israel­

ites," in Text and Responses: Studies Presented to N. N. Glatzer, ed. M . A . Fishbane (Leiden:
Brill, 1975), 41-59; S. Tedesche, "Jubilees, B o o k of," IDB 2 (1962), 1002-3.
43. M . S. Jaffee, Torah in the Mouth: Writingand Oral Tradition in Palestinian Judaism,
200 BCE—400 CE ( N e w York: O x f o r d University Press, 2 0 0 1 ) ; G . B o c c a c c i n i , " T h e
Preexistence of the Torah: A C o m m o n p l a c e in Second Temple Judaism, o r a Later Rabbinic
D e v e l o p m e n t ? " Hen 17 (1995): 329-50.
44. N a j m a n , "Interpretation as Primordial Writing," 4 1 0 .
45. A . Jellinek, Uber das Buch der Jubilaen und das Noah-Buch (Leipzig: Vollrath,
1855); A. Epstein, Beitrdge zur jiidischen Althertumskunde (Vienna: L i p p e , 1887).
46. M . Testuz, Les idees religieuses du livre des jubiles (Geneva: D r o z , i960).

207
Gabriele Boccaccini

4 7
we k n o w as E s s e n e , " as well as L a w r e n c e S c h i f f m a n ' s s t a t e m e n t that "the
h i g h status a c c o r d e d to this w o r k b y the Q u m r a n sect" d e m o n s t r a t e s that it
48
w a s c o m p o s e d b y "circles the sect r e g a r d e d as its s p i r i t u a l f o r e r u n n e r s , " are
e l o q u e n t e v i d e n c e of the c u r r e n t c o n s e n s u s in c o n t e m p o r a r y s c h o l a r s h i p .
Jubilees is a k e y text in s e c o n d t e m p l e J e w i s h h i s t o r y a n d literature as it testi­
fies to the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f the E s s e n e m o v e m e n t .
W h a t has c h a n g e d a n d is c h a n g i n g in o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of these c o m ­
p l e x p h e n o m e n a is a new, g r o w i n g a w a r e n e s s of the E n o c h i c r o o t s of Jubilees
— an e l e m e n t that in the past w a s a l r e a d y suggested b y the s e m i n a l yet then
4 9
isolated v o i c e s of B e n j a m i n B a c o n a n d C h a n o c h A l b e c k . Garcia Martinez's
article, p u b l i s h e d in 1984 after J a m e s V a n d e r K a m ' s studies a n d P a o l o Sacchi's
50
c o m m e n t a r y , signals the t u r n i n g p o i n t in c o n t e m p o r a r y r e s e a r c h . While
still h o n o r i n g the then g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s of a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n Jubilees
a n d the r a b b i n i c c o n c e p t o f the oral T o r a h , G a r c i a M a r t i n e z h i g h l i g h t e d w i t h
e q u a l v i g o r "the d e p e n d e n c y o f Jubilees u p o n the E n o c h i c literature, f r o m
w h i c h is d e r i v e d the n o t i o n of the H e a v e n l y Tablets as a B o o k o f D e s t i n y i n
w h i c h is n o t o n l y f o u n d the i n s c r i p t i o n o f h u m a n evil or g o o d , b u t the c o m ­
51
plete c o u r s e o f h i s t o r y . " In recent y e a r s the " E n o c h i c p e r s p e c t i v e " has b e ­
c o m e the r e c o g n i z e d starting p o i n t of any research in the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of J u ­
bilees, r e c e i v i n g n e w strength and m e a n i n g also b y a n e w , g r o w i n g a w a r e n e s s
5 2
of the role p l a y e d b y E n o c h i c literature i n E s s e n e a n d Q u m r a n o r i g i n s .

We c a n n o w l o o k w i t h different eyes also at the t e s t i m o n y o f J o s e p h u s

5 3
and P h i l o . N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , they say that the E s s e n e s v e n e r a t e d M o s e s as
"the l a w g i v e r " [Jewish War 2 . 1 4 5 ; Apologia pro Judaeis 1 ) , thus e m p h a s i z i n g
— as in Jubilees — the p r i m a c y of the figure of M o s e s o v e r against E n o c h .
S e c o n d , J o s e p h u s c l a i m s that at the center of E s s e n e t h o u g h t w a s the c o n c e p t
of h i s t o r i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m (Ant 1 3 . 1 7 1 - 1 7 2 ) w h i l e P h i l o m a i n t a i n s that t h e y at-

47. V a n d e r K a m , The Book of jubilees, 143; see already his Textual and Historical Studies
in the Book of jubilees (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1977).
48. Cf. also L. H . Schiffman, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls (New York: Doubleday,
1995), 188.
49. C . Albeck, Das Buch der Jubilaen und die Halacha (Berlin: Scholem, 1930); B . W.
Bacon, "The Calendar o f E n o c h a n d Jubilees," Hebraica 8 (1892): 124-31.
50. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , "Enoch Traditions in Jubilees and Other S e c o n d - C e n t u r y
Sources," in S B L S P (1978), 229-51; P. Sacchi, "Libro dei Giubilei," in Apocrifi ell'Antico
Testamento 1 (Turin, 1981), 179-411.
51. Garcia Martinez, " T h e Heavenly Tablets," 258.
52. See Boccaccini, Enoch and Qumran Origins.
53. For a detailed analysis o f Josephus's and Philo's testimony o n the Essenes, see m y
Beyond the Essene Hypothesis.

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 From a Movement of Dissent to a Distinct Form of Judaism

tributed n o evil to G o d (Quod omnis probus liber sir 8 4 ) , t h u s e m p h a s i z i n g

the p r i m a c y — as in J u b i l e e s ' intellectual d i s c o u r s e — of the ideology of
E n o c h , w h i c h is so d i s t i n c t i v e l y m a r k e d b y the c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s stress o n
human responsibility and victimization. But even m o r e significantly,
J o s e p h u s a d d s t h a t the E s s e n e s w e r e the o n l y g r o u p to h a v e " b o o k s o f their
o w n " [Jewish War 2 . 1 4 2 ) , t h u s g i v i n g e v i d e n c e to their synthesis of written
t r a d i t i o n s — a claim that in s e c o n d t e m p l e literature is for the first t i m e e x ­
plicitly stated by Jubilees ( a n d o n l y later in 4 E z r a 1 4 : 4 5 - 4 8 ) .

6. Conclusion

5 4
A n e w s c e n a r i o is b e f o r e u s . F a r f r o m b e i n g a g r o u p of n o s t a l g i c Z a d o k i t e s ,
the E s s e n e s w e r e a g r o u p o f priests t h a t like the earlier E n o c h i a n s h a d n o a p ­
p r e c i a t i o n w h a t s o e v e r for the role o f the H o u s e of Z a d o k in the early s e c o n d
t e m p l e p e r i o d a n d n o r e g r e t for their d e m i s e , b u t b e i n g faithful to the T o r a h ,
t h e y d i d n o t w a n t to give u p the u n i q u e n e s s a n d effectiveness of the M o s a i c
c o v e n a n t w i t h I s r a e l a n d leave evil the full c o n t r o l o f this w o r l d . A t the center
of their r e v o l u t i o n w a s the c o n c e p t o f the h e a v e n l y tablets, w h i c h a l l o w e d
t h e m to take w h a t t h e y d e e m e d w a s the b e s t o f b o t h M o s e s a n d E n o c h . B y
m a k i n g the c o v e n a n t p a r t o f G o d ' s eternal order, t h e y g a v e Israel a s a c r e d h a ­
v e n s u r r o u n d e d b y s t r o n g p r o t e c t i v e w a l l s , a n i c h e of safety as l o n g as t h e y
w o u l d k e e p t h e m s e l v e s s e p a r a t e d f r o m the rest o f the evil w o r l d . U n l i k e the
E n o c h i a n s , t h e y b e l i e v e d the Israelites w e r e g i v e n rules to f o l l o w that c o u l d
effectively p r o t e c t t h e m f r o m i m p u r i t y a n d evil, as l o n g as t h e y w o u l d keep
t h e m . U n l i k e the Z a d o k i t e s , t h e y d i d n o t h a v e to m a i n t a i n against all e v i ­
dence that this w o r l d w a s G o d ' s perfect w o r l d .

T h e b o o k of Jubilees w a s their creed a n d p u b l i c m a n i f e s t o , their reli­

g i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l p l a t f o r m . In the aftermath of the M a c c a b e a n r e v o l t , t h e y
h o p e d to b e c o m e the n e w l e a d e r s h i p in the t e m p l e a n d in the J u d e a n society.
T h e y did n o t s u c c e e d , but t h e y did n o t give u p either. A s E s s e n e s they w o u l d
s o o n l e a r n h o w to live s e p a r a t e d f r o m the rest of the p e o p l e , as a m i n o r i t y ,
s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d p a r t y of " c h o s e n a m o n g the chosen," if n o t as the sect of the
o n l y " c h i l d r e n o f light." L i k e in a b e s i e g e d city s u r r o u n d e d b y m u l t i p l e w a l l s
against p o w e r f u l d e m o n i c e n e m i e s , t h e y retreated to the citadel w h e n t h e y
saw the o u t e r w a l l b r e a c h e d or on the v e r g e of c o l l a p s e (a g r o u p of t h e m

54. Pace H . Lignee, " L a place dii livre des Jubiles et d u R o u l e a u d u Temple dans
l'histoire d u m o u v e m e n t essenien," RevQ 13 (1988): 3 3 1 - 4 5 .

209
Gabriele Boccaccini

even fled to the wilderness of Judah). Whatever city of refuge they chose,
there they kept those practices that in their opinion guaranteed the integrity
of the covenant and the survival of the chosen people, patiently waiting for
the time G o d would vindicate their righteousness and faithfulness — a time
they hoped for for centuries and never saw.

210
Abram's Prayer: The Coherence
of the Pericopes in Jubilees 12:16-27

Jacques van Ruiten

In this contribution I will concentrate on the prayer of A b r a m and the sur­

rounding events in the b o o k of Jubilees ( 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7 ) . ' To be able to address the
question of coherence and tradition of this passage, I will first distinguish
the smaller pericopes from each other within this passage on the basis of
their use of words and theme. I will then try to show h o w they are inter­
l s
related. Finally, I will look into the w a y Jub 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7 embedded in the book
and try to identify the traditions within this passage.

1. T h e Pericopes in Jubilees 12:16-27

c a n
The events that take place around Abram's prayer (12:16-27) be divided
into four pericopes: (a) A b r a m observes the stars ( w . 1 6 - 1 8 ) ; (b) Abram's
prayer (io,-22a); (c) God's answer ( 2 2 ^ 2 4 ) ; and (d) A b r a m learns H e b r e w
( 2 5 - 2 7 ) . With the exception of the third pericope, which is a rewriting of G e n
1 2 : 1 - 3 , these pericopes can be considered additions to the biblical text of
Genesis. T h e y are distinguished from each other by subject and the repeti­
tion of words. Because of the length of the passages as a whole, I will present
first the text of the smaller pericopes, followed by a short description of the
literary unity of each pericope with regard to subject and use of words. For

1.1 will speak consistently about A b r a m , since his n a m e is changed to Abraham only
in Gen 17:5 (Jub 15:7).

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Jacques van Ruiten

1 2 : 2 2 - 2 4 I will also go into the rewriting of the biblical text. After this, I will
deal with the coherence of the four pericopes as a whole.

2
Jubilees 12:16-18 (Abram observes the stars)
16a In the sixth week, during its fifth year, Abram sat at night — at
the beginning of the seventh month — to observe the stars from
evening until morning in order to see what would be the
character of the year with respect to the rains.
b H e was sitting
c and he was observing.
17a A voice came in his heart
b and he said:
c "All the signs of the stars and signs of the m o o n and the sun —
all are in the hand of the Lord,
d W h y am I seeking?
18a If he wishes
b he will make it rain in the morning and evening;
c and if he wishes,
d he will not make it fall.
e Everything is in his hand."

This first small passage shows the following repetition of words and
phrases: "stars" (12:16a, 17c); "to observe" (12:16a, 16c); "signs" (12:17c); "eve­
ning" and "morning" (12:16a, 18b); "rain" (12:16a, 18b); "to sit" (12:16a, 1 6 b ) ;
"all / everything is in his hand" (12:17c, i8e); and "if he wishes" (12:18a, 1 8 c ) .
The direct speech ( i 2 : i 7 c - i 8 ) can be characterized as a monologue (12:17a: "A
voice came in his heart"). Unlike the narrative context, the direct speech
shows a poetical structure in that there is balance between the lines. Within
this structure 12:17c ("all are in the hand of the Lord") balances with I2:i8e
("Everything is in his hand"). In between these lines, there are two sentences
with an identical beginning (12:18a, c: "if he wishes") followed by an anti­
thetical effect (12:18b, d ) . It is striking that I 2 : i 7 d ("Why am I seeking?") is
not balanced by another line. In this w a y it acquires a certain emphasis.

2. The translation is based o n J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, II, C S C O 511,

Scriptores Aethiopici, 88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989). However, I feel free to deviate from this
translation to do justice to the repetition o f words.

212
 Abram's Prayer

Jubilees 1 2 : 1 9 - 2 2 3 (Abram's prayer)

19a That night he prayed
b and he said:
c " M y G o d , m y G o d , G o d most High,
d You alone are m y G o d .
e You have created everything;
f Everything that was and has been is the work of your hands,
g You and your kingdom I have chosen.
20a Save me from the hand of the evil spirits w h o rule the thoughts
of the people's heart,
b M a y they not lead me astray from following you, m y G o d .
c D o establish me and my seed until eternity,
d M a y w e not go astray from n o w until eternity."
21a A n d he said:
b "Shall I return to U r of the Chaldeans w h o are seeking me to
return to them?
c O r am I to sit here in this place?
d Make the path that is straight before you prosper through the
hand of your servant so that he may do (it),
e M a y I not proceed in the going astray of m y heart, my God."
22a He finished his speaking and his praying.

This second passage is introduced with a form of "to pray" (12:19a). It

also ends with a form of "to pray" (12:22a). Abram's prayer can be subdi­
vided into two units: 1 2 : 1 9 - 2 0 and 12:21, with both units introduced by "and
he said" (12:19b, 2 1 a ) . T h e prayer consists of a combination of a h y m n
( i 2 : i 9 C - f ) and a supplication (i2:2oa-d, 2 i d - e ) . T h e prayer also includes a
question that cannot be characterized as a supplication ( i 2 : 2 i b c ) . This pas­
sage shows the following repetition of words: "to pray" (12:19a, 2 2 a ) ; "hand"
( 1 2 : 1 9 ^ 20a, 2 i d ) ; "to go astray" (12:20b, 2od, 2ie); "until eternity" (12:20c,
2od); "return" (12:21b [ 2 x ] ) ; "my G o d " (12:19c [ 2 x ] , I 9 d , 2 0 b , 2 i e ) ; and
"heart" (12:20a, 2 i e ) . T h e prayer has a poetical structure in that two subse­
quent lines are balanced by each other with regard to the use of words and
contents (12:19c and I 2 : i 9 d ; 12:19c and 12:19!; 12:20a and 12:20b; 12:20c and
3
i2:2od; 12:21b and 12:21c; i2:2id and i 2 : 2 i e ) . Also in this passage is one un­
balanced line (i9g: "You and y o u r kingdom I have chosen").

3. T h e passage shows parallelismus membrorum, which is characteristic o f the

prosodic structure o f poetry in the Hebrew Bible.

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Jacques van Ruiten

The third pericope, in which G o d answers Abram's prayer, can be con­

sidered a rewriting of Gen 1 2 : 1 - 3 , the call to go to Canaan. Therefore, I will
4
n o w put both texts side by side.

Genesis 1 2 : 1 - 3 Jubilees ia:22b-24 (God's answer)

la And the Lord said to Abram: 22b And behold, the word of the
Lord was sent to him through
my hand, saying:
lb "Go from your land and your c "Now you, come from your
family and your father's house land, from your family, and
to the land that I will show your father's house to the land
you. that I will show you.
2a I will make of you a great [ ] d I will establish you into a large
people. A N D P O P U L O U S people.
2b I will bless you, 23a I will bless you,
2c and make your name great. b and make your name great.
2d You will become a blessing [ ] . c You will become blessed I N
THE LAND.
d All the peoples of the land will
be blessed in vou.
3a I will bless those w h o bless e Those w h o bless you I will
you, bless,
3b and him w h o curses you I will f and those w h o curse you I will
curse; curse.
3c and all the families of the land
will be blessed in vou."
24a I W I L L B E C O M E GODFOR
YOU, YOUR SON, YOUR
GRANDSON, A N D A L L YOUR
SEED.
b DO NOT B E A F R A I D .
C FROM NOW UNTIL A L L
THE FAMILIES GENERATIONS
OF T H E L A N D
I A M YOUR GOD."

4. In the following synoptic overview, I have tried to present a classification o f the

similarities and dissimilarities between Genesis and Jubilees. I have used small caps to high­
light those elements o f Genesis that do not occur in Jubilees, and vice versa, i.e., the omis­
sions and additions. I have used "normal script" for the corresponding elements between
both texts, i.e., the verbatim quotations o f one or m o r e words from the source text in Jubi­
lees, besides additions or omissions. Sometimes there is a rearrangement o f words and sen­
tences. I have underlined those elements.

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T h e t h i r d p e r i c o p e , in w h i c h G o d a n s w e r s A b r a m ' s p r a y e r , c a n b e c o n ­
c a i 1
s i d e r e d a r e w r i t i n g o f G e n 1 2 : 1 - 3 , the to go to C a n a a n . T h i s p a s s a g e
s h o w s the f o l l o w i n g r e p e t i t i o n of w o r d s : "to b l e s s " ( 1 2 : 2 3 a , 23c, 2 3 d , 23c [ 2 x ] ) ;
"to c u r s e " ( 1 2 : 2 3 0 ; " l a n d " ( 1 2 : 2 2 c [ 2 x ] , 2 3 c , 2 3 d , 2 4 c ) ; " I w i l l b e c o m e G o d for
y o u " ( 1 2 : 2 4 a ; cf. 1 2 : 2 4 c ) ; a n d " f a m i l y " ( 1 2 : 2 2 c , 2 4 c [ " g e n e r a t i o n s " ] ) . T h e p o e t ­
ical s t r u c t u r e of the p a s s a g e is reflected in the b a l a n c e b e t w e e n the t w o s u b ­
s e q u e n t lines ( 1 2 : 2 2 c a n d i 2 : 2 2 d ; 12:23a a n d 1 2 : 2 3 b ; 1 2 : 2 3 c a n d 1 2 : 2 3 d ; 1 2 : 2 3 c
a n d 12:23ft 12:24a a n d 1 2 : 2 4 c ) . O n e line is n o t b a l a n c e d , n a m e l y , 12:24b ("do
not be afraid").

W i t h r e g a r d to the text o f G e n 1 2 : 1 - 3 , l i b i 2 : 2 2 b - 2 4 s h o w s a d d i t i o n s
(i2:22d; 12:23c; 12:24), variations (12:22b, 2 2 d ) , and rearrangement (12:23d).
J u b 1 2 : 2 2 b can b e c o n s i d e r e d a v a r i a t i o n o f G e n 1 2 : 1 a . In fact, it also has s o m e
a d d i t i o n s : " a n d b e h o l d " ; "the w o r d of"; a n d " s a y i n g , " in a d d i t i o n to the v a r i ­
ation " w a s sent t h r o u g h m y h a n d " instead of "said," a n d "to h i m " i n s t e a d o f
"to A b r a m . " T h i s r e w r i t i n g results in an a v o i d a n c e o f a direct c o n t a c t b e ­
t w e e n G o d a n d A b r a m . It is the a n g e l w h o m e d i a t e s b e t w e e n t h e m . T h i s m e ­
d i a t i o n o c c u r s also in the a d d i t i o n 1 2 : 2 5 - 2 6 . In J u b 13:3 (cf. G e n 1 2 : 7 ) , j u s t af­
ter A b r a m e n t e r e d the l a n d o f C a n a a n , the L o r d here s p e a k s directly to
A b r a m w i t h o u t the i n t e r m e d i a r y of an a n g e l . F r o m t h e n o n w a r d G o d a d ­
dresses h i m s e l f directly to A b r a ( h a ) m .

J u b I 2 : 2 2 d u s e s the w o r d "to p u t ; to e s t a b l i s h " (rassaya), where Gen

12:2a has "to m a k e " (!TtP37; L X X : rcoieco). T h e s a m e w o r d is u s e d in A b r a m ' s
p r a y e r ( 1 2 : 2 0 c ) . P o s s i b l y the u s e o f rassaya h a s b e e n i n f l u e n c e d b y the
b l e s s i n g in G e n 1 3 : 1 6 ("I w i l l e s t a b l i s h [DIP] y o u r d e s c e n d a n t s like the d u s t
of the e a r t h " ) for w h i c h J u b 1 3 : 2 0 b r e a d s : " I w i l l establish [rassaya] your
5
d e s c e n d a n t s like the s a n d s o f the s e a . " A l s o , the a d d i t i o n " a n d p o p u l o u s "
in J u b I 2 : 2 2 d is p o s s i b l y i n f l u e n c e d b y a p a r a l l e l p a s s a g e . I refer to G e n
1
18:18 (01X371 VlTA 'IS ?: "a great and p o p u l o u s p e o p l e " ) . Also, one textual
w i t n e s s of the S e p t u a g i n t G e n 1 2 : 2 a (d 458) a d d s " a n d p o p u l o u s " (Kai
6
TTOXU).

Jub 1 2 : 2 3 c s h o w s a c o m b i n a t i o n of v a r i a t i o n ( " b l e s s e d " i n s t e a d o f "a

b l e s s i n g " ) a n d a d d i t i o n ("in the l a n d " ) . T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n stresses the fact
that A b r a m is the o n e w h o is b l e s s e d . It d o e s n o t f o c u s on his role as b e i n g a

5. See also G e n 21:18 ("I will m a k e h i m [IIO'IPK] a great nation," where Jub 17:7 reads:
"I will m a k e h i m [rassaya] into a great nation"). C o m p a r e G e n 46:3 ("for I will there m a k e of
,
you [*Jft tl>N] a great nation," where Jub 44:5 reads: " I will m a k e [sar'a] y o u into a great na­
tion there"), b u t the difference between the Ethiopic verbs rassaya a n d sar'a seems to b e v e r y
small. Cf. V a n d e r K a m , Book of Jubilees, II, 289.
6. Cf. V a n d e r K a m , Book of Jubilees, II, 73.

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7
b l e s s i n g / o r others, as c a n b e a r g u e d f r o m G e n I 2 : 2 d . Moreover, Jubilees adds
t h a t A b r a m is b l e s s e d wasta madr, w h i c h I have translated here (and in
8
1 2 : 2 3 d ) as " i n the l a n d . " T h i s is in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the t r a n s l a t i o n o f rmdr
in 1 2 : 2 2 c . M o r e o v e r , b o t h in G e n e s i s a n d in J u b i l e e s the b l e s s i n g o f A b r a m is
r e l a t e d to his e n t r a n c e i n t o the l a n d . B o t h in G e n e s i s a n d J u b i l e e s the p r o m ­
9
ise o f a n a b u n d a n c e o f o f f s p r i n g is c o m b i n e d w i t h the p r o m i s e o f the l a n d .

T h e r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f G e n 1 2 : 3 c in J u b 1 2 : 2 3 d is p o s s i b l y d u e to a s p e ­
o n e c a n
cific v i e w o f the p o e t i c s t r u c t u r e o f the p a s s a g e . I n G e n 1 2 : 1 - 3 point
to a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n 1 2 : 1 b a n d 1 2 : 2 a ; 1 2 : 2 b a n d 1 2 : 2 c ; 1 2 : 3 a a n d 1 2 : 3 c . I n this
s t r u c t u r e b o t h G e n I 2 : 2 d a n d 1 2 : 3 c are n o t b a l a n c e d b y a n y a d j a c e n t l i n e . B y
p u t t i n g G e n 1 2 : 3 c after G e n I 2 : 2 d (in J u b I 2 : 2 3 c d ) a n d , m o r e o v e r , b y a d d i n g
the w o r d s " i n the l a n d " to G e n i 2 : 2 d , J u b i l e e s s t r e n g t h e n s the b a l a n c e b e ­
t w e e n t h e s e lines ( G e n I 2 : 2 d , 3 c ) . T h e u s e o f "peoples" ('ahzab) instead of
" f a m i l i e s " (firlSttfQ; E t h . 'azmad) is p o s s i b l y i n f l u e n c e d b y the use o f " p e o ­
p l e s " in c o m p a r a b l e c o n t e x t s : G e n 1 8 : 1 8 ( " a n d all the peoples o f the l a n d w i l l
b e b l e s s e d in h i m " ) a n d G e n 2 2 : 1 8 (cf. G e n 2 6 : 4 ) ( " a n d in y o u r s e e d w i l l all
the peoples o f the l a n d bless t h e m s e l v e s " ) . N o t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t G e n 2 8 : 1 4 u s e s
the w o r d " f a m i l i e s " ( " a n d in y o u a n d y o u r s e e d w i l l all the families o f the
land be blessed").

T h e r e a d i n g in J u b i 2 : 2 3 f ("those w h o c u r s e y o u " ; p l u r a l ) instead o f the

7. R. W. L . Moberly, The Bible, Theology, and Faith: A Study oj Abraham and Jesus,
C a m b r i d g e Studies in Christian D o c t r i n e 5 ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e University Press, 2 0 0 0 ) ,
1 2 4 , a n d Keith N . G r i i n e b e r g , Abraham, Blessing, and the Nations: A Philological and
Exegetical Study of Genesis 12:3 in Its Narrative Context, B Z A W 332 (Berlin: D e Gruyter, 2 0 0 3 ) ,
have argued that G e n I2:2d does n o t m a k e A b r a m a source of blessing to others, b u t rather
p r o m i s e s that he will b e signally blessed in such a w a y that others will notice.
8. S o also O. S. Wintermute, "Jubilees: A N e w Translation a n d Introduction," in OTP,
2:81. However, in J u b 12:23d he translates this b y "of the earth " R . H . C h a r l e s , The Book of Ju­
bilees or the Little Genesis: Translated from the Editor's Ethiopic Text ( L o n d o n : A d a m &
Charles Black, 1 9 0 2 ) , 95, a n d V a n d e r K a m , Book of jubilees, II, 73, translate nudr in b o t h cases
b y "the earth." K . Berger, Das Buch der Jubilaen, JSHRZ, V.3 (Giitersloh: G e r d M o h n , 1 9 8 1 ) ,
395, reads "auf d e r Erde."
9. Israel h a s the status o f G o d ' s p e o p l e from the creation o n w a r d . Israel is separated
from the other peoples a n d lives in a sacred space. F o r the centrality of the l a n d in the b o o k
of Jubilees, see J. M . Scott, On Earth as in Heaven: The Restoration of Sacred Time and Sacred
Space in the B o o k of Jubilees, J S J S u p 91 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 5 ) , 1 6 1 - 2 0 9 . Scott stresses that the
holy land o f Israel w i t h its central sanctuary is the focal point of the concept that the goal o f
history is the realignment o f sacred space w i t h sacred time so that everything will b e c o m e
"on earth as in heaven." T h e universalistic strains in the b o o k are subordinated to its
particularistic e m p h a s i s o n Israel a n d the temple in the land. T h e exact b o u n d a r i e s o f the
land are precisely defined.

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M a s o r e t i c text o f G e n 1 2 : 3 b ("him w h o curses y o u " ; s i n g u l a r ) reflects the

p l u r a l r e a d i n g that is also f o u n d i n the S a m a r i t a n P e n t a t e u c h , Septuagint,
a n d the Peshitta. It is n o t necessary, therefore, to c o n s i d e r this a v a r i a t i o n .
Finally, the m o s t s t r i k i n g e l e m e n t in the r e w r i t i n g is the a d d i t i o n o f
Jub 1 2 : 2 4 . I n G e n 1 2 : 1 - 3 there are n o clues t h a t c o u l d e x p l a i n this a d d i t i o n .
One could, of course, think of a possible influence from comparable pas­
sages, especially f r o m the i n t r o d u c t i o n to the c o n c l u d i n g o f the c o v e n a n t i n
G e n 1 7 ( G e n 1 7 : 1 - 8 ) . A p a r t f r o m the p r o m i s e o f the l a n d a n d o f n u m e r o u s
o f f s p r i n g , the c o n c l u s i o n o f the c o v e n a n t i n c l u d e s a p r o m i s e that G o d m a k e s
to A b r a m a n d h i s d e s c e n d a n t s ( G e n 1 7 : 7 - 8 : " A n d I w i l l establish m y c o v e n a n t
b e t w e e n m e a n d y o u , a n d y o u r d e s c e n d a n t s after y o u t h r o u g h o u t their g e n ­
e r a t i o n s , for a n everlasting c o v e n a n t , to be God to you and to your seed after
you. A n d I w i l l give to y o u , a n d to y o u r d e s c e n d a n t s after y o u , the l a n d o f
y o u r s o j o u r n i n g s , all the l a n d o f C a n a a n , for a n everlasting p o s s e s s i o n , and I
10
will be their God"). A l t h o u g h I w o u l d n o t e x c l u d e the p o s s i b i l i t y that 1 2 : 2 4
a
alludes to the c o v e n a n t o f G e n 1 7 , G o d ' s a n s w e r i n 1 2 : 2 4 is confirmation of
A b r a m ' s s u p p l i c a t i o n i n the first p l a c e a n d reflects the m u l t i p l e i n v o c a t i o n o f
" M y G o d , m y G o d , G o d m o s t h i g h . Y o u a l o n e a r e m y G o d " (i2:icjcd).

In the last p e r i c o p e o f this p a s s a g e A b r a m learns H e b r e w :

Jubilees 12:25-27 ( A b r a m learns Hebrew)

25a T h e n the L o r d G o d said to m e :
b " O p e n his m o u t h a n d his ears to hear
c a n d s p e a k w i t h his t o n g u e i n the revealed language."
d F o r from the d a y o f the collapse it h a d d i s a p p e a r e d from the
m o u t h ( s ) o f all m a n k i n d .
26a I o p e n e d his m o u t h , ears, a n d lips
b a n d b e g a n to speak H e b r e w with h i m — in the l a n g u a g e of the
creation.
27a H e t o o k his fathers' b o o k s
b (they were written i n H e b r e w )
c and copied them.
d F r o m that time he b e g a n to s t u d y them,
e w h i l e I w a s telling h i m e v e r y t h i n g that he w a s u n a b l e (to
understand).

f H e studied t h e m t h r o u g h o u t the six rainy m o n t h s .

10. T h e rewriting o f G e n 17:7-8 in Jub 15:9-10 is v e r y literal.

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In this p e r i c o p e the n a r r a t i v e in w h i c h the a c t i o n s o f A b r a m p l a y a p a r t is

d o m i n a n t . T h i s w a s also t r u e i n the first p a s s a g e ( 1 2 : 1 6 - 1 8 ) . A s far as the s u b ­
ject is c o n c e r n e d ( t h e l e a r n i n g o f H e b r e w a n d the s t u d y i n g o f the b o o k s o f
his f a t h e r ) , this p e r i c o p e is s o m e w h a t l o o s e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h the o t h e r p e ­
r i c o p e s . W i t h i n the p e r i c o p e the f o l l o w i n g r e p e t i t i o n o f w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s
o c c u r s : "to s p e a k in the l a n g u a g e " ( 1 2 : 2 5 c , 2 6 b ) ; "to o p e n m o u t h a n d e a r s "
(12:25b, 26a); a n d " H e b r e w " (12:26b, 2 7 b ) .

2. T h e Coherence of Jubilees 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7

T h e f o u r p e r i c o p e s are d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m each o t h e r b y s u b j e c t a n d the u s e

of w o r d s . H o w e v e r , there is c o h e r e n c e i n t h e f o u r p a s s a g e s as a w h o l e . I n t h e
first p l a c e , all the p e r i c o p e s a r e l o c a t e d i n H a r a n . I n the s e c o n d p l a c e , o n e
c a n p o i n t to a u n i t y o f t i m e to a g r e a t extent. T h e events take p l a c e w h e n
A b r a m w a s s e v e n t y - f i v e y e a r s o f age (cf. 1 2 : 1 6 : " I n the s i x t h w e e k , d u r i n g its
fifth year," w h i c h is 1951 A . M . ) . T h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f the h o u s e o f i d o l s in t h e
p r e c e d i n g p a s s a g e t o o k place i n the sixtieth y e a r o f A b r a m ' s life ( 1 2 : 1 2 ) , after
w h i c h it is m e n t i o n e d that t h e y s t a y e d f o r f o u r t e e n y e a r s i n H a r a n ( 1 2 : 1 5 ) . I n
the f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e h i s d e p a r t u r e is dated t w o y e a r s after the p r a y e r (cf.
1 2 : 2 8 : " I n the s e v e n t h y e a r o f t h e s i x t h w e e k " ) . T h e a s p e c t o f t i m e is s p e c i f i e d
in that the o b s e r v a t i o n o f the stars a n d the p r a y e r t o o k place d u r i n g t h e
n i g h t (cf. 1 2 : 1 6 a , 1 9 a ) a n d the s t u d y i n g o f the b o o k s d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f s i x
m o n t h s (cf. I 2 : 2 7 f ) . M o r e o v e r , b o t h i n the b e g i n n i n g a n d at the e n d the text
c l i m a t o l o g i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s are referred to, n a m e l y , the rain (cf. 1 2 : 1 6 a , 1 8 ,
2 7 ) . I n the third p l a c e , o n e c a n p o i n t to the u s e o f p e r s o n s . B o t h in the p r e ­
c e d i n g ( 1 2 : 1 2 - 1 5 ) a n d i n the f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e ( 1 2 : 2 8 - 1 3 : 6 ) s e v e r a l m e m b e r s
1 1
of A b r a m ' s f a m i l y are m e n t i o n e d , w h e r e a s in 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7 it is m a i n l y A b r a m
w h o is the p e r s o n a c t i n g . O n e sees h i m w a t c h i n g the stars all a l o n e ( 1 2 : 1 6 - 1 8 ) ,
after w h i c h he a d d r e s s e s G o d in p r a y e r ( 1 2 : 1 9 - 2 2 3 ) . G o d a n s w e r s A b r a m ' s
p r a y e r t h r o u g h an a n g e l ( 1 2 : 2 2 - 2 4 , 2 5 - 2 6 ) . Finally, it is A b r a m w h o c o p i e s
a n d studies the H e b r e w b o o k s ( 1 2 : 2 7 ) .

M o r e o v e r , o n e c a n p o i n t to the r e p e t i t i o n s o f s o m e w o r d s that o c c u r in
m o r e t h a n o n e p a s s a g e : " n i g h t " ( 1 2 : 1 6 a , 1 9 a ) , "to sit" ( 1 2 : 1 6 a , 1 6 b , 2 1 c ) , " ( a l l /

1 1 . In 1 2 : 1 2 - 1 5 : " H a r a n " (14a), "his father Terah" (14c!), "Terah" (15a), "he a n d his sons"
(15a), a n d "his father" (i5d). I n 12:28-13:7: "his father" (12:28a), "his father Terah" (12:29a),
"Lot the son o f y o u r brother H a r a n " (i2:3od; 1 3 : 1 b ) , "your brother N a h o r " (12:31a), a n d "his
wife Sarai" (13:1b).

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e v e r y t h i n g in his) h a n d " ( 1 2 : 1 7 c , i8e, io,f; cf. 1 2 : 2 0 a , 2 i d , 2 2 b ) , "to seek"

( i 2 : i 7 d , 2 1 b ) , " s e e d " ( 1 2 : 2 0 c , 2 4 a ) , "to establish" ( 1 2 : 2 0 c , 2 2 d ) , a n d "heart"
(12:17a, 20a, 2ie).
T h e s e c o n d ( A b r a m ' s p r a y e r ) a n d the third p e r i c o p e ( G o d ' s a n s w e r )
are e s p e c i a l l y interrelated. A b r a m ' s q u e s t i o n i n g of w h e t h e r he has to r e t u r n
to U r of the C h a l d e a n s ( i 2 : 2 i b c ) n o t o n l y refers b a c k to the b u r n i n g d o w n of
the h o u s e of idols ( 1 2 : 1 2 - 1 4 ) , but also p r e p a r e s G o d ' s call to leave his l a n d a n d
his father's h o u s e in o r d e r to go to the l a n d that he w i l l s h o w h i m ( 1 2 : 2 2 c ) .
T h e s u p p l i c a t i o n in 1 2 : 2 0 c ( " D o establish m e a n d m y seed until e t e r n i t y " ) is
reflected in the p r o m i s e that G o d w i l l bless A b r a m in this l a n d a n d establish
h i m as p r o g e n i t o r o f a large a n d p o p u l o u s p e o p l e ( i 2 : 2 2 d - 2 3 ) . T h e m u l t i p l e
i n v o c a t i o n of " M y G o d , m y G o d , G o d m o s t h i g h . Y o u alone are m y G o d "
( i 2 : i 9 c d ) is reflected in G o d ' s a n s w e r o f " I w i l l b e c o m e G o d for y o u " ( 1 2 : 2 4 a ) .
T h e s u p p l i c a t i o n to save h i m from the h a n d of the evil spirits ( i 2 : 2 o a b ) is
not a n s w e r e d explicitly. H o w e v e r , the call to leave his father's h o u s e to go to
the l a n d that G o d w i l l s h o w h i m ( 1 2 : 2 2 c ) c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as a l i b e r a t i o n
f r o m the p o w e r o f the evil spirits. In the n e w l a n d A b r a m w i l l p r o s p e r a n d b e
b l e s s e d . H e n e e d n o t b e afraid. S e v e r a l e l e m e n t s in the p r a y e r a n d its a n s w e r
are p u t chiastically in the text, as is s h o w n in the f o l l o w i n g table:

A Y o u alone are m y G o d ( i 9 d )
B Establish m e a n d m y seed (20c)

C Shall I r e t u r n to U r of the C h a l d e a n s or sit in this place (2ibc)?

C C o m e from y o u r c o u n t r y (22c)

B' I will establish y o u into a large a n d p o p u l o u s p e o p l e ( 2 2 d - 2 3 )

A' I will b e c o m e G o d for y o u (24a, c)

3. Abram's Prayer in Relation to Other Prayers in Jubilees

T h e s t r o n g s i m i l a r i t y in f o r m a n d c o n t e n t w i t h other p r a y e r s in the b o o k of
J u b i l e e s c o n f i r m s the u n i t y of the p a s s a g e as a w h o l e ( 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7 ) . O n e c a n
p o i n t specifically to N o a h ' s p r a y e r ( 1 0 : 1 - 1 4 ) , b u t M o s e s ' p r a y e r ( 1 : 1 9 - 2 1 ) is
also r e l e v a n t in this respect. A s far as the c o n t e n t is c o n c e r n e d , o n e c a n refer
also to A b r a m ' s b l e s s i n g o f J a c o b ( 1 9 : 2 6 - 2 9 ) . T h e s e texts s h o w an affinity to
each o t h e r n o t o n l y b e c a u s e the o n e w h o p r a y s b e g s for G o d ' s h e l p to h o l d
b a c k the influence of the evil spirits, b u t also b e c a u s e the c a u s e for the
prayer, its f o r m , a n d G o d ' s r e a c t i o n s h o w s i m i l a r i t i e s .

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3 . 1 . Abram's Prayer and Noah's Prayer

T h e f o l l o w i n g s c h e m e s h o w s the s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e of A b r a m ' s p r a y e r a n d
that o f N o a h , t o g e t h e r w i t h the c a u s e for the p r a y e r a n d G o d ' s r e a c t i o n :

N o a h ' s p r a y e r ( J u b 10:1-14) A b r a m ' s p r a y e r ( J u b 12:16-27)

1. Cause for the prayer: d o m i n i o n of
the evil spirits ( 1 0 : 1 - 2 )
2. Form of the prayer
a. praise ( i o : 3 c - h )
b. s u p p l i c a t i o n (io:3hi, 4, 5 b - 6 )
3. Actions after the prayer
a. A t G o d ' s request the angels b i n d
90 percent of the evil spirits
after intercession b y M a s t e m a
(10:7-9, n )
b. G o d orders the angels to teach
N o a h a b o u t the m e d i c i n e s
(10:10, 12-13)
c. N o a h w r i t e s in a b o o k a n d gives
it to his eldest son ( 1 0 : 1 3 , 1 4 )
1. Cause for the prayer: rejection of
a s t r o l o g y t h r o u g h the
recognition of G o d ' s p o w e r
( 1 2 : 1 6 - 1 8 ) ; d o m i n i o n of the evil
spirits ( i 2 : 2 o a b )
2. Form of the prayer
a. praise (i2:i9c-f; cf. 12:4)
b. s u p p l i c a t i o n (12:20, 2 i d - e ; cf.
n:i7bc).
3. Actions after the prayer
a. G o d a n s w e r s A b r a m t h r o u g h an
angel, a n d calls h i m to the l a n d
(l2:22b-24)
b. G o d orders the angels to teach
A b r a m the H e b r e w language
(12:25-26)
c. A b r a m takes the b o o k s of his
father a n d copies t h e m (12:27)

T h e c a u s e that b r o u g h t a b o u t the p r a y e r is f o r m u l a t e d in different

w a y s . W h e r e a s the d o m i n i o n of the evil spirits a n d their t h r e a t e n i n g of
Noah's grandchildren (10:1-2) f o r m the d i r e c t c a u s e for N o a h ' s p r a y e r ,
A b r a m ' s p r a y e r is c a u s e d b y the r e c o g n i t i o n of the o m n i p o t e n c e of G o d
w h e n he p r a c t i c e s a s t r o l o g y ( 1 2 : 1 6 - 1 8 ) . H o w e v e r , A b r a m does p r a y to save
h i m s e l f " f r o m the h a n d of the evil spirits w h o rule the t h o u g h t s of the p e o ­
ple's h e a r t " ( i 2 : 2 o a b ) . H e c o n t i n u e s , p r a y i n g that t h e y m a y not lead h i m
astray f r o m f o l l o w i n g G o d . It is p o s s i b l e that the practice of a s t r o l o g y s h o u l d
be u n d e r s t o o d as a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of the m i s l e a d i n g o f the evil spirits. O t h e r
p a s s a g e s in Jubilees s h o w a clear c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the d e m o n s a n d astrol­
ogy. In 8:1-4 a s t r o l o g y is identified w i t h the illegal t e a c h i n g o f the w a t c h e r s .
After K a i n a n w a s i n s t r u c t e d in the art o f w r i t i n g ( 8 : 2 b ) , he f o u n d an i n s c r i p ­
tion o n a r o c k that d e s c r i b e d the a s t r o l o g i c a l t e a c h i n g s of the w a t c h e r s " b y

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w h i c h they used to o b s e r v e the o m e n s of the s u n , m o o n , a n d stars, a n d e v e r y

12
h e a v e n l y s i g n " (8:3). T h e s e signs w e r e p r o b a b l y u s e d to p r e d i c t the f u t u r e .
K a i n a n c o p i e d these i n s t r u c t i o n s f r o m the stone " a n d s i n n e d on the basis of
w h a t w a s in it." T h e t e a c h i n g s of the w a t c h e r s c o n t r a s t w i t h the t e a c h i n g s of
13
the p a t r i a r c h s , w h i c h w e r e r e c e i v e d f r o m the a n g e l s . A s far as the a s t r o l o g i ­
cal t e a c h i n g s of the w a t c h e r s are c o n c e r n e d , the a u t h o r is p r o b a b l y referring
to an E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n . I n 1 E n 6 - 1 1 the w a t c h e r s are n o t o n l y i n v o l v e d in i l ­
licit s e x u a l p r a c t i c e s a n d v i o l e n c e , b u t they are also i n v o l v e d in a s t r o l o g i c a l
t e a c h i n g s . 1 E n 8:3 says that " B a r a k i e l t a u g h t a s t r o l o g e r s , a n d K o k a b e l p o r ­
tents, a n d T a m i e l t a u g h t a s t r o l o g y a n d A s r a d e l t a u g h t the p a t h of the
1 4
moon." It is r e m a r k a b l e that o f all the illicit a n g e l i c i n s t r u c t i o n s of the
w a t c h e r s m e n t i o n e d in the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s ( m e t a l w o r k i n g , c o s m e t i c s ,
sorcery, p h a r m a c o l o g y , s p e l l b i n d i n g , a n d celestial d i v i n a t i o n ) , Jubilees in­
1 5
cludes only o n e .

In 1 1 : 8 o n e can r e a d that A b r a m ' s g r a n d f a t h e r N a h o r l e a r n e d f r o m his

father S e r u g "the studies o f the C h a l d e a n s : to p r a c t i c e d i v i n a t i o n a n d to a u ­
g u r b y the s i g n s o f the sky." T h i s f o r m s the direct b a c k g r o u n d for A b r a m ' s
1 6
p r e d i c t i o n s o f the w e a t h e r for the c o m i n g y e a r in 1 2 : 1 6 - 1 8 . Although 11:8
d o e s n o t s h o w an e x p l i c i t d i s a p p r o v a l o f "the studies of the C h a l d e a n s , " it is
s t r i k i n g that in the c o n t e x t of Serug's b i r t h the threats o f the evil spirits a n d
their l e a d e r M a s t e m a are m e n t i o n e d ( 1 1 : 4 - 5 ) . T h i s m e a n s that the studies of
the C h a l d e a n s o n the p r a c t i c e of d i v i n a t i o n are closely related to the influ-

12. M . Segal, The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology, and Theology,
JSJSup 117 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 7 ) , 260 n. 8.
13. A l t h o u g h this is the first time in Jubilees that the watchers are connected with as­
trological teachings, it should b e remembered that E n o c h was b o r n immediately after the
watchers came d o w n o n earth (4:15-16). T h e first thing he wrote d o w n w a s concerned with
calendrical and astronomical affairs: "the signs o f the sky in accord with the fixed pattern o f
their months, so that mankind would k n o w the seasons o f the years according to the fixed
patterns o f each of their m o n t h s " (4:17). T h e angels showed h i m the d o m i n i o n o f the sun
(4:21), after w h i c h the text continues with mention o f the watchers a n d their illicit inter­
course.
14. A . Lange points to the heavy emphasis o n the rejection of astrology in 1 E n 8:3,
which is developed further in Jub 8:3. Cf. A . Lange, " T h e Essene Position o n M a g i c a n d Divi­
nation," in Legal Texts and Legal Issues: Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the International
Organization for Qumran Studies; Published in Honour of Joseph M. Baumgarten, ed.
M . Bernstein, F. Garcia Martinez, a n d J. K a m p e n , S T D J 23 (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 377-435 (here
400-402).
15. A . Y. Reed, Fallen Angels and the History of Judaism and Christianity (Cambridge:
C a m b r i d g e University Press, 2005), 92-93. Cf. Lange, " T h e Essene Position," 400.
16. Segal, The Book of Jubilees, 260.

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ence o f the evil spirits. In 1 0 : 5 , the o n l y p l a c e in Jubilees that explicitly refers

to a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the evil spirits a n d the w a t c h e r s (the w a t c h e r s are
"fathers of these s p i r i t s " ) , the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a s t r o l o g y a n d evil spirits
17
is s t r e n g t h e n e d . O n e c a n c o n c l u d e that in b o t h cases the r e a s o n that
b r o u g h t forth the p r a y e r is m o r e or less the s a m e .
A s far as the f o r m of the p r a y e r p r o p e r is c o n c e r n e d , it consists of a
c o m b i n a t i o n of p r a i s e a n d s u p p l i c a t i o n . In the p r a i s e , N o a h ( 1 0 : 3 ) p u t s e m ­
p h a s i s on G o d ' s g r a c e ( " Y o u h a v e s h o w n k i n d n e s s to m e , s a v e d m e a n d m y
s o n s f r o m the flood w a t e r s , a n d did not m a k e m e p e r i s h as y o u d i d to the
p e o p l e m e a n t for d e s t r u c t i o n , b e c a u s e y o u r m e r c y for m e h a s b e e n l a r g e ,
a n d y o u r k i n d n e s s to m e has b e e n g r e a t " ) , w h e r e a s A b r a m (i2:iox-f; 1 2 : 4 )
p u t s an e m p h a s i s o n G o d ' s o m n i p o t e n c e ( " M y G o d , m y G o d , G o d m o s t
H i g h , y o u a l o n e are m y G o d . Y o u h a v e created e v e r y t h i n g ; e v e r y t h i n g that
1 8
w a s a n d has b e e n is the w o r k o f y o u r h a n d s " ) .
In N o a h ' s p r a y e r the s u p p l i c a t i o n c o n t a i n s t w o e l e m e n t s . O n the o n e
h a n d , N o a h p r a y s that the evil spirits m a y n o t rule o v e r N o a h ' s c h i l d r e n
(io:3i: " A n d m a y the evil spirits n o t rule t h e m in o r d e r to d e s t r o y t h e m f r o m
the earth"; cf. 1 0 : 5 - 6 ) . O n the other h a n d , he p r a y s for a b l e s s i n g u p o n h i m
a n d his c h i l d r e n ( 1 0 : 4 : " N o w y o u bless m e a n d m y c h i l d r e n so that w e m a y
i n c r e a s e , b e c o m e n u m e r o u s , a n d fill the e a r t h " ) . B o t h e l e m e n t s o c c u r also in
the s u p p l i c a t i o n in A b r a m ' s prayer. T h e r e q u e s t to save h i m f r o m the evil
spirits plays an i m p o r t a n t p a r t ( i 2 : 2 o a b : " S a v e m e f r o m the h a n d of the evil
spirits w h o rule the t h o u g h t s of the p e o p l e ' s heart. M a y they n o t lead m e
astray f r o m f o l l o w i n g y o u , m y G o d " ) . T h e e l e m e n t o f b l e s s i n g has its p a r a l l e l
in that A b r a m asks to establish h i m a n d his seed for eternity ( 1 2 : 2 0 c ) a n d
that he as G o d ' s s e r v a n t m a y w o r k o n the r i g h t p a t h ( i 2 : 2 i d ) .

W i t h r e g a r d to the a c t i o n s that take place i m m e d i a t e l y after the prayer,

in b o t h cases there is a t w o f o l d action of G o d , f o l l o w e d b y an a c t i o n o f the
s u p p l i c a n t . In b o t h cases G o d a d d r e s s e s h i m s e l f n o t to the s u p p l i c a n t b u t to
an a n g e l ( 1 0 : 7 , 1 0 - 1 2 ; 1 2 : 2 2 b , 2 5 - 2 6 , 2 7 e ) . G o d ' s first r e a c t i o n to N o a h ' s p r a y e r
is his c o m m a n d m e n t to b i n d all the d e m o n s . After M a s t e m a , the leader o f
the spirits, protests a n d asks for s o m e of t h e m to be left b e f o r e h i m so he c a n

17. A c c o r d i n g to Segal (The Book of Jubilees, 1 7 9 - 8 0 ) , it is difficult to connect the story

of the watchers (a o n e t i m e event in h i s t o r y ) with a system that sets up the w o r l d order from
creation o n w a r d with G o d a n d Israel o n o n e side a n d M a s t e m a , the evil spirits, a n d the other
nations o n the other (cf. Jub 2 : 1 9 - 2 1 ; 1 5 : 3 0 - 3 2 ) . Segal considers the c o n n e c t i o n between these
two v i e w p o i n t s as a s e c o n d a r y d e v e l o p m e n t . It is the result of the w i s h to integrate the spirit
traditions from 1 E n o c h into a dualistic w o r l d v i e w .
18. C o m p a r e also 12:4 ("He created e v e r y t h i n g by his w o r d " ) .

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exercise his a u t h o r i t y a m o n g m a n k i n d ( 1 0 : 8 ) , G o d a l l o w s h i m a tenth o f

t h e m , a n d gives o r d e r s to b i n d 90 p e r c e n t of the evil spirits ( 1 0 : 9 ) . G o d ' s first
r e a c t i o n to A b r a m ' s p r a y e r is a direct address to A b r a m t h r o u g h an a n g e l in
w h i c h A b r a m is s u m m o n e d to leave his l a n d a n d his father's h o u s e , a n d to
go to the l a n d that G o d w i l l s h o w h i m ( 1 2 : 2 2 - 2 4 ) . T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t in the
n e w l a n d s e e m s to have a c o m p a r a b l e f u n c t i o n as the b i n d i n g of the evil
spirits. In the l a n d w h e r e A b r a m a n d his d e s c e n d a n t s are to b e b l e s s e d a b u n ­
19
dantly, the d e m o n s w i l l h a v e n o i n f l u e n c e .
In the case of b o t h N o a h a n d A b r a m , G o d ' s initial r e a c t i o n s e e m s n o t
to b e sufficient to save their d e s c e n d a n t s f r o m the i n f l u e n c e o f the evil s p i r ­
its. In the s u b s e q u e n t s e c o n d a c t i o n , G o d instructs the a n g e l s . T h e y s h o u l d
teach N o a h all the m e d i c i n e s , w h i c h c o u l d protect h i m a n d his s o n s a g a i n s t
attacks f r o m the evil spirits ( 1 0 : 1 0 , 1 2 ) , a n d teach A b r a m the H e b r e w l a n ­
guage (12:25-26).
Finally, there is a r e a c t i o n b y the o n e w h o p r a y s , w h i c h is c o m p a r a b l e
in b o t h texts. N o a h w r i t e s d o w n in a b o o k e v e r y t h i n g the angels h a v e t a u g h t
2 0
h i m . Thereafter, he gives all his b o o k s to his oldest son S h e m ( 1 0 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) .
A b r a m , w h o is f r o m the line of S h e m , l e a r n s H e b r e w , takes his father's
b o o k s , t h e n c o p i e s a n d studies t h e m ( 1 2 : 2 7 ) . T h e m e n t i o n o f "his father's
b o o k s " in 1 2 : 2 7 m a k e s the c o n n e c t i o n w i t h 1 0 : 1 3 - 1 4 e x p l i c i t . N e i t h e r the
b i n d i n g of 90 percent of the d e m o n s n o r his e s t a b l i s h m e n t in the l a n d w i l l
give c o m p l e t e p r o t e c t i o n against the threat of the spirits. B o o k s s h o u l d also

19. C o m p a r e this with N o a h ' s supplication in w h i c h the request that the evil spirits
m i g h t n o t rule over N o a h ' s children is put next to the request for a blessing u p o n his chil­
dren (cf. io:3i a n d 4 a - d ) .
20. A c c o r d i n g to Segal (The Book of Jubilees, 1 7 1 - 7 3 ) , the " b o o k " (singular) in 1 0 : 1 3
c a n n o t b e identical w i t h the " b o o k s " (plural) in 1 0 : 1 4 . T h e reason to hand over the b o o k s to
S h e m ("because he loved h i m m u c h m o r e than all his s o n s " ) does not match up with the
m e d i c i n e s , which were m e a n t for all N o a h ' s offspring. T h e transition from singular to p l u r a l
even p o i n t s to separate sources. T h e nature o f the " b o o k s " (plural), w h i c h N o a h h a n d e d
over to his son S h e m , should b e u n d e r s t o o d in the light of the chain of tradition in w h i c h
k n o w l e d g e is h a n d e d over from generation to generation (7:38-39; 12:27; 2 1 : 1 0 ; 39:6; 45:16). In
m y o p i n i o n , o n e s h o u l d n o t stress too m u c h the transition f r o m singular to plural. T h e fact
that N o a h writes a b o o k w i t h regard to m e d i c i n e s (10:13) does not exclude the fact that he
a n
has written other b o o k s . E n o c h has written a b o o k (4:17-19, 2 1 - 2 3 ) , d in the end o f his tes­
t a m e n t (7:38-39) N o a h refers to that tradition. It is quite plausible that the n e w k n o w l e d g e
that N o a h has received is going to b e l o n g to the chain of tradition. M o r e o v e r , it is really the
offspring of S h e m w h o have to b e protected against the influence o f the spirits. T h e spirits
are p e r m i t t e d to have influence o n l y over other p e o p l e s ( 1 5 : 3 1 - 3 2 ; cp. 1 0 : 8 ) . Nevertheless, it is
true that the plural in 1 0 : 1 4 s h o w s that it is not just the k n o w l e d g e w i t h regard to m e d i c i n e s
that is h a n d e d over.

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b e s t u d i e d , b o o k s that c o n t a i n , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , m e d i c i n e s against the

attacks of evil spirits.
In c o n c l u s i o n , the c o m p a r i s o n of A b r a m ' s p r a y e r w i t h that of N o a h
s h o w s the s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e of b o t h texts. T h i s c o n f i r m s , m o r e o v e r , the for­
m a l u n i t y a n d the c o h e r e n c e in r e g a r d to the c o n t e n t of 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7 .

3.2. Abram's Prayer and Moses' Prayer

T h e r e is also a s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n A b r a m ' s p r a y e r w i t h its p r e c e d i n g a n d fol­

l o w i n g events a n d M o s e s ' p r a y e r ( 1 : 1 9 - 2 1 ) in the c o n t e x t of 1:5—2:1. T h e fol­
l o w i n g s c h e m e s h o w s the s t r u c t u r e of M o s e s ' prayer, together w i t h the c a u s e
for it, a n d G o d ' s r e a c t i o n :

Moses' prayer (Jub 1:5-2:1)

1. Cause for the prayer (1:5-18)
2. Form of the prayer — supplication (1:19-21)
3. Actions after the prayer
a. G o d a n s w e r s M o s e s w i t h r e g a r d to his d e a l i n g w i t h the people
( 1 : 2 2 - 2 4 ) ; M o s e s receives an o r d e r to w r i t e (1:25)
b. G o d o r d e r s the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e to dictate the s t o r y o f h i s t o r y
to M o s e s ( 1 : 2 7 - 2 : 1 )

D e s p i t e a structure c o m p a r a b l e to A b r a m ' s prayer, the cause for M o s e s '

prayer s e e m s to be s o m e w h a t different. M o s e s is reacting to a direct speech
from G o d to h i m ( 1 : 5 - 1 8 ) in w h i c h the D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c s c h e m e of sin, p u n i s h ­
m e n t , repentance, a n d restoration can be f o u n d . B e c a u s e of the direct interac­
tion b e t w e e n G o d and M o s e s , G o d addresses M o s e s directly t h r o u g h the reac­
a n n o t
tions to the prayer ( 1 : 2 2 - 2 5 ) d t h r o u g h an angel, as w a s the case w i t h
N o a h ' s a n d A b r a m ' s p r a y e r s . It is r e m a r k a b l e , h o w e v e r , that G o d also addresses
M o s e s indirectly t h r o u g h an angel, since he orders the angels to dictate the
s t o r y of Jubilees to M o s e s . M o s e s ' prayer ( 1 : 1 9 - 2 1 ) m a i n l y consists of s u p p l i c a ­
tion, a l t h o u g h s o m e elements of praise are integrated (20a: " y o u r m e r c y " ; 2 1 a :
" w h o m y o u have r e s c u e d from E g y p t i a n control b y y o u r great p o w e r " ) .
T h e s t r u c t u r e of the s u p p l i c a t i o n s h o w s s t r o n g p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n
the p a r t s o f the p r a y e r :

A O L o r d m y G o d , do n o t allow y o u r p e o p l e a n d y o u r inheritance
to go along in the strayings of their hearts ( i 9 d )

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B and do not deliver t h e m into the h a n d s of the n a t i o n s , w i t h the

result that they rule over t h e m ( i 9 e f ) ,
C lest they m a k e t h e m sin against y o u ( i 9 g ) .

A' M a y y o u r mercy, L o r d , be raised over y o u r p e o p l e ( 2 0 a ) .

Create for t h e m a j u s t spirit ( 2 0 b ) .
B' M a y the spirit of Belial n o t rule over t h e m ( 2 0 c ' )
D so as to b r i n g charges against t h e m before y o u ( 2 0 c " )
C and to ensnare t h e m a w a y from e v e r y p r o p e r path ( 2 o d )
so that they m a y be w i p e d a w a y from y o u r presence ( 2 o e ) .

A" T h e y are y o u r p e o p l e and y o u r inheritance w h o m y o u have

r e s c u e d f r o m E g y p t i a n c o n t r o l ( h a n d s ) b y y o u r great p o w e r ( 2 1 a ) .
C r e a t e for t h e m a p u r e heart a n d a h o l y spirit ( 2 1 b ) .
C" M a y they n o t b e t r a p p e d in their sins from n o w to eternity ( 2 1 c ) .

T h e p r a y e r requests a j u s t spirit from G o d for his p e o p l e lest t h e y f o l l o w the

s t r a y i n g s of their h e a r t ( A ) . T h e p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n B a n d B ' s h o w s that the
n a t i o n s are p u t p a r a l l e l w i t h the "spirit o f Belial." B o t h c a n r u l e o v e r I s r a e l .
T h i s m e a n s at the s a m e t i m e that b o t h can c a u s e I s r a e l to sin a g a i n s t G o d
( C ) . W h e r e a s the n a t i o n s c a n n o t b r i n g c h a r g e s a g a i n s t I s r a e l b e f o r e G o d , the
spirit of B e l i a l is able to do so ( D ) . C o m p a r e 1 : 1 9 - 2 1 in this r e s p e c t w i t h 1 5 : 3 0 -
3 3 , in w h i c h G o d lets the spirits r u l e o v e r the n a t i o n s . G o d h i m s e l f c h o o s e s
Israel to be his p e o p l e . O n l y G o d is Israel's ruler.
A s far as the use of w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s is c o n c e r n e d , M o s e s ' p r a y e r has
several similarities w i t h N o a h ' s a n d A b r a m ' s p r a y e r s . I refer to i:i9d ("the
s t r a y i n g s of their hearts"; see i 2 : 2 o a b , d, 2 i e ; cf. 1 1 : 1 7 ) ; 1:20a ( " M a y y o u r m e r c y ,
L o r d , b e lifted o v e r y o u r p e o p l e " (cf. i o : 3 h ) ; 1:20c ( " M a y the spirit o f Belial
n o t r u l e o v e r t h e m so as to b r i n g charges against t h e m b e f o r e y o u " ; see 1 2 : 2 0 ;
io:3i, 6 a ) ; i : 2 o d ("to e n s n a r e t h e m a w a y f r o m e v e r y p r o p e r path"; cf. I 2 : 2 i d ) .
W i t h r e g a r d to the a c t i o n s that take place i m m e d i a t e l y after the prayer,
there is a t w o f o l d a c t i o n b y G o d f o l l o w e d b y an a c t i o n n o t b y the s u p p l i c a n t ,
b u t b y the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e . G o d a d d r e s s e s h i m s e l f directly to the s u p ­
plicant (1:22-26) a n d n o t to an a n g e l , as w a s the case after N o a h ' s and
A b r a m ' s p r a y e r s ( 1 0 : 7 , 1 0 - 1 2 ; 1 2 : 2 2 b , 2 5 - 2 6 , 2 7 c ) . G o d ' s first r e a c t i o n is a
s p e e c h to M o s e s in w h i c h he tells a b o u t the future r e p e n t a n c e a n d r e s t o r a ­
t i o n of the p e o p l e . In this s p e e c h M o s e s is o r d e r e d to w r i t e d o w n e v e r y t h i n g
G o d m a k e s k n o w n . In the s u b s e q u e n t , s e c o n d s p e e c h , G o d i n s t r u c t s the a n ­
gel o f the p r e s e n c e to dictate the s t o r y to M o s e s ( 1 : 2 7 - 2 8 ) . F i n a l l y , the a n g e l

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takes the tables of the d i v i s i o n o f the y e a r s a n d starts to dictate to M o s e s the

c o n t e n t of h i s t o r y ( 1 : 2 9 - 2 : 1 ) .

3 . 3 . Abram's Prayer and Abraham's Blessing for Jacob

Finally, I w o u l d like to refer to A b r a h a m ' s b l e s s i n g for J a c o b ( 1 9 : 2 6 - 2 9 ) .

T h e r e are s e v e r a l s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h A b r a m ' s prayer. A b r a h a m begs G o d to
p r o t e c t J a c o b against the evil spirits (19:28a: " M a y the spirits of M a s t e m a n o t
rule over y o u a n d y o u r d e s c e n d a n t s to r e m o v e y o u f r o m f o l l o w i n g the L o r d
who is y o u r G o d f r o m n o w a n d f o r e v e r " ) . T h e t e r m i n o l o g y that is u s e d re­
2 1
s e m b l e s that of A b r a m ' s p r a y e r ( i 2 : 2 o ) . I m m e d i a t e l y after this A b r a h a m
p r a y s that G o d m a y be J a c o b ' s father a n d J a c o b his f i r s t b o r n s o n (19:29:
"May the L o r d G o d b e c o m e y o u r father a n d y o u his f i r s t - b o r n s o n a n d p e o ­
ple for all t i m e " ) . F r o m the p o i n t o f v i e w of J u b i l e e s , this m e a n s that G o d has
c h o s e n J a c o b (Israel) f r o m the b e g i n n i n g o f t i m e to be his u n i q u e p e o p l e
a n d his f i r s t b o r n s o n (cf. 2 : 2 0 ) . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f this election is G o d ' s d i ­
rect d o m i n i o n o v e r I s r a e l . In c o n t r a s t to this, spirits are a p p o i n t e d to c o n t r o l
the other n a t i o n s (cf. D e u t 32:8-9; 4 : 1 9 - 2 0 ; Sir 1 7 : 1 7 ; J u b 1 5 : 3 0 - 3 2 ) . T h e spirits
2 2
m i s l e a d the n a t i o n s on p u r p o s e a n d let t h e m s i n . A l t h o u g h a father-son re­
l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d I s r a e l is n o t at stake in A b r a m ' s prayer, o n e
c o u l d say the c o n f i r m a t i o n of " I w i l l b e c o m e G o d for y o u , y o u r s o n , y o u r
g r a n d s o n , a n d all y o u r s e e d " ( 1 2 : 2 4 ) i m p l i e s that the spirits c a n n o t take o n
that r o l e . T h e spirits rule o n l y over the other n a t i o n s . T h e c o n f i r m a t i o n in
12:24 can therefore be taken as an a n s w e r to A b r a m ' s s u p p l i c a t i o n to save
h i m f r o m the d o m i n i o n o f the evil spirits.

4. Enochic Traditions

A l t h o u g h the text of Jubilees is g u i d e d to a large extent b y the b i b l i c a l b o o k s

of G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s as far as c o n t e n t a n d s e q u e n c e are c o n c e r n e d , o n e
s h o u l d a c k n o w l e d g e that other s o u r c e s a n d t r a d i t i o n s are also i n c o r p o r a t e d
into the b o o k . T h e third p e r i c o p e ( J u b 1 2 : 2 2 ^ 2 4 ) can b e c o n s i d e r e d a re­
w r i t i n g of G e n 1 2 : 1 - 3 . T h e other p e r i c o p e s are a d d i t i o n s w i t h r e g a r d to the
b i b l i c a l text. A b r a m ' s p r a y e r is closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h the other p r a y e r s in

21. C o m p a r e also 1:20; 10:8; 1 1 : 5 .

22. Cf. Segal, The Book of Jubilees, 257-59.

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the b o o k . T h e p r a y e r s are c a u s e d b y the t h r e a t o f e v i l s p i r i t s . I n the B i b l e

t h e r e is n o d e m o n o l o g y . I n G e n e s i s o n e c a n r e a d n o t h i n g a b o u t demons.
W i t h i n Jubilees, however, d e m o n s o c c u r in several places, especially in rela­
t i o n to the s p r e a d o f m a n k i n d o n the e a r t h after the f l o o d . T h e y b e l o n g to
the t i m e o f N o a h a n d the e a r l y A b r a m , a l t h o u g h t h e y c o n t i n u e to o p e r a t e i n
later t i m e s . A p a r t f r o m the t e r m " d e m o n " ( 1 : 1 1 c ; 7:27; 1 0 : 1 , 2 ; 2 2 : 1 7 ) , " ( e v i l )
s p i r i t " is also u s e d ( 1 0 : 3 , 5, 8 , 1 1 , 1 3 ; 1 1 : 4 , 5; 1 2 : 2 0 ; 1 5 : 3 1 , 3 2 ; 1 9 : 2 8 ) . T h e d e m o n s
are c h a r g e d w i t h c a u s i n g b l o o d s h e d a n d w i t h i n c i t i n g p e o p l e to kill e a c h
o t h e r . In this r e s p e c t J u b i l e e s s e e m s to b e i n f l u e n c e d b y o t h e r s o u r c e s . T h e
t e a c h i n g a b o u t the d e m o n s s e e m s to b e p a r t o f the w i d e r i n f l u e n c e o f m a t e ­
2 3
r i a l o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m the E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s . O n e c a n p o i n t e s p e c i a l l y to
the i n f l u e n c e o f 1 E n o c h ( B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s ) . J u b i l e e s s h a r e s the funda­
m e n t a l p a t t e r n o f the B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s i n w h i c h the a n g e l s d e s c e n d e d
from heaven, married w o m e n , and sinned with them. Their children were
the g i a n t s . In 1 E n 1 5 : 8 - 1 6 : 1 it is d e s c r i b e d h o w the e v i l s p i r i t s c a m e o u t o f the
c a r c a s s e s o f the g i a n t s a n d h o w t h e y w e r e t h r e a t e n i n g h u m a n i t y : t h e y d o v i ­
2 4
o l e n c e , m a k e d e s o l a t e , a t t a c k a n d w r e s t l e a n d h u r l u p o n the e a r t h . Jubilees
s e e m s n o t to b e c o m p l e t e l y c o n s i s t e n t h e r e i n t h a t the d e m o n s a r e men­
t i o n e d as the e m a n a t i o n s f r o m the a n g e l s t h e m s e l v e s ( 1 0 : 5 : " y o u r w a t c h e r s ,
the f a t h e r s o f these s p i r i t s " ) , w h e r e a s it also u n d e r s t a n d s the g i a n t s as the
2 5
s o n s o f the w a t c h e r s ( 5 : 1 , 6 - 1 0 ) . M o r e o v e r , it s h o w s s o m e d e v i a t i o n s f r o m

23. F o r the influence o f E n o c h i c traditions in the b o o k o f Jubilees, see especially J . C .

V a n d e r K a m , " E n o c h Traditions in Jubilees a n d O t h e r S e c o n d - C e n t u r y Sources," in S B L S P 1
(1978), 229-51 (reprinted in V a n d e r K a m , From Revelation to Canon: Studies in the Hebrew Bi­
ble and Second Temple Literature, J S J S u p 62 [Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ] , 3 0 5 - 3 1 ) . T h i s w o r k influ­
enced h i s Enoch and the Growth of an Apocalyptic Tradition, C B Q M S 16 (Washington, D . C . :
C a t h o l i c Bible A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a , 1984), 179-88, a n d f o r m e d the basis of a chapter in
Enoch: A Man for All Generations, Studies on Personalities o f the Old Testament ( C o l u m b i a :
University of South C a r o l i n a Press, 1995), 1 1 0 - 2 1 . See also, s o m e o f his predecessors: R. H .
C h a r l e s , The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis ( L o n d o n , 1 9 0 2 ) , xliv, 36-39, 43-44; P. Grelot,
" L a legende d ' H e n o c h d a n s les a p o c r y p h e s et d a n s la Bible. O r i g i n e et signification," R SR 46
(1958): 5-26, 1 8 1 - 2 1 0 ; J. T. M i l i k , The Book of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4
(Oxford: O x f o r d University Press, 1 9 7 6 ) . V a n d e r K a m is followed by, e.g., G . W. E . Nickels­
b u r g , 1 Enoch 1: A Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch, Chapters 1-36; 81-108, Hermeneia
( M i n n e a p o l i s : Fortress, 2 0 0 1 ) , 7 1 - 7 6 .

24. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " T h e D e m o n s in the B o o k of Jubilees," in Demons: The Demon­

ology of Israelite-Jewish and Early Christian Literature in Context of Their Environment, ed.
A . L a n g e , H . Lichtenberger, a n d K . F. Diethard R o m h e l d ( T u b i n g e n : M o h r Siebeck, 2 0 0 3 ) ,
339-64 (here 3 4 8 - 5 0 ) ; Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1 , 267-75.
25. Jubilees p o s s i b l y p r e s e r v e s several o l d e r t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t the w a t c h e r s . See
D i m a n t , V a n d e r K a m , Segal.

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its s o u r c e text, e.g., the d e m o n s are p u t u n d e r the a u t h o r i t y o f M a s t e m a

(10:8; 1 1 : 5 ; 19:28; 49:2; cf. 1 1 : 1 1 ; 1 7 : 1 6 ; 1 8 : 9 , 1 2 ; 48:2, 3 - 4 , 9 , 1 2 - 1 8 ) . T h i s leader o f
the d e m o n s is p r o b a b l y n o d e m o n himself, but a sort of evil a n g e l . H e is,
h o w e v e r , n o t o n e of the w a t c h e r s , b e c a u s e they are tied u p in the depths o f
the earth u n t i l the g r e a t d a y o f j u d g m e n t ( 5 : 6 - 1 1 ) . T h e d e m o n s do e v e r y t h i n g
M a s t e m a tells t h e m , so that he is able to exercise the a u t h o r i t y o f his w i l l
a m o n g m a n k i n d to p u n i s h t h e m for their evil (cf. 1 0 : 8 ) .

5. Conclusion

In the p r a y e r o f A b r a m a n d the s u r r o u n d i n g events ( J u b 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7 ) , I i d e n t i ­

fied f o u r p e r i c o p e s that are d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m each o t h e r b y s u b j e c t a n d the
use of w o r d s . T h e s e p e r i c o p e s are n o t d i s c o n n e c t e d , h o w e v e r . I p o i n t e d to
the c o h e r e n c e of the f o u r p a s s a g e s as a w h o l e . T h e r e is u n i t y o f p l a c e
( H a r a n ) , of t i m e (the seventy-fifth y e a r in A b r a m ' s life), a n d o f p e r s o n s
( m a i n l y A b r a m ) . A c o m p a r i s o n o f A b r a m ' s p r a y e r w i t h other p r a y e r s in the
b o o k o f Jubilees ( 1 : 1 9 - 2 1 ; 1 0 : 1 - 1 4 ; 1 9 : 2 6 - 2 9 ) s h o w e d the s t r o n g c o n n e c t i o n b e ­
t w e e n t h e m in s t r u c t u r e a n d c o n t e n t . T h e p r a y e r s are m o s t l y i n c l u d e d in the
b o o k o f J u b i l e e s as a d d i t i o n s w i t h r e g a r d to the b i b l i c a l text o f G e n e s i s a n d
E x o d u s . T h e y are c a u s e d b y the t h r e a t o f evil spirits. In G o d ' s a n s w e r to the
p r a y e r ' s s u p p l i c a t i o n , s e v e r a l m e a n s are p u t into a c t i o n , s u c h as dictating
f r o m the h e a v e n l y tablets, b i n d i n g 90 p e r c e n t of the evil spirits, t e a c h i n g
a b o u t m e d i c i n e s , c o p y i n g a n d s t u d y i n g b o o k s , a n d m a k i n g a p r o m i s e to live
in the l a n d .

A b r a m ' s a n d N o a h ' s p r a y e r s , the p r e c e d i n g e v e n t s , a n d their acts o f

w r i t i n g afterward c a n be seen as a s o r t of p r e f i g u r a t i o n of M o s e s ' p r a y e r a n d
the d i c t a t i n g a n d c o p y i n g of the b o o k of Jubilees itself. In all these cases,
there is a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the t e a c h i n g of the angels a n d the c o n t e n t o f
the b o o k . T h e b o o k s c o n t a i n the i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y in the conflict w i t h
the e v i l s p i r i t s a n d are h a n d e d d o w n from generation to generation.
T h r o u g h J a c o b , i n f o r m a t i o n is h a n d e d over to L e v i ( J u b 4 5 : 1 6 ) , M o s e s ' g r e a t ­
26
grandfather.

26. An important element in the rewriting o f Genesis and Exodus in the book o f Jubi­
lees is the struggle against foreign influences, from evil spirits to other nations. The rewrit­
ing seems n o t to be a rewriting for no particular reason, but a means o f using the biblical
text in this struggle.

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Hindy Najman

W h a t is at stake in h o w w e characterize the b o o k of Jubilees? Perhaps most

importantly, w e m u s t be aware that the current generic labels for the b o o k of

1
Jubilees all stake s o m e claim about canon in the second century. T h e impli­

cations extend to seminal Q u m r a n d o c u m e n t s as well.

l. See recent discussion o f genre distinctions by C. A. Newsom, "Spying O u t the

Land: A Report from Genology," in Seeking Out the Wisdom of the Ancients: Essays Offered to
Honor Michael V. Fox on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday, ed. R. L. Troxel, K. G.
Friebel, and D. R. Magary ( W i n o n a Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2005), 437-60. O n rewritten Bi­
ble as a genre, see P. S. Alexander, "Retelling the Old Testament," in It Is Written: Scripture
Citing Scripture; Essays in Honour of Barnabas Lindars, SSF, ed. D. A. Carson and H. G. M .
Williamson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 99-121. For a history o f scholar­
ship o n the issue, see M . J. Bernstein, '"Rewritten Bible': A Generic Category Which H a s
Outlived Its Usefulness?" Text 22 (2005): 169-96. See also G. J. Brooke, "Rewritten Bible," in
EDSS, 777-80; S. D. Fraade, "Rewritten Bible and Rabbinic Midrash as Commentary," in
Current Trends in the Study of Midrash, ed. C . Bakhos (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 6 ) , 5 9 - 7 8 ;
B. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , Rewriting the Bible: Land and Covenant in Postbiblical Jewish Literature
(Valley Forge, Pa.: Trinity, 1994); D. J. Harrington, "The Bible Rewritten (Narratives)," in
Early Judaism and Its Modern Interpreters, ed. R. A. Kraft and G. W. E . Nickelsburg (Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1986), 239-47; G. W. E . Nickelsburg, "The Bible Rewritten and Expanded," in
Jewish Writings of the Second Temple Period, ed. M. Stone (Assen: Van G o r c u m ; Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1984), 89-156; E . Tov, "Biblical Texts as Reworked in S o m e Q u m r a n Manuscripts
with Special Attention to 4 Q R P and 4QparaGen-Exod," in The Community of the Renewed

I thank J. Collins, P. Franks, F. Garcia Martinez, E . Tigchelaar, R. A. Kraft, E. Mroczek, and

B. G. Wright III for their helpful conversations and generous c o m m e n t s . — H N

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Hindy Najman

S u p p o s e w e c h a r a c t e r i z e Jubilees as r e w r i t t e n B i b l e . T h e n w e are c o m ­
m i t t i n g o u r s e l v e s to the p o s i t i o n that there w a s a l r e a d y an a u t h o r i t a t i v e or
c a n o n i c a l P e n t a t e u c h in the s e c o n d century, d u r i n g w h i c h it w a s p o s s i b l e to
r e p l a c e the P e n t a t e u c h w i t h a text like J u b i l e e s . A s I a r g u e d in Seconding Si­
nai, I find the p o s i t i o n v e r y p r o b l e m a t i c :

Like the classification of texts as p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c , the characterization

of S e c o n d T e m p l e texts as " R e w r i t t e n B i b l e " is p r o b l e m a t i c . Use of the
term can suggest an anachronistic conception of a text — as a fixed set of
claims e m b o d i e d in specific l a n g u a g e , such that t a m p e r i n g w i t h that
l a n g u a g e is t a n t a m o u n t to interfering w i t h an author's property. W h e n
s c h o l a r s w h o e m p l o y such a c o n c e p t e n c o u n t e r b i b l i c a l a n d e x t r a -
biblical texts that r e c o u n t biblical narratives w i t h v a r i a t i o n s a n d inser­
tions, t h e y m a y b e t e m p t e d to infer that these texts aspire to replace an
older, authentic biblical tradition w i t h a n e w v e r s i o n . Instead, w e s h o u l d
ask w h e t h e r these biblical a n d extra-biblical writers s h a r e d o u r c o n t e m ­
p o r a r y c o n c e p t i o n of a text. A l t h o u g h biblicists a s s u m e the existence of
a s o m e w h a t fixed biblical text as early as the Persian p e r i o d , they a c ­
k n o w l e d g e the fluidity of biblical traditions. E v e n if it is still p o s s i b l e to
s p e a k of rewriting, the distinction b e t w e e n the transmission and the in­
terpretation of biblical traditions w a s n o t as s h a r p as the term Rewritten
2
Bible i m p l i e s .

We do n o t h a v e e v i d e n c e that entitles us to s p e a k of a fixed a n d e x c l u s i v e

c a n o n at the t i m e o f J u b i l e e s ' c o m p o s i t i o n . H o w e v e r , there is e v i d e n c e for a
stabilized, c i r c u l a t i n g , a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e text m u c h like w h a t is e v e n t u a l l y
called the P e n t a t e u c h . In a d d i t i o n , w e k n o w that Jubilees shares m a n y t r a d i -

Covenant: The Notre Dame Symposium on the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. E. Ulrich and J. C.
VanderKam (Notre Dame, Ind.: University o f Notre Dame Press, 1994), 111-34. See also ear­
lier scholarship by G. Vermes, who coined the term "Rewritten Bible": Scripture and Tradi­
tion in Judaism: Haggadic Studies, 2 n d rev. ed., StPB 4 (Leiden: Brill, 1973; 1st ed. 1961), 1 0 ,
and by C. Perrot on the notion o f "texte continue": Pseudo-Philon: Les antiquites bibliques.
Tome II: Introduction litteraire, commentaire et index, SC 230 (Paris: Cerf, 1976). For a recent
discussion see M. Segal, The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology, and Theol­
ogy, JSJSup 117 (Leiden: Brill, 2007).
2. H. Najman, Seconding Sinai: The Development of Mosaic Discourse in Second Tem­
ple Judaism, JSJSup 77 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 3 ) , 7 - 8 . See also m y discussion o f why this term is
deeply problematic in "Interpretation as Primordial Writing: Jubilees and Its Authority
Conferring Strategies," / S / 3 0 (1999): 3 7 9 - 4 1 0 . 1 prefer to jettison the term altogether because
it obscures more than it illuminates in the world o f ancient Judean traditions.

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 Reconsidering Jubilees: Prophecy and Exemplarity

t i o n s a n d texts that w e h a v e s i n c e c o m e to k n o w as P e n t a t e u c h a l o r p r o ­
3
phetic. P e r h a p s , t h e n , w e c o u l d a r g u e that J u b i l e e s is i n t e r p r e t i n g texts w e
k n o w as P e n t a t e u c h a l .

B u t if w e c l a i m t h a t J u b i l e e s reflects s o m e o f the earliest i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

of the P e n t a t e u c h — t h e n w e are a s s i g n i n g a s e c o n d a r y status to J u b i l e e s v i s ­
a - v i s the P e n t a t e u c h . B u t this flies in the face o f J u b i l e e s ' s e l f - p r e s e n t a t i o n :
J u b i l e e s c l a i m s that it is itself a r e v e l a t i o n that is a l r e a d y a n d a l w a y s i n s c r i b e d
i n the h e a v e n l y tablets, l o n g b e f o r e S i n a i .

It is J u b i l e e s ' c l a i m to b e r e v e a l e d that h a s led s o m e to s a y t h a t J u b i l e e s

4
i n t e n d s to r e p l a c e G e n e s i s o r the P e n t a t e u c h . H o w e v e r , s u c h a s u g g e s t i o n is
also i n t e n s i o n w i t h J u b i l e e s ' s e l f - p r e s e n t a t i o n . J u b i l e e s k n o w s o f a first T o ­
r a h a n d u n d e r s t a n d s that it is o f f e r i n g a s e c o n d T o r a h that is a l r e a d y p r i o r to
the first T o r a h f r o m S i n a i , b u t J u b i l e e s n e v e r c l a i m s to r e p l a c e the first T o r a h ,
w h i c h it t r e a t s as h a v i n g c o n t i n u e d authority.

I n d e e d , there are s o m e p a s s a g e s in J u b i l e e s w h e r e the c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f

" i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " s e e m s m o r e apt, a n d o t h e r s w h e r e w h a t s e e m s called for is a
characterization of "parallel traditions" or even "expanded traditions," of
w h i c h w e p o s s e s s m u c h s h o r t e r v e r s i o n s i n the P e n t a t e u c h . To b e s u r e , w e c a n
state w i t h confidence — as h a s b e e n argued most recently by Aharon
5
S h e m e s h — that J u b i l e e s p l a y e d a p r o m i n e n t role f o r s o m e o f the a u t h o r s a n d

3. See the exemplary discussion by G. J. Brooke, "The F o r m a t i o n and Renewal o f

Scriptural Tradition," in Biblical Traditions in Transmission: Essays in Honour of Michael A.
Knibb, ed. C. Hempel and J. Lieu (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 5 1 , 3 9 - 6 0 . See also J. C. Reeves, "Exploring
the Afterlife o f Jewish Pseudepigrapha in Medieval Near Eastern Religious Traditions: Some
Initial Soundings," JSJ30 (1999): 148-77, and R. A. Kraft, "The Pseudepigrapha in Christian­
ity," in Tracing the Threads: Studies in the Vitality of Jewish Pseudepigrapha, ed. J. C. Reeves,
SBLEJL 6 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1 9 9 4 ) , 55-86.
4. See, for example, B. Z. Wacholder, "Jubilees as the Super Canon: Torah-Admonition
versus Torah-Commandment," in Legal Texts and Legal Issues: Proceedings of the Second Meet­
ing of the International Organization for Qumran Studies, Cambridge 1995, ed. M. Bernstein,
F. Garcia Martinez, and J. Kampen, STDJ 23 (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 195-211. For an incisive and
critical assessment o f Wacholder's argument, see M . Himmelfarb, "Torah, Testimony, and
Heavenly Tablets: The Claim to Authority in the Book o f Jubilees," in A Multiform Heritage:
Studies on Early Judaism and Christianity in Honor of Robert A. Kraft, ed. B. G. Wright III,
Homage Series 24 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999), 19-29; see her most recent discussion o f Jubi­
lees' status in A Kingdom of Priests: Ancestry and Merit in Ancient Judaism (Philadelphia: Uni­
versity o f Pennsylvania Press, 2 0 0 6 ) , 53-55. For another view o f Jubilees' self-understanding
vis-a-vis the Pentateuch, see C. W e r m a n , "The ' [ torn] and the [ teudd]' Engraved on the Tab­
lets," DSD 9 (2002): 75-103 (esp. 93-95).
5. See A. Shemesh's essay for this volume, "4Q265 and the Authoritative Status o f Ju­
bilees at Qumran."

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Hindy Najman

6
copyists at Qumran. Along these lines, Martha Himmelfarb suggests that "the
existence [at Qumran] of a work or works labeled Pseudo-Jubilees (4Q225-27)
7
indicates that Jubilees was of sufficient stature to warrant imitation." Beyond
that, we cannot say for sure that it was authoritative for any second temple
community, much as in the case of the earliest Enochic writings.
It is very hard to determine the reception and dissemination of texts
within second temple Judaism. But how then are we to label this work we
call Jubilees? Under what category should it be subsumed? Having rejected
"rewritten Bible," or "new Torah," or even "interpretation," I will offer a very
simple and perhaps obvious alternative. It is not that I think these labels are
in all senses inadequate for understanding aspects of the materials or tradi­
tions found in Jubilees. Rather, I think that each is inadequate for character­
izing the book as a whole. Moreover, each betrays, in its own way, what Rob­
8
ert Kraft has called "the tyranny of canonical assumptions."
The alternative I want to recommend is at once both obvious and
bound to be provocative. If we are to characterize Jubilees as a whole, we
should pay attention to its self-presentation. The book claims to be revela­
tory and to have a divine, angelic, and heavenly origin. It is, by its own ac­
count, part of the larger family of works from earlier exilic and postexilic
traditions that we have come to know as biblical prophecy. My claim, then, is
that Jubilees should be contextualized within the traditions of biblical
prophecy, especially exilic and postexilic prophecy.
One source of resistance is easily anticipated, for the well-rehearsed
claims that prophecy ended are very familiar to us all. But these claims —
that prophecy ceases and that apocalyptic or wisdom literature emerges in­
stead — simply do not resonate with the texts we have from late ancient Ju­
daism. For the texts repeatedly make claims to be prophetic, and more
broadly, to be revelatory. Of course, throughout late ancient Judean tradi­
tions, claims of persistent revelation are made in many different ways. But
this reflects the variety we see in earlier Israelite and contemporaneous non-
Israelite and non-Judean religious traditions. Angelic revelation and medi­
ated intervention, human access to heavenly writings, symbolic prophecy,

6. See J. C. VanderKam, "Authoritative Literature in the Dead Sea Scrolls," DSD 5, no.
3 (1998): 382-402, and E. C. Ulrich, "The Bible in the Making: The Scriptures Found at
Qumran," in The Bible at Qumran: Text, Shape, and Interpretation, ed. P. W. Flint (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), 51-66.
7. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 53.
8. R. A. Kraft, "Para-mania: Beside, Before, and Beyond Bible Studies," JBL126 (2007):
5-V.

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 Reconsidering Jubilees: Prophecy and Exemplarity

a p o c a l y p t i c v i s i o n , a n d i n s p i r e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n are all features of b o t h exilic

9
a n d p o s t e x i l i c p r o p h e c y . T h e texts do n o t reflect a n y l i n e a r d e v e l o p m e n t
f r o m o n e c o n c e p t o f the r e v e l a t o r y to a n o t h e r .
In a d d i t i o n , the d i c h o t o m y o f w i s d o m a n d a p o c a l y p t i c or p r o p h e c y
1 0
a n d a p o c a l y p t i c has b e e n c h a l l e n g e d in r e c e n t y e a r s . B y categorizing Jubi­
lees as a p o c a l y p t i c as o p p o s e d to w i s d o m , o r as M o s a i c as o p p o s e d to
E n o c h i c , o r as r e w r i t t e n B i b l e as o p p o s e d to n e w T o r a h , w e s i m p l y c o m p r o ­
m i s e o u r ability to r e a d the texts w i t h the o p e n n e s s a n d clarity r e q u i r e d to
carefully c h a r t the d e v e l o p m e n t of s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m a l o n g w i t h the i n ­
sight r e q u i r e d to c o n t e x t u a l i z e the b o o k of J u b i l e e s .
D e s p i t e all this, I w a n t to a c k n o w l e d g e that there is s o m e t h i n g a c c u r a t e
a n d p r o f o u n d a b o u t c l a i m s to the cessation of r e v e l a t i o n . It w o u l d b e m o r e
a c c u r a t e , h o w e v e r , to s p e a k of the transformation of r e v e l a t i o n after the first
exile in the sixth c e n t u r y B . C . E . We n e e d to c o n s i d e r that despite the b u i l d ­
i n g o f the s e c o n d t e m p l e , the d e s t r u c t i o n of the first t e m p l e w a s n e v e r o v e r ­
1 1
come. T h e r e w a s , t h u s , f r o m 587 B . C . E . o n , a sense o f lost i n t i m a c y w i t h the
d i v i n e , w h i c h is reflected in t e x t u a l w i t n e s s e s f r o m the s e c o n d t e m p l e a n d
1 2
the p o s t - 7 0 e r a s . B u t it w a s t h r o u g h l e a r n i n g h o w to m o u r n loss that these
texts g a i n e d access to the d i v i n e in a different w a y .
It also c o n c e r n s the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f access to the d i v i n e . To b e sure,
there are p r o p h e c i e s that c o m m u n i c a t e a s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the di­
v i n e , or i n a c c e s s i b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the p a s t . O n e g o a l of r e v e l a t i o n in
the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d w a s to r e c o v e r a lost r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d
h u m a n i t y . T h u s , the desire for r e v e l a t i o n is the a s p i r a t i o n to a p p r o a c h a n d
p e r h a p s even i m i t a t e d i v i n e p e r f e c t i o n b y r e c o v e r i n g an idyllic past a n d
i m a g i n i n g an i n s p i r e d future.

9. See my new work on this topic, "Defining Prophecy," in Prophetic Ends: Concepts of
the Revelatory in Late Ancient Judaism (forthcoming).
10. For the most recent discussion of the relations between apocalyptic and wisdom
literature, see Conflicted Boundaries in Wisdom and Apocalypticism, ed. B. G. Wright and
L. M. Wills, SBLSymS (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005). On the relationship be­
tween prophecy and apocalyptic, see J. C. VanderKam's two essays now reprinted in From
Revelation to Canon: Studies in the Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Literature, JSJSup 62
(Leiden: Brill, 2000): "The Prophetic-Sapiential Origins o f Apocalyptic Thought," 241-54,
and "Prophecy and Apocalyptics in the Ancient Near East," 255-75.
11. See M. A. Knibb, "Exile in the Damascus Document," JSOT 25 (1983): 99-117, and
"The Exile in the Literature o f the Intertestamental Period," HeyJ 17 (1976): 253-72.
12. See the important discussion o f persistent exile in B. Nitzan's engagement of peni­
tential prayer in her "The Penitential Prayer o f Moses in Jubilees 1 and Its Relation to the
Penitential Tradition o f the Post-Exilic Judaism," Hen 30, no. 2 (2008).

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Hindy Najman

But what happens to the aspiration to perfection within a community

that undergoes the destruction of its political and religious institutions, and
that is exiled from its homeland? Is perfection, or progress toward perfec­
tion, to be thought of only in terms of restoration and return from exile? Or
are there ways in which perfection, or progress toward perfection, is possible
even in the midst of suffering — perhaps even by means of suffering?
In the case of Jubilees, the idea of a pre-Sinaitic context for Sinaitic
revelation provides a ready instrument for the explanation both of loss and
of the access of a privileged few to the requisites of salvation. Those who
know only what was revealed at Sinai but who are ignorant of its pre-Sinaitic
backdrop do not know how to observe the law properly. This proper obser­
vance — heavily but not exclusively focused on the solar calendar — is avail­
able only to those who know the traditions revealed first to Enoch, and then
passed on through a succession of worthy individuals. The task of Jubilees is
to set the story straight by putting the revelation at Sinai in its pre-Sinaitic
context, thanks to privileged information about exactly what the angel of the
presence said to Moses at Sinai. Loss of intimacy with the divine turns out to
be part of the story itself, as does the promise of recovery, for some at least.
Thus Jubilees presents itself as revelation that reveals a falling away from rev­
elation, as well as the possibility of a return.
I anticipate another kind of resistance to my suggestion. As modern,
post-Enlightenment scholars, are we ready to take any text's self-presentation
at face value? Should we not rather be skeptical or suspicious?
I suggest that we treat Jubilees' self-description as revealed — as Mo­
saic and angelic — in just the same way that we treat the self-descriptions of
the books of Jeremiah and Isaiah. In none of these cases, I think, are we in a
situation where we can associate the text decisively with some historical au­
thor, and in all of them a complex history of composition and redaction ap­
pears to undermine any such attribution. But to decide that these works are
therefore inauthentic is to contrast them with some set of authentic, canoni­
cal texts, which is to allow confessional presuppositions to trespass in the
field of scholarship. And to decide that they are forgeries is to employ what I
have argued elsewhere is an anachronistic conception of authorial attribu­
tion. In a recent essay, I wrote:

The problems facing those of us who work on pseudepigrapha may

seem insuperable. However, we should not assume that political
contextualization or religious affiliation is the only way of doing history,
or the most important. I want to suggest that intellectual, cultural and

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 Reconsidering Jubilees: Prophecy and Exemplarity

spiritual practices also constitute contexts w i t h i n w h i c h texts can b e ren­

dered intelligible. Instead of constituting an obstacle, a u t h o r i a l self-
effacement s h o u l d be an object of study. B y c o n s i d e r i n g the practices of
a u t h o r i a l effacement a n d p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c attribution, w e can c o m e to
u n d e r s t a n d m u c h a b o u t the w a y the u n k n o w n a n d u n k n o w a b l e authors
13
related to their o w n p r e s e n t .

In this p a r t i c u l a r case, w e s h o u l d t r y to u n d e r s t a n d h o w Jubilees u n d e r ­

s t a n d s itself as b u i l d i n g u p o n the e x p a n s i o n o f E x o d u s that o c c u r s a l r e a d y in
D e u t e r o n o m y , all a t t r i b u t e d to the figure o f M o s e s . It is a n i n s t a n c e o f w h a t I
h a v e e l s e w h e r e called M o s a i c D i s c o u r s e . A t the s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , as I h a v e
a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e , it is also angelic d i s c o u r s e , since it presents itself as a rec­
o r d of w h a t the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e s a i d to M o s e s , w h i c h M o s e s dutifully
1 4
recorded. A s s c h o l a r s , o u r task is n o t to j u d g e the a u t h e n t i c i t y o f J u b i l e e s '
c l a i m to b e r e v e a l e d . It is rather to c o n t e x t u a l i z e that claim w i t h i n the p r a c ­
tices of late a n c i e n t J u d a i s m . In w h a t f o l l o w s I w a n t to d e v e l o p m y p r e v i o u s
w o r k o n J u b i l e e s in t w o respects:
I. I w a n t to d e v e l o p the p o i n t , w h i c h I h a v e a l r e a d y i n t r o d u c e d , that
the b o o k o f Jubilees b e l o n g s to the c o r p u s of b o o k s s a i d to b e revelatory, o r
1 5
even p r o p h e t i c . O n c e w e i n c l u d e Jubilees in this g r o u p , w e see the c l a i m s
of the b o o k in a v e r y different light. T h e angelic r e v e l a t i o n , the M o s a i c i n ­
s c r i p t i o n , a n d the r e c o r d o f h e a v e n l y t r a d i t i o n s r e s o n a t e w i t h the better-
k n o w n b i b l i c a l t r a d i t i o n s . W h i l e s c h o l a r s h a v e e m p h a s i z e d that J u b i l e e s is
p a r t of the " Q u m r a n Bible," o r the " a u t h o r i t a t i v e literature" o f the s e c o n d
t e m p l e p e r i o d for s o m e J e w s , w e m u s t still e x p l o r e the i m p l i c a t i o n s of that
c l a i m . O u r c o n c e p t i o n of Jubilees is altered, a l o n g w i t h other k n o w n p r o ­
p h e t i c w o r k s , o n c e w e c o n s i d e r these w o r k s to be representatives of a g e n r e ,
16
s o m e o f w h o s e m e m b e r s later c a m e to b e classified as b i b l i c a l .
I I . In m y earlier w o r k I f o c u s e d o n Jubilees as an e x a m p l e of w h a t I
called d i s c o u r s e tied to a f o u n d e r — in the case of Jubilees, M o s a i c D i s c o u r s e .

13. H. Najman, "How Should We Contextualize Pseudepigrapha? Imitation and E m u ­

lation in 4Ezra," in Flores Florentino: Dead Sea Scrolls and Other Early Jewish Studies in Hon­
our oj Florentino Garcia Martinez, ed. A. Hilhorst, E. Puech, and E. Tigchelaar (Leiden: Brill,
2007).
14. See my essay "Interpretation as Primordial Writing."
15. In m y forthcoming study of ancient Jewish revelation, I discuss features that Jubi­
lees shares with other members o f the prophetic corpus. See "Defining Prophecy," in Pro­
phetic Ends.
16. Cf. Kraft, "Para-mania."

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Hindy Najman

N o w , I w a n t to further d e v e l o p this claim b y e x a m i n i n g the w a y the e x e m p l a r

(the f o u n d i n g figure associated w i t h this t r a d i t i o n ) f u n c t i o n s in this text. O f
c o u r s e , there are other texts in w h i c h the f o u n d i n g figure functions p r o m i ­
nently as the p s e u d o n y m o u s author, e.g., 1, 2, a n d 3 E n o c h a n d 4 E z r a a n d
5 E z r a , a m o n g other e x a m p l e s . H e r e , h o w e v e r , I w a n t to c o n s i d e r the role o f
the e x e m p l a r in the b o o k of Jubilees, on t w o levels. T h e first is the a n g e l of the
p r e s e n c e a n d the figure of M o s e s . T h e s e t w o figures are the ones a u t h o r i z i n g
this w o r k . T h e y h a v e p r o d u c e d it t h r o u g h d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n a n d h a v e s e c u r e d
the h e a v e n l y stature a n d status of this n o w earthly c o p y to w h i c h w e have a c ­
cess. O f c o u r s e , M o s e s a n d the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e are the t w o m o s t perfect
figures to w h i c h a n e w d i s c o u r s e of this sort s h o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d . T h e angelic
figure dictates faithfully a n d the e x e m p l a r y scribe w r i t e s as they b o t h fulfill
the d i v i n e charge w i t h i n s p i r a t i o n a n d accuracy. T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a s e c o n d
level at w h i c h the e x e m p l a r o p e r a t e s . T h i s s e c o n d level r e t u r n s us to the q u e s ­
tion m e n t i o n e d a b o v e a b o u t the role of interpretation or e x p a n s i o n of texts
w e r e c o g n i z e f r o m biblical t r a d i t i o n . T h e b o o k o f Jubilees is an a s s e m b l y o f
n a r r a t i v e s r e c o u n t i n g the h i s t o r y of e x e m p l a r i t y . T h e s e figures are d e s e r v i n g
of the gift o f w r i t i n g a n d the d i v i n e , h e a v e n l y tablets. T h e y are figures of the
past o n b o t h the first ( M o s e s ) a n d s e c o n d (the p a t r i a r c h s , J a c o b , etc.) levels,
they are the n e w p r o p h e c y for the i n t e n d e d a u d i e n c e , a n d t h e y u l t i m a t e l y
c o m e to p l a y i m p o r t a n t roles for i m a g i n i n g p e r f e c t i o n a n d c o n c e i v i n g of rev­
elation in s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m .

I. Jubilees as a Revelatory Text

In earlier w o r k I h a v e f o c u s e d on J u b i l e e s ' f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h w r i t t e n n e s s a n d
17
scribalism. H e r e it is n e c e s s a r y to d i s c u s s o n c e a g a i n the c l a i m o f a cessa­
tion of p r o p h e c y , this t i m e f r o m a different a n g l e . F o r s c h o l a r s h a v e l o n g
c l a i m e d that p r o p h e c y w a s t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m that earlier i m m e d i a t e d i v i n e
c o m m u n i c a t i o n called p r o p h e c y into s c r i b a l i s m a n d t e x t u a l interpretation.
O n this v i e w , the cessation o f p r o p h e c y is e x p l a i n e d in t e r m s o f an e n d i n g o f
o n e f o r m of d i v i n e c o m m u n i c a t i o n (i.e., t h r o u g h direct d i v i n e u t t e r a n c e )
into a m e d i a t e d f o r m o f d i v i n e access t h r o u g h the text. T h e c l a i m p r e s u p ­
p o s e s that textuality a n d w r i t t e n n e s s b e c a m e the p r e d o m i n a n t f o r m of a c ­
1 8
cessing the d i v i n e . T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is u n d e r s t o o d as linear a n d d e m o n -

17. Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing."

18. See H. Najman, "Angels at Sinai: Exegesis, Theology and Interpretive Authority,"
DSD 8 ( 2 0 0 0 ) : 3 1 3 - 3 3 .

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 Reconsidering Jubilees: Prophecy and Exemplarity

strable o n the b a s i s of the textual w i t n e s s e s f r o m the p e r i o d of s e c o n d

t e m p l e J u d a i s m . W h i l e it is true that there are m a n y e x a m p l e s of w r i t t e n a u ­
t h o r i t y a n d s c r i b a l figures w h o are i n t e r p r e t i n g the earlier texts, w e can find
s u c h e x a m p l e s of p r o p h e t i c w r i t t e n n e s s in p r e e x i l i c m a t e r i a l s as w e l l as in
a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n t r a d i t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n , texts that e x h i b i t the features of
w h a t is c a t e g o r i z e d as prophetic c o n t i n u e to be f o u n d in the late s e c o n d t e m ­
19
ple t e x t s . R a t h e r t h a n t h i n k i n g o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of texts a n d the d e v e l o p ­
m e n t of p r o p h e c y , w e s h o u l d c o n s i d e r it o n e of m a n y f o r m s of r e v e l a t i o n in
20
preexilic and postexilic texts. T h r o u g h o u t the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d a n d
b e y o n d w e h a v e texts that c o n t i n u e to c l a i m that t h e y are able to c o n n e c t
w i t h the d i v i n e v i a h e a v e n l y j o u r n e y , c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h a n g e l s , a n d i n s p i r e d
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f older, a u t h o r i t a t i v e p r o p h e t i c texts a n d / o r traditions.

B u t surely the idea of r e v e l a t i o n as i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o u n d s p a r a d o x i c a l .

For, a c c o r d i n g to w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d w a y s of t h i n k i n g , r e v e l a t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e ­
t a t i o n are distinct: there is r e v e l a t i o n , w h i c h s o m e h o w gives rise to s c r i p t u r e ;
a n d t h e n there is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w h i c h a i m s to u n d e r s t a n d a n d a p p l y s c r i p ­
ture, a n d h e n c e to g r a s p w h a t is r e v e a l e d in r e v e l a t i o n . T h e p r o j e c t of w r i t i n g
a n d r e w o r k i n g earlier r e v e l a t i o n is s o m e t i m e s c o n s i d e r e d r a d i c a l l y distinct
f r o m r e c e i v i n g p r o p h e c y . S o m e h o w textuality itself is c o n s i d e r e d earthly (as
o p p o s e d to h e a v e n l y ) a n d bereft of the i m m e d i a c y ( e v e n p r i s t i n e q u a l i t y ) o f
divine vision.
T h e act of w r i t i n g itself a n d a w r i t t e n w i t n e s s to r e v e l a t i o n c a n be
f o r m s of the r e v e l a t o r y (e.g., Esther, Josiah's d i s c o v e r e d scroll, M i s h n e h T o ­
2 1
rah, a m o n g o t h e r s ) . B u t the act of w r i t i n g itself can also b e a r w i t n e s s to the
p e r m a n e n c e o f d i v i n e p r e s e n c e for the c o m m u n i t y even in the face o f i m ­
p e n d i n g or recalled d e s t r u c t i o n (e.g., J u b 1 ) .
Jubilees c a n tell us a great deal a b o u t the n a t u r e of an o p e n c o r p u s of
p r o p h e t i c texts in s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d e a n t r a d i t i o n . T h e p r o p h e t i c c o r p u s is
n o t a closed c a n o n : n e w t r a d i t i o n s are b e i n g c o m p o s e d as the c o r p u s o f a u ­
thoritative literature g r o w s . S c h o l a r s h a v e c h a l l e n g e d the d i c h o t o m y b e ­
t w e e n the a p o c a l y p t i c a n d the p r o p h e t i c , a n d thereby o p e n e d u p the p a t h to

19. For a recent discussion o f prophecy at Q u m r a n , see A. P. Jassen, Mediating the Di­
vine: Prophecy and Revelation in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Second Temple Judaism, STDJ
(Leiden: Brill, forthcoming).
20. See my forthcoming work on this subject, "Discourse Attributed to a Heavenly
Founder: Emulation and Imitation," in Prophetic Ends.
21. See m y essay "The Symbolic Significance o f Writing in Prophetic Traditions," in
Theldea of Biblical Interpretation: Essays in Honor ofJames L. Kugel, ed. H. Najman and J. H.
Newman, JSJSup 83 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) , 139-73.

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22
c o n s i d e r i n g these texts p r o p h e t i c . M o r e o v e r , w e h a v e n o e v i d e n c e that
these texts are any less t h a n "scriptural," "authoritative," or " b i b l i c a l " at
Q u m r a n (these t e r m s , o f c o u r s e , h a v e an a n a c h r o n i s t i c d i m e n s i o n in the
third a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s B . C . E . ) .
T h u s , to classify Jubilees as p r o p h e c y , in the w a y w e m i g h t call D a n i e l
23
or 4 E z r a or even Pesher H a b a k k u k p r o p h e c y , enables us to c o n s i d e r these
texts in their o w n c o n t e x t . T h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f w r i t i n g n e w interpretive a n d li­
t u r g i c a l a n d even m y s t i c a l texts w a s still alive in late s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m .
We see t i m e a n d a g a i n that the p o s s i b i l i t y of p r o p h e t i c i n s p i r a t i o n a n d a n ­
gelic v i s i t a t i o n is i n v o k e d . B y a l l o w i n g o u r s e l v e s to r e a d Jubilees in the c o n ­
text o f the texts a n d t r a d i t i o n s it a p p r o p r i a t e s , w e h a v e b e g u n to c o n s t r u c t a
c o n t e x t for a text that has deliberately effaced its o w n o r i g i n . Jubilees is l o ­
cated at a t i m e w h e n s c r i p t u r e w a s b e i n g w r i t t e n a n d w a s v e r y m u c h in c o n ­
v e r s a t i o n w i t h the old as it attached itself to a d i s c o u r s e tied to a f o u n d e r ,
w h i c h is a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y old b y the t i m e of the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E .

II. Exemplars in Jubilees: Two Levels

I will n o w t u r n to the role of the a u t h o r in J u b i l e e s . A s I h a v e a r g u e d else­

w h e r e , the figure of M o s e s is i n v o k e d to a u t h o r i z e the w o r k in the s a m e
2 4
m a n n e r as f o u n d in D e u t e r o n o m y . In Seconding Sinai I a r g u e d that it is
useful to b r i n g F o u c a u l t ' s c o n c e p t of a u t h o r s h i p to b e a r o n the D e u t e r o -
n o m i c tradition:

W h a t is the alternative to seeing this l o n g - t e r m e x p a n s i o n of M o s e s ' role

— this long history of p s e u d o n y m o u s attribution a n d rewriting — as a

22. G. W. E. Nickelsburg, "The Nature and Function o f Revelation in 1 Enoch, Jubi­

lees, and Some Qumranic Documents," in Pseudepigraphical Perspectives: The Apocrypha
and Pseudepigrapha in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls; Proceedings of the International Sympo­
sium of the Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature, 12-14
January, 199/, ed. E. G. Chazon and M. E. Stone, STDJ 31 (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 9 1 - 1 1 9 ; once
again, see J. C. VanderKam's two seminal articles that challenged the dichotomy between
prophecy and apocalyptic and prophecy and wisdom literature: "The Prophetic-Sapiential
Origins o f Apocalyptic Thought" and "Prophecy and Apocalyptics in the Ancient Near
East"; see n. 10 above. See also I. Grunewald's discussion o f what he calls para-prophecy in
From Apocalypticism to Gnosticism (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1988), 17-18.
23. Cf. J. Barton, Oracles of God: Perceptions of Ancient Prophecy in Israel after the Exile
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).
24. See m y discussion o f this in Seconding Sinai, chap. 1.

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history of fraud and tampering? Although Foucault is not primarily con­

cerned, in his discussion of the author function, with ancient texts, and
although he does not directly address the Hebrew Bible, one of his exam­
ples provides a useful contemporary analogue to the cases I am consider­
ing. It is the example of discourses that are inextricably linked to their
founders, such as Marxism or Freudianism. When someone proclaims
"Back to Marx!" or "Back to Freud!" she claims to represent the authentic
doctrine of Marx or Freud, although she may express it in different
words. Of course, today such people make known their own names, un­
der which they author books. But, in some ancient cultures, the way to
continue or return to the founder's discourse was precisely to ascribe
25
what one said or wrote, not to oneself, but rather to the founder.

In the above passage, I consider the claim that "Moses" wrote Deuteronomy
or Jubilees. If we are to take that claim seriously, what is involved? First, we
must seriously consider what it could mean in general — in the exilic and
postexilic periods — to attribute a tradition to a figure, to say, for example,
that Isaiah wrote Second Isaiah or that Moses wrote Deuteronomy or that
Jeremiah wrote the whole of Jeremiah.
Regardless of whether there is a historical Isaiah, what is important is
that the earliest traditions about Isaiah seem to have generated even more
traditions that would attach themselves to the earlier Isaianic traditions. Just
as we speak of Pythagorean texts — which are surely not physically or his­
torically produced by Pythagoras himself, but which participate in a dis­
course attached to a founder — and just as we speak of Marxist or Freudian
texts that were not written by either Marx or Freud, so we should perhaps
speak of Isaianic texts, participating in an Isaianic discourse. Between
founding figure and discourse there is a reciprocal and dynamic relation­
ship: ascriptions to the figure constitute the discourse, while developments
of the discourse constitute the figure's evolving identity.
What I want to argue is that Jubilees presents itself as part of the larger
corpus of revelatory literature insofar as it participates in an already inspired
discourse associated with a founder. These figures from the remote past keep
writing, or at least communicating to later writers, traditions that are said to
be part of a revered and inspired past.
I want to distinguish my position here from someone who might ar­
gue that there are analogues to Greco-Roman schools of philosophy in late

25. Seconding Sinai, 12.

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ancient Judaism. I do not claim that we can establish in any way that there
are schools of Mosaic, Enochic, or Ezran Judaisms. Neither do I think that
we have the evidence that we can clearly distinguish communities that dis­
cuss Mosaic Law and Torah from those that do not. On my reading of these
texts (e.g., Jubilees, 1 Enoch, Ben Sira), none of them defines a school. Nei­
ther do Jubilees or early Enochic traditions demonstrate that there were de­
bates between actual schools of thought, or even show that there was an estab­
lished framework of discipleship within a school. In short, there is simply no
explicit textual or material evidence of the kind in the third and second cen­
turies that supports the existence of two distinct schools associated with
26
Enoch and Moses.
Instead, distinctive founders are linked to particular discourses. These
discourses are not mutually exclusive, but are instead overlapping — some­
times even within a single text. Jubilees is an example, as is 4 Ezra. In Jubilees
we can find traces of Jeremianic, Deuteronomic, Enochic, and Mosaic tradi­
tions; all these have other expressions of these discourses that function and
grow beside and apart from the book of Jubilees itself. But what we can see
in Jubilees is that these discourses that are linked to different founders can
27
be absorbed within a single work without any obvious tension. It seems
strange to construct or to posit schools when we don't have the evidence to
support them. We do have much in the way of silence — and I am not pre­
pared to construct arguments or communities or schools out of that silence.
Rather, I want to focus on what we can reconstruct from the texts.
Many texts are linked and associated with the figure of Moses, and
others with Enoch, and still others with Ezra. We can trace those traditions
and understand that one way in which traditions were composed and devel­
oped in the ancient world was by attaching new tradition to older figures
and according that new tradition the status of the old, i.e., prophetic status. I

26. For a different view in support of Mosaic and Enochic schools, see G. Boccaccini,
Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Parting of the Ways between Qumran and Enochic Judaism
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998).
27. See A. Y. Reed's contribution to this conference, "Enochic and Mosaic Traditions
in Jubilees: The Evidence of Angelology and Demonology." In it she discusses the author of
Jubilees: "If it is difficult to determine Jubilees' assessment of the relative worth of Enochic
and Mosaic texts, this is perhaps not accidental. The task of weighing the relative worth of
the constitutive elements of Israel's literary heritage does not seem particularly central for
the text itself. Rather, the main function of Jubilees' epistemology — aside, of course, from
asserting its own authority — may be to argue that the Jewish people actually possessed a lit­
erary heritage that predated the life of Moses." See also the earlier discussion of Enoch and
Moses in Jubilees in I. Grunewald, From Apocalypticism to Gnosticism, 35.

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think it would be very helpful to link these figures to textual traditions that
we come to know as "biblical." These traditions emerged over many centu­
ries through copying, the growth and transformation of community, and in­
terpretation of the past in the present.
The founding figure is the exemplar — here, Moses and the angel of
the presence. It is clear that both Moses and the angel confer authority, but
they are also responsible for the accuracy of the dictation and inscription of
the traditions included in the book of Jubilees. They are the ones to whom
the text is attributed. They are not only characters, but they are also given re­
velatory roles. So, at the level of authorship the text is both angelic and Mo­
28
saic. The figures of the angel and Moses are trusted as the tradents and
producers as they accord a heavenly and prophetic status to the tradition
that builds upon and expands an already established and authoritative Mo­
29
saic tradition.
There is, however, a second level throughout the book of Jubilees, a
level on which well-known biblical figures function as exemplars, without
30
the authorship or the dictation of the book being attributed to them. The
book itself is comprised of narratives that are built upon the reputations of
selected exemplaryfigures— all of whom play a significant role in the trans­
mission of the very same tablets now being dictated to Moses by the angel of
the presence. But these figures are worthy of receiving these traditions pre­
cisely because of their own adherence to the law, their observance of the cor­
rect calendar, and their perfect sacrifices. Finally, they will receive the tablets
and copy them, or preserve them and transmit them to the next tradent.
The very first tradent, Enoch, along with later tradents, who figure
prominently in Jubilees as well as in the Pentateuch and other prophetic tra­
ditions, belongs to what I want to call a second level of exemplarity. It is not
that the text itself is attributed to Abraham or Enoch. Nor does the fact that
they are entrusted with the heavenly tablets render them authors of the text
of Jubilees. Rather, they serve as examples to the reader of how to be worthy

28. See J. C. VanderKam, "The Angel of the Presence in the Book of Jubilees," DSD 7
(2000): 378-93, and Najman, "Angels at Sinai." See also the discussion of the angel of the
presence in A. Orlov's conference paper and a more expanded version of this paper in "Mo­
ses' Heavenly Counterpart in the Book of Jubilees and the Exagoge of Ezekiel the Tragedian,"
Bib 88, no. 2 (2007).
29. Here, see the first two chapters of Seconding Sinai.
30. See B. G. Wright III, "From Generation to Generation: The Sage as Father in Early
Jewish Literature," in Biblical Traditions in Transmission: Essays in Honour of Michael A.
Knibb, ed. C. Hempel and J. M. Lieu, JSJSup IU (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 309-32.

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of r e c e i v i n g the h e a v e n l y tablets. T h e n a r r a t i v e s a b o u t t h e m , their o w n p e r ­

s o n a l a n d s p i r i t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , a n d the successful t r a n s m i s s i o n o f the
tablets to their p r o g e n y enable us to u n d e r s t a n d the r e d e m p t i v e n a t u r e o f
the tablets t h e m s e l v e s as they are p r e s e r v e d u n t i l the t i m e of M o s e s a n d (as
the r e a d e r s o f Jubilees k n o w ) b e y o n d . T h e m y t h o f c o n t e x t , i.e., that the text
itself is w r i t t e n in the t i m e of M o s e s , is a c t u a l l y a r e d e m p t i v e n a r r a t i v e o f
p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n of the a u t h o r i t a t i v e tradition.
E a c h figure — be it N o a h or E n o c h , A b r a h a m or L e v i — s h o w s h i m s e l f
to b e p a r t of the d i s t i n g u i s h e d , holy, a n d i n s p i r e d line r e c e i v i n g a n d t r a n s ­
m i t t i n g the t r a d i t i o n s . T h e b o o k o f Jubilees is a b o o k that demonstrates
w h a t it is to be e x e m p l a r y a n d w o r t h y of p r o p h e c y . T h e stories constitute the
h i s t o r y o f the h e a v e n l y t r a d i t i o n a n d its interface w i t h earthly t r a n s m i t t e r s .
T i m e does n o t p e r m i t m e to e x p l o r e the v a r i o u s w a y s in w h i c h the sec­
o n d level of e x e m p l a r s is d e v e l o p e d a l o n g w i t h the f r a m e w o r k o f the first
level of M o s a i c a n d angelic e x e m p l a r s in J u b i l e e s . It is the case, h o w e v e r ,
w h e t h e r it is P e n t a t e u c h a l r e w o r k i n g o r the a b s o r p t i o n o f l a r g e r t r a d i t i o n s
available b o t h to the P e n t a t e u c h a l c o m p i l e r ( s ) a n d to J u b i l e e s , that the n a r ­
ratives a b o u t those w h o are w o r t h y o f t r a n s m i t t i n g the t r a d i t i o n p r o v i d e us
w i t h a c o n t e x t in w h i c h w e c a n b e g i n to u n d e r s t a n d b o t h the w a y s e c o n d
t e m p l e t r a d i t i o n s are e m e r g i n g a n d h o w the a u t h o r s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s b e ­
h i n d these " n e w " texts s e e m to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m s e l v e s to be e x t e n d i n g a n d
3 1
expanding older p a r a d i g m s .

III. Conclusion

Jubilees p a r t i c i p a t e s in p r o p h e t i c d i s c o u r s e b y a t t a c h i n g its o r i g i n to M o s a i c
r e c o r d i n g a n d a n g e l i c d i c t a t i o n . T h u s the text is p r e s e n t e d as a r e v e l a t i o n i n ­
sofar as it is the e a r t h l y c o p y of an a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d d i v i n e a n d h e a v e n l y
o r i g i n a l . T h i s is d o n e b y e m p h a s i z i n g the role of the e x e m p l a r in g e n e r a t i n g
a n d s u s t a i n i n g n e w d i s c o u r s e s in J u d e a n t r a d i t i o n s f r o m s e c o n d temple
t i m e s . T h u s , the e x e m p l a r is h i m s e l f the p r o p h e t w h o receives a n d t r a n s m i t s
i n s p i r e d t r a d i t i o n . B u t in a d d i t i o n to this, w e m u s t c o n s i d e r the role of the
e x e m p l a r s e m b e d d e d w i t h i n the n a r r a t i v e o f Jubilees itself. T h e s e are the ex­
e m p l a r s w h o d e m o n s t r a t e in their o w n life a k i n d of p e r f e c t i o n that m e r i t s
r e c e i v i n g the gift of r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g a n d the tablets o f the h e a v e n s .
T h e e v i d e n c e w e have p o i n t s to discourses associated w i t h p a r t i c u l a r

31. On this point see A. Y. Reed's contribution to this volume.

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founders, such as Enoch, Moses, or Ezra. This is surely not a catchall for second
temple Jewish texts or, even more broadly, traditions in antiquity. However, the
consideration of the exemplar is a w a y of organizing specific groups of materi­
als. B y attributing this "new" discourse to a founder of old, the new texts
achieve a kind of continuity with the old. A n d yet, m a n y additional traditions
are part of the "new" discourse and can transform the earlier traditions.
T h e text of Jubilees understands itself to stand in the long line of pro­
phetic traditions associated with Moses. A n d , just as traditions associated
with Daniel and Jeremiah continue to g r o w during the period of Jubilees
and later, so too can traditions associated with Moses continue to be part of
Mosaic prophecy — not pseudoprophecy, but texts and traditions as au­
thentic as the very words of the prophets of old. T h e textual evidence shows
us that w h e n w e try to classify these nonbiblical but authoritative texts from
second temple times, they turn out to be almost indistinguishable from bib­
lical traditions of that time. W h e n w e stop thinking in terms of later theo­
logical and canonical divides, what w e find are texts like Jubilees — texts that
easily move back and forth between the E n o c h i c and the Mosaic, between
the heavenly and the earthly, and between the esoteric and the accessible.

243
PART T H R E E

JUBILEES BETWEEN ENOCH AND QUMRAN

4Q265 and the Authoritative Status
of Jubilees at Qumran

Aharon Shemesh

4 Q 2 6 5 , n o w titled Miscellaneous Rules, was k n o w n earlier as Serek D a m a s ­

cus. T h e rationale behind that name was the scroll's inclusion of sections re­
1
sembling both the Rule of the C o m m u n i t y and the Damascus D o c u m e n t .
Joseph Baumgarten, the editor of this scroll for its official publication in
D J D 35, found the title Serek D a m a s c u s inadequate and preferred the less de­
fined title Miscellaneous Rules. A s an example of the scroll's odd, diverse
content, he points to frg. 7, which "embraces the following subjects: Shabbat
rules; Prohibition of priestly sprinkling on the Shabbat; Permission to walk
two thousand cubits to graze animals on the Shabbat; T h e eschatological
C o m m u n a l Council; A d a m and Eve in Paradise and Purification after child­
2
birth." While Baumgarten is undoubtedly right in pointing to the difficul­
ties with regard to the content and structure of frg. 7, it should be admitted
that this is not the case for the other six fragments of the scroll. In contrast to
frg. 7, each of the other fragments has a well-defined single subject. T h u s ,
frg. 1 contains the remains of what seems to be a pesher to Isa 5 4 : 1 - 2 , frg. 3
mentions the Passover sacrifice, and frg. 4 consists of a short version of the

1. L. H . Schiffman, "Serekh-Damascus," in EDSS, 868.

2. J. M. Baumgarten, "4Q265: 4QMiscellaneous Rules," in Qumran Cave 4.XXV: Ha-
lakhic Texts, ed. J. M. Baumgarten et al., DJD 35 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1999), 58. Baumgarten,
"Scripture and Law in 4Q265," in Biblical Perspectives: Early Use and Interpretation of the Bi­
ble in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls; Proceedings of the First International Symposium of the
Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature, 12-14 May 1996,
ed. M. E . Stone and E . G. Chazon, STDJ 28 (Leiden: Brill, 1998), 25-33.

247
Aharon Shemesh

s e c t a r i a n P e n a l C o d e and a p a r t i a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p r o c e d u r e for a c c e p t ­

i n g n e w m e m b e r s to the c o m m u n i t y . O n l y a few w o r d s s u r v i v e d of frg. 5,
w h i c h m o s t p r o b a b l y has to do w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e l a w s , a n d frg. 6 c o n t a i n s a
series of S h a b b a t l a w s s i m i l a r in c o n t e n t a n d p h r a s e o l o g y to the D a m a s c u s
D o c u m e n t . T h e f r a g m e n t a r y c o n d i t i o n of the scroll's r e m a i n s is i n d e e d an
u n f o r t u n a t e s i t u a t i o n , b u t w e s h o u l d b e careful n o t to b l a m e its a u t h o r for
o u r i n a b i l i t y to g r a s p the o v e r a l l s e q u e n c e a n d c o n t e n t of the s c r o l l . A s i n
m a n y o t h e r cases, w e h a v e n o w a y to estimate w h a t the o r i g i n a l length of the
c o m p o s i t i o n w a s , h o w m u c h has c o m e to us, a n d h o w m u c h has b e e n lost.
T h e r e f o r e , it is v e r y difficult to s p e c u l a t e a b o u t the o r i g i n a l contexts of the
survived fragments.

W i t h these facts in m i n d , w e are c o m i n g b a c k to frg. 7, w h i c h p r e s e n t s

the m o d e r n s c h o l a r w i t h a real c h a l l e n g e . C a n w e s o l v e this conundrum:
R e v e a l the b a c k g r o u n d b e h i n d it a n d e x p l a i n its c o n t e n t a n d the s e q u e n c e
3
of its d e t a i l s ? M y r e s e a r c h e x p e r i e n c e o f the last y e a r s teaches m e t h a t it's
4
worth a try.

4Q265, Fragment 7

H e r e is the text i n his o r i g i n a l H e b r e w a n d an E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n b a s e d o n

B a u m g a r t e n ' s e d i t i o n , t h o u g h I o m i t t e d his r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d m a d e s o m e
necessary changes. A s will be explained below, some of Baumgarten's recon­
s t r u c t i o n s w o r s e n the s i t u a t i o n a n d m a k e it e v e n h a r d e r to g r a s p the p a s ­
sage's o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e .

O n the d a y o f [[ ]H QV3 "?[ ] 1

1
[ d a ] y o f the S h a b b a t a n d n o t [ J S ? ! nwn D[V ] 2

,
[Le]t n o m a n o f the seed o f A
Aaarroonn H I ] ]i3 1T1HK SHtfi B^K V "?[K] 3
sprinkle w [ a t e r for purification

[ ] *s [ ] *m b i g will fast o n the d a y [

[a]n [ a ] n i m a l m a y w a l k two t h o u s a n d
cubits

3. F o r a p r e l i m i n a r y suggestion to explain the collection o f laws in frg. 7, see M . Kister,

"Lexical a n d Linguistic G l e a n i n g from the D e a d Sea Scrolls," Leshoneneu 67 ( 2 0 0 7 ) : 4 1 , a n d
note 78.
4. See m y article "4Q251: Midrash Mishpatim" DSD 12 (2005): 280-302.
5. B a u m g a r t e n reads D I K I .

248
 4Q265 and the Authoritative Status of Jubilees at Qumran

[ ]holy t h i r t y stadia. Let n [ o ]

[ W ] h e n there will be in the c o u n c i l o f

the C o m m u n i t y fif[teen

[The p]rophets. The council o f the

C o m m u n i t y is established

Pleasing a n d a sweet o d o u r to a t o n e
for the l [ a ] n d

Will perish in the j u d g m e n t s o f t h e

p e r i o d s o f iniquity.

O n t h e first week

[until] he was b r o u g h t to the G a r d e n

o f Eden and a bone

did she have until she was b r o u g h t to

hi[m]

[for] t h e G a r d e n o f E d e n is sacred a n d
every y o u n g s h o o t w h i c h is in its
m i d s t is a c o n s e c r a t e thing

( s h e ) will be i m p u r e for seven days as

in t h e days o f h e r m e n s t r u a t i o n

( t h e b l o o d ) o f h e r purity. A n d if she
will b e a r a female she shall be i m p u r e

[shall r e m a i n ] n in the blood o f h e r

purity. [ N o ] c o n s e c r a t e thing [shall
she t o u c h ] .

T h e fragment m a y be d i v i d e d into four parts. T h e first unit, consisting of lines

1 - 6 , c o n t a i n s the r e m a i n s of s o m e halakic r u l i n g s . T h e y are p h r a s e d in the a b ­
stract style characteristic of the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t laws. T h e s e c o n d unit,
lines 7 - 1 0 , has a clear sectarian n a t u r e . It m e n t i o n s the " c o u n c i l of the C o m ­
m u n i t y " twice: in line 7 a n d in line 8, a n d in line 10 there a p p e a r s the p h r a s e
" p e r i o d s of iniquity," w h i c h is t y p i c a l of the sectarian v o c a b u l a r y . T h e third
a
p a r t (11. 1 1 - 1 4 ) is retelling of the G e n e s i s story of the creation of Eve from
A d a m ' s rib a n d G o d ' s p l a c i n g t h e m in p a r a d i s e . T h e fourth p a r t (11. 1 5 - 1 7 ) is
again halakic in nature, dealing w i t h the laws of i m p u r i t y after childbirth.
N o w , the easiest parts to identify as to b a c k g r o u n d are p a r t s 3 a n d 4.
B a u m g a r t e n h a d a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t that these t w o subjects — the s t o r y of

6. Baumgarten reads HDD1.

249
Aharon Shemesh

the G a r d e n o f E d e n a n d the laws of p u r i f i c a t i o n after c h i l d b i r t h — are

j o i n e d together in J u b 3, a n d that the text o f these units of 4 Q 2 6 5 is a c t u a l l y a
s h o r t e r v e r s i o n of the s a m e t r a d i t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to J u b i l e e s , A d a m w a s cre­
ated in the first w e e k a n d E v e in the s e c o n d . G o d b r o u g h t A d a m to the G a r ­
den of E d e n forty days after his c r e a t i o n , a n d he j o i n e d E v e to h i m f o r t y days
later at the eightieth d a y of his c r e a t i o n . T h e n , in w h a t is k n o w n to be a
u n i q u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of J u b i l e e s , the c o m p o s i t i o n ' s editor associates the l a w
of c h i l d b i r t h to this n a r r a t i v e : " A n d therefore the c o m m a n d w a s w r i t t e n in
the h e a v e n l y tablets for o n e w h o b e a r s , T f she b e a r s a m a l e , she shall r e m a i n
seven days in her i m p u r i t y like the first s e v e n d a y s , A n d t h i r t y - t h r e e days she
shall r e m a i n in the b l o o d of her purity. A n d she shall n o t t o u c h anything
holy. A n d she shall n o t enter the s a n c t u a r y until she has c o m p l e t e d these
days w h i c h are i n a c c o r d w i t h (the r u l e for) a m a l e ( c h i l d ) . A n d that w h i c h is
in a c c o r d w i t h (the rule for) a female is t w o w e e k s — like the t w o first w e e k s
— in h e r i m p u r i t y . A n d s i x t y - s i x days she shall r e m a i n in the b l o o d of h e r
7
purity. A n d their total w i l l b e e i g h t y d a y s ' " ( 3 : i o - n ) .

T h e s e c o n d u n i t h a s , as I m e n t i o n e d , clear s e c t a r i a n flavor. T h e scroll's

editor has a l r e a d y n o t e d its close affinity w i t h l Q S 8 : 1 - 1 0 . F u r t h e r m o r e , I ' m
n o w c o n v i n c e d b y M e n a h e m K i s t e r that this u n i t is a c t u a l l y a p a r a p h r a s e o r
even a v a r i a n t v e r s i o n of that p a r a g r a p h in l Q S . T h u s line 7 in o u r f r a g m e n t ,
" [ W ] h e n there w i l l b e in the c o u n c i l o f the C o m m u n i t y fif[teen m e n ] , " p a r ­
allels l Q S 8:1, " I n the C o m m u n i t y c o u n c i l (there shall b e ) twelve m e n a n d
three priests," a n d the p h r a s e " T h e c o u n c i l o f the C o m m u n i t y is e s t a b l i s h e d "
(1. 8) a p p e a r s in l Q S 8:5. A l s o , line 1 0 in o u r f r a g m e n t is a v a r i a n t of l Q S 8:9,
a n d s i m i l a r l y the w o rdsH ?!!? ' S p ttQW&ri H S C are w i t h m o s t p r o b a b i l i t y a
1

, 1
p a r a p h r a s e of l Q S 8:10, HS/ttn r l " i n ? 1 . In light of these parallels the
c o n t e n t of u n i t 2 in o u r frg. 7 b e c o m e s clear. T h e c o u n c i l of the yahad that is
• "71J7 DS7t073 (an eternal p l a n t ) will g r o w , d e v e l o p , a n d s u r v i v e the e s c h a t o ­
l o g i c a l future. T h e yahad is tlHIp fl'S for Israel, a n d its m e m b e r s w e r e c h o ­
sen b y G o d . T h e i r r i g h t e o u s d e e d s please G o d a n d are accepted like s a c r i ­
8
fices, a n d t h u s h a v e the p o w e r to atone for the l a n d .
Let's go b a c k to the first u n i t of frg. 7. Its c o n t e n t , w e recall, is h a l a k a h
a n d h a d at least six r u l i n g s , p r o b a b l y seven or eight. S o m e of these are w i t h
n o d o u b t c o n c e r n i n g S h a b b a t law. T h e S h a b b a t is explicitly m e n t i o n e d in
line 2 , t h o u g h in this case the c o n t e n t o f the l a w d i d n ' t s u r v i v e . T h e S h a b b a t

7. All Jubilees' translations are from OTP, vol. 2, slightly revised when needed.
8. See J. Licht, The Rule Scroll: A Scroll from the Wilderness of Judaea, lQS, iQSa, lQSb;
Text, Introduction, and Commentary (Jerusalem: Mossad Bialik, 1965), 168-75.

250
 4Q265 and the Authoritative Status of Jubilees at Qumran

is also the subject of the laws at the beginning of lines 3 and 5. The first (1.3)
rules that the priests will not sprinkle the purification water on that day. As
9
noted by Baumgarten, the same halakah appears in 4 Q 2 7 4 (4QTohorot A )
as follows: 'jrarcn vbv , ,
?^^• DXI na»n[ m -nap "ias j"o narca r
I13tPn QVa. The halakah in line 5 is also known from another place, that
is, C D 11:5: D'S^K DK ' 3 rp»» fin nninV nanan -ins i"?' "PS
1
naS3, which serves Baumgarten for its reconstruction: ITV ? fin "fpniian]
1
HBK WSh8, "f?' nana p ] n [» mm ?. As the subject offrg.6 is also the laws
of the Shabbat, it is most plausible that our fragment (7) is indeed its direct
continuation. Apparently, 4 Q 2 6 5 had a substantial section dealing with
Shabbat laws.
In light of the above, I find Baumgarten's suggestions for the recon­
struction of lines 4 and 6 not satisfying: in my opinion, they also ought to do
with Shabbat laws. Baumgarten read and reconstructed line 4 as dealing with
QniB'an UV (the Day of Atonement): [CTISan] D V 3 D1X1 *?m
IDfaa' S ?! ism' K*?!] ("[let them not bathe nor laun]der [on the]
1
great
[d]ay and fast, on the Day [of Atonement]"). I submit that the word D1X1
mentioned in this law is not a noun that describes the great day; rather it
1 0
should be read as a verb, D 1 X \ The law is not concerning the Day of Atone­
ment, but rather, like the surrounding injunctions, its subject is the Shabbat.
Though I don't yet have a full reconstruction to offer, there is no doubt in my
mind that the law's intent is to prohibit fasting on Shabbat. Fasting on the
u
Shabbat is explicitly prohibited by Jub 5 o : i 2 - i 3 .
Similarly I decline to accept Baumgarten's reconstruction for lines 5-6:
TIN -IttO VaSV 0 1 D'WTW Bnpta ? anp n«n 1
("[Let no man eat
meat of an ox or lamb near the Tejmple by a distance of thirty stadia"). This
reconstruction is based on Temple Scroll 52:16-17, where the distance of "thirty
stadia" is mentioned in connection with eating nonsacrificial meat in the tem­
ple surroundings: pirn natoKin nanywa ma na w> iws minon
0 1 D'tPrVtP tPTpaa ("and every pure animal in which there is a blemish you
may eat it at your gates (cities) far from my Temple at a radius of thirty sta­
dia"). Though this quotation from the Temple Scroll is indeed the only other
place in the scrolls where the term "thirty stadia" is mentioned, this is by no

9- 4 Q 2 7 4 . 2 , 1 , 1 (DID 3 5 . 1 0 3 ) -
10. The first letter is more likely to b e ' than 1, as its leg is clearly shorter than that of
the third letter in the word. A possible reconstruction may be: DV3 UVf "?VT1 Q [X JDp OK
[nawn].
11. On fasting on the Shabbat in rabbinic tradition, see Y. D. Gilat, Studies in the De­
velopment of the Halakhah (Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University Press, 1992), 107-22.

251
Aharon Shemesh

m e a n s a g o o d e n o u g h reason to reconstruct 4 Q 2 5 6 a c c o r d i n g to it. " T h i r t y sta­

dia" is a w e l l - k n o w n u n i t used in R o m a n Hellenistic culture as a s t a n d a r d
m e a s u r e m e n t for the outer b o r d e r s of a t o w n . T h u s w e read in m. Bava
Qamma 7:7 " T h e y m a y not set snares for p i g e o n s unless it be thirty stadia from
, !
an inhabited place" ( C H CPPlVP 3 W H p pim DTI p DX N^N t m 7 ) .
T h e Persian equivalent to thirty stadia is the persanga, w h i c h is m e n t i o n e d a
few times in the B a b y l o n i a n T a l m u d in similar contexts. T h u s , for e x a m p l e ,
w h i l e discussing the prayer one s h o u l d say w h e n g o i n g on a j o u r n e y , the Tal­
m u d (b. Berakhot 3 0 a ) asks: " w h e n s h o u l d he p r a y it?" R . Y a a k o v the son o f
12
H i s d a h says: " w h e n he is already o n the r o a d — persanga!' L i n e 6 , 1 suggest,
o u g h t to be read in line w i t h the p r e v i o u s law of line 5. T h e first states that one
is allowed to w a l k an a n i m a l 2,000 cubits, a n d the s e c o n d decrees that in other
c i r c u m s t a n c e s ( w h i c h w e r e specified in the m i s s i n g texts) one is a l l o w e d "[to
1
w a l k o n the S a b b a t h day of h]oliness thirty stadia" ( P i p [ D 3 P D I P "J ?'']
on n n z n ^ p ) . w e s h o u l d not b e s u r p r i s e d that the scroll distinguishes b e ­
tween different situations w i t h r e g a r d to the a l l o w e d w a l k i n g distance, as this
is exactly w h a t w e find in the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t . W h i l e C D 11:5 allows g r a z ­
ing a n i m a l s in a distance of 2,000 cubits, C D 1 0 : 2 1 states that a m a n b y h i m s e l f
13
s h o u l d n o t p r o c e e d m o r e t h a n 1,000 c u b i t s .

It is clear b y n o w that the legal section of frg. 7 is h o m o g e n e o u s in that

all its details are c o n c e r n e d w i t h the S a b b a t h . T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n a c t u a l l y p r e ­
sents us w i t h the k e y to u n d e r s t a n d i n g frg. 7's s t r u c t u r e in g e n e r a l a n d the
m e a n i n g o f its s e c o n d u n i t ( m e n t i o n i n g the yahad) in p a r t i c u l a r . To recall,
the last p a r t of o u r p a s s a g e ( w h i c h deals w i t h the s t o r y of the G a r d e n o f
E d e n a n d the laws of i m p u r i t y after c h i l d b i r t h ) parallels J u b 3. Is it s u r p r i s ­
ing that the subject of c h a p . 2 is the S h a b b a t , j u s t like in o u r d o c u m e n t ? ! I n
w h a t follows I h o p e to establish that 4 Q 2 6 5 is a r e w r i t t e n v e r s i o n of Jubilees,
as e v i d e n t from the s t r u c t u r e o f frg. 7. A s a result, the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n
o t h e r f r a g m e n t s of the scroll m a y also b e d i s c e r n e d .
Jubilees tells the s t o r y of c r e a t i o n r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y f r o m the s t a n d p o i n t
of the S h a b b a t . " A n d the angel of the p r e s e n c e s p o k e to M o s e s a c c o r d i n g to
the w o r d o f the L o r d , s a y i n g : Write the c o m p l e t e h i s t o r y of the c r e a t i o n , h o w
in six days the L o r d G o d finished all H i s w o r k s a n d all that H e created, a n d
kept S a b b a t h o n the s e v e n t h d a y a n d h a l l o w e d it for all a g e s " ( 2 : 1 ) . T h i s is to
e m p h a s i z e the i m p o r t a n c e of the S h a b b a t as the u l t i m a t e g o a l of the cre­
ation. T h e n in vv. 2 - 1 5 , G o d ' s deeds of the six days are d e s c r i b e d f o l l o w e d b y

12. Cf. b. Berakhot 16a.

13. For this see L. H. Schiffman, Halakhah at Qumran (Leiden: Brill, 1975), 91-98.

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 4Q265 and the Authoritative Status of Jubilees at Qumran

a detailed a c c o u n t of the first S h a b b a t , to w h i c h w e shall r e t u r n s o o n (vv. 1 6 -

2 6 ) . F r o m v. 26 o n w a r d the c o m m a n d m e n t to the Israelites to k e e p the
S h a b b a t is g i v e n . V v . 3 1 - 3 2 s u m u p the issue as f o l l o w s : " T h e creator o f all
b l e s s e d it, but he d i d not sanctify any p e o p l e or n a t i o n s to k e e p the S a b b a t h
t h e r e o n w i t h the sole e x c e p t i o n of Israel. H e g r a n t e d to t h e m alone that t h e y
m i g h t eat a n d d r i n k a n d keep the S a b b a t h t h e r e o n u p o n the earth. A n d the
creator of all, w h o created this d a y for a b l e s s i n g a n d s a n c t i f i c a t i o n a n d
glory, blessed it m o r e t h a n all d a y s . T h i s l a w a n d t e s t i m o n y w a s g i v e n to the
children of Israel as an eternal law for their g e n e r a t i o n s . " To recall, the s u b ­
ject of the i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g c h a p . 3 is the s t o r y of the c r e a t i o n of E v e
f r o m A d a m ' s rib, the e n t r a n c e of the c o u p l e into the G a r d e n o f E d e n , fol­
l o w e d b y the h a l a k i c i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g p u r i f i c a t i o n after c h i l d b i r t h .
T h e s e q u e n c e o f the n a r r a t i v e in this p o r t i o n of Jubilees is thus:

• the list of S h a b b a t p r o h i b i t i o n s ,
• the election of the c h i l d r e n of Israel f r o m a m o n g the n a t i o n s , a n d
• the c r e a t i o n of E v e , the e n t r a n c e to the G a r d e n of E d e n , a n d laws of
i m p u r i t y after c h i l d b i r t h .

T h e last sentence (vv. 3 1 - 3 2 ) stresses that the p e o p l e of I s r a e l w e r e s a n c t i f i e d

a n d elected f r o m all the n a t i o n s to k e e p the S a b b a t h . T h i s d e c l a r a t i o n is a
c o n d e n s e d r e p e t i t i o n of the n a r r a t i v e that a p p e a r s earlier in this c h a p t e r ( w .
20-22).

A n d he ( G o d ) said to us (the a n g e l s ) , " B e h o l d I shall separate for m y s e l f

a p e o p l e from a m o n g all the n a t i o n s . A n d they will also keep the S a b ­
bath. A n d I w i l l sanctify t h e m for myself, a n d I will bless t h e m a n d they
will b e m y p e o p l e a n d I w i l l be their G o d .
"And I have chosen the seed of Jacob from a m o n g all that I have
seen. A n d I have r e c o r d e d h i m as m y firstborn son, a n d have sanctified
h i m for m y s e l f forever a n d ever. A n d I will m a k e k n o w n to t h e m the
Sabbath day so that they m i g h t o b s e r v e therein a Sabbath from all w o r k ,
a n d bless the o n e w h o created all things a n d has chosen t h e m f r o m all
the n a t i o n s so that t h e y m i g h t keep the S a b b a t h together w i t h us
1
( D T O I P 1 3 0 S7 i m n V D ? ! ) . S o that their deeds (the k e e p i n g of the S a b ­
bath) w i l l go up as sweet o d o u r , w h i c h is acceptable before h i m all the
1 4
days(nps?m t r a T i "73 IMS'? n x r -iwx m m m-i n"?!?' v m i x a ) . "

14. The translation provided here reflects the Hebrew version as emerged from the
Q u m r a n fragments of Jubilees (4Q216, col. 7 ) . The Ethiopian has a longer version.

253
Aharon Shemesh

1 5
T h e s e verses h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s e d b y s c h o l a r s f r o m several different a n g l e s .
F o r o u r p u r p o s e s I w i s h to c o n c e n t r a t e o n the last t w o v e r s e s . T h e angel o f
the p r e s e n c e tells M o s e s that G o d c h o s e the seed of J a c o b f r o m all the n a ­
1
tions so that "they m i g h t keep the S a b b a t h t o g e t h e r w i t h (TIT' n i T l ? ! 13057)
us. So that their deeds (the k e e p i n g of the S a b b a t h ) w i l l go u p as s w e e t
o d o u r , w h i c h is acceptable b e f o r e h i m all the days (H^SP I T 1 1 X 8 ntt>5772l
1
D'a'n "73 l ' J B ? n S T "IB7K m m m)." T h e last w o r d s of this v e r s e c o r r e ­
s p o n d a l m o s t v e r b a t i m to line 9 in 4 Q 2 6 5 frg. 7: " P l e a s i n g a n d a s w e e t o d o r
1
to atone for the l [ a ] n d ( ] * » p [ X ] n "757 "IDa ? m m mi im)." The
m e a n i n g o f this p h r a s e in b o t h , in 4 Q 2 6 5 a n d in its o r i g i n in l Q S , is that the
yahad has a s p e c i a l status as the c h o s e n p e o p l e , so that its m e m b e r s ' r i g h ­
t e o u s deeds h a v e the p o w e r to atone for the l a n d . T h e a u t h o r of 4 Q 2 6 5 chose
to integrate this s h o r t p a r a g r a p h f r o m l Q S (or m a y b e a v a r i a n t o f it) in this
specific l o c a t i o n at the heart o f frg. 7 in order, I s u g g e s t , to e m p h a s i z e a n d
s t r e n g t h e n the sect's h i s t o r i c a l - r e l i g i o u s p e r c e p t i o n o f itself as the true Israel
a n d as b e i n g the p r e s e n t - d a y "seed of Jacob." In so d o i n g , 4 Q 2 6 5 presents the
p a r a g r a p h from l Q S as an exegetical i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of J u b i l e e s . N o t e also
the a p p e a r a n c e o f the w o r d yahad ( T I T ) at the b e g i n n i n g of the v e r s e , just as
in lines 7-8 of o u r f r a g m e n t . It is n o t far-fetched to a s s u m e that this l i n g u i s ­
tic s i m i l a r i t y s t i m u l a t e s h i m to do s o . A c t u a l l y in its c u r r e n t c o n t e x t at the
m i d d l e of frg. 7 o f 4 Q 2 6 5 , the citation f r o m l Q S f u n c t i o n s as a r e w r i t i n g o f
Jubilees. W h i l e in Jubilees the c h o s e n p e o p l e are the "seed of Jacob," in
1 6
4 Q 2 6 5 it is the yahad a n d its m e m b e r s .

15. O n Jacob as God's firstborn son, see J. L. Kugel, "4Q369 'Prayer o f Enosh' and An­
cient Biblical Interpretation," DSD 5 (1998): 1 1 9 - 4 8 . The association o f the election of Israel
with the Sabbath finds its expression in some other compositions from Q u m r a n . See, for ex­
ample, 4Q503 (daily prayers), 24-25 (DJD 7 [Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 8 2 ] , 1 0 5 - 3 6 ) . Interestingly,
this idea is also the focus o f one o f the relatively late versions o f the Shabbat prayer, used in
the traditional Jewish prayer book for the Shabbat Morning Prayer (Shacharit). The text re­
lates as follows: "And You, Lord our God, did not give it (the Shabbat) to the nations o f the
world, n o r did You, o u r King, g r a n t it as a heritage to idol-worshippers, n o r c a n
uncircumcised participate in its rest — for You have given it in love to Your people Israel, to
the descendents o f Jacob w h o m You have chosen." For the dating and history o f this text, see
N. Wieder, "The Controversy about the Liturgical Composition 'Yismach Moshe' — O p p o ­
sition and Defense," in Studies in Aggadah, Targum, and Jewish Liturgy in Memory of Joseph
Heinemann, ed. E. Fleischer and Y. Patohovski (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1 9 8 1 ) , 75-99.
16. The perception of the yahad as the true elected Israel is manifested throughout
a
the scrolls. See i Q H , 7 , 2 6 - 2 7 ; rQS, 4 , 2 2 . See also D. Dimant, "Qumran Sectarian Literature,"
in Jewish Writing of the Second Temple Period, ed. M. E . Stone (Philadelphia: Assen, 1984),
536-38.

254
 an
4Q265 d the Authoritative Status of Jubilees at Qumran

The picture that emerges from the above analysis is that the sequence
of frg. 7's content follows closely that of chaps. 2 and 3 of Jubilees. It opens
with a series of laws concerning the Shabbat (in fact, this unit begins in frg.
6), it moves then to describe the election of the yahad (the new "real" Israel)
for observing the Shabbat with God and the angels, and it continues with the
story of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden and the laws of purification af­
ter childbirth.
Recognizing the heavy dependence of 4Q265 on Jubilees enables us to
further suggest possible explanations for the inclusion of some of the other
fragments in this scroll, though it should be admitted that these are proposi­
tions that can't be proved.
As is well known, Jubilees deals with Shabbat laws twice: first within
the context of the creation in chap. 2 , and a second time at the end of the
book in chap. 50. At the beginning of that chapter Jubilees relates not only to
the Shabbat Day but also to the Sabbath of the land — the seventh year and
the Jubilee year: "And I also related to you the Sabbath of the land on Mount
Sinai. And the years of Jubilee in the Sabbaths of years I related to y o u . . . .
And the land will keep the Sabbaths when they dwell upon it" (50:1-3). The
subject of the previous chapter, 49, is the celebration of the Passover cen­
tered upon the paschal sacrifice in the temple. To recall, the subject of frg. 3
is the paschal sacrifice and frg. 5 concerns some agriculture laws that may
very well be the laws of the Shmita (the seventh year): the fragment men­
tions "all that is sown in the earth" (1. 1) and the word (makes
bloom) in line 2 .
If all this is not mere accident, we may assume that, similar to other re­
written compositions, the author of 4 Q 2 6 5 collected the material concerning
the Shabbat from the entire book of Jubilees. It may well be that he started
his task by reviewing the legal material at the end of the book: Passover, sev­
enth year, and Shabbat laws. This last issue — the Shabbat law — led him
from the end of the book to its beginning, where he found additional mate­
rial on the same subject. While there, he continued with the election of Israel
and the story of the Garden of Eden along with chap. 3 of the book.

1QS 5:13-20: "The Laws of Separatism" and Jubilees 22:16-22

In light of the above discussion, I wish to return to another example of a

similar phenomenon that I dealt with in the past. This example is not as
clear as the one just analyzed; consequently I didn't recognize its full mean-

255
Aharon Shemesh

ing at that time. It is thus worthwhile to repeat it here before concluding our
findings and their meanings.
The Rule of the Community requires the new member to swear that he
will "separate from all the men of deceit" (lQS 5:10) and comply with the fol­
lowing rules (lQS 5:13-20):

He must not enter the water in order to touch the purity of the men of
17
holiness No one may be united with him in his work or his wealth,
lest he burden him (with) guilty iniquity. But he shall keep far away
from him in everything, for thus it is written: "Keep far away from ev­
erything false" (Exod 2 3 : 7 ) . " No man of the men of the Community
shall respond to their utterance with respect to any law or judgment. No
one must either eat or drink anything of their property, or accept any­
thing whatever from their hand without payment, as it is written: "Have
nothing to do with the man whose breath is in his nostrils, for wherein
can he be accounted?" (Isa 2:22). For all those who are not accounted
within his covenant, they and everything they have must be excluded.
The man of holiness must not lean on any worthless works, for worth­
less are all who do not know his covenant. But all those who spurn his
word he will destroy from the world, and all their works are impure be­
fore him, and all their property unclean.

The Cave 4 fragments of the Rule of the Community have a shorter

19
(and with all probability earlier) version for this series of injunctions.

And all who enter into the Council of the Community will take upon his
soul by oath [to return t]o the [T]orah of Mose[s] with all (the) heart
and with all (the) soul, (to) everything revealed from [the Torah] to the
[multitude of] the Council of the men [of] the Community [and to sep­
arate from all the men of] deceit. They will not approach the purity of
20
the men of [holine]ss. One will not eat with him "Tn'a. No man of the
men of the Community shall respond to their utterance with respect to
any law or judgment. And no one shall be united with him in wealth and
work. And no man of the men of holiness shall eat of their property;

17. Cf. CD 20:6-8.

18. Compare the Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael (327 in the Horowitz-Rabin edition).
19. On the relation between lQS and 4QS, see S. Metso, The Textual Development of
the Qumran Community Rule, STDJ (Leiden: Brill, 1997).
20. See the discussion below.

256
 4Q265 and the Authoritative Status of Jubilees at Qumran

neither shall he receive anything from their hands. A n d they shall not
lean upon any works of worthless, for worthless are all who do not know
his covenant.

C o m p a r i s o n of this text (in its two versions) to the following passage

from Jubilees (22:16-22) is illuminating. T h i s is Abraham's testament to his
grandson Jacob, which he issued on his deathbed.

i6And you also, my son Jacob, remember my words,

and keep the commandments of Abraham, your father.
Separate yourself from the gentiles,
and do not eat with them,
and do not perform deeds like theirs.
A n d do not become associates of theirs.
Because their deeds are defiled,
and all of their ways are contaminated, and despicable, and
abominable.
n T h e y slaughter their sacrifices to the dead,
and to the demons they b o w down.
A n d they eat in tombs.
A n d all their deeds are worthless and vain. . . .
wBut (as for) you, m y son, Jacob,
may G o d Most High help you,
and the G o d of heaven bless you.
A n d may he turn you away from their defilement,
and from their errors.
2oBe careful, m y son, Jacob, that you not take a wife from any of the
seed of the daughters of Canaan,
because all of his seed is (destined) for uprooting from the earth;
21 . . . and all of his seed will be blotted out from the earth,
and all his remnant,
and there is none of his w h o will be saved.
22And for all of those who worship idols and for the hated ones,
there is no hope in the land of the living;
because they will go down in Sheol.
A n d in the place of judgment they will walk,
and they will have no m e m o r y upon the earth.
Just as the sons of Sodom were taken from the earth,
so (too) all of those who worship idols shall be taken away.

257
Aharon Shemesh

There is a remarkable similarity between this passage from Jubilees

and the one quoted above from the Rule of the Community in both rhetoric
and the content of the injunctions listed in them. We should first consider
the list of phrases Abraham used to condemn Gentile deeds. He described
their actions as "defiled," "despicable," and "abominable," which are exactly
the same terms lQS uses to depict his opponents' behavior. According to the
Rule, a nonmember of the community is forbidden to touch the pure food
"for (he remains) impure among all those who transgress his words," and the
community's members are warned not to "lean on any worthless works
("?3n ' T O ) , for worthless ("73H) are all who do not know his covenant."
Finally, we must point out the similarity between the two in describing the
fate of the enemy. The author of lQS promises that "all those who spurn his
word he will destroy from the world" while Jubilees predicts: "And for all of
those who worship idols and for the hated ones, / there is no hope in the
land of the living; / because they will go down in Sheol."
As for the content of the injunctions themselves: Abraham instructs
Jacob to separate himself from the Gentiles, not to eat with them, not to be­
have as they do, and not to associate himself with them. These prohibitions
are very similar to those of the Rule of the Community in both content and
order. This is especially evident in the Cave 4 version where, as in Jubilees,
the injunction to "separate from all the men of deceit" is immediately fol­
lowed by the prohibition: "One will not eat with him "TriM." The word be-
yahad in this sentence is not a reference to the sect (as translated in the
Charlesworth edition: "within the community") but means "together," as in
the following sentence: "No one may be united (IIV) with him in his work
or his wealth." In the Cave 1 version, this interdiction is followed by the ad­
monition "lest he burden him with guilty iniquity," which shows that the fo­
cus is not on economic cooperation as such but on the fear that such a part­
nership may lead the member of the sect to be influenced by an outsider and
subsequently fall into error and thus parallel the injunction in Jubilees: "Do
not become associates of theirs."
It seems, then, that very much as was the case for 4(3265, Jubilees is the
source for this piece of legislation in the Rule of the Community. Like the
author of 4 Q 2 6 5 , the Rule of the Community adjusts the original material he
drew from Jubilees to his sectarian worldview: what Jubilees prohibits as
separatism from Gentiles — "do not eat with them, and do not perform
deeds like theirs" — the Rule of the Community prohibits as disassociation
from Jews who are not part of the sect — "No one must either eat or drink
anything of their property" and "No one may be united with him in his duty

258
 4Q265 and the Authoritative Status of Jubilees at Qumran

or his property." T h i s is b e c a u s e the sectarian a u t h o r o f the R u l e o f the C o m ­

m u n i t y b e l i e v e d that o n l y the m e m b e r s o f the yahad w e r e the t r u e I s r a e l a n d
therefore e v e r y o n e else s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d G e n t i l e s .

Conclusions: The Status of Jubilees in Qumran

T h e i m p o r t a n c e of Jubilees for the yahad a n d its h i g h status in the c o m m u ­

2 1
nity's l i b r a r y w a s r e c o g n i z e d b y s c h o l a r s l o n g a g o . T h i s is e v i d e n t f r o m the
large n u m b e r of copies ( m o r e t h a n ten) of this b o o k f o u n d in Qumran.
M a n y t h i n k the b o o k o f Jubilees is explicitly m e n t i o n e d in the D a m a s c u s
D o c u m e n t . C D 1 6 : 1 - 4 relates: " T h e r e f o r e a m a n shall b i n d h i m s e l f b y o a t h to
r e t u r n to the L a w of M o s e s , for in it e v e r y t h i n g is s p e c i f i e d . A n d the e x p l i c a ­
tion of their t i m e s w h e n Israel t u r n s a b l i n d eye, b e h o l d it is specified in the
Book of the Divisions of the Times into their Jubilees and Weeks? A c c o r d i n g to
this r e a d i n g , "the B o o k " m e n t i o n e d in C D is J u b i l e e s , a n d it is b e i n g here d e ­
s c r i b e d as the a u t h o r i t a t i v e s o u r c e for the true m e a n i n g o f the T o r a h o f M o ­
22
ses a n d its d e t a i l s .
T h e f i n d i n g s of the c u r r e n t d i s c u s s i o n h i g h l i g h t three aspects of this
s p e c i a l status of J u b i l e e s in Q u m r a n . T h e first aspect is J u b i l e e s ' b e i n g s u b ­
ject to a literary a c t i v i t y r e s e m b l i n g the r e w r i t i n g of the B i b l e ; 4 Q 2 6 5 ' s inte­
g r a t i o n o f a p a s s a g e f r o m l Q S into the n a r r a t i v e that f o l l o w s J u b 2 a n d 3
f u n c t i o n s in the s a m e w a y as other c o m p o s i t i o n s f r o m Q u m r a n do in their
r e w r i t i n g of a p o r t i o n o f the B i b l e . O n e of the g o a l s of this r e w r i t i n g a c t i v i t y
is to i n c o r p o r a t e the n e w s e c t a r i a n ( h a l a k i c or t h e o l o g i c a l ) stances into the
a u t h o r i z e d h o l y s c r i p t u r e . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , the T e m p l e S c r o l l ( 6 6 : 1 6 - 1 7 ) ,

21. For a comprehensive survey o f the scholarly debate with regard to Jubilees' origins
and dating, see J. C. VanderKam, "The Origins and Purposes o f the Book o f Jubilees," in
Studies in the Book of jubilees, ed. M. Albani, J. Frey, and A. Lange (Tubingen: M o h r Siebeck,
1 9 9 7 ) , 3-24. Some scholars tend toward a later dating for Jubilees, and some even think it is a
sectarian composition authored within the yahad c o m m u n i t y ; see M . Kister, "The History
of the Essenes: A Study o f the 'Animals Vision,' Jubilees and Damascus Document," Tarbiz^G
(1987): 8-18; C. W e r m a n , "The Attitude towards Gentiles in the B o o k o f Jubilees and
Q u m r a n Literature C o m p a r e d with Early Tanaaic Halakha and C o n t e m p o r a r y Pseudepigra­
pha" (Ph.D. diss., Hebrew University, 1995), 30-35.
22. Against this reading of CD, see D. Dimant, "Two 'Scientific' Fictions: The So-
called Book of Noah and the Alleged Quotation of Jubilees in C D 16:3-4," in Studies in the
Hebrew Bible, Qumran, and Septuagint, Presented to Eugene Ulrich, ed. P. W. Flint, E. Tov,
and J. C. VanderKam (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 6 ) , 230-49. For a survey and bibliography of earlier
scholarly publications concerning this issue, see there 242-43 and notes 49-51.

259
Aharon Shemesh

while rewriting the biblical list of illicit unions, incorporates into it the sec­
tarian prohibition against marrying the niece: "A man is not to take his
brother's daughter or his sister's daughter because it is an abomination"
(113 TIN IK V n S M m 1
np' S ? imns). This is exactly what 4 Q 2 6 5 is
doing by integrating the passage from lQS into frg. 7. The result of this inte­
gration is a new retelling version of Jubilees, which has the yahad as the cho­
sen people instead of the "seeds of Jacob" as in the original.
The second aspect of Jubilees' status as scripture in Qumran is its use
as a source for halakah. One example of this role of Jubilees in Qumran is
the "laws of separatism" discussed above. In order not to repeat myself, let
me here offer another example. The halakic scrolls mention a few times the
prohibition not to draw water from a well on the Shabbat. Thus C D 1 1 : 1 - 2 ,
'hO *7D 'JS VKl VTaii? "?» 7\T\W ("let him drink where he stands, but
let him not draw [water] into any vessel"). Likewise in 4 Q 2 4 1 , n, 3 : 1 1 3 [V
[T\2W]2 U » a 3 S » ' "?» n3in 7\W ("[and if by the well he is camping let
23
him not draw from it on t[he Shabbat]"). There is no reference to such a
prohibition in the Torah; its origin is in Jubilees, where it is mentioned twice
(2:29; 50:8).
There is yet another expression of a book's canonical status. In my arti­
cle on 4 Q 2 5 1 1 showed that the scroll's editor used Exod 2 1 - 2 3 (the book of the
covenant) as a skeleton to hang upon it and to arrange along it the halakic
material he had at his disposal. The scroll is a collection of passages of diverse
genres: some of them are abstract rulings in the style of the Damascus Docu­
ment; others are pieces of rewritten passages of the Torah. This fact strength­
ens the assumption that most of the scroll's passages weren't composed in
their current context but were collected by the editor from various sources. It
was the editor's close knowledge of Torah and his familiarity with the biblical
text that made it a natural medium for arranging the extra material he had.
It might very well be that 4 Q 2 6 5 exhibits the same phenomenon, but
this time with regard to the book of Jubilees. At the outset of this article I
emphasized the diverse literary nature of the scroll's fragments. It includes
law and narrative, pesher and admonition. If the analysis I offered in this ar­
ticle proves to be true, then Jubilees functions here in a very similar way to
the function of Exodus's portion in 4 Q 2 5 1 , and this testifies to the close fa­
miliarity of the scroll's editor with the text of Jubilees and to its canonical
status in Qumran.

23. The reading is from V. Noam and E. Qimron, "A Qumran Composition on the
Laws of the Sabbath and Its Contribution to Early Halakhic History," Tarbiz 74 (2005): 513.

260
Purity and Impurity in the Book of Jubilees

Lutz Doering

The issue of purity and impurity in Jubilees has provoked recent debate.
While some scholars assign Jubilees and the Temple Scroll "to the same legal
1
and exegetical tradition" and place them, together with the texts from
2
Q u m r a n , within the ancient priestly halakah, others perceive profound dif­
3
ferences. L . Ravid concludes from the absence of ritual defilement in the
story of Abraham's death in Jub 2 3 : 1 - 7 that "it does not seem probable that
the author agreed with the Pentateuchal concepts of purity and impurity, or
4
with those represented in the Judean Desert scrolls." According to Ravid,
Jubilees is a polemic against the priesthood w h o then controlled the temple.
In response, J . VanderKam suggests reading Jubilees in line with the putative
setting of the b o o k in a period without a sanctuary and indebted to the tra­
5
ditions this b o o k reworks. M y o w n reading of Jubilees is closer to the latter,

1. Thus the classic formulation by J. C. VanderKam, "The Temple Scroll and the Book
of Jubilees," in Temple Scroll Studies, ed. G. J. Brooke, JSPSup 7 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989),
211-36, 232.
2. E.g., C. W e r m a n , "The Rules o f Consuming and Covering the Blood in Priestly and
Rabbinic Law," RevQ 16, no. 64 (1995): 621-36.
3. E.g., J. Klawans, Impurity and Sin in Ancient Judaism (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2000); M . Himmelfarb, "Sexual Relations and Purity in the Temple Scroll and the
Book o f Jubilees," DSD 6 (1999): 11-36.
4. L. Ravid, "Purity and Impurity in the Book o f Jubilees," JSP 13 (2002): 61-86, 63.
5. J. VanderKam, "Viewed from Another Angle: Purity and Impurity in the Book o f
Jubilees? JSP 13 (2002): 209-15.

261
Lutz Doering

a l t h o u g h R a v i d has raised s o m e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s . H o w e v e r , w e n e e d to
cast o u r net w i d e e n o u g h to b e able to g a u g e the full r a n g e o f J u b i l e e s ' take
o n ( i m ) p u r i t y . In w h a t f o l l o w s I shall h e u r i s t i c a l l y accept the d i s t i n c t i o n b e ­
t w e e n " r i t u a l " a n d " m o r a l " i m p u r i t y : " r i t u a l " i m p u r i t y , as reflected in L e v
1 1 - 1 5 , N u m 1 9 , a n d related texts, is n a t u r a l , c o n t r a c t e d b y c o n t a g i o n , a n d c a n
in m o s t cases b e p u r g e d b y p u r i f i c a t i o n rituals; it is n o t sinful b u t d i s q u a l i ­
fies f r o m contact w i t h sancta (I shall, h o w e v e r , i n c l u d e d i e t a r y l a w s a n d
priestly a b l u t i o n s here t o o ) . In contrast, " m o r a l " i m p u r i t y , as reflected in L e v
1 8 , 2 0 , a n d related texts, consists o f certain c r i m e s ; defiles the sinner, the
l a n d , a n d the t e m p l e ; a n d c a n n o t b e p u r g e d b y p u r i f i c a t i o n r i t u a l s . H o w e v e r ,
since I t h i n k the t e r m s " r i t u a l " a n d " m o r a l " are n o t u n p r o b l e m a t i c , and
since I also n o t e c e r t a i n " r i t u a l " aspects o f i m p u r i t i e s d e s i g n a t e d as " m o r a l , "
the t e r m s c o m e in q u o t a t i o n m a r k s .

I. "Ritual" Impurity, Purity, and Purification in Jubilees

1 . The impurity and purification of the parturient. J u b 3:8-14* c o n t a i n s a t r a d i ­

tion a b o u t the e n t r y o f A d a m a n d "his w i f e " ( n o t n a m e d b e f o r e 3:33) into the
G a r d e n o f E d e n w i t h w h i c h the p e r i o d s o f i m p u r i t y a n d p u r i f i c a t i o n after
c h i l d b i r t h f a m i l i a r f r o m L e v 12 are e t i o l o g i c a l l y l i n k e d . T w o aspects are d e ­
v e l o p e d . First, h a r m o n i z i n g the t w o c r e a t i o n n a r r a t i v e s (cf. G e n 1:27; 2 : 1 8 -
2 2 ) , J u b 3:8 states that a l t h o u g h A d a m a n d his wife w e r e created in the first
w e e k , o n l y in the s e c o n d w e e k w a s she s h o w n to h i m . F r o m this, the " c o m ­
m a n d m e n t " is inferred that w o m e n g i v i n g b i r t h to a s o n shall be kept "in
w
their d e f i l e m e n t " ( G e ' e z westa rek son) for s e v e n d a y s , t h o s e g i v i n g b i r t h to a
daughter, for f o u r t e e n . L e v 12 clarifies that the p a r t u r i e n t d u r i n g this p e r i o d
,
is i m p u r e like a m e n s t r u a n t (v. 2: NODD miTT ITT J a 3 ; v. 5: niTT3D; cf. ,

4 Q 2 6 5 7 1 5 ) . A p p a r e n t l y , the tertium b e t w e e n L e v 1 2 : 2 , 5 a n d J u b 3:8 is that af­

ter this p e r i o d of i m p u r i t y a w o m a n w o u l d be a l l o w e d to m a t e a g a i n w i t h
h e r h u s b a n d . S e c o n d , a l o n g e r p e r i o d of less severe i m p u r i t y is l i n k e d to the
e n t r y of A d a m a n d his wife into the G a r d e n . B o t h h a v e b e e n created o u t s i d e
the G a r d e n , a n d angels b r i n g A d a m in after forty days b u t his wife after
e i g h t y days ( J u b 3 : 9 ) . A g a i n , a " c o m m a n d m e n t " is inferred, this t i m e w r i t t e n
o n the h e a v e n l y tablets, m e n t i o n i n g the " d e f i l e m e n t " of s e v e n or twice s e v e n
days a n d a d d i t i o n a l l y a p e r i o d of t h i r t y - t h r e e days for a m a l e child a n d s i x t y -

6. Text and translation: J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, 2 vols., C S C O 5 1 0 - 5 1 1 ,

Scriptores Aethiopici 87-88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989).

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 Purity and Impurity in the Book of Jubilees

six days for a daughter that the woman spends "in the blood of purification"
(westa dama nesh; Jub 3 : 1 0 - 1 1 ) . This agrees with the periods mentioned in
Lev 12:4-5. The rationale for this link with Eden clearly is the notion of Eden
7
as sanctuary. Lev 12:4 states that the woman during her period of purifica­
tion may not touch any sancta ( P i p ) nor enter the sanctuary ( W T p a n ) , sim­
ilarly Jub 3:13. There is a close parallel to the Jubilees passage in 4 Q 2 6 5 frg. 7,*
already referred to above.
However, a few questions remain open. How does the purification re­
late to Adam's and his wife's entry into the Garden? It should be the mother
who needs to wait, but there is no mother here. One might perhaps reckon
with influence of a tradition extending the purification period to the male or
a
female child.' However, 4 Q 2 6 6 ( = 4 Q D ) 6 ii 1 1 , in a similar context, men­
tions a wet nurse that, according to some, was intended to prevent the child's
defilement, which would suggest that the child is not necessarily deemed im­
pure like the mother; but the passage is too fragmentary to allow for a defi­
nite answer, and this explanation of the presence of a wet nurse has recendy
10
been questioned altogether. Ultimately, the link between the protoplasts
and later humanity is as symbolic as the one between Eden and the temple:
although not born from a mother, Adam and his wife represent human be­
ings (construed as Israelites) confronted with the sanctuary and become
part of the life cycle entailing defilement (as we shall see presently, not
11
merely after the fall). Unlike Lev 12:6, Jub 3 does not link the end of the pe-

7. Jub 3:12; 8:19; cf. 4Q265 7 14; iQH' 16 (8 Suk-):io-i3. Cf. B. Ego, "Heilige Zeit —
heiliger Raum — heiliger Mensch: Beobachtungen zur Struktur der Gesetzesbegrundung in
der Schttpfungs- und Paradiesgeschichte des Jubilaenbuchs," in Studies in the Book of Jubi­
lees, ed. M. Albani, J. Frey, and A. Lange, TSAJ 65 (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997), 207-19,
214: Eden and temple "stehen in einem symbolischen Reprasentationszusammenhang." Cf.
G. Anderson, "Celibacy or Consummation in the Garden? Reflections on Early Jewish and
Christian Interpretations of the Garden of Eden," HTR 82 (1989): 121-48,129-31.
8. Cf. I. M. Baumgarten, "Purification after Childbirth and the Sacred Garden in
4Q265 and Jubilees," in New Qumran Texts and Studies: Proceedings of the First Meeting of the
International Organization for Qumran Studies, Paris 1992, ed. G. J. Brooke with F. Garcia
Martinez, STDJ 15 (Leiden: Brill, 1994), 3-10. A. Shemesh, in his contribution to this volume,
views 4Q265 as rewritten Jubilees, but it is not impossible that it draws on a tradition similar
or identical to Jubilees' source.
9. George Syncellus, Chronographia 9 [5 Mosshammer); perhaps Luke 2:22 (a) rjulpcn
TOO KaSapicuoO aurffiv). Cf. Baumgarten, "Purification," 5-6; H. K. Harrington, The Purity
Texts, Companion to the Qumran Scrolls 5 (London: T. & T. Clark, 2004), 62.
10. Cf. C. Wassen, Women in the Damascus Document, Academia Biblica 21 (Leiden:
Brill, 2005), 56-58.
11. Ravid's own suggestion that the purification period is related to a preparation for

263
Lutz Doering

riods of purification with a sacrifice. However, this does not imply "that a
12
birthing woman has no way of becoming pure" but rather reflects the liter­
ary choice and perhaps the traditions of the author: before the apparent in­
vestiture of Adam to priesdy service (Jub 3 : 2 6 - 2 7 ) , there is no priest in the
narrative world, let alone animal sacrifice. Purification is simply achieved by
waiting for the set number of days.
2. Awareness of ritual defilement through sexual intercourse. In Jubilees, as
G. Anderson has convincingly argued, Adam and his wife have sex before and
after their sojourn in Eden, but not in the Garden itself, according to Jub 3:6,
dealing with the time before they were brought to Eden, Adam "knew her (wa-
'a'mara)." And after their departure from Eden, we learn in 3:34 that "They
13
were childless throughout the first jubilee; afterwards he knew her? Thus, no
sex in Paradise, but there had been some before, outside Eden. It stands to rea­
son that this is again a reflection of the notion of Eden as sanctuary, just as C D
a
12:1-2 and n Q T 45:11-12 ban intercourse or someone having had intercourse
from the Temple City. If this is correct, Jubilees can be said to share and apply
the notion of sexual intercourse as ritually defiling (cf. Lev 15:18). Additionally,
this seems to stand in the background of the prohibition of intercourse on the
Sabbath as well. Just as Eden is holier than any other place in the primeval
world (see n. 7 ) , so the Sabbath is "holier than all (other) days" (Jub 2:26, with
extant Hebrew: 4Q218 1 2; cf. Jub 2 : 3 0 , 3 2 ) . According to Jub 5 0 : 8 , " the one
"who lies with a woman" on the Sabbath incurs the death penalty. Ritual de­
filement by intercourse on the Sabbath is to be avoided because it is incom­
15
mensurate with the holiness of the Sabbath (cf. C D 1 1 : 4 - 5 ) .

a higher degree ofpurity ("Purity and Impurity," 80) is unconvincing, since it makes no sense
of the specific periods of forty and eighty days.
12. Thus, however, Ravid, "Purity and Impurity," 77.
13. Cf. Anderson, "Celibacy," 128-29. Ravid's claim that pre-Eden sex would "contra­
dict the texts as we have them" ("Purity and Impurity," 78) is misleading.
14. L Ravid, "The Relationship of the Sabbath Laws in Jubilees 50:6-13 to the Rest of
the Book" (in Hebrew), Tarbiz 69 (2000): 161-66, claims that Jub 50:6-13 is a secondary addi­
tion to Jubilees, but her arguments are unconvincing; cf. L. Doering, "Jub. 50:6-13 als
Schlussabschnitt des Jubildenbuchs — Nachtrag aus Qumran oder ursprunglicher
Bestandteil des Werks?" RevQ 20, no. 79 (2002): 359-87; J. C. VanderKam, "The End of the
Matter? Jubilees 50:6-13 and the Unity of the Book," in Heavenly Tablets: Interpretation, Iden­
tity, and Tradition in Ancient Judaism, ed. L LiDonnici and A. Lieber, JSJSup 119 (Leiden:
Brill, 2007), 267-84.
15. Cf. Anderson, "Celibacy," 129-30 (temple-Sabbath analogy); L. Doering, "The
Concept of the Sabbath in the Book of Jubilees," in Studies in the Book of Jubilees, 179-205,196
("sanctification" analogous to Exod 19:10,14-15).

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 Purity and Impurity in the Book of Jubilees

3. Priestly ablutions with water figure in the i n s t r u c t i o n s g i v e n to I s a a c

b y A b r a h a m in J u b 2 1 : 1 6 (cf. 4 Q 2 1 9 ii 1 3 ) . T h e closest parallels are A L D 1 9 - 2 1
a s
( = 7 : 1 - 3 , G r e e n f i e l d , S t o n e , a n d E s h e l ) , 26 (8:2), 53-54 ( 1 0 : 6 - 7 ) , w e l l as
T L e v i 9 : 1 1 . J u b i l e e s s e e m s to refer to three acts of w a s h i n g , o n e c o n c e r n i n g
the w h o l e b o d y (cf. A L D 19 [ 7 : 1 ] ; T L e v i 9 : 1 1 ) , the other t w o h a n d s a n d feet.
W h a t is the r a t i o n a l e for these a b l u t i o n s ? It is u n l i k e l y that they relate to the
r
i m p u r i t i e s c o v e r e d b y L e v 1 1 - 1 5 , s u m m a r i z e d in L e v 2 2 : 2 - 7 f ° priests w i s h ­
ing to c o n s u m e sancta, since w e w o u l d e x p e c t p u r i f y i n g priests n o r m a l l y to
w a i t until sunset to b e c o m e clean (cf. N u m 1 9 : 7 ) . S h o u l d the ablutions
1 6
m e r e l y " e n h a n c e the s a n c t i t y of the ' h o l y s e e d ' " ? T h i s m a k e s t o o little of
the fact that w e are d e a l i n g w i t h specific rules for priests related to sacrifices.
B a t h i n g b e f o r e priestly office or w a s h i n g h a n d s a n d feet b e f o r e sacrificing is
17
indeed required in some biblical texts. H o w e v e r , w a s h i n g h a n d s a n d feet
after the sacrifice g o e s b e y o n d these texts, b u t it is reflected in A L D 53-54
a r a
( 1 0 : 6 - 7 ) > d T L e v i 9:11. S i n c e b o t h A L D 26 (8:2), 53 ( 1 0 : 6 ) a n d n Q T 26:10 re­
late w a s h i n g o f h a n d s a n d feet to p r e v i o u s c o n t a c t w i t h blood a n d this fig­
1 8
ures in J u b i l e e s i m m e d i a t e l y after as w e l l ( 2 1 : 1 7 ) , it is p o s s i b l e that J u b i l e e s '
final a b l u t i o n is to r e m o v e any b l o o d f r o m h a n d s a n d feet. A t a n y rate, J u b i ­
19
lees here shares a specific t r a d i t i o n of s c r u p u l o u s priestly purity.

4. Ritual purity as prerequisite for celebrating Passover. Jubilees c o m ­

m e n t s o n this issue m e r e l y in p a s s i n g , b u t it s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d . In
line w i t h N u m 9:13, J u b 49:9 declares that any " m a n w h o is p u r e " (be'si 'enza
nesuh, reiterated later in the verse [not so N u m 9:13]) a n d " n e a r b y " b u t " d o e s
n o t c o m e " to k e e p the P a s s o v e r o n its d a y is to be u p r o o t e d . T h e s t a t e m e n t
affirms the n o t i o n o f " r i t u a l " p u r i t y relative to the ( n a r r a t i v e l y : future) t e m -

16. Thus Ravid, "Purity and Impurity," 74.

17. Bathing: Exod 29:4; 40:12: Lev 8:6; 16:4, (24); cf. ALD la, v. 2 [2:5]; washing hands
and feet: Exod 30:19-21; cf. m. Middot 3:6; m. Yoma 4:5; m. Tamid 1:4; 2:1. Cf. H. Drawnel, An
Aramaic Wisdom Text from Qumran: A New Interpretation of the Levi Document, JSJSup 86
(Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) , 270-71, 276, 298.
18. O n Jubilees' concern with blood see further below and Werman, "Rules," passim.
Note that blood is one o f the liquids transmitting impurity in m. Makhshirin 6:4-5; cf. the is­
a
sue o f oil stains in C D 12:15-17; n Q T 49:11-12.
19. Contra Ravid, "Purity and Impurity," 74 n. 22, who claims that Jubilees has "emu­
lated . . . the dual purification of the High Priest on the Day of Atonement" (cf. Lev 1 6 : 4 , 2 4 ) ,
but the second one is bathing rather than washing hands and feet, as well as changing vest­
ments. Cf. further on the matter M. Himmelfarb, "Earthly Sacrifice and Heavenly Incense:
The Law o f the Priesthood in Aramaic Levi and Jubilees," in Heavenly Realms and Earthly Re­
alities in Late Antique Religions, ed. R. S. Boustan and A. Yoshiko Reed (Cambridge: C a m ­
bridge University Press, 2 0 0 4 ) , 103-22.

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Lutz Doering

pie. O n e m a y ask, of c o u r s e , w h y S e c o n d P a s s o v e r , for those u n a b l e to p u r i f y

20
in a t i m e l y w a y , is n o t m e n t i o n e d in J u b i l e e s , but I w o u l d urge some cau­
tion here: the a b s e n c e of certain issues m a y p r i m a r i l y be m o t i v a t e d b y liter­
a r y c o n c e r n s ; Jubilees does n o t c o v e r e v e r y legal detail. Surely, w e s h o u l d n o t
infer that Jubilees d i s p e n s e s w i t h " r i t u a l " p u r i t y for P a s s o v e r — the d o u b l e
reference in J u b 49:9 suggests o t h e r w i s e .
5. Second tithe becomes impure after one year. A c c o r d i n g to J u b 3 2 : 1 0 - 1 4 ,
s e c o n d tithe is to be eaten in the t e m p l e w i t h i n o n e y e a r o f its specific "sea­
s o n s " (i.e., firstfruits) for "seed," w i n e , a n d oil. V. 13 states that a n y t h i n g left
b e y o n d its r e s p e c t i v e s e a s o n ( " g r o w s o l d " ) is to be v i e w e d as " c o n t a m i n a t e d "
(se'uba); "it is to be b u r n e d u p b e c a u s e it has b e c o m e i m p u r e " (rekusa). This
is a different t y p e o f p u r i t y rule t h a n the o n e s d i s c u s s e d so far, b u t it is "rit­
u a l " i n n a t u r e . We k n o w a b o u t distinct firstfruit festivals for w h e a t , w i n e ,
a 2 1
a n d oil f r o m 4 Q 2 5 1 frg. 9 (olim 5) a n d f r o m n Q T 43:4-10. The continua­
a
tion in n Q T 4 3 : 1 1 - 1 2 also p r o v i d e s a p a r a l l e l to J u b i l e e s ' rule o n s e c o n d tithe,
a l t h o u g h its unfitness is e x p r e s s e d b y a f o r m of ttfTp, h e r e : "to b e for­
22 2 3 a
feited." In c o n t r a s t to r a b b i n i c h a l a k a h , Jubilees a n d n Q T insist o n c o n ­
s u m p t i o n of the s e c o n d tithe " y e a r b y year," as s p e c i f i e d in D e u t 1 4 : 2 2 . T h e
" i m p u r i t y " (or " f o r f e i t u r e " ) of a n y leftover tithe a p p a r e n t l y results f r o m its
m i s s i n g its p r o p e r t i m e , as w e l l as f r o m the m i x t u r e b e t w e e n old a n d n e w it
implies.

6. The problem of corpse impurity and the role of the sanctuary for "rit­
ual" purity in Jubilees. S o m e w h a t p e r p l e x i n g is the l a c k o f c o n c e r n for c o r p s e
i m p u r i t y in the s t o r y o f A b r a h a m ' s death a n d b u r i a l in J u b 2 3 : 1 - 7 : J a c o b is ly­
i n g in his g r a n d f a t h e r ' s b o s o m , u n a w a r e that he has j u s t p a s s e d away, then
realizing he is d e a d ( w . 2 - 3 ) ; even I s a a c , r u s h i n g to the scene, "fell o n his fa­
ther's face, c r i e d , a n d k i s s e d h i m " (v. 4 ) . H o w e v e r , w e n e e d to recall that J u b i ­
lees closely f o l l o w s the p e r s p e c t i v e o f the a n g e l i c d i s c o u r s e (i.e., at M o u n t S i -

20. See the paper by Stephane Saulnier, "Jub 4 9 : 1 - 1 4 and the Second Passover: H o w
(and W h y ) to D o Away with an Unwanted Festival," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 (2009).
21. Cf. J. M. Baumgarten, "4Q Halakah", the Law o f Hadash, and the Pentecontad Cal­
endar," JJS 27 (1976): 36-46. However, whereas these texts clearly assume a pentecontad festi­
a 2 J
val sequence (cf. n Q T 1 8 - 2 3 ; 4 Q 5 9 4 - 6 ) , there is no such indication in Jubilees. For Jubi­
lees' peculiar calendrical agenda, see further the chapter in this volume by Jonathan Ben-
Dov, "Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar o f Jubilees."
22. J. Maier, Die Tempelrolle vom Toten Meer und das "Neue Jerusalem," 3 r d ed. ( M u ­
nich: E. Reinhardt, 1997), 176: "als Heiliges verfallen, tabuisiert, daher auch fur anderweitige
Verwendung unrein," referring to Deut 22:9.
23. Allowing storage up to three years (m. Maaser Sheni 5:6) and prescribing "poor
tithe" every third year instead (m. Avot 5:9).

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n a i ) o n the m a t e r i a l this d i s c o u r s e r e w r i t e s (i.e., G e n e s i s to m i d - E x o d u s ) .

T h u s , V a n d e r K a m has aptly p o i n t e d o u t that Jubilees m o d e l s Isaac's c o n t a c t
w i t h his father's c o r p s e on Joseph's d e m e a n o r in G e n 5 0 : 1 , a n d that the p a t r i ­
archs in Jubilees o b e y o n l y such laws "that would have been fitting for their
24
times." M o r e o v e r , w e n e e d to b e a r in m i n d that the reference p o i n t of the
r i t u a l p u r i t y laws is the t e m p l e , w h i c h is yet to c o m e in J u b i l e e s ' setting.
C o n v e r s e l y , w h e n w e do find " r i t u a l " p u r i t y a d d r e s s e d in J u b i l e e s , it
n o r m a l l y entails a reference to a sanctuary, b e it past, future, or t e m p o r a l : the
G a r d e n o f E d e n ( a b o v e , § 1 , 2 ) ; the future t e m p l e (§4, 5 ) , w h i c h is the place
w h e r e priests w i l l o b s e r v e p u r i t y in h a n d l i n g sacrifices ( § 3 ) ; a n d p e r h a p s the
S a b b a t h as a " s a n c t u a r y in t i m e " ( § 2 ) . Interestingly, Jubilees retains a n d re­
w o r k s a reference to a p u r i f i c a t i o n r i t u a l in the c o n t e x t o f J a c o b ' s s e c o n d
visit to B e t h e l . In J u b 3 1 : 1 , after the D i n a h n a r r a t i v e , he c o m m a n d s his m e n ,
" P u r i f y y o u r s e l v e s a n d c h a n g e y o u r c l o t h e s " (neshu wa-walletu 'elbasikemu).
W h e r e a s in G e n 35:2 this f o l l o w s the r e q u e s t to r e n o u n c e the i d o l s , in J u b i ­
lees it p r e c e d e s it a n d is t h u s not p r e s e n t e d as a r e s p o n s e to the r e n u n c i a t i o n .
W h a t e v e r i m p u r i t y it s h o u l d p u r g e , the p u r i f i c a t i o n here is m o r e closely
l i n k e d w i t h setting o u t a n d g o i n g u p to B e t h e l t h a n in G e n e s i s . N o w , the w a y
B e t h e l is p r e s e n t e d — "the h o u s e of the L o r d " ( J u b 27:25) w h e r e J a c o b erects
a s t o n e "to b e c o m e the h o u s e o f the L o r d " (v. 2 7 ) a n d later an altar (31:3) —
clearly r i n g s o f t e m p l e t e r m i n o l o g y for r e a d e r s in s e c o n d t e m p l e t i m e s , a n d
Jub 32:3-9 n a r r a t e s the investiture of L e v i to the p r i e s t h o o d , his first s a c r i ­
fices, a n d J a c o b ' s g i v i n g tithe precisely at B e t h e l . N o t o n l y this: J a c o b even
2 5
decides to b u i l d a t e m p l e ( 3 2 : 1 6 ) , o n l y s t o p p e d b y an a n g e l (v. 2 2 ) . The im­
p o r t a n c e of L e v i ' s o r d i n a t i o n at B e t h e l is also stressed in A L D 9 - 1 0 ( 5 : 1 - 5 ) ;
T L e v i 7:4; 8; 9:3, a n d the l i n k w i t h the later t e m p l e is reflected in the refer­
a
ence to the " c o v e n a n t I m a d e w i t h J a c o b at B e t h e l " in n Q T 2 9 : 9 - 1 0 (cf. 5 Q 1 3
2 6 ) . In s h o r t , it s e e m s that B e t h e l , in o r d e r to a l l o w for L e v i ' s investiture,
takes o n traits of a " t e m p l e in nuce," a n d the a p p r o a c h to it aptly entails a p u ­
rification r i t u a l — the o n l y o n e m e n t i o n e d (albeit in direct s p e e c h ) w i t h i n
2 5
the s t o r y line o f J u b i l e e s . It is interesting that A L D 19 ( 7 : 1 ) has a p u n o n

24. VanderKam, "Viewed from Another Angle," 2 1 1 - 1 3 (quotation: 213, emphasis in

original).
25. On Bethel in Jub 32, cf. E. Eshel, "Jubilees 32 and the Bethel Cult Traditions in Sec­
ond Temple Literature," in Things Revealed: Studies in Early Jewish and Christian Literature
in Honor of M. E. Stone, ed. E. G. Chazon, D. Satran, and R. A. Clements, JSJSup 89 (Leiden:
Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) , 21-36, with further literature.
26. I.e., apart from the ablutions above, $ 3 . This qualifies James Kugel's remark that
"Neither Jacob nor anyone else in Jubilees is ever said to undergo ritual purification": The

267
Lutz Doering

"Bethel," r e q u i r i n g b a t h i n g a n d c l o t h i n g " w h e n y o u arise to enter the t e m p l e

27
of G o d T\^)r
7. Pure and impure animals. T h e d i e t a r y laws f o r m a distinct r u b r i c ,
28
w h o s e r e l a t i o n to " r i t u a l " a n d " m o r a l " i m p u r i t y is v a r i o u s l y i n t e r p r e t e d .
D e s p i t e its r a t h e r c a s u a l c o m m e n t , J u b i l e e s is u n a m b i g u o u s a b o u t the d i s ­
2 9
t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p u r e a n d i m p u r e a n i m a l s (cf. L e v 1 1 ; D e u t i 4 : 3 - 2 i ) : when
J a c o b g a v e his tithe at B e t h e l , " h e tithed all the clean a n i m a l s a n d m a d e an
offering of t h e m . H e gave his s o n L e v i the u n c l e a n a n i m a l s " ( J u b 3 2 : 8 ) . It has
3 0
b e e n s u g g e s t e d that the a u t h o r is d e p e n d e n t o n a p a r t i c u l a r s o u r c e h e r e ,
b u t the aspect in q u e s t i o n d o e s n o t s t a n d in t e n s i o n to the rest of the b o o k .

II. "Moral" Purity and Impurity in Jubilees

D e s p i t e the e v i d e n c e for " r i t u a l " purity, it is fair to say that J u b i l e e s is m u c h

m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h " m o r a l " p u r i t y . A l l three classic " m o r a l " i m p u r i t i e s are
dealt w i t h : b l o o d s h e d , s e x u a l sins, a n d i d o l a t r y . L i k e m o r e severe f o r m s o f
" r i t u a l " i m p u r i t y , they defile the s a n c t u a r y f r o m afar (cf. L e v 2 0 : 3 ) , as in J u b
30:15 a n d p r o b a b l y also in 2 3 : 2 1 . W h i l e the r o o t NOD is u s e d w i t h s u c h
31
" m o r a l " i m p u r i t i e s , there are o t h e r t e r m s like n2371fi, " a b o m i n a t i o n . " In
fact, the E t h i o p i c text m a y n o t r e p r e s e n t the s e m a n t i c field accurately, s i n c e
w
it o c c a s i o n a l l y translates rl3S7in w i t h f o r m s d e r i v i n g f r o m rek s, " i m p u r i t y , "
3 2
a t e n d e n c y in the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n of L e v i t i c u s as w e l l . P r i o r to the classic
" m o r a l " i m p u r i t i e s , w e shall discuss a r e m a r k a b l e c o n c e p t u a l shift.

Ladder of Jacob: Ancient Interpretations of the Biblical Story of Jacob and His Children (Prince­
ton: Princeton University Press, 2 0 0 6 ) , 251. For an explanation o f Jacob's side trip to Hebron
after he erected an altar at Bethel and before Levi's investiture, cf. 138-41.
27. Cf. Drawnel, Aramaic Wisdom Text, 254.
28. Cf. the discussion in Klawans, Impurity and Sin, 3 1 - 3 2 . On consumption o f blood,
see below.
29. Ravid, "Purity and Impurity," 65, 80, erroneously claims that Jubilees does not
mention impure animals.
30. M. Kister, "Some Aspects o f Qumranic Halakhah," in The Madrid Qumran Con­
gress: Proceedings of the International Congress on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Madrid, 18-21 March,
1991, ed. J. Trebolle Barrera and L. Vegas Montaner, 2 vols., STDJ 11 (Leiden: Brill, 1992),
2:571-88, 586-87, because o f the tension with Jub 32:15.
31. Cf. Lev 18:22, 26, 27, 29, 30; 20:13. Cf. also ^pn hifil, N u m 35:33 (otherwise only
Prophets and Writings).
w
32. Proof is Jub 21:23 (rek somu), for which 4 Q 2 2 1 1 5 - 6 gives DT13S7in, 4Q219 ii 28 the
plural nQrP m n y i n . Similarly, the Latin (ed. Ronsch) has at times abominatio where Ge'ez

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 Purity and Impurity in the Book of Jubilees

1 . Conceptual extension: defilement of holy time. We h a v e seen that Isra­

elites m u s t n o t b e c o m e defiled " r i t u a l l y " t h r o u g h s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e o n a c ­
c o u n t of the S a b b a t h . T h i s spatial c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the S a b b a t h o c c u r s a g a i n ,
w i t h t y p i c a l differences, in the " m o r a l " r e a l m . In J u b i l e e s , h o l y t i m e itself can
b e defiled b y i m p r o p e r a c t i o n s . T h u s , J u b 2:25-26 parallels the t r a n s g r e s s i o n
of " d o i n g any w o r k " on the S a b b a t h w i t h "defiling it" ( r o o t raVsa), and
m o r e g e n e r a l l y J u b 6:37 p r e d i c t s the c o n f u s i o n of " h o l y " a n d " i m p u r e " days
w
(rekusa, rek esta). P r o v i d e d the t r a n s l a t i o n is faithful, w e thus find "defile­
ment" (root w h e r e n o r m a l l y " p r o f a n a t i o n " ( r o o t V^rl) w o u l d b e e x ­
p e c t e d . A c c o r d i n g to J . M i l g r o m , s u c h c o n c e p t u a l instability o c c u r s first in
a 3 3
the b o o k o f E z e k i e l a n d has p a r a l l e l s in n Q T .
2 . Bloodshed defiles the earth/land. B l o o d s h e d is twice explicitly related
to i m p u r i t y in the b o o k (but cf. also J u b 1 1 : 5 ) . In J u b 7 : 2 7 - 2 9 , 3 2 - 3 3 it figures in
N o a h ' s e x h o r t a t i o n to his s o n s , a l l u d i n g to G e n 9:6. Instead of G e n e s i s ' s a p ­
p e a l to the imago Dei, Jubilees h o l d s that the earth "is not p u r e " from the
b l o o d s h e d o n it a n d can o n l y " b e c o m e p u r e " b y the b l o o d o f the o n e w h o has
shed it. B u t Jubilees follows G e n 9:4-6 in c o n n e c t i n g this w i t h the p r o h i b i t i o n
of eating b l o o d , so that b l o o d s h e d , the failure of c o v e r i n g the b l o o d , a n d the
c o n s u m p t i o n o f b l o o d all c o n t r i b u t e to the defilement o f the e a r t h / t h e l a n d .
A p p a r e n t l y , this n o t i o n o f an effect o n the e a r t h / l a n d is i n f o r m e d b y N u m
: _
35 33 34> even m o r e clearly alluded to in the s e c o n d p a s s a g e , J u b 2 1 : 1 9 - 2 0 .
H e r e , the E t h i o p i c v e r b is yaxatte'a, " w i l l spoil it," w h i c h a p p a r e n t l y c o r r e ­
s p o n d s to rpn hifil, N u m 35:33. T h e v i o l e n c e , b l o o d s h e d , a n d b l o o d d r i n k i n g
of the G i a n t s h a v e a s i m i l a r effect o n the earth a c c o r d i n g to 1 E n 7:4-6; 9:9.

3. The impurity of sexual sins, particularly of intermarriage. S e x u a l l y en­

w
c o d e d references to i m p u r i t y a b o u n d in Jubilees. Often " i m p u r i t y " (rek s) and
derivates are c o n j o i n e d in lengthy strings w i t h " f o r n i c a t i o n " (zemmut), "con­
t a m i n a t i o n " (gemmane), "sin" (xati'ator 'abbasd), " c o r r u p t i o n " (musend), "er­
r o r " (gegay), or " a b o m i n a t i o n " (saqorar). S u c h c o n n e c t i o n s a p p e a r in d e s c r i p ­
tions of c o m m i t t e d s e x u a l sins ( J u b 9:15; 20:5), p r e d i c t i o n s of future s e x u a l
i m m o r a l i t y (9:15; 2 3 : 1 4 ) , w a r n i n g s against such i m m o r a l i t y (7:20; 2 0 : 3 , 6 ; 3 3 : 1 9 ) ,
a n d the a n n o u n c e m e n t of its eschatological absence (50:5). O f central i m p o r ­
tance is the qualification of s e x u a l transgression as zemmut, w h i c h translates

has reVslrekus, e.g., Jub 16:5. Cf. further W. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees on Sexuality: At­
titudes towards Sexuality in the Early Enoch Literature, the Aramaic Levi Document, and the
Book of Jubilees (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2 0 0 7 ) , 216-29. For Ethiopic Leviticus, cf. the pas­
sages in n. 31.
33. Cf. J. Milgrom, "The Concept of Impurity in Jubilees and the Temple Scroll? RevQ
16, no. 62 (1993): 277-84, 279-80.

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niJT, "fornication." 34
Inter alia, it is used of the Watchers' "fornication" with
women, who thus "committed the first (acts) of uncleanness" (7:21, in retro­
spective; cf. 4:22; 20:5; 1 En 8:2; 9:8; 10:11; 15:4); of the inhabitants of Sodom and
Gomorrah who "defiled themselves and fornicated and did what is impure on
earth" (Jub 16:5; cf. 20:5-6); of Tamar's reported "fornication,"qualified as "im­
purity in Israel" (41:16-17); and of illicit sexual unions (33:20 [mss.: zemmuna];
35
cf. 4 i : 2 5 - 2 6 ) , as with Reuben's intercourse with Bilhah. Here, the rationale for
Jubilees' strong criticism is stated: that Israel is a holy and priestly people, "a
priestly kingdom" (mangeita kehnat) and God's "possession" (terir; 33:20).
This is clearly an allusion to Exod 19:5-6, a text also referred to at Jub
16:17-18, where Abraham learns from the angel(s) that one of Isaac's sons
36
would become a "holy seed" (zar' qeddus), not to be reckoned amongst the
nations but forming "a nation of possession ( ? ) . . . , a priesthood, and a holy
37
people." An important qualification of this view inherited from Exod 19:5-6
is the literal understanding of both holiness and priesthood, which applies
these terms to all Israel to some extent realistically. Although Jubilees is partic­
ularly interested in the priesthood of Levi, all Israel are to live up to the stan­
dards of priestly holiness. Under the influence of the Holiness Code (H), this
holiness becomes a reflection of God's own holiness (Jub 16:26; cf. Lev 19:2);
thus, fornication and impurity must not be found in Israel (Jub 30:8; 33:20). H
further focuses on the land defiled by sexual impurity (16:5; 3 3 : 1 0 , 1 4 ; contrast
the future in 50:5; cf. 1 En 10:20, 22) as well as bloodshed (see above), from
which the offenders will be uprooted (Jub 21:21-22; 30:22; 33:19; cf. Lev 18:25,28;
20:22). Within this framework, Jubilees applies H's provision for a priest's
daughter engaging in "fornication" (Lev 21:9) to all Israelite women and girls:
"Burn her in fire," is what Abraham tells his sons about such a woman (Jub
20:4) and what Judah suggests to do with Tamar ( 4 1 : 1 7 , 2 8 , with reference to
Abraham's rule; but cf. already Gen 38:24). In addition, Jubilees seems to link

34. Cf. C. Werman, "Jubilees 30: Building a Paradigm for the Ban on Intermarriage"
HTR 90 (1997): 1-22,14. For sexual transgression in Jubilees, cf. the paper by William Loader,
"Jubilees and Sexual Transgression," Hen 30, no. 2 (2008), and Loader, Enoch, 125-235. Cf. the
association of HSOD with m i l and WIS in AID 16 (6:3).
35. Cf. Lev 18; 20; 1 1 Q T * 66:11-17; 4Q251 frg. 17; CD 5:7-11. Note the use of JllJt in CD
4:17,20; 4:20-5:2 refers most probably to polygyny, but it is unclear whether 5:7-11 (marriage
of nieces) still belongs to that rubric.
36. In the Hebrew Bible only Isa 6:13 and particularly Ezra 9:2; see below. In Jubilees,
cf. 22:27; 25:3.12> 18. Cf. ALD 17 [6:4).
37. Cf. further Jub 19:15; 22:9,15 and particularly 2:19-21 (election and sanctification),
although there is no consistent rendering of if?30 OS in Ge'ez. For this motif, cf. also Deut
7:6; 14:2; 26:18.

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 Purity and Impurity in the Book of Jubilees

this p u n i s h m e n t with the other instance in w h i c h H prescribes b u r n i n g : a m a n

h a v i n g sex w i t h his m o t h e r - i n - l a w ( L e v 2 0 : 1 4 ) ; the r e c i p r o c a l presentation of
38
the i n v o l v e d parties in Jub 41:25-26 resembles the r e a s o n i n g of C D 5 : 9 - i o .
H o w e v e r , the m a i n f o c u s in m a t t e r s of s e x u a l i m p u r i t y is a r g u a b l y o n
the issue of i n t e r m a r r i a g e , w h e r e Jubilees c o m b i n e s the stance of E z r a 9 - 1 0 ;
N e h 1 3 : 2 3 - 3 1 w i t h H ' s p r o v i s i o n s for zenut, a v i e w s i m i l a r l y u n d e r l y i n g A L D
3 9
16-17 (6:3-4), 4QMMT B 75-82, and probably 4QTQahat, 4Q225
a 4 0
(= 4 Q p s J u b ) , and 4 Q 5 1 3 . J u d a h a n d T a m a r ' s t r a n s g r e s s i o n has its d e e p e r
c a u s e in this p r o b l e m (cf. J u b 34:20; 4 1 : 1 - 2 , 2 0 ) . W a r n i n g against i n t e r m a r ­
riage b e g i n s w i t h A b r a h a m . I n the c o n t e x t of a c o m m a n d to separate f r o m
the n a t i o n s a n d keep a w a y " f r o m their i m p u r i t y a n d f r o m all their e r r o r "
(Jub 2 2 : 1 9 ) , he e x h o r t s J a c o b n o t to m a r r y o n e of the C a n a a n i t e s b e c a u s e
t h e y are d e s t i n e d "for b e i n g u p r o o t e d f r o m the earth" ( 2 2 : 2 0 ) ; the h o l i n e s s of
Jacob's seed (cf. E z r a 9:2) features a b u n d a n t l y in the c o n t e x t ( J u b 2 2 : 1 1 , 1 3 , 1 5 ,
2 4 ) . R e b e c c a r e n e w s this w a r n i n g , a c c u s i n g the C a n a a n i t e s o f " i m p u r i t y , "
"fornication," " l e w d n e s s , " a n d " e v i l " ( 2 5 : 1 ) . J a c o b , at the age o f s i x t y - t h r e e ,
assures h e r he n e v e r c o n s i d e r e d m a r r y i n g a C a n a a n i t e b u t w o u l d w e d o n e of
U n c l e L a b a n ' s d a u g h t e r s in M e s o p o t a m i a ( 2 5 : 4 - 1 0 ) , w h e r e u p o n R e b e c c a
praises h i m as "a p u r e s o n a n d h o l y o f f s p r i n g " (25:12; cf. I s a a c , J u b 2 7 : 9 - 1 2 ,
a n d his n e g a t i v e v e r d i c t o n E s a u , 3 5 : 1 4 , w h o " h a s g o n e after his w i v e s , after
i m p u r i t y [refc^s], a n d after their e r r o r s " ) .

T h e m o s t p a r a d i g m a t i c chapter, h o w e v e r , is Jub 3 0 , the s t o r y of D i n a h .

B y sleeping w i t h her, S h e c h e m — a n d b y e x t e n s i o n the S h e c h e m i t e s , w h o
h a d a b d u c t e d her — "defiled h e r " ( J u b 3 0 : 2 - 3 , 5 - 6 ) , a n o t i o n a l r e a d y p r e s e n t
in G e n 34:5, 1 3 , 27 (cf. l Q a p G e n 2 0 : 1 5 , o n S a r a i ) . In J u b i l e e s , h o w e v e r , the is­
sue is d e e p e r t h a n treating D i n a h like a w h o r e (thus G e n 3 4 : 2 1 ) : it is ulti­
4 1
m a t e l y a b o u t d e f i l e m e n t of Israel ( J u b 3 0 : 8 - 9 ) , creating an i m p u r i t y f r o m
w h i c h " I s r a e l w i l l not b e c o m e clean" ( 3 0 : 1 4 ) unless t h e y eradicate the p e r p e -

38. Cf. A. Shemesh, Punishments and Sins: From Scripture to the Rabbis (in Hebrew)
(Jerusalem: Magnes, 2 0 0 3 ) , 16-17; further literature in Loader, Enoch, 183 n. 467.
39. With C. E. Hayes, Gentile Impurities and Jewish Identities: Intermarriage and Con­
version from the Bible to the Talmud (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2 0 0 2 ) , 82-91 (assum­
ing marriage with converted Gentiles); different is E. Qimron and J. Strugnell, Qumran Cave
4.V: Miqsat Ma'ase ha-Torah, DJD 10 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 5 5 , 1 7 1 n. 178a (marriage be­
tween priests and Israelites). Note that, contrary to Jubilees, M M T applies the prohibition of
• 'SVD (Lev 19:19; Deut 22:9).
40. Cf. esp. 4QTQahat 1 i 8-9; 4Q225 1 1 ; 4Q513 1-2 ii 1-6; 10 ii 3-8.
w
41. With forms o f 'ark asa, "defile," with Israel as implied referent; Latin in 30:8:
polluerit cum.

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Lutz Doering

t r a t o r s . A g a i n , the a p p l i c a t i o n o f the m o d e l o f priests c o m m i t t i n g zenut be­

c o m e s r e l e v a n t . A c c o r d i n g l y , a w o m a n g i v e n to a f o r e i g n e r is b u r n e d like a
priest's d a u g h t e r c o m m i t t i n g zenut ( J u b 30:7; cf. L e v 2 1 : 9 ) ; in a d d i t i o n , her
father is to b e s t o n e d a c c o r d i n g to the l a w for those g i v i n g their d e s c e n d a n t s
to M o l e c h ( J u b 3 0 : 7 - 1 0 ; cf. L e v 1 8 : 2 1 ; 2 0 : 2 - 5 ) . T h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c i r c u m c i s i o n
is n o t raised; it " d o e s n o t c o n v e r t p r o f a n e seed into h o l y seed, a n d t h u s m i s ­
42
c e g e n a t i o n is forever a n d a l w a y s zenwf." A l t h o u g h J u b 30 f o r b i d s i n t e r m a r ­
riage w i t h any G e n t i l e s , in the o t h e r references the m a i n e m p h a s i s is o n
Canaanites; for J o s e p h , m a r r y i n g an E g y p t i a n w o m a n is n o t problematic
(Jub 4 0 : 1 0 ) , a n d S i m e o n a n d J u d a h even m a r r y C a n a a n i t e w o m e n ( b u t see
the latter's t r o u b l e , a b o v e ) . Jubilees is i n f o r m e d here b y different c o n c e r n s :
43
" b i b l i c a l " p r e c e d e n t , literary patterns, a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y i s s u e s .

C . H a y e s has l a b e l e d this t y p e o f i m p u r i t y " g e n e a l o g i c a l i m p u r i t y , "

c l a i m i n g it to b e a specific t y p e of " m o r a l " i m p u r i t y b e c a u s e its real effect
c o m e s a b o u t in the o f f s p r i n g , t h r o u g h the " s p o i l i n g " of the p u r i t y of l i n e a g e ;
44
it is n o t " r i t u a l . " H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h p u r i t y of l i n e a g e d o e s p l a y a m a j o r
role, s h e n a r r o w s the issue t o o m u c h d o w n to this w h e n it is in fact w i d e r :
Jub 2 2 : 1 6 - 1 8 is a comprehensive call for s e p a r a t i o n f r o m the n a t i o n s , entailing
p r o h i b i t i o n s against eating w i t h t h e m , b e h a v i n g as t h e y d o , a n d b e c o m i n g
i5
their c o m p a n i o n (bisa). W h i l e o n e o f the c o n c e r n s is i d o l a t r y (see b e l o w ) ,
"eating" w i t h G e n t i l e s m a y i n c l u d e d i e t a r y a n d p e r h a p s " r i t u a l " i s s u e s . F r o m
a different a n g l e , O l y a n has a r g u e d that a l r e a d y E z r a - N e h e m i a h deal w i t h
G e n t i l e i m p u r i t y in m o r e t h a n o n e w a y a n d that at least in N e h 13:4-9 ( p u r i ­
fication of the c h a m b e r of T o b i a h the A m m o n i t e ) the issue is " r i t u a l " in n a ­
4 6
ture. T h e r e are f u r t h e r pointers suggesting that "ritual" i m p u r i t y of
47
G e n t i l e s w a s n o t a total i n n o v a t i o n in T a n n a i t i c l i t e r a t u r e . The demarca­
tion of t y p e s o f i m p u r i t y s h o u l d n o t be t o o r i g i d .

42. Hayes, Gentile Impurities, 77.

43. See further Loader, Enoch, 1 7 6 - 8 6 , 1 9 2 - 9 6 .
44. Cf. Hayes, Gentile Impurities, 6 9 - 7 0 , 7 3 , 76-77, taking issue with Werman, "Jubilees
30," 1 4 - 1 6 , who perceives a conflation of impurity through physical contact and nonphysical
defilement o f Israel.
45. Still useful though not exhaustive is E. Schwarz, Identitat dutch Abgrenzung:
Abgrenzungsprozesse in Israel im 2 . vorchristlichen Jahrhundert und ihre traditionsgeschicht-
lichen Voraussetzungen. Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Erforschung des Jubiliienbuches, E H S
Theologie 162 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1982), esp. 23-30. For the last item, one might
compare 1 Mace 1:11 (5ia0iouc0a 5ia0pKnv UETCX TCOV e6vtov T U V KUKXIO f|U(5v).
46. S. M. Olyan, "Purity Ideology in Ezra-Nehemiah as a Tool to Reconstitute the
Community," JSJ 35 (2004): 1-16, 10-12.
1 1 1
47. Most importantly, 4Q266 5 ii 4-9 (1. 6: D f l N E U D n ? ?!"! ?); cf. Josephus, Jewish War

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 Purity and Impurity in the Book of Jubilees

4. The impurity of idolatry. In J u b 2 1 : 3 - 5 A b r a h a m w a r n s I s a a c a g a i n s t

i d o l a t r y . T h e H e b r e w in 4 Q 2 2 0 1 1 ( = J u b 21:5) s h o w s that o n e of the w o r d s
,1 I
for " i d o l s " is D ?'1 7J., often o c c u r r i n g in the c o n t e x t of i m p u r i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y
4 8
in E z e k i e l . T h e t r a n s l a t o r r e a d i l y uses " u n c l e a n t h i n g s " (rekusdn) here.
w
S i m i l a r l y , in " A r a " t h e y h a d m a d e " u n c l e a n t h i n g s " (rek sa) and other idols,
a n d the "spirits of the s a v a g e o n e s " h e l p e d to c o m m i t sins a n d i m p u r i t y ( J u b
1 1 : 4 ; cf. 1 E n 1 9 : 1 ) . A b a n d o n i n g the c o v e n a n t b r i n g s a b o u t i m p u r i t y , a b o m i ­
n a t i o n s , a n d c o n t a m i n a t i o n ( 2 3 : 1 7 ) . B e f o r e J a c o b travels to B e t h e l to b u i l d an
altar, the i d o l s m u s t b e d e s t r o y e d ( 3 1 : 1 - 2 ; cf. G e n 3 5 : 2 - 4 ) . In J u b 2 2 : 1 6 - 1 8
Isaac's w a r n i n g a g a i n s t i d o l a t r y is p l a c e d in the c o n t e x t o f s e p a r a t i o n f r o m
4 9
the n a t i o n s ; it c o m b i n e s established a n t i - i d o l p o l e m i c w i t h q u a l i f i c a t i o n of
the " a c t i o n s " a n d " w a y s " o f the n a t i o n s as s o m e t h i n g i m p u r e , c o n t a m i n a t e d ,
a n d a b o m i n a b l e . A p a r t f r o m E z e k i e l , H h a s b e e n i n f l u e n t i a l , w h e r e the p r o ­
h i b i t i o n of i d o l a t r y a n d m a g i c reflects Israel's o b l i g a t i o n to b e h o l y ( L e v 1 9 : 4 ,
3 1 ; 2 0 : 1 - 8 , 27; 2 6 : 1 ) ; m a g i c is v i e w e d as zenut ( L e v 2 0 : 6 , DmrlN nUT ?), 1
and
i d o l a t r y defiles the s a n c t u a r y ( L e v 2 0 : 3 ) . We find s i m i l a r c o n c e r n s , b u t m o r e
a
dependence o n D e u t e r o n o m y , in n Q T 6 0 : 1 6 - 2 1 (cf. D e u t 1 8 : 9 - 1 3 ) and
4 Q M M T C 6-7 (cf. D e u t 7 : 2 6 ) .

III. Summary and Evaluation

1. Jubilees a c k n o w l e d g e s both " r i t u a l " a n d " m o r a l " p u r i t y a n d i m p u r i t y . W h i l e

issues of " m o r a l " ( i m ) p u r i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y s e x u a l m o r a l i t y a n d i n t e r m a r r i a g e ,
take literary a n d i d e o l o g i c a l p r e c e d e n c e , the a f f i r m a t i o n of the laws of the
p a r t u r i e n t , the n o t i o n o f s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e as ritually defiling, " r i t u a l " p u r i t y
as r e q u i r e d for Passover, priestly a b l u t i o n s , t e m p o r a l limits for c o n s u m p t i o n
of s e c o n d tithe, a n d d i e t a r y laws s h o u l d n o t b e o v e r l o o k e d . W h i l e there is n o
c o n f l a t i o n of " r i t u a l " a n d " m o r a l " i m p u r i t y as c l a i m e d for Q u m r a n by
K l a w a n s , s o m e i t e m s s e e m to fall into m o r e t h a n o n e r u b r i c ( b l o o d w h e n
shed defiles the l a n d , priests m u s t w a s h after sacrifice; G e n t i l e s are g e n e a l o g i ­
cally i m p u r e b u t also i d o l a t r o u s , o n e s h o u l d n o t eat w i t h t h e m ) .

2.150: Essenes purify themselves (airoAoueaSai) after contact with neophytes KaQ&mp
aXkofyvhw ouu(j>upEVTC<c,. Cf. J. M. Baumgarten, "The Disqualification o f Priests in the 4Q
Fragments of the 'Damascus Document,' a Specimen of the Recovery of Pre-Rabbinic
Halakha," in The Madrid Qumran Congress, 2:503-13; Harrington, The Purity Texts, 1 1 7 - 2 3 .
48. Cf. Ezek 1 8 : 6 , 1 2 , 1 5 ; 2 0 : 7 , 1 8 , 3 1 ; 22:3-4; 2 3 : 7 , 3 0 ; 36:18, 25; 37:23. Cf. in the context of
n'OSin 2 Kings 2 1 : 1 1 (cf. 1 Kings 2 1 : 2 6 ) ; Ezek 14:6; 16:36.
49. Cf. Jer 2:27; Hab 2:19; Wisd 14:21; Epistle o f Jeremiah. Cf. also 1 En 91:9; 99:7-9.

273
Lutz Doering

2. In its p r e s e n t a t i o n of p u r i t y and i m p u r i t y , Jubilees r e m a i n s w i t h i n

the p a r a m e t e r s of its setting ( M o u n t S i n a i ) a n d the n a r r a t i v e it r e w o r k s
( G e n e s i s to m i d - E x o d u s ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the t e m p l e as the m a i n object o f
p o t e n t i a l " r i t u a l " d e f i l e m e n t ( a n d , r e g a r d i n g c o r p s e i m p u r i t y , the p r e r e q u i ­
site for the p u r i f i c a t i o n ritual) is largely absent. O c c a s i o n a l l y , t h o u g h , it
c o m e s into f o c u s , either per analogiam ( E d e n , S a b b a t h , p e r h a p s B e t h e l ) o r in
references to the future s a n c t u a r y . A n d it is p r e c i s e l y here that w e do find ref­
erences to " r i t u a l " p u r i t y a n d i m p u r i t y (as w e l l as " m o r a l " i m p u r i t y defiling
the t e m p l e ) . To e x p e c t ritual ( i m ) p u r i t y g e n e r a l l y in " p r e t e m p l e " n a r r a t i v e
contexts w o u l d b e a n a c h r o n i s t i c in the p e r s p e c t i v e of J u b i l e e s .
3. T h i s literary preference, h o w e v e r , gives w a y to a centrifugal m o t i o n
w i t h i n the text, w h i c h further a c c o u n t s for the d i s p r o p o r t i o n b e t w e e n "rit­
ual" a n d " m o r a l " i m p u r i t y . W h i l e in n a r r a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e the t e m p l e is n o t
yet there, priests are a l r e a d y at h a n d . In line w i t h L e v i t i c a l priestly t r a d i t i o n s ,
Jubilees is interested in establishing a p r e - A a r o n i t e p r i e s t h o o d . A t the s a m e
t i m e , the a d o p t i o n o f the E z r a n c o n c e p t o f " h o l y s e e d " a n d a literal take o n
the n o t i o n o f Israel as " k i n g d o m of p r i e s t s " a n d " h o l y n a t i o n " ( E x o d 19:6; cf.
D e u t 7:6) a l l o w for a p p l i c a t i o n o f priestly s t a n d a r d s to all Israel. In J u b i l e e s '
n a r r a t i v e w o r l d , these s t a n d a r d s are n e c e s s a r i l y reflected m a i n l y in the
"moral" realm.
4. In t e r m s of t r a d i t i o n s , Jubilees is h e a v i l y i n d e b t e d to H , w h i c h al­
r e a d y combines "ritual" and " m o r a l " (im)purity. H's provisions, particularly
for zenut, have b e e n e x a c e r b a t e d b y the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d literal a p p l i c a t i o n of
the n o t i o n s of " h o l y seed," "priestly k i n g d o m , " etc. ( E z r a 9:2; P, D ) . Jubilees
here represents a c o m m o n stance w i t h A L D , 4 Q M M T , and m o s t likely also
a
4 Q T Q a h a t , 4 Q 2 2 5 ( = 4 Q p s J u b ) , a n d 4 Q 5 1 3 ; A L D a n d M M T are i m p o r t a n t
in that t h e y also c o m b i n e " r i t u a l " a n d " m o r a l " ( i m ) p u r i t y . C o m m o n m a t e ­
a
rial t r a d i t i o n s o n " r i t u a l " p u r i t y are w i t h 4 Q 2 6 5 (cf. 4 Q D ) ( § I . i ) , the T e m p l e
Scroll (§1.5), a n d a g a i n A L D (§1.3; B e t h e l ) . T h i s s h o w s to m y m i n d that the
issue o f ( i m ) p u r i t y in Jubilees is to b e l o c a t e d on a trajectory from H to
Q u m r a n , s h a r p e n e d b y the " h o l y s e e d " c o n c e p t . T h e links w i t h the early
E n o c h literature are m o r e l i m i t e d in r a n g e , relating to the field of " m o r a l "
i m p u r i t y : the a d o p t i o n of the W a t c h e r m y t h , dealing w i t h s e x u a l t r a n s g r e s ­
s i o n , b l o o d s h e d , a n d i d o l a t r y ; a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s in the e x p e c t a t i o n o f an earth
cleansed o f i m p u r i t y ( J u b 50:5; 1 E n 1 0 : 2 0 , 2 2 ) .

5. In line w i t h its c o n c e r n for the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of " M o s a i c " l a w in the

p e r i o d before S i n a i , Jubilees allocates p u r i t y laws, b o t h " r i t u a l " a n d " m o r a l , "
to this p e r i o d at a p p r o p r i a t e p o i n t s in the n a r r a t i v e . It c l a i m s that such laws
are e n g r a v e d on the h e a v e n l y tablets (cf. 1 E n 8 1 : 1 - 2 ) , as well as lived o u t a n d /

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or c o m m a n d e d by primeval figures and patriarchs. T h e emphasis on purity,

both forms taken together, is considerable. Purity is mentioned for the first
time shortly after the first section on the Sabbath (Jub 3:8-14, following 2:1,
50
1 7 - 3 3 ) - Like the S a b b a t h , purity is about Israel's identity, functioning as a
token of election ("holy seed") and a b o u n d a r y marker (separation from the
nations). A t the same time, and again like the Sabbath, it allows Israel to rep­
resent humankind par excellence ( A d a m and his wife observe purity), giving
Israel a firm place in the world. Israel's purity is constantly in danger; the re­
sponse Jubilees offers is not built on sectarianism but keeps all Israel in view.

50. Cf. Doering, "Concept o f the Sabbath," passim. And see above, n. 14.

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Tradition and Innovation
in the Calendar of Jubilees

Jonathan Ben-Dov

The calendar in the book of Jubilees keeps attracting great scholarly atten­
tion. T h e present paper will focus on some points raised in recent studies
and will try to suggest additional ideas for the assessment of the calendar of
1
Jubilees. T h e discussion benefits from developments in the study of the
3 6 4 - d a y calendar tradition ( 3 6 4 D C T ) , from the full publication of the
calendrical scrolls from Q u m r a n , as well as from a wider scope with regard
2
to the B o o k of A s t r o n o m y in 1 E n o c h ( A B ) .
The b o o k of Jubilees is never fully explicit about the calendar em­
ployed in it. Strangely, Jubilees is more a book on chronology than a book on
calendars. Although calendrical details are mentioned in the book, they are
explicit only in chap. 6, while the main effort of the author in his recurrent
remarks on timing concentrates on matters of chronology. T h u s , quite a few
elements of the calendar in Jubilees are left unsettled.
The book relates to a year of 3 6 4 days ( 3 6 4 D Y ) , as stated explicitly in
6:32. T h e same figure is attested elsewhere in E n o c h i c and Q u m r a n i c litera­
3
ture: 1 E n 74:12; 82:6; 4 Q 2 5 2 C o m m e n t a r y on G e n e s i s II 2-3; 4 Q 3 9 4 3 - 7 i 1 - 3 ;

1. A fuller discussion is included in my doctoral dissertation, now prepared for publi­

cation as: Head of All Years: Studies in Qumran Calendars and Astronomy in Their Ancient
Context. W h e n preparing this article, I benefited from discussions with Mrs. Atar Livneh, a
graduate student at the University o f Haifa working o n Jubilees at Qumran.
2. U. Glessmer, "Calendars in the Q u m r a n Scrolls," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty
Years, ed. P. W. Flint and J. C. VanderKam (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 213-78; S. Talmon, J. Ben-Dov,
and U. Glessmer, Qumran Cave4.VI: Calendrical Texts, DJD 21 (Oxford: Clarendon, 2001).

276
 Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar of Jubilees

3
liQPs X X V I I 4 - 6 . It w o u l d be n a t u r a l to a s s u m e that all m e n t i o n s of the
3 6 4 D Y relate to the s a m e a n n u a l f r a m e w o r k . T h i s w a s the i n s i g h t u n d e r l y i n g
3
the p i o n e e r i n g studies of A . J a u b e r t a n d S. T a l m o n .
H o w e v e r , w i t h the p u b l i c a t i o n of n e w m a t e r i a l the o p p o s i t e side of the
dialectic p r e v a i l e d , as s c h o l a r s t e n d e d to e m p h a s i z e v a r i o u s d i s c r e p a n c i e s
4
w i t h i n the 3 6 4 D C T . M o s t notably, L i o r a R a v i d p o i n t e d out the b o o k o f J u ­
5
b i l e e s as an e x c e p t i o n f r o m the n o r m in the s e c t a r i a n 3 6 4 D C T . The
Q u m r a n i c s o u r c e s are g e n e r a l l y consistent, p o i n t i n g to a m o r e - o r - l e s s stable
t r a d i t i o n , w h i c h o r i g i n a t e d in E n o c h i c literature a n d c o n t i n u e d into yahad
p r a c t i c e . In contrast, here it is c l a i m e d that the b o o k of Jubilees s e e m s to r e p ­
resent a d i v e r g e n t t h r e a d o f the s a m e t r a d i t i o n .
J a u b e r t ' s i n s i g h t o n the s i m i l a r i t y of the c a l e n d a r of Jubilees to the
Q u m r a n c a l e n d a r s has b e e n a c r u c i a l factor in the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the
c a l e n d r i c a l s c r o l l s . T h i s is in itself p r o o f t h a t J a u b e r t ' s s y s t e m is v a l i d
through s i g n i f i c a n t parts of the c a l e n d r i c a l t r a d i t i o n . H o w e v e r , J u b i l e e s
s t a n d s in d i s t i n c t i o n f r o m other p a r t s of the t r a d i t i o n , n o t o n l y w i t h r e g a r d
to the place of the m o o n in the c a l e n d a r r e c k o n i n g , b u t also w i t h r e g a r d to
the g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e of the y e a r . It w o u l d s e e m that, a l t h o u g h the a u t h o r o f
Jubilees was indebted to the J e w i s h 364DCT, he w a s at the s a m e time
s t r o n g l y c o m m i t t e d to o t h e r constitutive p r i n c i p l e s , w h i c h c o m p e l l e d h i m
to p r o d u c e a u n i q u e cast of c a l e n d r i c a l c o n c e p t s .
T h e d i s a g r e e m e n t s are often e x p l i c i t , but u s u a l l y they are i m p l i c i t in
the things left u n s a i d . It is a m a z i n g to see the a m o u n t of c a l e n d r i c a l details
left u n t o l d i n J u b i l e e s . F o r this r e a s o n , p r u d e n c e m u s t be p r a c t i c e d w h e n at­
t e m p t i n g to r e c o n s t r u c t the a u t h o r ' s p o s i t i o n in these m a t t e r s . T h e d i s c u s ­
s i o n b e l o w r e v i e w s the constitutive p r i n c i p l e s in J u b i l e e s ' c a l e n d a r in o r d e r
to ascertain j u s t h o w m u c h the a u t h o r w a s i n d e b t e d to, o r independent
f r o m , the J e w i s h 364DCT.

3. A. Jaubert, "Le calendrier des Jubiles et de la secte de Q u m r a n . Ses origines

bibliques," V T 3 (1953): 250-64; Jaubert, "Le calendrier des Jubiles et les jours liturgiques de
la semaine," VT 7 (1957): 3 5 - 6 1 ; S. Talmon, "The Calendar Reckoning o f the Sect from the
Judaean Desert," reprinted with revisions in Talmon, The World of Qumran from Within (Je­
rusalem: Magnes; Leiden: Brill, 1989), 147-85. Talmon repeated his opinion in a recent publi­
cation: S. Talmon, "Calendars and Mishmarot," in EDSS, 1:108-17, here 1 1 4 .
4. Glessmer, "Calendars in the Q u m r a n Scrolls."
5. L. Ravid, "The Book of Jubilees and Its Calendar — a Reexamination," DSD 10
(2003): 3 7 1 - 9 4 .

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Jonathan Ben-Dov

I. The Septenary Principle and the Count of Weeks

In the b o o k of Jubilees, the central a p p a r a t u s for s t r u c t u r i n g t i m e is its d i v i ­

s i o n into s e v e n - b a s e d u n i t s . S u c h s t r u c t u r i n g w a s n e c e s s a r y to i m p o s e o r d e r
o n the e n d l e s s , a r b i t r a r y stretches o f t i m e e x p e r i e n c e d b y m a n k i n d . L a r g e -
scale s e p t e n a r y (i.e., s e v e n - b a s e d ) units are the shemitah (week of years) and
the j u b i l e e ( w e e k of shemitot), a p p l i e d t h r o u g h o u t J u b i l e e s to o u t l i n e the
w o r l d ' s history. In J u b i l e e s this c o n c e p t d i c t a t e d that each n u m e r i c a l figure is
a n a l y z e d u s i n g s e p t e n a r y u n i t s . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , in the f o r m u l a i c a c c o u n t
of the life of N o a h ( 1 0 : 1 5 - 1 6 ) , a n d in a m o r e p r o n o u n c e d w a y at the death o f
A b r a h a m ( 2 3 : 8 ) . T h i s latter v e r s e s e r v e s as a t r i g g e r for the s o - c a l l e d a p o c a ­
l y p s e of c h a p . 23: " H e h a d lived for three j u b i l e e s a n d f o u r w e e k s of years —
175 y e a r s . . . . F o r the t i m e s of the a n c i e n t s w e r e 19 j u b i l e e s . . . . After the f l o o d
t h e y started to d e c r e a s e from 19 j u b i l e e s . . . . A l l the g e n e r a t i o n s that w i l l
c o m e into b e i n g f r o m n o w u n t i l the great d a y of j u d g m e n t will g r o w old
6
q u i c k l y — before t h e y c o m p l e t e t w o j u b i l e e s . " N o t e that w h i l e the i n t r o d u c ­
t o r y verses c o u n t the lifetimes of v a r i o u s p e r s o n a l i t i e s as n i n e t e e n j u b i l e e s ,
or three j u b i l e e s p l u s f o u r w e e k s , etc., n u m b e r s are g i v e n later i n the a p o c a ­
7
l y p s e m o r e n a t u r a l l y as n o r m a l d e c i m a l figures ( 2 3 : 1 5 , 27). F o r the p r e s e n t
p u r p o s e s w e n o t e that, as 23:15 s h o w s , it w a s b y n o m e a n s n e c e s s a r y to c o u n t
the y e a r s b y j u b i l e e s , w h i c h c o u l d in fact be quite a w k w a r d . S u c h a p r a c t i c e
w a s r e q u i r e d o n l y b y an a u t h o r e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y c o m m i t t e d to the s e p t e n a r y
plan.

The i m p o r t a n c e of the s e p t e n a r y d i v i s i o n of t i m e is attested in J u b

4:18, w h e r e E n o c h is accredited w i t h t r a n s m i t t i n g a n c i e n t t e a c h i n g s : " H e tes­
tified to m a n k i n d in the g e n e r a t i o n s of the earth: the weeks of the jubilees he
8
r e l a t e d , a n d m a d e k n o w n the days of the y e a r s ; the m o n t h s he a r r a n g e d ,
a n d related the sabbaths of the years" (emphasis m i n e ) . N u m e r o u s authors

6. Translations of Jubilees follow J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, CSCO 510

(Louvain: Peeters, 1989).
7. This difference may suggest that the apocalypse o f Jub 23 was taken from an inde­
pendent source and worked into the framework o f Jubilees using an editorial remark. A sim­
ilar conclusion was reached by C. Berner in his contribution to the present conference. O n
sources and redaction in Jubilees see M. Segal, The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redac­
tion, Ideology, and Theology, JSJSup 117 (Leiden: Brill, 2007); for a different analysis o f chap.
23, see C. Werman, "The Book of Jubilees and the Q u m r a n Scrolls," Meghillot 2 (2004): 37-55
(here 39-48).
8. This phrase is possibly attested in liQJubilees frg. 4: F. Garcia-Martinez et al., eds.,
Qumran Cave 11 II. 11Q2-18, 11Q20-31, DJD 23 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1998), 213.

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 Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar of Jubilees

s e a r c h e d for the c o n t e n t of the E n o c h i c w r i t i n g s k n o w n to the a u t h o r of J u ­

9
bilees b a s e d o n this p a s s a g e . It is g e n e r a l l y accepted that A B , in s o m e t e x t u a l
f o r m , w a s a l r e a d y an established b r a n c h of E n o c h i c w i s d o m at the t i m e J u b i ­
lees w a s w r i t t e n . A c c o r d i n g l y , it s h o u l d b e n o t e d that the s e p t e n a r y t e r m i ­
n o l o g y in J u b 4 : 1 7 d o e s n o t refer to the i n n e r d i v i s i o n o f the y e a r but r a t h e r
to l o n g - r a n g e units of y e a r s . T h u s , this t e r m i n o l o g y is r i g h t l y c o n s i d e r e d a
p r o j e c t i o n of ideas f r o m the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s ( A W ) , since A B n e v e r uses
1 0
the n u m b e r s e v e n w i t h r e g a r d to the 3 6 4 D Y . O n l y o n c e does A B m e n t i o n
"a c o u n t of w e e k s , " hr'ata sanbat (79:4, lit. "a law o f the w e e k " ) , b u t this is
d o n e , for s o m e u n k n o w n r e a s o n , w i t h r e g a r d to the lunar year! T h e refer­
ence to E n o c h in Jub 4 : 1 7 is therefore l o y a l to the o r i g i n a l spirit of A B a n d
AW, w h i l e Jubilees itself carries the s e p t e n a r y idea further, p r e s e n t i n g it in
6:29 as the v e r y essence of the s t r u c t u r e of the 3 6 4 D Y .

F r o m the b o o k o f J u b i l e e s it is a p p a r e n t that the s e p t e n a r y p r i n c i p l e

w a s also active in the s m a l l - s c a l e d e s i g n o f the 3 6 4 - d a y year, w h i c h w a s di­
v i d e d v e r y n e a t l y into w e e k s . T h i s idea is p r e s e n t e d i n J u b 6 : 2 9 - 3 0 , the o n l y
explicit s t a t e m e n t in Jubilees o n the s t r u c t u r e o f the year. T h e s e t w o verses
first relate to the y e a r q u a r t e r s a n d t h e n to the entire y e a r : " E a c h o f t h e m
(consists o f ) 1 3 w e e k s ; . . . A l l the days of the c o m m a n d m e n t s w i l l be 52
w e e k s of days; (they w i l l m a k e ) the entire y e a r c o m p l e t e . " In this p a s s a g e the
n u m b e r of 52 w e e k s in a y e a r is n o t a m e r e c i r c u m s t a n c e , an o u t c o m e of the
n u m b e r 3 6 4 . R a t h e r it f o r m s the v e r y definition of the y e a r a n d of its c o m ­
p o n e n t s . In J u b i l e e s ' eyes, a " c o m p l e t e " y e a r equals a stretch o f 52 w e e k s , o r
1 1
r a t h e r f o u r p e r i o d s of 13 w e e k s e a c h . N o other place w i t h i n the 3 6 4 D C T
12
m a k e s this p o i n t so c l e a r . In fact, it is not m a d e a g a i n in the b o o k of J u b i ­
lees. I n c o n t r a s t , the y e a r is m o r e c o m m o n l y d e f i n e d u s i n g the t w e l v e
m o n t h s , each q u a r t e r c o n t a i n i n g three such m o n t h s . T h i s is c o m m o n in 1 E n
72 b u t also in Q u m r a n c a l e n d a r s such as 4 Q 3 2 0 3 ii—4 i; 4 Q 3 9 4 frgs. 1 - 2 ;
4 Q 3 9 4 frgs. 3-7 i; 6 Q 1 7 .

9. See J. C. VanderKam, From Revelation to Canon: Studies in the Hebrew Bible and
Second Temple Literature, JSJSup 62 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) , 3 1 0 - 1 8 ; recently A. Y. Reed, Fallen
Angels and the History of Judaism and Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2005), 87-89. For updated bibliography and renewed evaluation of the matter, see the contri­
bution of J. Bergsma in this volume.
10. M. Albani, Astronomie und Schbpfungsglaube. Untersuchungen zum astronomischen
Henochbuch, W M A N T 68 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1994), 278-80.
11. See Ravid, "The Book o f Jubilees," 383ff.
a
12. The closest place is n Q P s XXVII, which counts 52 songs for the Sabbaths of the
year alongside the 364 days, the 30 festivals, and the 1 2 heads o f months.

279
Jonathan Ben-Dov

The fact that in the foremost opportunity for programmatic state­

ments on the calendar the author of Jubilees chose to ignore the numbering
of months and stressed the count of weeks instead reveals his extraordinary
indebtedness to the septenary scheme. One may note how this idea appears
again in Synchellus and Cedrenus, who were greatly influenced by Jubilees'
time reckoning. In their description of the order of times as revealed by Uriel
to Enoch, they revert to septenary terminology: ". . . Uriel . . . revealed to
13
Enoch . . . that a year has 5 2 weeks." Surprisingly, this report reflects Jub
6:30 rather than the Enochic AB!
The importance of the septenary principle in Jubilees is further under­
scored by two passages on Sabbath halakah, standing at the framework of
1 4
the book, in chaps. 2 and 5 0 .
Despite all of the above, some reservations arise from a close analysis
of the narratives in Jubilees. First, throughout the dozens of dating formulas
15
in Jubilees there is not one case where the days of the week are mentioned.
This stands in striking contrast to the practice in Qumran literature, where
the days of the week are meticulously recorded in date formulas. The con­
trast is most evident when comparing the flood narrative of Jubilees to that
of the Commentary on Genesis 4 Q 2 5 2 . While the two versions considerably
touch on chronology and date formulas, only in 4 Q 2 5 2 are the days of the
week added to the date formulas, and very thoroughly so. The same is true
with regard to dates and date formulas in 4 Q 3 1 7 , 4 Q 5 0 3 , and all the Qumran
calendars ( 4 Q 3 1 9 - 4 Q 3 3 0 , 4 Q 3 9 4 ) , as well as in Jewish deeds from the second
16
century c.e. onward. It is also illuminating that Synchellus's account of the
flood, despite being indebted to Jubilees, adds the record of the days of the
week, an element absent from the account in Jubilees.
The absence of the days of the week from the accounts in Jubilees con­
spicuously distinguishes this book from other second temple literature. In

13. M. Black, Apocalypsis Henochi Graece, SVTP 3 (Leiden: Brill, 1970), 12; W. Adler
and P. Tuffin, The Chronography of George Synkellos (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002),
45-
14. L. Doering, "The Concept of the Sabbath in the Book of Jubilees," in Studies in the
Book of Jubilees, ed. M. Albani et al., TSAJ 65 (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997), 179-205.
15. Ravid, "The Book of Jubilees," 377; see already J. M. Baumgarten, Studies in
Qumran Law (Leiden: Brill, 1977), 106.
16. R. Katzoff and B. M. Schreiber, "Week and Sabbath in Judean Desert Documents,"
Scripta Classica Israelica 17 (1998): 102-14. A few centuries later this practice was attested in
the Zo'ar inscriptions of the late talmudic period (S. Stern, Calendar and Community: A His­
tory of the Jewish Calendar, 2nd Century BCE-ioth Century CE [Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2 0 0 1 ] , 87-97).

280
 Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar of Jubilees

this respect Jubilees r e s e m b l e s date f o r m u l a s in the H e b r e w B i b l e , w h e r e the

1 7
days of the w e e k are n o t i n v o k e d . T h e r e a s o n for the difference c o u l d either
b e that at the t i m e Jubilees w a s c o m p o s e d the n a m i n g o f w e e k d a y s w a s n o t
yet c o m m o n , or rather, the a u t h o r m a d e a deliberate c h o i c e to d i s c a r d this
p r a c t i c e , s e e k i n g to i m i t a t e the b i b l i c a l n o r m .
S e c o n d l y , the ostensible i m p o r t a n c e of the S a b b a t h in the f r a m e w o r k
of the b o o k s t a n d s in g l a r i n g c o n t r a s t to its n e a r a b s e n c e f r o m the n a r r a t i v e s .
B e s i d e s in c h a p s . 2 a n d 5 0 , the S a b b a t h is m e n t i o n e d in the a d m o n i t i o n s of
1 : 1 0 , 1 4 ; 6:34-38; a n d 2 3 : 1 9 , a l w a y s as p a r t of a f o r m u l a i c chain o f Israelite reli­
18
gious institutions. T h i s f o r m u l a of c o v e n a n t k e e p i n g (in fact, m o r e of c o v ­
e n a n t b r e a k i n g ) is w e l l k n o w n f r o m e l s e w h e r e , n o t a b l y in p e s h e r H o s e a a n d
1 9
in p s e u d o p r o p h e t i c literature ( 1 Q D M , 4 Q D M ? , 4 Q 3 9 0 ) . I m p o r t a n t as it is,
it d o e s n o t attest to an o u t s t a n d i n g status for the S a b b a t h in J u b i l e e s .
It is r e m a r k a b l e that the S a b b a t h is altogether absent f r o m the narratives.
D o e r i n g has n o t e d that " T h e use of the term 'the seventh d a y ' is quite reserved
. . . a l t h o u g h the a u t h o r o f Jubilees... quite clearly s h o w s a sense o f n u m e r i c a l
references, it is n o t the quality o f the h e p t a d w h i c h is the focus of his inter­
20
est." T h e absence of the S a b b a t h f r o m the narratives w a s often interpreted
( f o l l o w i n g J a u b e r t ) as a sign for the abstention from travel or from any other
21
secular task o n the S a b b a t h . H o w e v e r , the fruit o f a lively a r g u m e n t on
Jaubert's h y p o t h e s i s in recent decades is that practically e v e r y piece of evi­
22
dence b r o u g h t forth b y J a u b e r t m a y b e c o n t e s t e d . Furthermore, Baumgarten
23
n o t e d several quite clear cases w h e r e the S a b b a t h is v i o l a t e d in J u b i l e e s .

17. Cf. A. Lemaire, "Les formules de datation en Palestine au premier millenaire avant
J . - C , " in Temps vecu. Temps pense, ed. F. Briquel-Chatonet (Paris: Gabalda, 1998), 53-82. A
useful analogy m a y be the psalms designated for daily recitation in Jewish liturgy. While this
function o f the psalms does n o t appear in the M T (except for the title o f Ps 9 2 , which, how­
ever, must be understood otherwise), it is included in the titles for those psalms in the Sep-
tuagint Psalter.
18. Doering, "Concept o f the Sabbath," 183.
19. W e r m a n , "The Book of Jubilees," 49-53; E. J. C. Tigchelaar, "A Cave 4 F r a g m e n t of
Divre Mosheh ( 4 Q D M ) and the Text o f 1Q22 1:7-10 and Jubilees 1 : 9 , 1 4 , " DSD 1 2 , no. 3 (2005):
303-12-
20. Doering, "Concept of the Sabbath," 1 9 1 .
2 1 . Jaubert, "Le calendrier des Jubiles et de la secte de Qumran"; VanderKam, From
Revelation to Canon, 81-85; R- T. Beckwith, Calendar, Chronology, and Worship, AJEC 61
(Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 5 ) , 54-55.
22. E.g., Baumgarten, Studies in Qumran Law, 1 0 1 - 1 4 ; B. Z. Wacholder and S. Wacholder,
"Patterns o f Biblical Dates and Qumran's Calendar," HUCA 66 (1995): 1-40 (here 4 - 8 ) .
23. J. M. B a u m g a r t e n , "Some Problems o f the Jubilees Calendar in Current Research,"
V T 3 2 (1982): 485-89.

281
Jonathan Ben-Dov

If S a b b a t h o b s e r v a n c e w a s i m p o r t a n t for the a u t h o r , o n e w o u l d e x p e c t
to f i n d it attached to o n e of the n a r r a t i v e s in the distinct style o f the b o o k .
M y a r g u m e n t , o n e m a y c l a i m , is an a r g u m e n t f r o m silence, b u t , after all, so is
Jaubert's!
Jubilees fails to refer to a central aspect of the J e w i s h s e p t e n a r y t i m e
r e c k o n i n g : the " p e n t a c o n t a d " c o u n t of days b e t w e e n the t w o h a r v e s t festivals,
e n d o r s e d in L e v 2 3 : 1 5 - 2 1 a n d D e u t 16:9, a n d greatly e x p a n d e d in the T e m p l e
2 4
Scroll ( h e n c e f o r t h : T ) . A l t h o u g h the a u t h o r in c h a p . 6 dedicates a l o n g di­
g r e s s i o n to hag ha-shevu'im, a n d despite the great a w a r e n e s s of the a u t h o r o f
n u m e r i c a l aspects of the calendar, it is n e v e r m e n t i o n e d that the festival o c ­
curs fifty days after a p r e v i o u s h a r v e s t festival. G i v e n the utter i m p o r t a n c e o f
the debate on the date of h a r v e s t festivals in s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m , it is diffi­
cult to u n d e r s t a n d h o w a disciple of the 3 6 4 D C T w o u l d n e g l e c t to p r e s e n t his
o p i n i o n in this matter. F u r t h e r m o r e , the " a d d i t i o n a l " h a r v e s t festivals o f the
a
w i n e a n d oil, m e n t i o n e d in T ( n Q T X V I I I - X X I I ) , are absent from J u b i l e e s .
To be s u r e , Jubilees d o e s n o t c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r e the h a r v e s t festivals. I n
29:16 the four c a r d i n a l days are m a r k e d as s p e c i a l dates for the dispatch o f
a g r i c u l t u r a l g o o d s as the s e a s o n s r e v o l v e (see further b e l o w ) . In 3 2 : 1 2 - 1 3 ,
w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h the s e c o n d tithe, the a u t h o r refers to s p e c i a l h a r v e s t festi­
vals for each t y p e o f c r o p , w i t h h a l a k o t h r e m i n i s c e n t o f T: " F o r the seed is to
b e eaten i n its y e a r until the t i m e for h a r v e s t i n g the seed of the y e a r ; the w i n e
( w i l l b e d r u n k ) until the t i m e for w i n e ; a n d the olive ( w i l l b e u s e d ) until the
p r o p e r t i m e of its s e a s o n . A n y of it that is left over a n d g r o w s o l d is to b e
25
(considered) contaminated." B u t w h e n s h o u l d these " t i m e s " be fixed? T h e
dates w e r e n o t specified in c h a p . 3 2 . A clue m a y be f o u n d in J u b 7 : 1 - 2 , al­
t h o u g h the e v i d e n c e is n o t u n p r o b l e m a t i c . In 7 : 1 - 2 N o a h collects the v i n e
f r o m his o r c h a r d in y e a r 4 o f this o r c h a r d ' s p l a n t i n g . A s a strict f o l l o w e r o f
the P e n t a t e u c h a l law ( L e v 1 9 : 2 3 - 2 5 ) , N o a h saves this p r o d u c e , w h i c h w a s h a r ­
v e s t e d at the b e g i n n i n g of m o n t h V I I (year 4 ) , u n t i l the b e g i n n i n g of y e a r 5
( d a y 1 of m o n t h I ) ; o n l y then d o e s he c o n s u m e it together w i t h that day's fes­
tal sacrifices. B a u m g a r t e n d e d u c e d f r o m this p a s s a g e that the a u t h o r of J u b i ­
lees m a r k e d the c a r d i n a l days o f the y e a r ( l / I , l / V I I ) as the festivals o f w i n e
2 6
h a r v e s t , in c o n t r a s t to the dates i n d i c a t e d in T .

24. J. M. B a u m g a r t e n , "The Calendars of the Book o f Jubilees and the Temple Scroll,"
V T 3 7 (1987): 71-78; Ravid, "The Book o f Jubilees," 378ff. But cf. J. C. VanderKam, "The Tem­
ple Scroll and the B o o k o f Jubilees," in Temple Scroll Studies, ed. G. J. Brooke, JSPSup 7 (Shef­
field: JSOT, 1989), 2 1 1 - 3 6 . VanderKam's reservations are discussed below.
25. VanderKam, "The Temple Scroll," 225.
26. Baumgarten, "Calendars," 73-74. Although this passage is orientated toward the

282
 Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar of Jubilees

H o w e v e r , the case is m o r e difficult t h a n m e e t s the e y e . A v e r y s i m i l a r

s t o r y a b o u t N o a h ' s v i n e y a r d a p p e a r s also i n the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n ( c o l .
X I I ) , i n c l u d i n g the v e r y s a m e dates for the h a r v e s t a n d c o n s u m p t i o n o f the
n e w g r a p e s a n d w i n e . M o r e o v e r , M e n a h e m K i s t e r n o t e d h o w the s t o r y at the
b e g i n n i n g o f c h a p . 7 c o n t r a d i c t e d the s e c t a r i a n h a l a k a h p r o c l a i m e d at the
2 7
e n d o f c h a p . 7 w i t h r e g a r d to the c o n s u m p t i o n o f n e w f r u i t . This matter
w a s c a r r i e d f u r t h e r i n the f r a m e w o r k o f M . S e g a l ' s c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h e o r y o n
the c o m p o s i t i o n o f J u b i l e e s . It s e e m s that at the b e g i n n i n g o f c h a p . 7, the a u ­
thor of Jubilees used an external literary source, either the Genesis
2 8
A p o c r y p h o n o r a n e a r l i e r s o u r c e c o m m o n to b o t h c o m p o s i t i o n s . I n this
s o u r c e , the dates o f l / V I I a n d l / I w e r e r e c o r d e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e
for the l a w s o f Reva'i ( t h e n e w o r c h a r d ) . H o w e v e r , w h e n e m b e d d e d i n the
b o o k o f J u b i l e e s , this o l d s o u r c e g a i n e d r e n e w e d s i g n i f i c a n c e o w i n g to the
2 9
c e n t r a l i t y o f the c a r d i n a l d a y s i n the c a l e n d r i c a l c o n c e p t i o n s o f the a u t h o r .

The a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s t h u s d i d n o t s i m p l y i g n o r e the h a r v e s t f e s t i v a l s ,
b u t r a t h e r s e e m s to h a v e fixed t h e m o n different t i m e s t h a n t h o s e p r e s c r i b e d
i n T. T h e a u t h o r w a s u n d o u b t e d l y a w a r e o f t h e l a w s in T ( o r a s i m i l a r
s o u r c e ) , s i n c e i n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f hag hasevu'im (6:21; c p . 2 2 : 1 ) h e u s e s a
a 30
p h r a s e q u i t e s i m i l a r to n Q T X I X 9:

laws o f reva'i (restrictions o n consuming the fruit o f new trees), Baumgarten convincingly
claimed that special place is given in it to the cardinal ( m e m o r i a l ) days as harvest festivals.
Baumgarten, however, was n o t aware o f the parallel in Genesis Apocryphon.
27. M. Kister, "Some Aspects o f Q u m r a n i c Halakhah," in The Madrid Qumran Con­
gress: Proceedings of the International Congress on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Madrid, 18-21 March,
1991, ed. J. Trebolle Barrera and L. Vegas Montaner, STDJ 11 (Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 2 ) , 2:571-88.
28. See further the contributions o f Esther Eshel and Michael Segal in the present
volume.
29. Kister ("Some Aspects," 585) implies that the author o f Jubilees changed the dates
in the earlier narratives in order to fit his calendrical concepts: "The author o f the Book o f
Jubilees altered this tradition to make it conform with his own halakhic view: According to
its view, N o a h observed the first day o f the first m o n t h (i.e., Nisan), which is a holiday ac­
cording to Jubilees, with the appropriate festival sacrifices." It would seem, however, that the
exact opposite is right: Jubilees uses the same dates as in the earlier source! Kister is right,
however, when claiming that the cardinal days (l/I and l/VII) carry special significance
when placed in their new literary context within the book o f Jubilees.
30. In addition to the identical line in Jubilees and T, Pfann read a similar line in the
cryptic text 4 Q 3 2 4 d (see Stephen Pfann, "Time and Calendar in Jubilees and Enoch," Hen 31,
no. 1 [ 2 0 0 9 ] ) . This reading, however, is n o t included in previous transcriptions o f the scroll
(as, for example, the transcription by M. G. Abegg in D. W. Parry and E. Tov, The Dead Sea
Scrolls Reader [Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ] , part 4, p. 54).

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Jonathan Ben-Dov

Jubilees: it is the festival of weeks and it is the festival of firstfruits. This

festival is twofold and of two kinds

Temple Scroll: for it is [the feast of w]eeks and a feast of first fruits, a me­
morial for ev[er

Was the author of Jubilees aware of the "pentacontad" day count? Baum­
garten thought he was aware of this concept but chose to ignore it because he
31
had found it incongruent with other aspects of the 3 6 4 D C T . Ravid, in con­
trast, claims the author had an altogether different conception of the feast of
32
Sevu'ot, deliberately avoiding the pentacontad count. VanderKam suggested
a way to bypass the problem: "In all cases in which Jubilees mentions a festi­
val, it is named explicidy in the section of the Torah covered by the narra­
tive. . . . This entails that the absence of a religious holiday from Jubilees
means only that the writer saw no warrant in Genesis-mid-Exodus for posit­
33
ing that it was known and practiced by the fathers." This statement by
VanderKam is a worthy warning against an argument from silence, especially
in a sensitive text like Jubilees. This hermeneutic principle allowed
VanderKam to conclude that the calendar in Jubilees is quite similar to that of
T. However, in the present case we see, pace VanderKam, that the author was
concerned about the harvest festivals not once but twice in his book (chaps. 7
and 32). In these two points the author opted for fixing the harvest festivals
on the line between the agricultural seasons (32:12) and more specifically the
"memorial days" (7:1-2). We must therefore conclude that the author of Jubi­
lees had been aware of the harvest festivals according to T, but he chose to re­
fashion this law according to his calendrical preferences or literary restraints.
To sum up the present section, Jubilees betrays an ambiguous attitude
toward the septenary aspect of the 364DCT. On the one hand, long-term
time reckoning was organized in septenary units that bring to mind the bib­
lical jubilee count. In addition, Jub 6:29-30 defines the year in terms of the
count of weeks. On the other hand, Jubilees deviates from the "sabbatarian"
norm in a series of matters.
Even where the author of Jubilees does commit to the septenary time
count, he does so in a genuinely original way, diverging from the so-to-say
"mainstream" of the 364DCT. Thus, whereas the reference to Enoch in Jub
4:17 is loyal to the original spirit of AB and AW, Jubilees carries the septenary

31. Baumgarten, "Calendars," 75.

32. Ravid, "The Book of Jubilees," 378-79.
33. VanderKam, "The Temple Scroll," 221.

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 Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar of Jubilees

idea further, p r e s e n t i n g it in 6:29 as the s t r u c t u r a l essence of the 3 6 4 D Y . A l ­

t h o u g h the Q u m r a n s o u r c e s a c k n o w l e d g e that the y e a r consists of 4 x 13
w e e k s , this figure is n e v e r d e c l a r e d as the essence of the year, as is d o n e in J u b
6:29-30. T h e impression about the n o n c o n f o r m i s t nature of Jubilees'
3 4
c a l e n d r i c a l t h o u g h t t h u s g a i n s further support.
T h e i d i o s y n c r a s i e s o f J u b i l e e s ' c a l e n d a r c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d as o r i g i ­
n a t i n g differently t h a n o t h e r 3 6 4 D C T texts. T h e circles that a u t h o r e d the
texts b e l o n g i n g to that t r a d i t i o n are s i m p l y too s m a l l a n d too related to each
o t h e r to arise f r o m h i g h l y d i v e r g e n t Sitze im Leben. G e n e r a l l y it w o u l d s e e m
that Jubilees crystallized o n the b a c k g r o u n d o f E n o c h i c texts like A B a n d
3 5
AW, in a d d i t i o n to h a l a k i c texts f r o m the m i l i e u of T , but that the a u t h o r
c h o s e to differ from these t r a d i t i o n s , often to a v e r y p r o n o u n c e d extent, in
cases dictated b y his i d e o l o g i c a l a n d interpretative preferences.

II. The Year Quarters

A m a n i f e s t trait of the y e a r in Jubilees is its d i v i s i o n into f o u r q u a r t e r s a n d

the s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e of the c a r d i n a l days for the year's s t r u c t u r e . T h i s ele­
3 6
m e n t existed already in M e s o p o t a m i a n p r o t o t y p e s o f the 3 6 4 D Y . In A B the
d i v i s i o n is also a p p a r e n t , m a i n l y in c h a p s . 72 a n d 82. T h e f o u r c a r d i n a l days
f o r m the skeleton of the E n o c h i c year, m a r k i n g the b o r d e r s b e t w e e n the a n ­
n u a l s e a s o n s . T h i s k e y role of the c a r d i n a l days b e c a m e m o r e pronounced
w h e n the f r a m e w o r k of 360 days — o r i g i n a l l y u n d e r l y i n g the s c h e m e s in A B
3 7
— g a v e p l a c e to the 3 6 4 D Y . T h i s c h a n g e resulted in a v i v i d debate on the
exact status of the f o u r a d d i t i o n a l days (1 E n 75 a n d 8 2 ) .

34. The question whether or not Jubilees' chronological system complies with that o f
AW and other visions of history (past or future) in units of weeks o f jubilees is pertinent
here. This question is debated in the chapter by Scott in this volume and in Christof Berner,
"50 Jubilees and Beyond? Some Observations on the Chronological Structure of the Book of
Jubilees," Hen 3 0 , no. 2 ( 2 0 0 8 ) , and c a n n o t be settled here. It seems, however, that Jubilees is
fairly independent from AW, if not in the overall sum of years then in the m e t h o d o f count­
ing the distinct time units.
35. For the sources of Jubilees see the chapter by Segal in the present volume.
36. J. Ben-Dov and W. Horowitz, "The 364-Day Year in Mesopotamia and Q u m r a n "
(in Hebrew), Meghilloti (2003): 3 - 2 6 .
37. P. Sacchi, "The Two Calendars of the Book o f Astronomy," in Jewish Apocalyptic
and Its History, JSPSup 20 (Sheffield: JSOT, 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 2 8 - 3 9 ; G. Boccaccini, "The Solar Calen­
dars o f Daniel and Enoch," in The Book of Daniel: Composition and Reception, ed. J. J. Collins
and P. W. Flint, VTSup 83 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 1 ) , 2 : 3 1 1 - 2 8 .

285
Jonathan Ben-Dov

T h i s aspect a p p e a r s o c c a s i o n a l l y in Jubilees also o u t s i d e the p r o g r a m ­

m a t i c c h a p . 6. In c h a p . 29 J a c o b s e n d s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s to his p a r e n t s , as
d e s c r i b e d in 2 9 : 1 6 : "to his m o t h e r R e b e c c a , (he sent g o o d s ) four t i m e s p e r
y e a r — b e t w e e n the s e a s o n s of the m o n t h s (md'kala gizeydtihomu la'awrdh),
b e t w e e n p l o w i n g a n d h a r v e s t , b e t w e e n a u t u m n a n d the r a i n ( y s e a s o n ) , a n d
b e t w e e n w i n t e r a n d spring." T h e d i v i s i o n of the y e a r is here c o n n e c t e d w i t h
the a g r i c u l t u r a l tasks, as in G e n 8:22. T h e four c a r d i n a l days are c o n s i d e r e d
suitable for s e n d i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s as gifts. T h i s n o t i o n m a y be c o n ­
n e c t e d w i t h the s p e c i a l m e r i t of the c a r d i n a l days for b r i n g i n g tithes a n d
firstfruits (cf. c h a p s . 7 a n d 3 2 ) . T h e p h r a s e "between the s e a s o n s of the
m o n t h s " in 29:16 is o f s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e , since it places the c a r d i n a l days at
the e n d o f each q u a r t e r ( m o n t h s 3, 6, 9 , 1 2 ) a n d before the b e g i n n i n g o f the
e n s u i n g quarter. T h i s n o t i o n is n o t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the p r a c t i c e of J u b 6:23-
29, w h e r e the c a r d i n a l days stand at the h e a d of m o n t h s 1, 4, 7 , 1 0 . O n e m a y
infer that 29:16 reflects the o r i g i n a l c o n c e p t o f the c a r d i n a l d a y s , w h i c h are in
their n a t u r e " e p a g o m e n a l , " i.e., a d d i t i o n a l d a y s , s t a n d i n g o n the b o r d e r b e ­
3 8
t w e e n fixed t i m e p e r i o d s .

B y c e l e b r a t i n g the first d a y o f each quarter, J u b i l e e s m a i n t a i n s the m o ­

dus o p e r a n d i o f the A r a m a i c L e v i D o c u m e n t , w h e r e the t i m e s of b i r t h o f
L e v i ' s c h i l d r e n are g i v e n in such dates: the tenth m o n t h ( G e r s h o n ) , the first
d a y o f the first m o n t h ( K e h a t ) , the t h i r d m o n t h ( M e r a r i ) , the first of the sev­
3 9
enth m o n t h ( J o c h e v e d ) . C l e a r l y these f o u r days w i n s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e i n
A L D , an ideal that c o n t i n u e d in J u b 28, w h e r e the dates for the b i r t h s o f J a ­
cob's s o n s are g i v e n . A l o n g s i d e i n s i g n i f i c a n t dates for m o s t of the s o n s , three
p r o m i n e n t figures receive p o r t e n t o u s dates in J u b 28: l / I ( L e v i ) , 1 5 / I I I ( J u -
d a h ) , l / I V ( J o s e p h ) . O t h e r f o r t u n a t e o c c u r r e n c e s are d a t e d to the b e g i n n i n g s
4 0
of s e a s o n s (see 3:32; 7:3; 13:8; 24:21; 2 7 : 1 9 ; 3 0 : 1 ; 3 1 : 3 ; 3 3 : 1 ; 4 5 : i ) . The placement
of f a v o r a b l e o c c a s i o n s at the b e g i n n i n g of a s e a s o n m a k e s m o r e sense t h a n

38. Talmon underscored the liminality of the cardinal days, connecting it with the n o ­
a
tion of pegu'im in n Q P s X X V I I ; see S. Talmon, "The Covenanters' Calendar o f Holy Sea­
sons according to the List o f King David's Compositions in the Psalms Scroll from Cave 1 1
a
( n Q P s X X V I I ) " (in Hebrew), in Fifty Years of Dead Sea Scrolls Research: Studies in Memory
of Jacob Licht, ed. G. Brin and B. Nitzan (Jerusalem: Yad Ben Zvi, 2 0 0 1 ) , 2 0 4 - 1 9 , here 2 1 5 - 1 9 .
39. Chap. 11 according to J. C. Greenfield, M. E . Stone, and E. Eshel, The Aramaic Levi
Document, SVTP 19 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) , i89ff. The above authors prefer the possibility that
a
Merari was born in the fourth m o n t h , according to a reading in 4 Q L e v i . For the Aramaic
Levi D o c u m e n t as a source for Jubilees, see further the chapter by E. Eshel in this volume.
40. To resume the criticism of Jaubert's hypothesis, this point seems to indicate that,
when selecting dates for meaningful occasions, the author of Jubilees gave m o r e attention to
key points in the year than to days o f the week.

286
Jonathan Ben-Dov

T h i s aspect a p p e a r s o c c a s i o n a l l y in Jubilees also o u t s i d e the p r o g r a m ­

m a t i c c h a p . 6. In c h a p . 29 J a c o b s e n d s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s to his p a r e n t s , as
d e s c r i b e d in 2 9 : 1 6 : "to his m o t h e r R e b e c c a , (he sent g o o d s ) four t i m e s p e r
y e a r — b e t w e e n the s e a s o n s of the m o n t h s (md'kala gizeydtihomu la'awrdh),
b e t w e e n p l o w i n g a n d h a r v e s t , b e t w e e n a u t u m n a n d the r a i n ( y s e a s o n ) , a n d
b e t w e e n w i n t e r a n d spring." T h e d i v i s i o n of the y e a r is here c o n n e c t e d w i t h
the a g r i c u l t u r a l tasks, as in G e n 8:22. T h e four c a r d i n a l days are c o n s i d e r e d
suitable for s e n d i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s as gifts. T h i s n o t i o n m a y be c o n ­
n e c t e d w i t h the s p e c i a l m e r i t of the c a r d i n a l days for b r i n g i n g tithes a n d
firstfruits (cf. c h a p s . 7 a n d 3 2 ) . T h e p h r a s e "between the s e a s o n s of the
m o n t h s " in 29:16 is o f s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e , since it places the c a r d i n a l days at
the e n d o f each q u a r t e r ( m o n t h s 3, 6, 9 , 1 2 ) a n d before the b e g i n n i n g o f the
e n s u i n g quarter. T h i s n o t i o n is n o t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the p r a c t i c e of J u b 6:23-
29, w h e r e the c a r d i n a l days stand at the h e a d of m o n t h s 1, 4, 7 , 1 0 . O n e m a y
infer that 29:16 reflects the o r i g i n a l c o n c e p t o f the c a r d i n a l d a y s , w h i c h are in
their n a t u r e " e p a g o m e n a l , " i.e., a d d i t i o n a l d a y s , s t a n d i n g o n the b o r d e r b e ­
3 8
t w e e n fixed t i m e p e r i o d s .

B y c e l e b r a t i n g the first d a y o f each quarter, J u b i l e e s m a i n t a i n s the m o ­

dus o p e r a n d i o f the A r a m a i c L e v i D o c u m e n t , w h e r e the t i m e s of b i r t h o f
L e v i ' s c h i l d r e n are g i v e n in such dates: the tenth m o n t h ( G e r s h o n ) , the first
d a y o f the first m o n t h ( K e h a t ) , the t h i r d m o n t h ( M e r a r i ) , the first of the sev­
3 9
enth m o n t h ( J o c h e v e d ) . C l e a r l y these f o u r days w i n s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e i n
A L D , an ideal that c o n t i n u e d in J u b 28, w h e r e the dates for the b i r t h s o f J a ­
cob's s o n s are g i v e n . A l o n g s i d e i n s i g n i f i c a n t dates for m o s t of the s o n s , three
p r o m i n e n t figures receive p o r t e n t o u s dates in J u b 28: l / I ( L e v i ) , 1 5 / I I I ( J u -
d a h ) , l / I V ( J o s e p h ) . O t h e r f o r t u n a t e o c c u r r e n c e s are d a t e d to the b e g i n n i n g s
4 0
of s e a s o n s (see 3:32; 7:3; 13:8; 24:21; 2 7 : 1 9 ; 3 0 : 1 ; 3 1 : 3 ; 3 3 : 1 ; 4 5 : i ) . The placement
of f a v o r a b l e o c c a s i o n s at the b e g i n n i n g of a s e a s o n m a k e s m o r e sense t h a n

38. Talmon underscored the liminality of the cardinal days, connecting it with the n o ­
a
tion of pegu'im in n Q P s X X V I I ; see S. Talmon, "The Covenanters' Calendar o f Holy Sea­
sons according to the List o f King David's Compositions in the Psalms Scroll from Cave 1 1
a
( n Q P s X X V I I ) " (in Hebrew), in Fifty Years of Dead Sea Scrolls Research: Studies in Memory
of Jacob Licht, ed. G. Brin and B. Nitzan (Jerusalem: Yad Ben Zvi, 2 0 0 1 ) , 2 0 4 - 1 9 , here 2 1 5 - 1 9 .
39. Chap. 11 according to J. C. Greenfield, M. E . Stone, and E. Eshel, The Aramaic Levi
Document, SVTP 19 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) , i89ff. The above authors prefer the possibility that
a
Merari was born in the fourth m o n t h , according to a reading in 4 Q L e v i . For the Aramaic
Levi D o c u m e n t as a source for Jubilees, see further the chapter by E. Eshel in this volume.
40. To resume the criticism of Jaubert's hypothesis, this point seems to indicate that,
when selecting dates for meaningful occasions, the author of Jubilees gave m o r e attention to
key points in the year than to days o f the week.

286
Jonathan Ben-Dov

B o t h s t a t e m e n t s are c o n n e c t e d w i t h l E n 1 0 6 : 1 5 : " A n d there w i l l b e great

c
w r a t h u p o n the earth a n d a flood . . . for a y e a r " ( = 4 Q E n 5 ii 2 0 ) . I n a w a y ,
b o t h J u b i l e e s a n d 4 Q 2 5 2 s u p p l y c a l e n d r i c a l r a m i f i c a t i o n s for this s t a t e m e n t
in 1 E n o c h . H o w e v e r , it is essential to n o t e w h a t qualifies in each of the c o m ­
p o s i t i o n s as a "full year." W h i l e in 4 Q 2 5 2 II 2-3 the sufficient c o n d i t i o n is the
n u m b e r of 364 d a y s , in J u b 6:29-30 the c o n d i t i o n is an edifice c o n s i s t i n g o f
f o u r q u a r t e r s o f t h i r t e e n w e e k s each. J u b i l e e s ' c o n c e p t i o n of the y e a r is t h u s
m o r e s u b t l y s t r u c t u r e d t h a n the p l a i n 3 6 4 D C T .

III. The Division of the Year into Months

W h i l e t w o e l e m e n t s o f the y e a r — q u a r t e r s a n d w e e k s — are c o n s i d e r e d c r u ­
cial in 6 : 2 9 - 3 0 , the d i v i s i o n o f the y e a r into 12 m o n t h s is entirely i g n o r e d . I n ­
d e e d , w h i l e 3 6 4 d i v i d e s n e a t l y into 4 a n d 7, it is n o t easily d i v i d e d into 1 2
m o n t h s . B e t t e r results c o u l d b e a c h i e v e d for the i d e a l y e a r of 360 d a y s , w i t h
12 s c h e m a t i c " m o n t h s " o f 30 d a y s e a c h , b u t since the 4 c a r d i n a l d a y s are n o w
c o u n t e d w i t h i n the year, t h e y r e n d e r the d i v i s i o n into m o n t h s c o m p l i c a t e d .
In A B ( c h a p . 7 2 ) the p r o b l e m w a s s o l v e d b y c o u n t i n g the a d d i t i o n a l d a y s as
n u m b e r 3 1 at the e n d o f m o n t h s I I I , V I , I X , a n d X I I . T h i s s o l u t i o n w a s a p ­
p l i e d to the y e a r o f the flood in 4 Q 2 5 2 I 2 0 , w h e r e a r e c o r d of the date 3 1 / X I I
44
is p a r t i a l l y e x t a n t . H o w e v e r , the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s is r e l u c t a n t to a c k n o w l ­
edge this r e c k o n i n g , p o s s i b l y b e c a u s e in his v i e w a m o n t h c a n o n l y be a p e r ­
fect a n d s c h e m a t i c u n i t of 30 d a y s .

As n o t e d b y R a v i d , J u b i l e e s often refers to "the m i d d l e of the m o n t h , "

m o s t n o t a b l y in m o n t h I I I , w h i c h s h o u l d h a v e c o n t a i n e d 3 1 d a y s a c c o r d i n g
4 5
to J a u b e r t . T h i s p h r a s e is i n a p p l i c a b l e in a 3 1 - d a y m o n t h , a n d its use re­
veals that J u b i l e e s h a d in m i n d a s c h e m a t i c 3 0 - d a y m o n t h e v e n in m o n t h I I I .
A s i m i l a r c o n t e n t i o n m a y rise f r o m J u b 5:27, w h e r e a p e r i o d o f 150 d a y s is
e q u a t e d w i t h 5 m o n t h s , against the rules of the s t a n d a r d 3 6 4 D Y , a c c o r d i n g to
w h i c h at least 1 m o n t h of 31 days m u s t o c c u r in the s e q u e n c e .
How far c a n w e go w h e n i n t e r p r e t i n g this data? A c a u t i o u s v i e w w o u l d
see the figures of 5:27 as an i n n o c e n t r e c a p i t u l a t i o n of s c r i p t u r e , d e n y i n g a n y
p r a c t i c a l c a l e n d r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e to w h a t s e e m s like a s e q u e n c e o f five 3 0 - d a y

44. Cf. the reconstruction by G. Brooke, "4Q252: C o m m e n t a r y on Genesis A," in

Qumran Cave 4.XVII: Parabiblical Texts, Parti, ed. G. Brooke et al., DJD 22 (Oxford: Claren­
don, 1 9 9 6 ) , 194.
45. Ravid, "The Book of Jubilees," 381.

288
 Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar of Jubilees

m o n t h s . H o w e v e r , d u e to the a d d i t i o n a l data d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , it m a y b e ar­

g u e d w i t h R a v i d that J u b i l e e s d o e s n o t r e c o g n i z e the existence of a 3 1 - d a y
m o n t h . In a p a r a p h r a s e of 1 E n 7 5 : 1 - 2 , o n e m a y c l a i m that in J u b i l e e s the 4
a d d i t i o n a l days are c o u n t e d in the r e c k o n i n g o f the year, b u t t h e y s t a n d o u t ­
4,6
side the r e c k o n i n g of months. T h e c a r d i n a l days s t a n d , a c c o r d i n g to 2 9 : 1 6 ,
" b e t w e e n the s e a s o n s of the m o n t h s , " in a t r a n s i t o r y p o s i t i o n , b u t n e v e r
w i t h i n the c o u n t of m o n t h s .
B o c c a c c i n i e m p h a s i z e d that an i d e a l 3 6 0 - d a y y e a r s t o o d in the b a c k ­
g r o u n d of the c a l e n d a r t r a d i t i o n , a n d that in s o m e earlier texts the y e a r w a s
4 7
t h o u g h t to c o n s i s t n o t o f 364 days b u t r a t h e r o f 360 + 4 d a y s . The problem­
atic figures in 5:27 p r o v e , a c c o r d i n g to B o c c a c c i n i , that J u b i l e e s a d h e r e s to a
y e a r of 360 + 4 d a y s , w i t h the a d d i t i o n a l d a y s n o t c o u n t e d in the c o n t i n u o u s
r e c k o n i n g , the v e r y p r a c t i c e o p p o s e d in 1 E n 75:3 a n d 82:6. H o w e v e r , s i n c e
the s e p t e n a r y d e f i n i t i o n o f the y e a r i n J u b 6 : 3 0 - 3 1 is so f u n d a m e n t a l for that
b o o k ' s i d e o l o g y , it is h a r d to c o n c e i v e o f the n u m b e r 364 as a s e c o n d a r y s y n ­
thesis of 360 + 4 d a y s . T h u s , a l t h o u g h b o t h R a v i d a n d B o c c a c c i n i stress the
t e n s i o n b e t w e e n ideal 3 0 - d a y m o n t h s a n d the 3 6 4 D Y , the m o d e l s s u g g e s t e d
b y R a v i d s e e m to a c c o u n t b e t t e r for the data in J u b i l e e s .

IV. Sun and Moon

In a p r o g r a m m a t i c s e r m o n o n the calendar, J u b 6:36 s o l e m n l y declares that

" T h e r e w i l l be p e o p l e w h o carefully o b s e r v e the m o o n w i t h l u n a r o b s e r v a ­
t i o n s b e c a u s e it is c o r r u p t ( w i t h respect to) the s e a s o n s a n d is e a r l y f r o m
y e a r to y e a r b y ten days." T h i s v e r s e c o n v e y s a s h a r p o p p o s i t i o n to l u n a r o b ­
s e r v a t i o n s , p r o b a b l y also l u n a r c a l c u l a t i o n s , in the c a l e n d a r r e c k o n i n g . A n
i m p r e s s i v e piece o f r h e t o r i c , this s t a t e m e n t w a s a p p l i e d in research to the i n ­
t e r p r e t a t i o n n o t o n l y of J u b i l e e s b u t also of the entire 3 6 4 D C T , a n d w a s c o n ­
s i d e r e d the u l t i m a t e p r o o f that the 3 6 4 D Y is a s o l a r year, a n d that it s t a n d s in

46. See Boccaccini, "The Solar Calendars," 3 1 7 - 1 8 . Curiously enough, a thirty-one-day

m o n t h is hardly attested in calendrical material. T h e only clear attestations appear in 1 En
72. T h e rosters o f month-lengths in 4 Q 3 2 0 3 ii—4 i and 6Q17 are unfortunately broken in the
crucial points. In 3 Q 3 2 1 I I 5-6 the reconstruction o f day 31 is unavoidable, since on that day a
"second dwq" occurs (S. Talmon, DJD 2 1 , p. 7 1 ) . However, this reconstruction involves an in­
verted order of the number, since usually in 4 Q 3 2 1 the units precede the tens. Even the refer­
ence to a thirty-one-day m o n t h in 4Q252 I 20 is not entirely certain, since the crucial word
w'hd is absent.
47. Boccaccini, "The Solar Calendars," 3 1 8 - 2 0 .

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Jonathan Ben-Dov

48
o p p o s i t i o n to the p r o t o r a b b i n i c l u n i - s o l a r c a l e n d a r . In a n a l o g y to the cal­
e n d a r p o l e m i c s in r a b b i n i c literature, T a l m o n c o n s t r u e d the m o o n to be an
evil s i g n , s y m b o l i z i n g the d a r k in o p p o s i t i o n to the b r i g h t light of the s u n .
H o w e v e r , the p u b l i c a t i o n o f further c a l e n d r i c a l s o u r c e s revealed that
this n o t i o n is o n l y p a r t i a l l y j u s t i f i e d . We n o w k n o w that the 3 6 4 D C T h a d a
c o n s t a n t interest in l u n a r p h e n o m e n a , starting from its i n c e p t i o n in A B a n d
4 9
lasting until the latest c a l e n d r i c a l texts f r o m Q u m r a n . A B is d e t e r m i n e d to
p r e s e n t m o d e l s a p p l i c a b l e n o t o n l y to the s u n but also to the entire h e a v e n l y
host: s u n , m o o n , and stars. T h i s i d e o l o g y is c o n v e y e d in 1 E n 7 4 : 1 7 : " T h e n the
y e a r is c o r r e c t l y c o m p l e t e d in a c c o r d w i t h their eternal p o s i t i o n s a n d the p o ­
sitions of the s u n ; t h e y rise f r o m the gate f r o m w h i c h it rises a n d sets for
t h i r t y days." T h i s verse p u r p o r t e d l y seeks to s h o w that s u n a n d m o o n e q u a l l y
traverse the s a m e gates a s s i g n e d to the s u n in c h a p . 7 2 , a n d t h a t t h e y do so
a c c o r d i n g to the s a m e t i m e f r a m e , t h u s y i e l d i n g a c o r r e c t (literally sdq,
"just") o r d e r of the u n i v e r s e (cf. 7 4 : 1 2 ) . T h e interest o f A B in l u n a r p h a s e s is
therefore n o t a s e c o n d a r y d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t is rather a p r i m a r y c o n c e r n o f
the a u t h o r .

Later c a l e n d r i c a l texts, w h i c h e m p l o y e d the 3 6 4 D Y in the f r a m e w o r k

of a r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t y , w i t h fixed t i m e s for ritual acts a n d p r a y e r s , c o n ­
t i n u e d to assign a central p l a c e to l u n a r c a l c u l a t i o n s . T h i s is m o s t clearly
seen in mishmarot d o c u m e n t s s u c h as 4 Q 3 2 0 a n d 4 Q 3 2 1 , w h e r e l u n a r p h a s e s
are c o u n t e d side b y side w i t h the o r d e r o f s e r v i c e in the t e m p l e a n d the festi­
val c a l e n d a r s for the cultic year. T h i s c o m m i t m e n t to the t r a c k i n g o f l u n a r
p h a s e s o r i g i n a t e s in the M e s o p o t a m i a n p r o t o t y p e s of the 3 6 4 D C T , a n d has
b e e n s u s t a i n e d b y the J e w i s h t r a d e n t s of the M e s o p o t a m i a n k n o w l e d g e , al­
5 0
beit w i t h the c h a n g e s r e q u i r e d to fit their c a l e n d r i c a l - a p o c a l y p t i c n e e d s .
A g r e a t p a r t o f the 3 6 4 D C T is t r a n s m i t t e d in r e l i g i o u s c o m p o s i t i o n s
that h a v e n o interest in a s t r o n o m y . T h u s , w h e n the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t o r
the p e s h e r i m a r g u e against the m i s t a k e n c a l e n d a r p r a c t i c e s o f their o p p o ­
nents, or w h e n T a p p o i n t s the s a c r e d t i m e s for sacrifice, t h e y use the 3 6 4 D Y
as an a r i t h m e t i c a l l y efficient d e v i c e for the r e g u l a t i o n o f the cult. T h i s d e v i c e

48. Talmon, The World of Qumran, 1 6 7 - 7 1 ; recently Talmon, "Anti-Lunar Calendar

Polemics in Covenanters' Writings," in Das Ende der Tage und die Gegenwart des Heils. Fest­
schrift H. W. Kuhn, ed. M. Becker and W. Fenske (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 29-40.
49. J. Ben-Dov, "The Initial Stages of Lunar T h e o r y at Q u m r a n , " / / S 54 ( 2 0 0 3 ) : 125-38.
50. J. Ben-Dov and W. Horowitz, "The Babylonian Lunar Three in Calendrical Scrolls
from Qumran," ZA 95 (2005): 1 0 4 - 2 0 . In contrast to what is sometimes suggested, I do not
think a lunar calendar was practiced at Q u m r a n . On the contrary, the normative time frame
was always the 364DY, but it was consistently aligned with schematic models o f the lunar orbit.

290
 Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar of Jubilees

is neither solar nor lunar, nor stellar nor any other astronomical predicate,
but rather it is a schematic 364DY.
Seen on this background, the antilunar declarations in Jubilees are
highly exceptional. Further evidence comes from chap. 2, where the author
rewrites the creation account of the fourth day (Gen 1:14-16). V. 8 reports on
the creation of sun, moon, and stars and imbues them with the traditional
roles of giving light upon the earth and distinguishing day and night. How­
ever, when reaching the calendrical role of the luminaries, an altogether new
idea is employed: "The Lord appointed the sun as a great sign above the
earth for days, Sabbaths, months, festivals," etc. The fact that the text of Gen
1:14, which refers to "lights" in general, is transformed to refer to the sun
only, clearly proves that the author entertains a solar disposition, probably
51
also preference for a solar calendar.
Why would a Jewish (proto-)sectarian author propagate a solar calen­
dar if the 3 6 4 D C T does not compel him to do so? Several possibilities may
be suggested. First, from the point of view of Traditionsgeschichte, one may
52
suggest that Jubilees resumes ancient Israelite traditions of solar religion.
This religious tradition continued in the Hellenistic period, in accord with
53
other trends then prevailing in the non-Jewish East.
Second, the polemics of Jub 6:36 must be viewed as part of an ongoing
debate about the role of the moon in calendrical calculations. I present here
54
in brief my argument from a previous publication. The old "Synchronistic
Calendar" (Aramaic AB) opted clearly for the inclusion of the moon in the
calendrical ephemeris. However, this attitude faced some problems when it
turned out that sun and moon cannot be entirely reconciled from the spatial
point of view. The response to this problem was twofold. On the one hand,
the author of Jubilees, endorsing his pro-solar disposition, declared that the
moon should be entirely ignored. Thus, Jub 6:36 disputes not only the
protorabbinic luni-solar calendar, but also the synchronization of sun and

51. VanderKam, From Revelation to Canon, 5i2f.; J. van Ruiten, Primeval History Inter­
preted: The Rewriting of Genesis l-Il in the Book of Jubilees, JSJSup 66 (Leiden: Brill, 2000),
37f.; contra Ravid, "The Book of Jubilees," 380.
52. E.g., B. Janowski, "JHWH und der Sonnengott. Aspekte der Solarisierung JHWHs
in vorexilischer Zeil," in Die rettende Gerechtigkeit Beitrage zur Theologie des Alten Testa­
ments (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1999), 192-219; M. S. Smith, "The Near Eastern
Background of Solar Language for Yahweh," JBL109 (1990): 29-39.
53. J. M. Baumgarten, "The Heavenly Tribunal and the Personification of Sedeq in
Jewish Apocalyptic," ANRW 9 , 1 (1979): 219-39.
54. Ben-Dov, "The Initial Stages of Lunar Theory at Qumran."

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Jonathan Ben-Dov

m o o n in A B . O n the o t h e r h a n d , a r e a s o n a b l e s o l u t i o n for this p r o b l e m w a s

r e a c h e d in the s c r o l l 4 Q 3 1 7 , w h i c h p r e s e n t e d for the first t i m e a fully d e v e l ­
o p e d c o n c e p t o f the t h r e e - y e a r cycle, thus p a v i n g the w a y for a r e g u l a r i n c l u ­
s i o n of the m o o n in c a l e n d r i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s . C a r b o n 1 4 tests s h o w that
4 Q 3 1 7 w a s p e n n e d " i n the s e c o n d h a l f of the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E , " i.e., n o t
5 5
l o n g after the c o m p o s i t i o n o f J u b i l e e s . A t that e a r l y stage, therefore, the
d i s p u t e w a s settled against the v i e w of J u b i l e e s , a n d the m o o n w a s a c c e p t e d
as a s t a n d a r d o b j e c t for s p e c u l a t i o n in s e c t a r i a n d o c u m e n t s .
J u b i l e e s ' s o l a r o r i e n t a t i o n is therefore partly d u e to a d i s p o s i t i o n t o w a r d
solar r e l i g i o n , a n d partly d u e to an early s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . c a l e n d r i c a l de­
bate. T h i s debate w a s e v e n t u a l l y r e s o l v e d in a different w a y t h a n the o n e s u g ­
gested in Jubilees, l e a v i n g the a u t h o r of Jubilees in g l a r i n g i s o l a t i o n .

V. The Provenance of Jubilees' Calendar

A possibility raised in research l o n g ago, a n d recently m e n t i o n e d a g a i n b y

56
R a v i d , is an E g y p t i a n o r i g i n for the calendar of J u b i l e e s . T h i s idea w i l l b e
disputed b e l o w . In fact, E g y p t i a n lore c o u l d have b e e n a s o u r c e for the entire
3 6 4 D C T , especially the f a m o u s E g y p t i a n civil calendar of 360 + 5 d a y s . T h e
insistence of Jubilees on schematic m o n t h s of 30 days m a k e s it an especially
favorable place for spotting E g y p t i a n influence. H o w e v e r , several basic facts
argue against this h y p o t h e s i s . First a n d foremost, the E g y p t i a n civil year is
divided into three seasons, n o t four, a n d the m o n t h s are traditionally n a m e d
57
a c c o r d i n g to their serial n u m b e r w i t h i n the three s e a s o n s . The fourfold
division of the year is so f u n d a m e n t a l in the 3 6 4 D C T , a n d in Jubilees especially,

55. For the present purposes it will be assumed that Jubilees was written around the
mid-second century. For the dating o f 4Q317, see S. J. Pfann in P. Alexander et al., eds., Cryp­
tic Texts. Miscellanea, Parti: Qumran Cave4. XXVI, DJD 36 (Oxford: Clarendon, 2 0 0 0 ) , 523.
56. To be precise, since Ravid denies that Jubilees' calendar is a solar one, the Egyptian
connection serves her for other purposes than those suggested by earlier authors. For earlier
attestations of the Egyptian connection, see M. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, trans.
J. Bowden (London and Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974), 1:235; 2:158; H. Stegemann, The Library
of Qumran: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans;
Leiden: Brill, 1998), 166-69.
57. See R. A. Parker, The Calendars of Ancient Egypt (Chicago: Oriental Institute,
!95°)> 45, with special emphasis on the persistence of this practice in the Persian period and
beyond. In general the treatment of ancient Near Eastern calendars in Ravid's article is n o t
sufficiently informed. Against the Egyptian origin o f the 3 6 4 D C T , see Albani, Astronomie
und Schbpfungsglaube, 1 6 1 - 6 9 ; A. Loprieno, "II modello egiziano nei testi della letteratura
intertestamentaria," RivB 34 (1986): 205-32.

292
 Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar of Jubilees

that it is hardly conceivable to trace its origin in the tripartite Egyptian calendar.
Further, one wonders whatever happened to the fifth epagomenal day of the
58
Egyptian civil year. The epagomenal days are grouped according to the Egyp­
tian calendar at the end of the year, while in the Jewish sources they are inter­
spersed, one at the end of each season. Finally, the use of schematic 30-day
months is not necessarily an Egyptian concept, since it could have equally origi­
nated from the Babylonian schematic year of 360 days, as noted by Albani, and
recendy also by Ben-Dov and Horowitz. More generally, the Jewish 364DCT is
better understood as a branch of Mesopotamian science than of the Egyptian
one, since Mesopotamian teachings appear not only in AB but also in other
59
phases of the Jewish 364DCT, as well as in apocalyptic literature in general.
Since the present chapter is dedicated to the book of Jubilees in particu­
lar, the issue of foreign influences is even less relevant than elsewhere. While
this question is worth pursuing when studying scientific treatises like AB or as­
tronomical rosters like 3Q321, nothing in the calendrical conception of Jubilees
would point to a foreign influence on the author. Indeed, Jubilees reveals a
long list of peculiarities in the calendrical sphere, but there is no reason to
trace their origins to foreign sources. Rather, as noted above, the special traits
of Jubilees' calendar can be accounted for on inner-Jewish grounds, taking
into account the author's ideological and hermeneutical dispositions.
The conceptions of time in Jubilees are, on the one hand, unmistak­
ably similar to traditional Jewish concepts from the Bible and second temple
literature. Jubilees used as sources a long list of extrabiblical writings, both
aggadic and halakic. On the other hand, Jubilees differs from traditional
Jewish literature, creating a highly original array of concepts on time reck­
oning. This new conception is so intricate that it would be futile to trace this
element or another from it to foreign influences. Rather it is better to explain
them as stemming from unique ideology, as well as resulting from the liter­
ary constraints placed on this author in the framework of retelling the Pen­
tateuch from Genesis to mid-Exodus.

58. In an earlier presentation Ravid opted for the existence of another epagomenal
day, number 365, at the end of Jubilees' year (L. Ravid and J. Kugel, appendix to L. Ravid, "Is­
sues in the Book of Jubilees" [Ph.D. diss., Bar-Ilan University 2001], 21). This idea is not
taken up in Ravid's DSD article.
59. H. Kvanvig, Roots of Apocalyptic The Mesopotamian Background of the Enoch Fig­
ure and of the Son of Man, WMANT 61 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1988); J. C.
VanderKam, Enoch and the Growth of an Apocalyptic Tradition, CBQMS 16 (Washington,
D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1984); J. J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagina­
tion, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 26-29.

293
The Book of Jubilees and the Origin of Evil

Loren T. Stuckenbruck

A consideration of "the origin of evil" in the b o o k of Jubilees raises the ques­

tion of whether this is an appropriate avenue of inquiry at all or, if so, in
what ways such an inquiry should be qualified. If the topic implies that w e
are looking for a w a y the author(s) of Jubilees speculated about the origin of
sin as a topic in and of itself, then the investigation is misguided. After all, in
searching for references to the beginnings of evil or sin in other early Jewish
literature, w e find that writers were less concerned with the problem in itself
than with m o r e immediate matters. This avails, whether such origins were
being traced to rebellious angels (sometimes including their giant off­
1 2 3
s p r i n g ) , to a transgression by A d a m , to the disobedience of E v e , to w o m e n
4 5 6
of antediluvian t i m e s , to h u m a n i t y , to some combination of these stories,

1. So Book o f the Watchers (esp. 1 En 6:1-8:3), Astronomical Book (80:1-8: wayward

stars), Animal Apocalypse (85:3-87:4), Apocalypse o f Weeks (93:3-4), Birth o f Noah (106:13-
1 7 ) , the Book o f the Giants (e.g., 4 Q 5 3 1 1 : 1 - 8 ) ; cf. 4QAges o f Creation ( 4 Q 1 8 0 - 1 8 1 ) and SibOr
3:110-158. In a number o f documents, the story — without a n apparent (or extant) claim
about an origin o f evil — functions paradigmatically, that is, as a quintessential example o f
consequences to c o m e upon those who engage in comparable activities; see 4 Q E x h o r t a t i o n
Based o n the Flood (4Q370 i 6); 3 Mace 2:4; Ben Sira 16:7.
2. Most clearly in 4 Ezra 7:116-126 and 2 Bar 54:13-22; cf. R o m 5:12.
3. See Sir 25:13-26.
4. TReu 5:1-6.
5. See the Epistle o f E n o c h (1 En 98:4-8).
a r
6. See the Book o f the Parables (1 E n 6 5 : 1 - 6 9 : 2 9 ) ; L A E 12:1—16:3; 3 B 4:7-10; 2 E n
3 0 : 1 7 - 3 1 : 8 ; and 1 Tim 2:9-15.

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 The Book of Jubilees and the Origin of Evil

or c o u l d even b e u n d e r s t o o d as p a r t of the w a y G o d set u p the c o s m o s to r u n

7
f r o m the v e r y b e g i n n i n g . T h e s a m e m a y be said for s t a t e m e n t s in literature
f r o m the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d that, w i t h o u t referring to " o r i g i n s " per se,
a d o p t a level of d i s c o u r s e that a s s u m e s sin is initiated b y h u m a n b e i n g s or, at
8
least, e m p h a s i z e that h u m a n s are r e s p o n s i b l e w h e n d i s o b e d i e n c e o c c u r s .
I n s t e a d , in m o s t — if n o t all — i n s t a n c e s , w r i t e r s w e r e t a k i n g u p a n d inter­
p r e t i n g r e c e i v e d t r a d i t i o n s in w a y s that e n a b l e d t h e m to a d d r e s s a n d m a n a g e
the s o c i a l a n d r e l i g i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s w i t h w h i c h t h e y w e r e a c q u a i n t e d .
T h i s is n o t to say, h o w e v e r , that the w r i t e r s w e r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d in the
q u e s t i o n o f " o r i g i n s " at all, n o t least the a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s , w h o s e i m m e d i ­
ate interests m a y b e c o m p a r e d w i t h the e a r l y E n o c h i c w r i t i n g s , o n the o n e
h a n d , a n d the s o - c a l l e d P s e u d o - E u p o l e m o s m a t e r i a l s , o n the other. F u n ­
d a m e n t a l to their r e l i g i o u s p r o g r a m s w e r e a p p e a l s to the w a y G o d h a s es­
t a b l i s h e d the c o s m o s , so t h a t a n a r r a t i v e o r s t o r y line — w h e t h e r g r a n d
a n d i n t r i c a t e or s m a l l a n d s i m p l e — w o u l d r e a d i l y f u n c t i o n as a w a y to
9
i d e n t i f y a c t i v i t i e s a n d i d e a s t h a t d e p a r t f r o m this o r d e r . In a d d i t i o n , b y at­
t e n d i n g to " o r i g i n s " w e s h o u l d a c k n o w l e d g e m o r e b r o a d l y t h a t J e w i s h
w r i t e r s w e r e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the l a r g e r d e b a t e s o f the t i m e i n w h i c h r e p r e ­
s e n t a t i v e s of M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d N e a r E a s t c u l t u r e s w e r e v y i n g for the s u ­
p e r i o r i t y o f the t r a d i t i o n s received by their respective ethnic groups.
Against assertions b y advocates of E g y p t i a n , B a b y l o n i a n , and Greek cul­
1 0
ture, J e w i s h w r i t e r s d u r i n g the H e l l e n i s t i c age w e r e v a r i o u s l y a d o p t i n g
w a y s o f m a k i n g a c a s e for the p r e e m i n e n c e of J e w i s h r e l i g i o n a n d c u l t u r e .
I n p a r t i c u l a r , the d i s c o u r s e in l E n 6 - 1 1 a n d J u b i l e e s c a n n o t be seen i n i s o ­
l a t i o n f r o m this s e t t i n g .

T h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n w i l l briefly sketch w h a t m i g h t be d e s c r i b e d
as s e v e r a l b e g i n n i n g s r e g a r d i n g w r o n g d o i n g , sin, or evil in the early chapters
of the b o o k o f J u b i l e e s . T h e s e relate to five d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e , yet s o m e w h a t i n ­
t e r c o n n e c t e d , e p i s o d e s : ( 1 ) the w r o n g d o i n g o f the first w o m a n a n d A d a m in
the G a r d e n of E d e n ( J u b 3 : 8 - 3 1 ) , (2) the m u r d e r o f A b e l b y C a i n ( 4 : 1 - 6 ; cf.

: : 1 1 a n
7. So the Two Spirits Treatise (lQS iii 1 3 - i v 26) and Sir 1 1 : 1 4 ; V 7 ; 3 3 ° - 5 ; d 42:24.
8. See, e.g., m o r e abstract statements that regard this or that activity as lying behind
all other forms o f malevolence (so on desire for m o n e y in SibOr 2 : 1 3 5 - 1 3 6 ; 1 Tim 6:10) or
those texts that identify the underlying factor for sin as a particular part o f the h u m a n being
(Mark 7:21 par.; Matt 15:19; lames 1 : 1 3 - 1 5 ) .
9. In addition to the examples listed in nn. 1 - 7 above, see R o m 1:18-32.
1 0 . The debate is mirrored in the second century B . C . E . Pseudo-Eupolemos frag­
ments. Moreover, for the third century B . C . E . , we may note the works of Berossus (History of
Babylonia) and Manetho (Aegyptica).

295
Loren T. Stuckenbruck

4'9> 3 1 - 3 2 ) , (3) the fallen angels tradition (5:1-19; 7:20-39; 8:1-4; 1 0 : 1 - 1 4 ) ,

(4) Noah's nakedness and the cursing of Canaan (7:7-15; cf. 8:8-9:15), and
(5) the tower of Babel ( 1 0 : 1 8 - 1 1 : 6 ) . Limits of space require the discussion to
focus on identifying the act of wrongdoing narrated in each episode, de­
scribing the impact of this deed in the text, and, finally, reflecting on what
sort of "beginning" the episode signifies. While the discussion will center on
Jubilees itself, comparisons with Enochic traditions probably presupposed
by the text will throw light on at least one tradition-historical context within
which the ideas in Jubilees were taking shape.

A. The First Woman, Adam, and the Serpent (3:8-31)

At the outset, the arrival times of Adam and his wife at the Garden of Eden
— distinguished as forty and eighty days after they were created — are ex­
plained on the basis of halakah recorded in the heavenly tablets (3:10-14).
During their first seven years in the Garden, Adam and his wife's activities,
guided by the instruction of angels, involved tilling the Garden and guarding
11
it against "birds, animals, and cattle." This period is one of purity that was
maintained by a vegetarian diet.
The text states that exactly seven years after their arrival in the Garden,
the serpent approaches the woman. As in the biblical tradition (Gen 3 : 1 , 1 3 -
15), Jubilees does not speculate about the origin of the serpent. The serpent's
success in persuading the woman to eat fruit from the forbidden tree in the
middle of the Garden results immediately in her shame at being naked; un­
like Genesis, in which clothing is made by Adam and Eve after their disobe­
dience (Gen 3 : 7 ) , here the woman clothes herself with fig leaves before she
gives the fruit to Adam (Jub 3 : 2 1 ) . Once Adam takes the fruit, he too clothes
12
himself with an apron made from fig leaves ( 3 : 2 2 ) .
The writer of Jubilees identifies several consequences of the first cou­
ple's forbidden consumption of fruit. After narrating their exclusion from
the Garden, the text notes that until this point all the animals ("the cattle,
the birds, everything that walks and everything that moves about") could
13
speak (as humans) and that their language was unified ( 3 : 2 8 - 2 9 ) , a detail

11. Citations of Jubilees are taken from the English translation by J. C. VanderKam,
The Book of Jubilees, CSCO 511, Scriptores Aethiopici 88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989).
12. Jubilees follows Genesis in later having God make clothing for the couple just be­
fore they are dismissed from the Garden; cp. Jub 3:26 and Gen 3:21.
13. The preserved text is inconsistent on whether the animals had been outside the

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 The Book of Jubilees and the Origin of Evil

not found in Genesis. After the couple's departure the animals' common
means of communication are dissolved; moreover, in an allusion to what
Genesis describes as circumstances before the incident of disobedience (see
Gen 1:25; 2:19-20), the text states that the animals are dispersed according to
their kinds to separate spaces created for them (Jub 3:29).
In Jubilees the situation of Adam (and his wife) is thus distinguished
from that of the animals: after Adam's dismissal from the Garden, the ani­
mals no longer share one language and remain naked while Adam is alone
among living creatures in being permitted to have clothing to cover his
shame (3:30). Adam's distinction is explained as a law on the tablets that en­
joins "those who know the judgement of the law" to "cover their shame and
not uncover themselves as the nations uncover themselves" (3:31). Thus,
14
rather than having consequences for any human proclivity to sin again,
Adam's expulsion from the Garden serves as a warrant for why faithful Jews
should reject the practice of nudity among Gentiles. If anything, the result of
Adam and Eve's transgression is less evidenced in what they themselves do
afterward than it has ramifications for the animals and, by transference, for
Gentiles and those who adhere to their ways. As for Adam, he continues to
till the land "as he had been taught in the Garden of Eden" (3:35). In this way,
the activities attributed to the first couple before their disobedience are in
Jubilees more openly paradigmatic for Jewish piety (3:8-16) than is apparent
from Genesis.

B. The Murder of Abel by Cain (4:1-6,9,31-32)

The text of Jubilees implies that Cain killed his brother out of jealousy that
the sacrifice of Abel, and not his own, was found acceptable to the angels
(4:2). The immediate outcome of this act was, obviously, that "the Lord
blamed Cain" (4:4) and that, for this, Cain himself was killed (4:31). In the
text, however, the story is told to substantiate two regulations attributed to
the heavenly tablets ( 4 : 5 - 6 , 3 1 - 3 2 ) . The first explains the curse placed upon
Cain (cf. Gen 4:11) as one upon "the person who beats his companion mali­
ciously"; in addition, anyone who sees such activity and does not testify about
it is to be cursed as well (Jub 4:5). This, in turn, is taken as an explanation for

Garden all along (3:16) or were in fact in the Garden and had to be expelled with Adam and
the woman (3:29).
14. The text does not know anything of an Adamic fall.

297
Loren T. Stuckenbruck

the function o f angels w h o r e p o r t all sins, w h e t h e r they have b e e n c o m m i t t e d

o p e n l y o r n o t , b e f o r e G o d (4:6; cf. 1 E n 99:3; 1 0 0 : 1 0 ; esp. 1 0 4 : 7 - 8 ) . T h e s e c o n d
r e g u l a t i o n derived from the s t o r y i n v o l v e s the death o f C a i n , w h i c h is m a d e to
illustrate the p r i n c i p l e o f lex talionis e n g r a v e d in the h e a v e n l y tablets. I n 4:31
the r e a d e r learns that C a i n ' s death o c c u r r e d w h e n his h o u s e built w i t h stones
fell o n h i m , a fitting e n d for s o m e o n e w h o h a d killed his b r o t h e r w i t h a stone.
T h u s the r e g u l a t i o n : " B y the i n s t r u m e n t w i t h w h i c h a m a n kills his fellow h e
is to be killed. A s he w o u n d e d h i m so are t h e y to d o to h i m " (4:32).
S i m i l a r to G e n 4, n o t h i n g is said a b o u t a n y c o n s e q u e n c e o f C a i n ' s d e e d
15
for others.

C. The Fallen Angels Tradition ( 5 : 1 - 1 9 ; 7 : 2 0 - 3 9 ; 8 : 1 - 4 ; 1 0 : 1 - 1 4 )

T h e d i s o b e d i e n c e o f angels to G o d o p e n s a further d e v e l o p m e n t in the i n ­

t r o d u c t i o n o f evil to the w o r l d . W h i l e this p o i n t is n o t d e b a t e d i n itself, o n e
m a y a s k the q u e s t i o n : W h a t k i n d o f " b e g i n n i n g " o r " o r i g i n " d o e s this event
i n a u g u r a t e ? I n c o m i n g to t e r m s w i t h the q u e s t i o n , w e n o t e that the a u t h o r o f
Jubilees is n o t s i m p l y i n t e r p r e t i n g G e n e s i s , b u t s h o w s a n a w a r e n e s s o f a n i n ­
terpretive t r a d i t i o n that r e g a r d e d the " s o n s o f G o d " o f G e n 6:2 as r e b e l l i o u s
angels w h o c o m m i t t e d sin l e a d i n g to u p h e a v a l i n the created o r d e r itself. A s
the w r i t e r expresses a n a w a r e n e s s o f w r i t i n g s a t t r i b u t e d to E n o c h ( 4 : 1 7 - 2 6 ) ,
it is likely that E n o c h i c w r i t i n g s p r o v i d e d at least o n e s o u r c e o f his k n o w l ­
1 6
edge. A t r a d i t i o n - h i s t o r i c a l l i n k o f this s o r t b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the B o o k
of the W a t c h e r s , in p a r t i c u l a r 1 E n 6 - 1 6 , is s t r e n g t h e n e d b y the s t a t e m e n t i n
Jubilees that E n o c h "testified to the W a t c h e r s w h o h a d s i n n e d w i t h t h e
d a u g h t e r s o f m e n b e c a u s e these h a d b e g u n to m i x w i t h e a r t h l y w o m e n so
that they b e c a m e d e f i l e d " ( J u b 4 : 2 2 ) .

T h o u g h a d m i t t i n g s o m e d e p e n d e n c e o n the earliest E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n
(the B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s a n d , p e r h a p s also, the B o o k o f G i a n t s ) , the w r i t e r

15. Cf. perhaps also the Animal Apocalypse at 1 E n 85:4-7, though the story o f Cain
and Abel functions m o r e as an underlying narrative that shapes the language o f complaints
raised by the righteous in the face o f injustices carried o u t against them; c o m p a r e , e.g., the
Book o f the Watchers, 1 E n 8:4-9:3 and 22:4-7.
16. In particular, the Astronomical Book (Jub 4 : 1 7 ) , Book o f the Watchers (see discus­
sion below), Apocalypse o f Weeks (4:18), and possibly the Epistle o f E n o c h (4:19); on the use
o f the latter two in Jubilees, see J. C. VanderKam, Enoch and the Growth of an Apocalyptic
Tradition, C B Q M S 16 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association o f America, 1984),
142-44.

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 The Book of Jubilees and the Origin of Evil

of Jubilees departs from the Enochic predecessors in several ways. We may

distinguish the emphases of Jubilees from the Book of the Watchers chaps.
6 - 1 6 in at least four ways: (i) the location of the rebellious angels' transgres­
sion, (ii) the means of punishment carried out on these angels and their ma­
levolent offspring, (iii) the explanation for the origin of demons, and
(iv) the motif of angelic instruction.
i. First, according to Jubilees, the angels' disobedience takes place on
earth. The Hebrew pun that relates the descent of the angels during the time
of Jared is picked up by the writer (cf. 1 En 6:6; 106:13; lQapGen ar iii 3) and
coordinated with the time the angels begin to carry out their mission to in­
struct humanity "and to do what is just and upright upon the earth" (4:15; cf.
5:6). Once on the earth, the angels are then distracted from their mission and
consumed by the beauty of the daughters of humanity (5:1). In addition to
the forbidden sexual union that has led to the birth of violent and unclean
gargantuan offspring, they are held responsible for teaching that leads to sin
(see discussion of 8:3 under point iv. below).
This story in Jubilees contrasts with that of the Book of the Watchers
in that chaps. 6 - 1 6 locate the beginning of the angelic rebellion in heaven. By
postponing their transgression to earth, the text of Jubilees does two things.
First, it preserves "heaven" as a place of sanctity where the God of Israel
reigns. While the early Enochic tradition struggles to come to terms with the
fall of the angels as a breach of cosmic boundaries (1 En 15:8-11), such a
breach is not even part of the story in Jubilees. The earthly setting of their sin
served to keep the heavenly and earthly spheres distinct, so that the bound­
aries established at creation are not seen to have been violated. Second,
though the paradigmatic function of the fallen angels and giants in the Book
of the Watchers is far below the surface of the tradition, in Jubilees it is more
explicit: the angels' reprehensible actions, both their union with women and
their culpable teachings, serve as a warning to anyone who would behave in
the same way. This is illustrated best in Noah's exhortations to his children
that they "keep themselves from fornication, uncleanness, and from all in­
justice" (7:20), precisely those activities that the disobedient angels and their
progeny have spread to humanity (7:22-24).
So, at this stage of the story line in Jubilees, the negative consequences
of the angels' sin relate primarily to the violence their gigantic offspring
bring upon the earth (7:22-25) and the reprehensible instructions they have
disseminated among humans (8:3). Whereas in the Book of the Watchers it
is the wayward angels and giants' activities that lead to divine punishment,
in Jubilees the picture is more nuanced: it is because the sins of the angels

299
Loren T. Stuckenbruck

a n d g i a n t s have c a u s e d h u m a n i t y to do the s a m e that the flood w a s sent

1 7
u p o n the earth (7:21a, 2 5 ) . This additional, more transparent emphasis on
h u m a n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in Jubilees m i r r o r s the c u l p a b i l i t y of the angels; just as
the angels w e r e steered a w a y f r o m the m i s s i o n they w e r e o r i g i n a l l y g i v e n b y
G o d , so also the p e o p l e of Israel s h o u l d be w a r y of d o i n g the s a m e .
ii. In relation to the fallen angel t r a d i t i o n , the f l o o d in Jubilees f u n c ­
t i o n s i n a w a y that n e g o t i a t e s c o n c e p t u a l l y b e t w e e n the B o o k o f t h e
W a t c h e r s (1 E n 1 0 ) , the s t o r y in G e n 6 - 9 , a n d its s u b s e q u e n t r e u s e in the
early E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n (1 E n 1—5; 9 8 : 4 - 8 ) . U n e q u i v o c a l l y , in G e n 6 the flood
c o m e s as G o d ' s r e s p o n s e to the v i o l e n c e a n d sin c o m m i t t e d b y h u m a n b e ­
ings o n earth (see G e n 6 : 3 , 1 3 , 1 7 ) . B y contrast, the B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s a n d
B o o k of the G i a n t s treat the flood t r a d i t i o n as b u t o n e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f di­
v i n e j u d g m e n t against the angels a n d giants (see 1 E n 1 0 : 2 - 3 ; the m o t i f is
m o r e p r o m i n e n t in the B o o k o f G i a n t s : 2 Q 2 6 ; 4Q530 ii 4-7; 6 Q 8 frg. 2 ) . T h e
b o o k of Jubilees, a n a l o g o u s to the B o o k of G i a n t s ' r e c e p t i o n o f the B o o k o f
the Watchers, places greater e m p h a s i s o n the flood w h i l e p i c k i n g u p o n the
m o t i f of the giants d e s t r o y i n g o n e a n o t h e r (1 E n 7:5; 10:9,12; B o o k o f G i a n t s
1 Q 2 3 9 + 1 4 + 15?; 4 Q 5 3 1 4 ) , w h i c h is n o t i c e a b l y absent f r o m G e n e s i s . T h e
n a r r a t i v e o f Jubilees thus w e a v e s t o g e t h e r e l e m e n t s f r o m r e c e i v e d t r a d i t i o n s
to create a n e w a c c o u n t : the great flood c o m e s as the d i v i n e r e t r i b u t i o n
against a n t e d i l u v i a n sins of h u m a n b e i n g s w h o s e w r o n g d o i n g s w e r e fueled
b y the t r a n s g r e s s i n g angels a n d g i a n t s w h o , in t u r n , h a v e l i k e w i s e b e e n p u n ­
i s h e d . It is a p p r o p r i a t e to e l a b o r a t e this s t o r y line a little further b e l o w .

A s just suggested, in c o n t r a s t to the B o o k of the Watchers, Jubilees

does not clearly assign the flood itself a role in G o d ' s p u n i s h m e n t of the an­
a
gels a n d g i a n t s . O n the o n e h a n d , in 1 E n 1 0 : 1 - 3 deluge is a n n o u n c e d to "the
s o n o f L a m e c h " after the c o r r u p t i n s t r u c t i o n s a n d h o r r i f i c m i s d e e d s of the
w a t c h e r s a n d giants h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d (cf. 7 : 1 - 8 : 3 ) a n d after the c o m ­
plaints b y the m u r d e r e d o f h u m a n i t y h a v e b e e n m e d i a t e d b y angels to G o d
(cf. 8 : 4 - 9 : 1 0 ) . O n the other h a n d , Jub 5:3-5 a n d 7:20-25 s u g g e s t that it is sinful
h u m a n i t y — w h a t e v e r the role of the fallen angels a n d giants in the n a r r a t i v e
18
— w h o s e d e e d s , as in G e n 6, are the i m m e d i a t e r e a s o n for the flood.

17. Though the Book of the Watchers implicates people who have been taught by the
fallen angels, the story of punishment does not so m u c h focus on them as on the angels and
the giants.
18. As mentioned above, the watchers' fornication with the w o m e n o f the earth and
the violence o f several generations of their progeny ( 7 : 2 i b - 2 4 a ) contribute to conditions that
make divine judgment through the flood necessary, though they themselves are not ex­
pressly punished through the flood.

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 The Book of Jubilees and the Origin of Evil

W h i l e in Jubilees the flood is p r i m a r i l y a r e s p o n s e to sins a m o n g h u ­

m a n s (as in G e n e s i s ) , the d i v i n e p u n i s h m e n t s a g a i n s t the angels a n d giants
take different f o r m s , r e s p e c t i v e l y (as in l E n o c h ) . In Jubilees the angels are
p u n i s h e d b y b e i n g b o u n d a n d sent to the n e t h e r r e g i o n s of the earth (5:6,
1 0 ) , a s c e n a r i o that a c c o r d i n g to the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s is c a r r i e d o u t
against ' A s a ' e l (1 E n 1 0 : 4 - 6 , 8 ) . T h i s motif, as in the A n i m a l A p o c a l y p s e (1 E n
88:3), m a y reflect the influence o f the T a r t a r u s t r a d i t i o n k n o w n , for e x a m p l e ,
f r o m H e s i o d ' s Theogony. A s for the g i a n t s , their p u n i s h m e n t in Jubilees is re­
stricted to their i n t r a m u r a l v i o l e n c e (5:7, 9; 7 : 2 2 - 2 4 ) that again m a y b e c o m ­
p a r e d w i t h the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s ( 1 E n 7:3; 1 0 : 1 2 ) w h e r e , h o w e v e r , in 1 0 : 1 2
this i n c l u d e s the fallen angels as w e l l .
The f o r m o f p u n i s h m e n t m e t e d o u t to the giants in J u b i l e e s m a y go
b a c k to a d o u b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the a m b i g u o u s H e b r e w v e r b TIT of G e n
6:3. ( 1 ) In Jubilees 5:8 the v e r b is u n d e r s t o o d in the sense o f "to d w e l l " (as in
the L X X ) — " M y spirit w i l l n o t dwell o n p e o p l e forever for t h e y are flesh.
T h e i r life s p a n is to be 120 years." (2) D i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m the G r e e k t r a n s l a ­
t i o n , h o w e v e r , Jubilees a p p l i e s the t e r m "flesh" in G e n 6:3 n o t to h u m a n b e ­
i n g s , b u t to the giants w h o , t h o u g h they s i m u l a t e h u m a n s b y h a v i n g b o d i e s ,
d e s t r o y o n e a n o t h e r in a d v a n c e of the flood (5:9). In this w a y , it is m a d e clear
that the giants are in the u n f o l d i n g n a r r a t i v e n o t e x p e c t e d to s u r v i v e the
f l o o d , let a l o n e to live l o n g e n o u g h to b e p u n i s h e d t h r o u g h it; the flood itself
is n o t the f o r m of p u n i s h m e n t they receive.
If the angels a n d g i a n t s h a v e i n t r o d u c e d , or at least i n c r e a s e d , evil in
the w o r l d , their m a l e v o l e n t d e e d s do n o t l e a d to a w h o l e s a l e c o r r u p t i o n of
h u m a n n a t u r e . Q u i t e the c o n t r a r y : after their p u n i s h m e n t s are r e c o u n t e d
a n d their c o n d e m n a t i o n o n the d a y o f j u d g m e n t c o n f i r m e d ( 5 : 1 0 - 1 1 ) , J u b
5:12 states that G o d " m a d e a n e w a n d r i g h t e o u s n a t u r e for all his c r e a t u r e s
so that t h e y would not sin with their whole nature u n t i l eternity. E v e r y o n e
w i l l be r i g h t e o u s — each a c c o r d i n g to his k i n d — for all t i m e " ( e m p h a s i s
m i n e ) . T h i s r e - c r e a t i o n or r e n e w a l of h u m a n n a t u r e m a y s e e m p u z z l i n g in
the a f t e r m a t h of the a n t e d i l u v i a n u p h e a v a l s . H o w e v e r , it is n o t u n q u a l i f i e d :
the w r i t e r a l l o w s for a p r o p e n s i t y to sin w i t h i n h u m a n b e i n g s w h i l e m a i n ­
t a i n i n g that the p u n i s h m e n t o f the w a t c h e r s a n d their o f f s p r i n g a d d r e s s e d
s o m e t h i n g w i t h i n h u m a n i t y that h a d g o n e i r r e t r i e v a b l y a w r y on a c c o u n t o f
t h e m . J u b i l e e s t h u s hints at, b u t d o e s n o t d e v e l o p , a t h e o l o g i c a l a n t h r o p o l ­
ogy that v i e w s the h u m a n race as a w h o l e as h a v i n g b e e n affected b y the a n ­
gelic r e b e l l i o n , a c o n s e q u e n c e that is p a r t i a l l y dealt w i t h t h r o u g h G o d ' s re­
s t o r a t i v e activity.

iii. W h i l e the p u n i s h m e n t t h r o u g h the flood a n d i n t r a m u r a l v i o l e n c e

301
Loren T. Stuckenbruck

has a renewal of humanity as its positive consequence, Jubilees explains the

ongoing reality of human wrongdoing and suffering after the flood in terms
of residual effects left by the antediluvian evils. The explanation for such suf­
fering relates to what might conveniendy be called "the origin of demons."
The way Jubilees accounts for the origin of evil spirits is similar to the view
in both the Book of the Watchers and Book of the Giants that identifies such
spirits with the spirits or souls of the dead giants (compare Jub 10:5 with 1 En
15:8-11). Another similarity is that, ultimately, the demonic forces behind evil
in the world are regarded, in effect, as powers whose judgment is assured; in
other words, they are already defeated beings whose complete destruction is
only a matter of time (until the day of judgment; cf. Jub 10:7, 8 , 1 1 ) .
Though Jubilees seems to depart from the Enoch traditions in having
the giants killed through intramural violence alone, the author adapts the
latter's etiology of demons based on the continued existence of giants in
some form after the deluge. Both traditions share the view that the giants be­
come disembodied spirits as a consequence of their destruction of one an­
other (1 En 15:9; 1 1 - 1 6 : 1 ; inferred from Jub 5:8-9 and 10:1-6); they perhaps
even imply that the giants' disembodied spirits could already have been ac­
19
tive before the deluge. But there are smaller differences. The Jubilees ac­
count differs from the Enochic traditions in that the nature of demonic evil
20
is not articulated in anthropological terms (cf. 1 En I S ^ - I O ) , that is, in Jubi­
lees the impurity of the giants as mixtures between rebellious angels and
earthly women is not expressed as an inherent characteristic. Though it is
possible that the etiology of demons in 1 En 15 is presupposed by Jubilees —
after all, the union between the watchers and human daughters is considered
a form of "pollution" (4:22; cf. 7:21) — it is not clear that they are described
as evil per se. In effect, this strengthens the analogy between the giants' re­
sponsibility for their deeds and the responsibility humans carry when they
disobey in similar fashion. Punishment comes not because of what one is or
has become by nature, but is the result of willful disobedience.

In terms of how demons contribute to the postdiluvian suffering of

humans, Jubilees goes into the kind of detail of which there is no trace in the
Enoch traditions. The demonic spirits that bring affliction to humanity after
the flood are but a tenth of their original number. Nine-tenths are com-

19. While the Book of the Watchers is silent on this point, Noah's prayer in Jub 10:5
implies that the giants' spirits, alongside the watchers, were active before the flood.
zo. Cf. also Philo, Quaestiones etsolutiones in Genesin 1.92, in which the offspring of
the angels and humans are regarded as inappropriate joining of "spiritual" and "somatic"
realms that should be kept separate.

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 The Book of Jubilees and the Origin of Evil

21
pletely destroyed while one-tenth are permitted to carry on with their de­
structive malevolence. This permission is granted as a divine concession to
the petitions of Mastema, their chief, who, after God has commanded the
angels to bind all the spirits for judgment, requests that some spirits be al­
lowed to corrupt humans, lead them astray, and cause suffering through ill­
ness ( 1 0 : 8 , 1 2 ; cf. 7:27 — Noah's words: "For I myself see that the demons
have begun to lead you and your children astray").
The writer of Jubilees thus attempts to steer a fine line between human
responsibility, on the one hand, and demonic cause, on the other. While evil
in its various forms is regarded as a manifestation of activities of the spirits
of the giants, humanity is essentially capable of rising above such influences
and, to some degree, even managing afflictions by applying the herbal reme­
dies given to Noah by one of the angels (10:10-13). If in comparison with the
Book of the Watchers the situation of disobedient humans and the giants in
Jubilees is less distinct and more analogous, the fallen angels tradition serves
not only to explain why humans in the author's day fall prey to wrongdoing
and suffering from external influences, but also serves as a warning that Jews
should stay away from engaging in the giants' "fornication," "uncleanness,"
and "injustice" (7:20; cf. 7 : 2 1 - 2 5 ) .
iv. One aspect of the fallen angels tradition has been mentioned above
but not developed: the reprehensible instructions traced back to the rebel­
lious angels. Their teaching was mainly concerned with "the omens of the
sun, moon, and stars and every heavenly sign," that is, with astrological lore
associated with wrong calendrical reckonings and objectionable forms of
22
divination (8:3; n : 8 ) . This instruction does not disappear when the angels
are punished. After the deluge, it is discovered inscribed on a stone by
Kainan, who "read what was in it, copied it, and sinned on the basis of what
was in it" (8:3; cf. 1 En 80:1-8 and 82:5). This learning, which is kept secret
from Noah for fear that it would incur his anger (8:4), eventually finds its
way down to Noah's descendants, that is, down to the time of Nahor, Abra­
ham's grandfather (11:8). In Jubilees, then, while the watchers are originally
good when sent to instruct human beings on earth (cf. 5:6), their knowledge
becomes skewed through their illicit sexual union with women. Once the

21. Cf. Animal Apocalypse at 1 En 89:3-6, according to which all the giants are de­
stroyed by the flood and have no afterlife.
22. On this, see Armin Lange, "The Essene Position on Magic and Divination," in Le­
gal Texts and Legal Issues: Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the International Organization
for Qumran Studies, Published in Honour of Joseph M. Baumgarten, ed. M. Bernstein,
F. Garcia Martinez, and J. Kampen, STDJ 23 (Brill: Leiden, 1997), 377-435 (esp. 401-3).

303
Loren T. Stuckenbruck

w a t c h e r s transgress the p u r p o s e of their m i s s i o n , the a u t h o r distinguishes

s h a r p l y b e t w e e n t w o tracks of l e a r n i n g that are s u b s e q u e n t l y k e p t distinct:
( l ) the w r o n g a s t r o l o g i c a l k n o w l e d g e i n t r o d u c e d b y the w a y w a r d angels a n d
c o n v e y e d t h r o u g h K a i n a n d o w n to N o a h ' s d e s c e n d a n t s a n d , in stark c o n ­
trast, (2) the c o r r e c t k n o w l e d g e a b o u t the m o v e m e n t s of h e a v e n l y b o d i e s
f r o m w h i c h a g r i c u l t u r a l cycles a n d c a l e n d r i c a l r e c k o n i n g s are to be d e r i v e d .
T h i s latter, d i v i n e l y r e v e a l e d k n o w l e d g e , is traced b a c k to i n s t r u c t i o n g i v e n
to E n o c h b y the h e a v e n l y angels (cf. 4:18, 2 1 ) a n d is b o u n d u p w i t h the 3 6 4 -
d a y solar c a l e n d a r u n c o m p r o m i s i n g l y s u p p o r t e d b y the w r i t e r throughout
the w o r k . F r o m E n o c h , it w a s t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h N o a h a n d his f a m i l y w h o
e s c a p e d the f l o o d a n d then finally r e e m e r g e d as a c o m p o n e n t o f the p i e t y at­
t r i b u t e d to A b r a h a m ( 1 2 : 1 6 ) a n d his d e s c e n d a n t s t h r o u g h the line of J a c o b .

T h e s e p a r a t i o n of d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d t r a d i t i o n s of l e a r n i n g i n J u b i ­
lees is best seen a g a i n s t the b a c k g r o u n d of e u h e m e r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n s such as
c o m e to us t h r o u g h the " P s e u d o - E u p o l e m o s " f r a g m e n t s cited b y E u s e b i u s in
his Praparatio evangelica frg. 1 ( 9 . 1 7 . 1 - 9 ) . In P s e u d o - E u p o l e m o s , the figure o f
E n o c h is l i k e w i s e said to h a v e b e e n t a u g h t b y "the a n g e l s " w h o s e i n s t r u c t i o n
also centered o n a s t r o l o g i c a l k n o w l e d g e ( 9 . 1 7 . 8 - 9 ) . T h i s k n o w l e d g e is also at­
t r i b u t e d to A b r a h a m ( 9 . 1 7 . 3 ) , w h o , in t u r n , is said to h a v e p a s s e d it o n to the
P h o e n i c i a n s . A s w e h a v e seen, Jubilees shares the v i e w that the k n o w l e d g e re­
v e a l e d to E n o c h e v e n t u a l l y c o m e s d o w n to A b r a h a m . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a big
difference. In P s e u d o - E u p o l e m o s , the l i n e a g e of a N o a c h i c figure ( 9 . 1 7 . 2 )
a n d A b r a h a m (9.18.3, if this s e c o n d f r a g m e n t b e l o n g s to the s a m e w o r k ) is
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h "the g i a n t s " w h o e s c a p e d the d e s t r u c t i o n of the f l o o d a n d
b u i l t a t o w e r ( 9 . 1 7 . 2 ; cf. 9.18.2, w h e r e o n l y o n e "giant" called B e l o s is in v i e w ) .
Furthermore, the Pseudo-Eupolemos text m a k e s n o effort to specify
w h e t h e r the angels w h o r e v e a l e d a s t r o l o g i c a l k n o w l e d g e to E n o c h w e r e g o o d
or b a d . T h e resulting p i c t u r e — w h i c h b l e n d s the t r a d i t i o n s of giants, l e a r n ­
ing g i v e n to E n o c h , a n d the figures o f A b r a h a m a n d N o a h — is o n e that in
J u b i l e e s is b i f u r c a t e d into the t w o s t r e a m s of t r a d i t i o n referred to a b o v e (see
the p r e v i o u s p a r a g r a p h ) . In d o i n g this, Jubilees is f o l l o w i n g the p a t h a l r e a d y
set in the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s a n d especially the B o o k of the G i a n t s , w h e r e
the strict d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n E n o c h a n d N o a h , on the o n e h a n d , a n d the
2 3
a n g e l s - g i a n t s , on the other, is m a i n t a i n e d .

23. For the similar insistence that denies Noah's identity as an offspring o f the watch­
ers, see Genesis A p o c r y p h o n (lQapGen ii-v) and Birth o f N o a h in 1 E n 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 . See "The
'Angels' and 'Giants' o f Genesis 6:1-4 in Second and Third C e n t u r y B C E Jewish Interpreta­
tion," DSD 7 ( 2 0 0 0 ) : 354-77 (here 360 n. 1 6 ) , and m y treatment o f Birth of Noah in 1 Enoch
91-108, CEJL (Berlin and New York: De Gruyter, 2 0 0 7 ) , general c o m m e n t on 1 E n 106:4-7.

304
 The Book of Jubilees and the Origin of Evil

A n o t h e r area in w h i c h Jubilees d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n g o o d a n d b a d
i n s t r u c t i o n reflects a d e p a r t u r e f r o m the early E n o c h t r a d i t i o n : k n o w l e d g e
a b o u t the use of h e r b s as m e d i c i n e s . Jubilees n o t o n l y has the angels i n s t r u c t
E n o c h r e g a r d i n g the c a l e n d a r (4:17; cf. 1 E n 7 2 - 8 2 ) , b u t also has o n e of t h e m
i n s t r u c t N o a h o n the m e d i c i n a l p r o p e r t i e s of h e r b s ( 1 0 : 1 0 , 1 3 ) , a t e a c h i n g
that c o m e s in r e s p o n s e to N o a h ' s p e t i t i o n that G o d deliver his o f f s p r i n g
f r o m the evil spirits w h o h a v e b e e n c o r r u p t i n g t h e m after the f l o o d ( 1 0 : 1 -
2 4
6). T h e use of h e r b s to c o m b a t the d a m a g e c a u s e d b y those spirits p e r m i t ­
ted to afflict h u m a n s ( t h a n k s to M a s t e m a ' s r e q u e s t ) contrasts m a r k e d l y f r o m
the E n o c h t r a d i t i o n . I n the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s at 1 E n 8:3, the "cutting of
r o o t s " ( G r e e k C o d e x P a n o p o l i t a n u s ) is u n e q u i v o c a l l y rejected as a p r a c t i c e
a s c r i b e d to the fallen a n g e l s . T h u s , w h i l e J u b i l e e s takes o v e r from E n o c h tra­
d i t i o n the a t t r i b u t i o n o f g o o d a n d b a d k n o w l e d g e to g o o d a n d b a d a n g e l s ,
respectively, the c o n t e n t of w h a t is g o o d a n d b a d is n o t entirely the s a m e .
W h e r e a s the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s has c o n d e m n e d the use o f m e d i c i n e s b y
a t t r i b u t i n g t h e m to the fallen angels w h o h a v e e v e n t u a l l y g e n e r a t e d the g i ­
ants that b e c a m e o p p r e s s i v e evil spirits (1 E n 8:3; 1 5 : 8 - 1 1 ) , in Jubilees s u c h
k n o w l e d g e is r e v e a l e d b y g o o d angels i n o r d e r to c o m b a t the attacks of the
2 5
e v i l spirits that o r i g i n a t e d f r o m the g i a n t s .

W e m a y s u m m a r i z e h o w the fallen angels t r a d i t i o n in Jubilees relates

to the b e g i n n i n g s o f evil as f o l l o w s : In a d a p t i n g the m y t h f r o m r e c e i v e d tra­
d i t i o n s , the w r i t e r of Jubilees is not a c t u a l l y d e l i b e r a t i n g a b o u t the o r i g i n of
evil p e r se. I n s t e a d the t r a d i t i o n a b o u t r e b e l l i o u s angels serves to u n d e r l i n e
t w o m a i n p o i n t s . First, it f u n c t i o n s to e x p l a i n " w h y t h i n g s are the w a y t h e y
are e x p e r i e n c e d a n d p e r c e i v e d " in the a u t h o r ' s a n d his r e a d e r s ' w o r l d . S e c ­
o n d , as in the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s , if the s t o r y line p r o v i d e s a s s u r a n c e that,
to the extent t h e y are c a u s e d b y the tenth of M a s t e m a ' s c o h o r t of d i s e m b o d ­
ied spirits, p r e s e n t afflictions a n d sins are t e m p o r a r y , the evil p o w e r s are, in
effect, a l r e a d y defeated. U n l i k e the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s , h o w e v e r , the w r i t e r
of Jubilees g o e s to greater lengths to a v o i d any inference that d e m o n i c c a u ­
sality u n d e r m i n e s h u m a n , especially Israel's, r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . T h i s is a c h i e v e d

24. O n Noah's prayer in the context of Jubilees, see Stuckenbruck, "Deliverance

Prayers and H y m n s in Early Jewish Documents," in The Changing Face of Judaism and Chris­
tianity, ed. G. S. Oegema and I. Henderson (Gutersloh: Gerd Mohn, 2 0 0 5 ) , 146-65.
25. On this contrast, see B . Kollmann, "Gottliche Offenbarung magisch-
e s 2
pharmakologischer Heilkunst im Buch Tobit," ZAW 1 0 6 (1994): 289-99 ( P - 9 8 ~ 9 9 ) . The
book of Tobit, especially the longer recension, reflects a positive attitude toward "pharmaco­
logical" means applied against demonic and physical afflictions, especially as this is revealed
by God's angel (so, e.g., C o d e x Sinaiticus to 6:1-9; 1 1 : 7 - 1 2 ) .

305
Loren T. Stuckenbruck

n o t o n l y b y a n a l o g i e s d r a w n b e t w e e n h u m a n m i s d e e d s a n d those attributed
to the w a t c h e r s ' o f f s p r i n g ( 7 : 2 0 - 2 1 ) , as w e h a v e seen, b u t also b y the d e g r e e to
w h i c h the n o t i o n of the giants as p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e for the a n t e d i l u v i a n
2 6
v i o l e n c e at the e x p e n s e o f h u m a n i t y is d i m i n i s h e d .

D. Noah's Nakedness and the Cursing of Canaan

(7:7-15; cf. 8 : 8 - 9 : 1 5 )

We m e n t i o n this s t o r y b e c a u s e it is the first e p i s o d e f o l l o w i n g the deluge in

which something goes w r o n g : H a m shows N o a h disrespect by looking u p o n
his n a k e d n e s s , an act that b r i n g s N o a h to curse H a m ' s y o u n g e s t s o n , C a n a a n ,
w h i l e b l e s s i n g J a p h e t h a n d S h e m w h o , b y contrast, c o v e r his n a k e d n e s s w i t h ­
out l o o k i n g . T h e v e r s i o n in J u b 7:7-15 a d h e r e s closely to its c o u n t e r p a r t in
G e n 9 : 2 1 - 2 8 , t h o u g h in J u b i l e e s the c o n s e q u e n c e s o f the c u r s i n g a n d b l e s s i n g
are e l a b o r a t e d at m u c h greater length ( G e n 9:26-27 is reiterated in J u b 7 : 1 1 -
1 2 , b u t the e l a b o r a t i o n o c c u r s in 8 : 8 - 9 : 1 5 ) . I n telling this story, the w r i t e r is
n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h an " o r i g i n of evil," b u t r a t h e r uses it to f o r e s h a d o w the
s u p e r i o r i t y of Israel, a m o n g S h e m ' s d e s c e n d a n t s , o v e r the d e s c e n d a n t s o f
Ham.

E. The Tower of Babel ( 1 0 : 1 8 - 1 1 : 6 )

A s in G e n 1 1 : 1 - 9 , the e p i s o d e involves a t o w e r in the l a n d of S h i n a r the b u i l d ­

ing of w h i c h is b r o u g h t to a halt b y G o d . T h e text of Jubilees p r o v i d e s m o r e
details t h a n G e n e s i s a b o u t w h y the t o w e r w a s n o t o n l y n o t c o n s t r u c t e d fur­
ther b u t also even d e s t r o y e d (cf. P s e u d o - E u p o l e m o s in E u s e b i u s , Praeparatio
evangelica 9 . 1 8 . 2 ) . W h e r e a s G e n e s i s attributes the c u r t a i l m e n t of the b u i l d ­
ing a c t i v i t y to G o d ' s c o n c e r n that h u m a n s do n o t a p p r e h e n d the l i m i t a t i o n s
of w h a t t h e y c a n do ( G e n 1 1 : 6 ) , Jubilees prefaces the s t o r y w i t h a p r o n o u n c e ­
m e n t a b o u t the c o n d i t i o n of h u m a n k i n d p u t into the m o u t h of R a g e w , the

26. In 7:22 there is an element of oppression by the giants (the Elyo killed h u m a n ­
kind), though what follows are statements that people killed one another and, in 7:23, that
"When everyone sold himself to c o m m i t injustice and to shed innocent blood, the earth was
filled with injustice." Whereas the Book o f the Watchers holds the giants responsible for de­
stroying humanity and spilling their innocent blood (1 E n 7:3; 9:1, 9 ) , the writer o f Jubilees
c o m e s close to calumniating humans for this activity (cf. 7:23-25) and has Noah warn his
children against both the shedding and the consumption o f blood (7:27-33).

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 The Book of Jubilees and the Origin of Evil

s o n of L o m n a a n d Peleg: h u m a n i t y "has now become evil t h r o u g h the p e r ­

v e r s e p l a n to b u i l d t h e m s e l v e s a city a n d t o w e r in the l a n d of S h i n a r " ( J u b
1 0 : 1 8 , e m p h a s i s m i n e ) . O n e m a y n o t e here that the s i t u a t i o n referred to has
n o t b e e n i n h e r i t e d from a n y p r i o r event in the n a r r a t i v e ; it is s i m p l y p r e ­
sented as a c o n s e q u e n c e of the city and tower builders' own making.
T h e r e is s o m e t h i n g , h o w e v e r , m o r e p r o f o u n d b e h i n d this c a r i c a t u r e o f
h u m a n k i n d as evil. W h i l e this d o e s not a m o u n t to a c a t e g o r i c a l s t a t e m e n t
a b o u t "the h u m a n c o n d i t i o n " — see the d i s c u s s i o n of J u b 5:12 a b o v e — it
does d e s c r i b e the i n c i d e n t as a reflection of the n a d i r to w h i c h h u m a n a c t i v i ­
ties h a d d e s c e n d e d . T h e o u t c o m e , the d i s p e r s i o n o f the b u i l d e r s into cities,
l a n g u a g e s , a n d n a t i o n s ( 1 0 : 2 6 ) , u s h e r s the s i t u a t i o n of h u m a n i t y d o w n to
w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d to the a n i m a l s w h e n A d a m a n d Eve w e r e e x p e l l e d f r o m
the G a r d e n of E d e n : the b r e a k i n g u p of o n e m o d e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n into
m a n y in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h each k i n d a n d l o c a t i o n of a n i m a l . A n a l o g o u s to the
G a r d e n o f E d e n e p i s o d e , the s t o r y thus e x p l a i n s the diversity o f k i n d s a n d
species a m o n g h u m a n i t y .

Conclusion

N o n e o f the five e p i s o d e s c o n s i d e r e d i n this p a p e r h a s a n y t h i n g to do w i t h

the q u e s t i o n o f " w h e r e evil o r i g i n a l l y c a m e f r o m " or " h o w the activity of s i n ­
n i n g got to be." W i t h i n the u n f o l d i n g n a r r a t i v e o f J u b i l e e s , t h e y o p e r a t e as
e x p l a n a t i o n s for the w a y things are in the w o r l d as the w r i t e r a n d the i m ­
p l i e d r e a d e r s p e r c e i v e it. A s for the effect these e p i s o d e s h a v e o n h u m a n i t y ,
there is n o real link b e t w e e n the stories; o n e s t o r y does not create the b a s i s
for a d e g e n e r a t i n g h u m a n c o n d i t i o n p i c k e d u p in the n e x t . I n s t e a d , the sto­
ries are linked as different p o i n t s in the n a r r a t i v e in their p r e s e n t a t i o n of a
h u m a n i t y c a p a b l e of a d h e r i n g to d i v i n e laws e n g r a v e d o n the h e a v e n l y tab­
lets. In line w i t h this, it is e s p e c i a l l y clear f r o m the s t o r y a b o u t the w a y w a r d
angels a n d giants that the w r i t e r has r e s h a p e d t r a d i t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the
figure of E n o c h to reinforce the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y h u m a n s u l t i m a t e l y h a v e b e ­
fore G o d , despite the e r r i n g influences of d e m o n i c p o w e r s ; h u m a n b e i n g s
are a c c o u n t a b l e to G o d o n the s a m e t e r m s as the d i s o b e d i e n t angels a n d g i ­
ants. R a t h e r t h a n e t i o l o g i c a l l y e x p l a n a t o r y , the force o f these stories — in­
c l u d i n g that of the fallen angels — is e x h o r t a t i o n a l a n d p a r a d i g m a t i c .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , if there is a n y e x p l a n a t i o n for "the w a y t h i n g s a r e " in the

a u t h o r ' s o w n w o r l d in J u b i l e e s , it is f o u n d in the r e b e l l i o n of the a n g e l s . T h i s
s t o r y leaves its m a r k in the o n g o i n g suffering a n d w a y w a r d n e s s a m o n g h u -

307
Loren T. Stuckenbruck

manity after the deluge. Despite their decisive punishment of evil through
the flood and internecine violence, these powers have left a residue that at
once explains h u m a n sin and affliction while doing so in a weakened extent
that anticipates and assures their eschatological eradication.

308
The Festivals of Pesah and Massot
in the Book of Jubilees

Betsy Halpern-Amaru

1
The b o o k of Jubilees assigns patriarchal origins to all biblical festivals. In

the case of Pesah and M a s s o t , the protofestival is particularly o p a q u e . Pre­

sented at the close of the Jubilees narrative of the A k e d a h , it is described as

"this festival" that A b r a h a m "used to celebrate joyfully for seven days d u r i n g

all the years." H e names it "the festival of the L o r d " in accord with the seven

days during w h i c h "he w e n t and returned safely" to Beersheba; and its future

c o m m e m o r a t i o n b y "Israel and his descendants" is ordained and written on

2
the heavenly tablets ( J u b i 8 : i 8 - i 9 ) . N o dates are given for the celebration; no

sacrifices are prescribed; and no rituals are mentioned. T h e only require­

3
m e n t is that the festival be celebrated joyously for seven days ( i 8 : i 9 ) .

1. Shabu'ot (Shebu'ot in Jubilees) was celebrated in heaven from the time o f creation.
Noah institutes its earthly celebration, which is observed by each o f Israel's patriarchs (Jub
6:18-22; 14:20; 15:1-2; 22:1-5; 46:1-4). A b r a h a m is the first celebrant o f Sukkot, to which Jacob
adds an addition (16:20-31; 32:4-7, 2 7 - 2 9 ) . An allusion to an u n n a m e d n f f l i n D V (Rosh
H a s h a n a h ) is evident in Abraham's observation o f the stars "at the beginning o f the seventh
m o n t h " (12:16); and an addendum to the narrative o f Jacob's grief over the presumed death
o f Joseph has a Day o f Atonement ordained for c o m m e m o r a t i o n o n "the tenth o f the sev­
enth month" (34:18-19).
2. Unless otherwise indicated, all quotations o f Jubilees are from J. C . VanderKam,
The Book of Jubilees: A Critical Text, C S C O 510-511, Scriptores Aethiopici Tomus 87-88
(Louvain: Peeters, 1989).
3. The Ge'ez, sabu'a 'elata bafesseha, reflects nnntPS D'O' n373tP, a phrase used in the
description o f the Festival o f Massot celebrated by the returning exiles (Ezra 6:22) and in the
a c c o u n t o f Hezekiah's fused celebration o f Pesah and Massot (2 C h r o n 30:21). Although the

309
Betsy Halpern-Amaru

Facets o f the A k e d a h n a r r a t i v e i n t i m a t e that A b r a h a m ' s festival is a s s o ­

ciated w i t h Pesah a n d M a s s o t . T h e travel s c h e d u l e in the n a r r a t i v e suggests
that the b i n d i n g of Isaac takes place o n the f o u r t e e n t h d a y of the first m o n t h
4 w
(17:15; i 8 : 3 ) . T h e r e s t r a i n i n g a n g e l refers to the r e s c u e d Isaac as bak raka
(the G e ' e z e q u i v a l e n t of "]T1D3) ( 1 8 : 1 1 ) , a d e s i g n a t i o n that G o d repeats w h e n
5
he r e n e w s the c o v e n a n t p r o m i s e s ( J u b 18:15; G e n 2 2 : 1 6 ) . T h e s e v e n - d a y festi­
val that c o m m e m o r a t e s A b r a h a m ' s j o u r n e y is n a m e d "festival to the L o r d , "
1
r e s o n a t i n g Xl ? J r l in E x o d 1 2 : 1 4 . H o w e v e r , the c h a r a c t e r of A b r a h a m ' s "festi­
val of the L o r d " is fully disclosed o n l y t h r o u g h a close r e a d i n g of the Jubilees
t r e a t m e n t o f Pesah a n d M a s s o t in their h i s t o r i c a l b i b l i c a l settings ( J u b 4 9 ) .
In that chapter Jubilees c o n n e c t s A b r a h a m ' s "festival of the L o r d " to b o t h
Pesah a n d M a s s o t a n d , at the s a m e t i m e , p r o v i d e s the p r e s c r i p t i v e c o m ­
m a n d s for future c o m m e m o r a t i o n that are so g l a r i n g l y absent in its a c c o u n t
of the p r o t o f e s t i v a l .

Jub 49 is c o m p o s e d o f three s e c t i o n s : (a) a p r e s c r i p t i v e , n a r r a t i v e rec­

o l l e c t i o n o f the Pesah c e l e b r a t i o n in E g y p t ( w . 1 - 6 ) , (b) a statute for future
c o m m e m o r a t i o n s o f Pesah (nOBM T)pT\) ( w . 7 - 2 i a ) , a n d (c) a p r e s c r i p t i v e ,
n a r r a t i v e r e c o l l e c t i o n o f the first Israelite c e l e b r a t i o n of M a s s o t ( w . 2 2 b - 2 3 ) .
In each section there is e n g a g e m e n t w i t h biblical m a t e r i a l a n d intricate
i n t e r t e x t u a l exegesis. A t the s a m e t i m e , each also c o n d u c t s an i n t e r n a l " c o n ­
v e r s a t i o n " w i t h o t h e r p a s s a g e s in J u b i l e e s . I n the t w o p r e s c r i p t i v e n a r r a t i v e
r e c o l l e c t i o n s the i n t r a t e x t u a l c o n v e r s a t i o n is w i t h the a c c o u n t o f the
p r o t o f e s t i v a l in J u b 1 8 ; in the Pesah statute the i n t r a t e x t u a l e n g a g e m e n t in­
v o l v e s e l a b o r a t i o n of the d a y / t i m e l e g i s l a t i o n p r e s c r i b e d in J u b 4 9 : 1 .

celebration in 2 Chron 30 takes place in the second month, not the prescribed first month
(2 Chron 30:2-3), it does not constitute a celebration o f Pesah Sheni. See S. Japhet, 1 and
2 Chronicles: A Commentary (London: SCM, 1993), 939.
4. Abraham receives the directive o n the twelfth, leaves Beersheba in the morning,
and arrives at the mountain "on the third day." O n recent scholarly calculations o f the dates
of the journey, see J. C. VanderKam, "The Aqedah, Jubilees, and Pseudojubilees," in The
Quest for Context and Meaning: Studies in Biblical Intertextuality in Honor of James A.
Sanders, ed. C. Evans and S. Talmon, Biblical Interpretation Series 28 (Leiden: Brill, 1997),
241-61 (here 247), and B. Halpern-Amaru, "A Note on Isaac as First-Born in Jubilees and
Only Son in 4Q225," DSD 13, no. 2 (2006): 127-33 (here 1 3 0 - 3 1 ) .
5. O n the readings in the parallel passages of MT, L X X , OL, EthGen, see Halpern-
Amaru, "A Note," 128; o n the variants in the jubilees manuscripts, see VanderKam's notes o n
Jub 18:11, 15 (The Book of Jubilees, v. 1, 104; v. 2, 108).

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 The Festivals of Pesah and Massot in the Book of Jubilees

Prescriptive Recollection of Pesah

The greater part of Jub 49 (twenty-six and one-half of twenty-eight verses)

concerns Pesah, with a particular, indeed what might be considered a polemi­
cal, emphasis on its date. The chapter opens with the angel-narrator urging
Moses to remember the commands he had been given regarding the Pesah,
"so that you may celebrate it at its time on the fourteenth of the first month, that
you may sacrifice it before eveningand so that they might eat it at night on the
6
evening of the fifteenth from the time of sunsef ( 4 9 U ) . No such instructions
7
regarding the pesah appear in the Exodus narrative. Constructed as a pas­
8
tiche, a patchwork of phrases alluding to multiple biblical verses, Jubilees de­
rives its prescription from an exegesis that harmonizes conflicting biblical
1
passages. A paraphrase of Num 9:2-38 accesses "to celebrate/to do" (mtt^V ?/
gbr), a verb that does not appear in the instructions for the Egypt Pesah, but
which is normative phrasing in prescriptions of postexodus commemora­
tions (e.g., Exod 12:48; Num 9 : 2 - 5 , 1 1 ; Deut 16:1). The basic time frame for the
celebration, however, is derived not from Num 9, but from an intricate play
with phrases in Deut 1 6 : 1 , 4 , 6 . Stipulating no dates, referring only to sacrifice,
and suggesting multiple time frames for the sacrifice, the murky Deuteron­
omy prescription permits an exegetical treatment that understands the vari­
ous time points as referring to different stages in the pesah rite.

Understanding "in the evening" of Deut 16:4 and "in the evening at
9
sunset" of Deut 16:6 as contrasting points in time, Jubilees emends the
Deut 16:4 phrase to "before evening" and uses it for the time of the sacrifice.
1 0
(A parallel prescription is found in the Temple Scroll [11Q19 xvii 7 ] . ) For

6. Italics indicate adoption of a biblical phrase or allusion to a biblical verse.

7. The fourteenth is specified as the date for the sacrifice in the directives for the
Egypt celebration (Exod 12:6), but only "that night" is indicated as the time for the eating
(Exod 12:8). According to J. Milgrom, the phrasing of certain passages where Pesah and
Massot are fused (Exod 1 2 : 1 4 , 1 7 , 1 8 ; Deut 16:4) indicates the fifteenth, an exception to the
general rule that the day begins at dawn (Leviticus, 3 vols., AB 3 [Doubleday: New York,
2000], 1967-68). The Jubilees argument is not related to the fusion of the two festivals, but is
developed solely in relationship to the timing of the pesah celebration.
8. On pastiche as a mode of composition, see E. Chazon, "Sacrifice and Prayer in "The
Words of the Luminaries,'" in Scripture and Prayer, ed. J. Kugel (Cambridge: Harvard Uni­
versity Press, 2006), 25-41.
9. The exegesis understands "at sunset" as an intrinsic modifier of "in the evening." In
contrast, rabbinic exegesis treats the three phrases in Deut 16:6 as denoting three separate
time points (Mekilta Bo 5; b. Berakhot 9a).
10. The rabbinic prescription has the offering of the pesah precede the evening Tamid
{in. Pesahim 5:1; cf. Josephus, Jewish War 6.423).

311
Betsy Halpern-Amaru

the time of the eating, Jubilees combines "at night" (Deut 16:1) with "in the
evening at sunset" (Deut 16:6). That the combination involves the beginning
of a new calendar date is developed from "the time of day when you de­
parted from Egypt" (Deut 16:6). The phrase is not included in the pastiche,
for it is troublesome in its own right. The Exodus narrative has the tenth
plague striking the Egyptians "in the middle of night," Pharaoh rising "in
the night," summoning Moses and Aaron "in the night" and pressing the Is­
raelites to immediately leave, by implication, that same night (Exod 12:29-
3 2 ) . However, according to Num 33:3, the Israelites depart in clear sight of
the Egyptians "on the fifteenth day of the first m o n t h . . . on the morrow of
the paschal offering," a time frame also implied in Moses' directive that the
Israelites not leave their homes until the morning after the paschal offering
(Exod 12:22). Harmonizing the two possibilities, Jubilees combines the ex­
plicit "at night" of Deut 16:1 with the equally explicit date in Num 33:3 to in­
dicate that the eating of the pesah, like the departure from Egypt, took place
on the fifteenth.
Presented as a proof case for the exegetical argument for the fifteenth,
the narrative that immediately follows recollects the Israelites eating the
paschal offering as the tenth plague strikes the houses of the Egyptians (Jub
49:2-6). Again there is no biblical parallel for what Moses is directed to re­
1 1
call. Exodus offers multiple forecasts of the plague (11:4-7; 1 2 : 1 2 - 1 3 , 2 3 , 2 7 ) ,
12
a brief report of its execution ( 1 2 : 2 9 ) , but no account of the Israelites eat­
13
ing the pesah. Num 33:3 presents a description of the Egyptians burying
their dead, but the point of contrast is with the Israelite departure from
Egypt, not their celebration of the pesah. Responding to that lacuna, Jubi­
lees creates a portrait of the celebration on the night of the fifteenth that
both fills the lacuna in Exodus and connects the Egypt Pesah to its patriar­
chal predecessor.
Integrating facets of the multiple forecasts in Exod 1 1 - 1 2 , the portrait
demonstrates that what had been foretold in fact came to pass. The sharp con­
trast between the activities of the Egyptians and Israelites on the night of the
fifteenth (Jub 49:5-6) fulfills the forecast in Exod 11:7; the timing ("on this
night"); the nature of the strike on the Egyptians ("from the pharaoh's first­
born to the first-born of the captive slave-girl at the millstone and to the cattle

11. Exod 11:4-7 appears in Moses' predictions to Pharaoh's court; 12:12-13 in God's pre­
2 n
dictions to Moses and Aaron; 1 2 : 2 3 , 7 > the directives Moses gives to the elders.
12. The report presents a variant of the forecast in Exod 11:5.
13. The narrator simply indicates that "the Israelites went and did so; just as the Lord
had commanded Moses and Aaron, so they did" (Exod 12:28).

312
 The Festivals of Pesah and Massot in the Book of Jubilees

as w e l l " ) ( J u b 49:2) executes the p r e d i c t i o n in E x o d 1 1 : 5 ; a n d the s a v i n g of the

Israelites ("the p l a g u e did n o t c o m e o n t h e m to d e s t r o y . . . from cattle to m a n ­
1 4
k i n d to d o g s " ) ( J u b 49:4) o c c u r s m u c h as foretold in E x o d 1 1 : 7 a n d 1 2 : 1 3 .
m
T h e m o s t creative exegesis is the t r e a t m e n t of E x o d 1 2 : 2 3 , w h i c h , con­
trast to the other forecasts of the p l a g u e in E x o d u s , i n t r o d u c e s a " D e s t r o y e r "
as its chief executor. T h e u n u s u a l p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n all b u t invites the i n s e r t i o n
1 5
of a m o t i f i n v o l v i n g M a s t e m a , p r o v o c a t e u r of the testing of A b r a h a m .
H o w e v e r , since M a s t e m a h i m s e l f h a d b e e n b o u n d a n d l o c k e d u p f r o m the
fourteenth o n w a r d ( J u b 4 8 : 1 5 ) , "the forces of M a s t e m a " replace "the D e ­
s t r o y e r " a n d , acting strictly in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h G o d ' s directives ( 4 9 : 2 - 4 ) , b e ­
c o m e "the L o r d ' s forces" (49:4). T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s — f r o m "the D e s t r o y e r "
to "the forces o f M a s t e m a " to "the L o r d ' s forces" — not o n l y resolve the ten­
a n
s i o n b e t w e e n E x o d 12:23 d passages that present G o d as the sole e x e c u t o r of
2 2
the p l a g u e ( E x o d 1 1 : 4 ; 1 2 : 1 2 - 1 3 , 7 > S>)> b u t also associate the s a v i n g of the Isra­
elites f r o m M a s t e m a ' s forces w i t h the rescue of Isaac in the Jubilees A k e d a h
16
narrative.

A n even closer c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n A b r a h a m ' s "festival o f the L o r d "

(Jub 18:18) a n d the c e l e b r a t i o n o f the pesah o n the n i g h t of the fifteenth is e v ­
ident in the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the n i g h t o f c e l e b r a t o r y eating as "the b e g i n n i n g
of the festival a n d the b e g i n n i n g o f j o y " ( 4 9 : 2 ) . W i t h o u t b i b l i c a l p a r a l l e l , the
J u b i l e e s - c r e a t e d p h r a s i n g is artfully c o n s t r u c t e d . T h e direct article before
"festival" suggests that the Israelites are c e l e b r a t i n g a p r e v i o u s l y established
festival on the n i g h t w h e n they are eating the Pesah, a n d the r e p e a t e d p h r a s e ,
" b e g i n n i n g of," i m p l i e s that the festival a n d its j o y e x t e n d b e y o n d a single
day. C l e a r l y , the intent is to i m p l y that the Israelites are c o m m e m o r a t i n g the
b e g i n n i n g of the s e v e n - d a y p a t r i a r c h a l festival o r d a i n e d for J a c o b ' s d e s c e n ­
dants "to celebrate . . . j o y f u l l y for s e v e n d a y s " ( 1 8 : 1 9 ) . U n d a t e d a n d w i t h o u t
rituals in its p a t r i a r c h a l c o n t e x t , the first n i g h t of A b r a h a m ' s "festival of the
L o r d " n o w a c q u i r e s b o t h a date — the n i g h t of the fifteenth in the first
m o n t h — a n d rituals — "eating the p a s c h a l m e a t , d r i n k i n g the w i n e , g l o r i ­
fying, b l e s s i n g a n d p r a i s i n g the L o r d G o d o f their fathers" ( 4 9 : 6 ) .

14. The inclusion o f "the dogs" is an adaptation of "not a dog shall snarl" (Exod 1 1 : 7 ) .
15. In contrast, the introduction of Mastema into the Akedah narrative requires the
addition o f a Job-like preface. See J. van Ruiten, "Abraham, Job and the Book of Jubilees: The
a n
Intertextual Relationship of Genesis 2 2 : 1 - 1 9 , J ° b 1 : 1 - 2 : 1 3 d Jubilees 1 7 : 1 5 - 1 8 : 1 9 , " in The Sac­
rifice of Isaac: The Aqedah (Genesis 22) and Its Interpretations, ed. E. N o o r t and E. Tigchelaar
(Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 2 ) , 58-85 (here 7 1 - 8 3 ) .
16. In contrast to M. Segal ("The Composition of Jubilees," in this volume), I see
exegetical harmonization at work in Jub 49:4.

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Betsy Halpern-Amaru

The Date of Pesah

F o l l o w i n g the r e c o l l e c t i o n are a series o f c o m m a n d s s t i p u l a t i n g w h e n , h o w ,

why, a n d w h e r e the p o s t e x o d u s P e s a h is to b e c e l e b r a t e d . A J u b i l e e s flpn
riDSn c o m p o s e d f r o m m u l t i p l e b i b l i c a l a l l u s i o n s , it s e l e c t i v e l y i n t e g r a t e s d i ­
r e c t i v e s for the E g y p t P e s a h w i t h T o r a h c o m m a n d s r e l a t i n g to P e s a h , t h e r e b y
a n 1 7
c l a r i f y i n g the statutes in E x o d 1 2 : 1 4 d i3:io and precluding both the
1 8
Pesah Sheni i n s t i t u t e d in N u m 9 a n d the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f the ger p e r m i t t e d
a n 1 9
in E x o d 12:43-49 ^ Num 9:14. W i t h i n the s t a t u t e the s c h e d u l e o f t h e
c o m m e m o r a t i o n r e c e i v e s the m o s t a t t e n t i o n . It is the p r i n c i p a l s u b j e c t o f s i x
c o m m a n d s — t h r e e d i r e c t l y i n v o l v i n g date ( 4 9 : 7 - 9 ) , t h r e e the t i m e o f d a y
( 4 9 : 8 - 1 0 ) — a n d a s e c o n d a r y t h e m e i n five o t h e r c o m m a n d s ( 4 9 : 1 0 , 1 4 - 1 8 ) .
The t h r e e d a t e - f o c u s e d c o m m a n d s are s t r u c t u r e d to p r o v i d e s u p p o r t f o r a
P e s a h c o m m e m o r a t i o n t h a t s p a n s t w o d a t e s (the f o u r t e e n t h - f i f t e e n t h ) and
to e x p l i c i t l y p r o s c r i b e a d e l a y s u c h as the Pesah Sheni p e r m i t t e d i n N u m 9:9-
1 4 o r a d e f e r m e n t s u c h as d e c r e e d b y H e z e k i a h i n 2 C h r o n 3 0 : 2 , 1 3 , 1 5 . T h e e x ­
c l u s i o n o f Pesah Sheni m a y b e u n i q u e to J u b i l e e s , f o r the institutionalized
2 0
d e l a y is r e f e r e n c e d i n b o t h Q u m r a n a n d r a b b i n i c t e x t s .

17. Standing between God's directives for the night o f the plague and a prescription
m a
for eating unleavened bread, Exod 12:14 y he understood as relating to future c o m m e m o ­
ration o f either Pesah or Massot. If the former, its context, like that o f Exod 12:24, implies
that the c o m m e m o r a t i o n includes the blood rite o f the Egypt Pesah. Equally problematic,
the statute in Exod 1 3 : 1 0 lacks content.
18. As the following analysis will demonstrate, the case for the exclusion o f Pesah
Sheni in Jubilees is not simply an argument from silence. It is based on the Jubilees abstrac­
tion o f phrases from verses that explicitly involve Pesah Sheni in N u m 9 and the placement
of those phrases into contexts that expressly forbid any change whatsoever to the prescribed
date for the c o m m e m o r a t i o n o f Pesah. The tactic is employed at a number o f points in the
legislation (Jub 49:7, 8, 9, 1 4 , 1 6 - 1 7 ) . In his paper, S. Saulnier reaches the same conclusion
("Jub 4 9 : 1 - 1 4 and the Second Passover: How (and W h y ) to Do Away with an Unwanted Festi­
val," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 [ 2 0 0 9 ] ) . O n the other hand, L. Doering, who attributes n o significance to
the multiple Jubilees injunctions against changing the date o f the c o m m e m o r a t i o n , cautions
against such a conclusion ("Purity and Impurity in the Book o f Jubilees," in this volume).
19. Exod 12:44, 48 permits only the circumcised ger to eat the pesah. N u m 9:14 permits
the ger, without qualification, to celebrate the pesah. I do not deal directly with the issue o f
the ger in this essay.
20. Pesah Sheni clearly appears in the Q u m r a n mishmarot texts (4Q259 viii 1; 4 Q 3 2 0 4
iii 4 , 1 4 I iv 9; v 3 , 1 2 ; vi 7I; 4 Q 3 2 1 2 ii 5, 9; iii 8). A n injunction against advancing or delaying
festivals appears in several sectarian texts (lQS 1 : 1 3 - 1 5 ; 4Q266 2 i 1; 4Q268 i, 4 ) , but the prohi­
bition does n o t reference Pesah Sheni. If, as Yadin suggested, a c o m m a n d regarding Pesah
Sheni appeared in the missing part at the top o f col. xviii o f the Temple Scroll, it would be

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 The Festivals of Pesah and Massot in the Book of Jubilees

T h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l d e s i g n of the d a t e - c o m m a n d s is m o s t striking.
W i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f o n e c o m m a n d w h e r e the f o u r t e e n t h is s p e c i f i e d ( J u b
4 9 : 1 0 ) , n o dates are m e n t i o n e d . I n s t e a d date n u m b e r s are r e p r e s e n t e d b y
t e r m s — " o n its day," "at its time," "the t i m e of its day," "the day o f its time,"
"its festal d a y " — that i n d i c a t e the f o u r t e e n t h , fifteenth, or b o t h . T h e date
(or dates) d e s i g n a t e d b y each d a y - t e r m is r e v e a l e d t h r o u g h an i n g e n i o u s s y s ­
tem of a l l u s i o n s e m p l o y e d in the w o r d i n g of the c o m m a n d . T h i s system of
a l l u s i o n s has three distinctive features: (a) m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , the t i m i n g of
events as set forth in the p r e s c r i p t i v e , n a r r a t i v e r e c o l l e c t i o n (49:1-6) is p r e ­
s u m e d , i.e., the f o u r t e e n t h is i n d i c a t e d b y explicit reference a n d a l l u s i o n s to
sacrifice of the pesah a n d the fifteenth b y e x p l i c i t a n d a l l u d e d references to
the tenth p l a g u e a n d / o r eating the pesah; ( b ) the a l l u s i o n s are t r i g g e r e d b y
the p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t of a c o m m a n d , b y a full o r p a r t i a l citation, b y an a b ­
s t r a c t e d b i b l i c a l p h r a s e , a n d b y o n e o f the d a t e - t e r m s ; (c) e a c h date-
c o m m a n d is deliberately c o m p o s e d to p o i n t to b o t h the f o u r t e e n t h a n d the
fifteenth.

T h e f o l l o w i n g table illustrates h o w this c o m p l e x system of a l l u s i o n s

21
f u n c t i o n s in the first three c o m m a n d s of the l e g i s l a t i o n .

49:7 N o w y o u remember this day all the days of your lifetime. Celebrate it from
year to year all the days all y o u r lifetime, once a year on its day in accord with all
of its law. T h e n y o u w i l l n o t c h a n g e a day from the day or from m o n t h to
month.
Date(s)
Allusion Source
Source Content
Content Indicated

(1) remember this Exod 12:14

12:14 Memory
Memory of night of plague 15th
15th (eating)
day . . .

all the days of your Deut 16:3-4; Phrase from context that relates
lifetime cf.
cf. Num 33:3
33:3 eating of pesah to memory of day
of exodus

(2) from year to year Exod 13:10

13:10 "Keep this statute . . . from year to 15th
15th (eating)
year"

the single reference in that scroll (Y. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 3 vols. [Jerusalem: Israel E x ­
p l o r a t i o n Society, 1 9 7 7 - 1 9 8 3 ] , 2 : 7 6 ) . O n the rabbinic t r e a t m e n t o f Pesah Sheni, see
m. Pesahim 9:1-4.
2 1 . The analysis of the date- and time-related c o m m a n d s adapts and, at certain
points, reconsiders material I presented in "The Use of Bible in Jubilees 4 9 : T h e Date and
Time o f the Pesah Celebration " Meghillot 6 (2007).

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Betsy Half em-Amaru

Date(s)
Allusion Source Content Indicated

Exod 12:43 Statute of the pesah dealing with

who is to eat the pesah

(3) on its day Lev 23:5,37 Offerings for sacred occasions at set 14th (sacrifice)
(faTeta/rova) times; 14th for pesah

(4) in accord with all Num 9:14 Pesah Sheni; participation of 14th-15th
its law resident alien in sacrifice and (sacrifice and
eating of pesah eating)

Comments

i. The two phrases access biblical commands that deal with remembering.
One, Exod 12:14 ("this day shall be one of remembrance"), immediately fol­
lows a forecast of the events on the night of the plague. The second, Deut
16:3-4, associates the exodus with the eating of the pesah (as well as with the
prohibition of unleavened bread). Selectively drawing phrases from each
passage, Jubilees connects three themes — the night of the plague, the exo­
dus, and the eating of the pesah — all of which occurred on the fifteenth.
2 . "This statute" in Exod 13:10 is understood as referring back to the
22
statute in Exod 12:43 that deals with who is to eat the pesah.
3 . The phrase, which is drawn from the Leviticus sacrificial calendar, is
frequendy used in the Jubilees legislation as an indicator for the fourteenth.
4. The phrase appears in the plural in Num 9:3. Jubilees accesses the sin­
gular form in Num 9:14, a passage that involves both sacrifice and eating,
hence indicating the fourteenth-fifteenth. Note that this is one of several verses
where words borrowed from a passage involving Pesah Sheni are placed within
a command prohibiting any change to the date of the pesah commemoration.

49:8 For it is an eternal statute and it is engraved on the heavenly tablets re­
garding the Israelites that they are to celebrate it each and every year on its day,
once a year, throughout all their generations (lit.). There is no temporal limit
because it is ordained forever.

22. R. Akiba makes the same connection between Exod 13:10 and Exod 12:43
(b. Menahot36b; b. Eruvin 96a). The opposing position of R. Jose relates "this statute" to the
command regarding phylacteries (b. Menahot 36b; b. Eruvin 96a; cf. Mekilta Bo 17; Targum
Pseudo-Jonathan on Exod 13:10).

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Date(s)
Allusion Source Content Indicated

(1) eternal statute Exod 12:14 Statute to commemorate night of 15th (plague,
plague eating)

on its day Lev 2 3 : 5 , 3 7 Offerings for sacred occasions at set 14th (sacrifice)
times, 14th prescribed for the pesah
offering

(1) throughout all Exod 12:14 15th (plague, eating, exodus) Night of plague
their generations a festival

Exod 12:42 Night of plague a vigil

Comments

l. T h e c o m m a n d is constructed to connect Pesah with festival ( E x o d 1 2 : 1 4 ) ,

the night of the plague ( 1 2 : 1 4 ) , and the night of the vigil c o m m e m o r a t i n g the
exodus ( 1 2 : 4 2 ) , all of w h i c h involve the fifteenth.

49:9 The man who is pure but does not come to celebrate it — on the time of its
day (lit.) to bring a sacrifice that is pleasing before the Lord and to eat and
drink before the Lord on the day of His festival — that m a n w h o is pure and
nearby is to be uprooted because he did not bring the Lord's sacrifice at its
23
time. T h a t m a n will bear responsibility for his o w n s i n .
Date(s)
Allusion Source Content Indicated

(1) the man who is Num 9:13 Full, but slightly altered citation 14th-15th
pure . . . that man (sacrifice and
who is pure . . . at its eating)
time

(2) on the time of its None 14th (sacrifice)

day

(3) day of His festival Exod 12:14 Celebrate this day "as a festival to 15th (eating)
the Lord"

Exod 23:18 Prohibition against leaving the fat

of offerings of "my festival" until
morning

23. Positioning o f dashes mine. The positioning in VanderKam's translation obfus­

cates the specification o f two activities o n two different dates.

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Betsy Halpern-Amaru

Date(s)
Allusion Source Content Indicated

Exod 34:25 Prohibition against leaving the

pesah offering until morning

(1) at its time Num 9:13 Part of citation 14th (sacrifice)

Comments

l. D i s p l a c e d from its b i b l i c a l Pesah Sheni c o n t e x t , the cited v e r s e is split b y an

i n s e r t i o n that specifies t w o t i m e s for t w o activities, each of w h i c h has its
own day, i.e., date — "to b r i n g a sacrifice o n the t i m e o f its d a y " a n d "to eat
a n d d r i n k b e f o r e the L o r d on the d a y o f H i s festival."
2. A v a r i a n t o f the b i b l i c a l "at its t i m e " ( U S / I B S ) , this J u b i l e e s - c r e a t e d
t e r m is an i n d i c a t o r , d e p e n d i n g o n c o n t e x t , for either the f o u r t e e n t h or the
fifteenth.
3. I n t e r p r e t i n g E x o d 23:18 in the light of E x o d 34:25, " M y festival" is u n ­
d e r s t o o d as referring to Pesah. T h e p h r a s e "festival to the L o r d " also serves as
an i n t r a t e x t u a l a l l u s i o n to A b r a h a m ' s "festival o f the L o r d " in J u b 18:18.

The Times of Day for Sacrifice and Eating of the Pesah

T h e s y s t e m o f c o d e d d a t e - a l l u s i o n s also a p p e a r s in J u b 4 9 : 1 0 - 1 2 , b u t the p r i ­
m a r y c o n c e r n o f these three verses is p r e s c r i p t i o n o f the t i m e of d a y for the
t w o - p h a s e d c e l e b r a t i o n . M u c h as the three initial date-related commands
s o
collectively i n t e r p r e t E x o d 1 2 : 1 4 , these c o m m a n d s e n g a g e in an e x e g e t i c a l
t r e a t m e n t of the p h r a s e " b e t w e e n the e v e n i n g s " in E x o d 1 2 : 6 . In that d i r e c ­
tive for the E g y p t Pesah, the term " b e t w e e n the e v e n i n g s " d e s i g n a t e s the t i m e
w h e n the p a s c h a l a n i m a l is to b e s l a u g h t e r e d o n the f o u r t e e n t h . T h e p h r a s e
also a p p e a r s in L e v 23:5 a n d N u m 9:3, but w i t h o u t reference to a p a r t i c u l a r
aspect o f the r i t u a l . O n l y in the directives for Pesah Sheni d o e s c o n t e x t sug­
gest that the t i m e f r a m e e n c o m p a s s e s b o t h sacrifice a n d eating ( N u m 9 : 1 1 ) .
24
A l l u d i n g to L e v 23:5 a n d N u m 9 : 3 , Jubilees a d o p t s the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
N u m 9 : 1 1 , b u t a g a i n d e c o n s t r u c t s its c o n t e x t .

24. T h e o p e n i n g clause o f Jub 49:10 ( " T h e Israelites are to c o m e and celebrate the
pesah") cites N u m 9:3; Jub 49:11 ( " T h i s is w h a t the L o r d c o m m a n d e d y o u — to celebrate it
b e t w e e n the e v e n i n g s " ) refers to the legislation in Lev 23:5.

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 The Festivals of Pesah and Massot in the Book of Jubilees

In a mismarot-like d i v i s i o n , the J u b i l e e s exegesis s e p a r a t e s d a y a n d

n i g h t i n t o three p a r t s , w i t h the last t h i r d o f the d a y a n d first t h i r d o f the
n i g h t b o t h t e r m e d " e v e n i n g . " H e n c e " b e t w e e n the e v e n i n g s " refers to the
p e r i o d o f t i m e b e t w e e n the e v e n i n g of the d a y a n d the e n d o f the e v e n i n g of
the day, i.e., " f r o m the t h i r d p a r t o f the d a y u n t i l the third p a r t of the n i g h t "
(Jub 4 9 : 1 0 ) . T h e o f f e r i n g is to b e s a c r i f i c e d " i n the b o u n d a r y of the e v e n i n g "
of the d a y ( 4 9 : 1 2 ) , a t i m e f r a m e r e f i n e d in 49:19 b y a p h r a s e f r o m D e u t 16:6,
WAWH ("in the e v e n i n g w h e n the s u n s e t s " ) . N o t a b l y , that
s a m e p h r a s e is e m p l o y e d in the p r e s c r i p t i o n of J u b 49:1 to d e n o t e the t i m e
of the e a t i n g o f the pesah. Still, the exegesis r e m a i n s c o n s i s t e n t . U n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g TTHTYN NIDD DTJ/D as w h e n the s u n b e g i n s its d e s c e n t (the e v e ­
n i n g o f the d a y ) , the c o m m a n d in the P e s a h statute c o m b i n e s the p h r a s e
w i t h " i n the t h i r d p a r t of the d a y " (fub 4 9 : 1 9 ) to d e n o t e the t i m e for the s a c ­
2 5
rifice, i.e., the e i g h t h h o u r of the d a y . C o n v e r s e l y , t r e a t i n g the p h r a s e as re­
f e r r i n g to the t i m e w h e n the s u n c o m p l e t e s its d e s c e n t (the e v e n i n g o f the
n i g h t ) , the p r e s c r i p t i o n in J u b 4 9 : 1 c o m b i n e s it w i t h "at night," an a l l u s i o n
to D e u t 1 6 : 1 , to d e n o t e the t i m e for the e a t i n g . A c o m p a r a b l e t i m e f r a m e for
the eating is g i v e n in the P e s a h statute ( J u b 4 9 : 1 2 ) . T h e sacrifice is to b e
eaten " d u r i n g the e v e n i n g h o u r ( s ) u n t i l the t h i r d p a r t of the night," i.e., the
eighth h o u r o f the n i g h t , w i t h its e n d p o i n t e m p h a s i z e d b y a n e m e n d e d v e r ­
2 6
s i o n of E x o d 1 2 : 1 0 .

Prescriptive Recollection of Massot

The J u b i l e e s t r e a t m e n t of M a s s o t is i m m e d i a t e l y a p p e n d e d to the P e s a h stat­

ute. I n d e e d , w i t h i n the s a m e v e r s e , the P e s a h statute closes w i t h a restate­
m e n t of the c o m m a n d for a c o m m e m o r a t i o n that s p a n s t w o dates ( J u b
2 7
49:22a) a n d M a s s o t is i n t r o d u c e d as a c o m m e m o r a t i o n of the s e v e n re-

25. The argument from the plural o f evening is unique to Jubilees; but the extension
a n
of time for the sacrifice is also found in Philo (Laws 2.145) d rabbinic literature (Mekilta
Bo 5; m. Pesahim 5:1).
26. "You shall not leave any o f it over until morning; if any of it is left until morning,
you shall b u r n it" (Exod 1 2 : 1 0 ) . "Any o f its meat that is left over from the third part o f the
night and beyond is to be burned" (Jub 4 9 : 1 2 ) .
27. The restatement, like all the date-related legislation in the statute, employs coded
terminology — "Now you Moses order the Israelites to keep the statute o f the pesah as it was
c o m m a n d e d to you so that you m a y tell them . . . the day o f t h e days (lit.)," i.e., the day
(date) o f the sacrifice and the day (date) o f the eating.

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Betsy Halpern-Amaru

maining days of Abraham's "festival of the Lord" (49:22b). Albeit far more
brief, the treatment of Massot structurally parallels that of Pesah in 49:1-6.
Again, legislation for future commemoration of the festival is comple­
mented by a recollection that functions as a proof text; intertextual allusions
to biblical passages are creatively interwoven with intratextual references;
and identical strategies are employed to prompt the intratextual exegesis —
importation of the theme of joyous celebration, utilization of a motif and
subtle phrases that associate Massot with the patriarchal protofestival.
The prescription for future celebration of the festival combines bibli­
cal commands — eating unleavened bread (Exod 12:15; 13:6; 23:15; 34:18; Lev
23:6; Num 28:17; Deut 16:3) and bringing daily sacrifices (Lev 23:8; Num
28:24) — with an implied obligation to rejoice ("during those seven joyous
days," sabu' mawa'ela fesseha) (Jub 49:22b) that has no counterpart in the
28
Torah. The Hebrew equivalent phrase, n n a t P ' 0 ' NS?3tP, appears in the
Chronicler's account of a fused Pesah/Massot celebration that is not only de­
layed, but also extended an additional seven days ( 2 Chron 30:23), neither of
which is acceptable to the author of Jubilees. So, much as he had done with
Pesah Sheni in Num 9, he abstracts the phrase from the offending context
and employs it as an intratextual allusion to the requirement, expressed with
1
another "joy" phrase (TinBtt?3 C O n S D t P in Ezra 6:22; 2 Chron 30:21), that
all Jacob's descendants joyously commemorate Abraham's "festival of the
Lord" (Jub 18:19).
Again the legislation is supported by a recollection, this time of the Is­
raelites celebrating "this festival hastily" from the time they departed Egypt
until they crossed the sea (Jub 49:23). The phrase "this festival" also appears
in the account of the patriarchal celebration, indeed awkwardly so, for the
demonstrative pronoun has no preceding point of reference (18:18). That
awkwardness suggests a deliberate setup for the intratextual allusion that
now links Massot to the patriarchal festival whose celebration had begun on
the night of eating the pesah. That the celebration involves a travel motif is
another evocation of Abraham's festival, instituted "in accord with the seven
days during which he went and returned safely" (18:18). Like the patriarchal
journey, the Israelite one entails seven days of travel and deliverance (in
Abraham's case from the plotting of Mastema, in this instance from the

28. There is no Torah mandateforjoyous celebration of Pesah or Massot. Indeed, its

absence is particularly glaring in Deut 16 where rejoicing is prescribedforthe celebrations of
both Shabu'ot (Deut 16:11) and Succot (Deut 16:14-15), but not for celebration of the fused
Pesah/Massot festival. On the motif of joy and rejoicing in Jubilees, see B. Halpern-Amaru,
"Joy as Piety in the Book of Jubilees" JJS 66, no. 2 (2005): 185-205.

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2 9
threat o f the E g y p t i a n s at the R e e d S e a ) . M o r e o v e r , a c c o r d i n g to the b i b l i ­
cal d e s c r i p t i o n of the r o u t e taken b y the Israelites, t h e y also " w e n t a n d re­
t u r n e d safely" — from E g y p t to "the edge of the w i l d e r n e s s " ( E x o d 1 3 : 2 0 ) ,
b a c k t o w a r d the sea ( 1 4 : 2 ) , a n d , after c r o s s i n g the sea, safely b a c k to the w i l ­
3 0
derness ( i 5 : 2 2 ) .
Lastly, the Israelite c e l e b r a t i o n a d d s a n o t h e r ritual to the p r o t o f e s t i v a l
— the eating o f u n l e a v e n e d b r e a d (instead o f the c u s t o m a r y festive l o a v e s )
— b e c a u s e the Israelites celebrated the a n c i e n t festival " h a s t i l y " f r o m the
t i m e t h e y left E g y p t until they c r o s s e d the sea "into the w i l d e r n e s s of Sur,"
w h e r e t h e y " c o m p l e t e d it o n the s e a s h o r e " ( J u b 4 9 : 2 3 ) . T h e e x p l a n a t i o n is a
creative r e w o r k i n g o f a m o t i f a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h Pesah a n d M a s s o t . H a s t e
a n
is the r e a s o n g i v e n for the u n l e a v e n e d b r e a d in E x o d 12:39 d D e u t 16:3 (cf.
E x o d 1 2 : 3 ) , b u t i n those passages it relates to a h a s t y d e p a r t u r e , n o t to a h u r ­
r i e d c e l e b r a t i o n . T h e n o t i o n of a h a s t y c e l e b r a t i o n a p p e a r s o n l y in the c o n ­
text o f P e s a h ( E x o d 1 2 : 1 1 ) , a n d , as w e h a v e seen, it is an aspect that Jubilees
e x c l u d e s f r o m b o t h the r e c o l l e c t i o n of the E g y p t c e l e b r a t i o n a n d the P e s a h
statute. R e t a i n i n g the m o t i f in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h M a s s o t , b u t r e a r r a n g i n g it to
the c o n t e x t of a centuries-later c e l e b r a t i o n of the p a t r i a r c h a l festival, the a u ­
t h o r o f J u b i l e e s s u s t a i n s his p o r t r a y a l o f a p e o p l e " r e a d y to leave the E g y p ­
tian y o k e a n d evil s l a v e r y " ( J u b 4 9 : 6 ) , a v o i d s the i n d i g n i t i e s o f the h a r r i e d
3 1
flight f r o m E g y p t d e s c r i b e d in E x o d i 2 : 3 i - 3 9 , a n d affirms the i m a g e o f a
b o l d , defiant Israelite d e p a r t u r e d e p i c t e d in N u m 33:3 (cf. E x o d 1 4 : 8 ) .

Conclusion

T h e Jubilees t r e a t m e n t of Pesah. a n d M a s s o t is f o r e m o s t an interpretive re­

w o r k i n g of E x o d 1 2 - 1 3 . Its a u t h o r d e s i g n s an i n g e n i o u s c o m p o s i t i o n a l s t r u c -

29. Since the author uses the Mastema m o t i f in his recollection o f the Egypt Pesah, he
does n o t repeat it with Massot. However, in his account of the exodus, Mastema does appear
as the instigator o f the Egyptian pursuit (Jub 48:12, 1 5 - 1 7 ) .
30. The biblical account gives no date for the crossing o f the sea. The Jubilees notion
that it was the twenty-second of the first m o n t h (the seventh day o f Massot) does have a par­
allel in rabbinic tradition. The calculation is based on the assumption that P h a r a o h began
pursuing the Israelites three days after their departure on the fifteenth (Exod 3:18; 5:3). In the
course o f those three days the Israelites arrived at the edge of the desert (Exod 1 3 : 2 0 ) , but
then retraced their steps (a second three-day journey) back to the sea (Exod 1 4 : 2 ) , which
they crossed on the twenty-second (b. Megillah 3 1 a ; Rashi on E x o d 14:5).
31. The rejection o f a hurried departure m a y also reflect the influence o f Isa 52:12.

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Betsy Halpern-Amaru

ture that brings order and coherence to the chaotic mixture of directives for
and narratives about the E g y p t Pesah, ordination of a Pesah statute for fu­
ture commemoration, and legislation for Massot. H e also develops a Pesah
statute that fills lacunae in its Exodus counterparts with content that refer­
ences the corpus of Pesah-related material in the Pentateuch through an in­
tricate system of allusions. Lastly, in presenting Pesah and Massot as separate
consecutive festivals permanently merged as c o m m o n celebrations of a sin­
gle patriarchal protofestival, this author not only serves his o w n interest, but
may also be responding, much like modern source critics, to the discrete and
fused presentations of Pesah/Massot in the biblical text.

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Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees

John C. Endres, S.J.

T h e b o o k of Jubilees p r e s e n t s itself as a " h i s t o r y " of Israel t h r o u g h the p e r ­

s p e c t i v e o f M o s e s . It b e g i n s at M o u n t S i n a i ( E x o d 2 4 ) w i t h the r e v e l a t i o n to
M o s e s b y G o d , w h o tells h i m that I s r a e l w o u l d stray f r o m the c o v e n a n t t h e y
h a d j u s t c o n c l u d e d w i t h G o d ; t h e y w o u l d sin a n d b e p u n i s h e d until they re­
p e n t e d a n d r e t u r n e d to G o d . T h i s c o u r s e o f events w o u l d s e r v e to d e m o n ­
strate G o d ' s great m e r c y in d e a l i n g w i t h Israel. L a t e r in c h a p . 1 G o d tells M o ­
ses to w r i t e d o w n this entire m e s s a g e , w h i c h an a n g e l of p r e s e n c e w o u l d
dictate to h i m f r o m the ( h e a v e n l y ) tablets o n w h i c h this entire s t o r y w a s al­
r e a d y i n s c r i b e d . T h i s a n g e l p r o c e e d s to r e c o u n t Israel's life a n d h i s t o r y f r o m
the c r e a t i o n of the w o r l d to the first P a s s o v e r o f the H e b r e w s in E g y p t ( G e n 1
t h r o u g h E x o d 2 4 ) . M u c h of this b o o k reads like a w o r k of " r e w r i t t e n Bible,"
retelling the b i b l i c a l t r a d i t i o n w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r focus o n the lives of the p a ­
triarchs a n d m a t r i a r c h s as the setting for Israel's self-identity. A s this a u t h o r
retells the a n c i e n t story, his e m p h a s e s i n c u l c a t e a n u m b e r o f i m p o r t a n t m o ­
tifs, i n c l u d i n g : the c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n G o d a n d the p e o p l e , the laws that a l l o w
p e o p l e to r e m a i n faithful c o v e n a n t p a r t n e r s , the significant J e w i s h festivals
of the year, the solar c a l e n d a r b y w h i c h they s h o u l d b e c a l c u l a t e d a n d o b ­
s e r v e d , clear n o t i o n s a b o u t the spirit w o r l d a n d d e m o n s , a n d the i m p o r t a n c e
of p r a y e r to G o d . O n e c o u l d t h i n k of it as a t h e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y w h o s e i d e o l ­
o g y is clearly d i s c e r n e d f r o m the w a y it r e w r i t e s earlier s o u r c e s . S c h o l a r s
h a v e e x c a v a t e d this text for i n f o r m a t i o n o n m a n y aspects of early J e w i s h life
in the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . S t u d i e s o f its h a l a k a h , of c o u r s e , c o n c e r n c o r r e ­
s p o n d e n c e s w i t h the different r e l i g i o u s g r o u p i n g s of the era, b u t the signifi-

323
John C. Endres, S.J.

c a n c e o f the v e r y strict i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f certain h a l a k o t h m o s t likely c o n ­

cerns issues that establish m o r e s e c u r e f o u n d a t i o n s for J e w i s h identity.
A m o n g the chief c o n c e r n s t o d a y are the s o l a r calendar, r e l i g i o u s festivals (es­
p e c i a l l y S h a v u o t h ) , c o m p a r i s o n of legal c o n c e r n s here w i t h o t h e r J e w i s h
g r o u p s or sects, i n c l u d i n g the w r i t e r of the T e m p l e S c r o l l . In recent d e c a d e s
c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n has f o c u s e d o n the a p p a r e n t p r a c t i c e of r e w r i t i n g
b i b l i c a l texts, b r i n g i n g n e w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s to the f a m i l i a r a n d s a c r e d s t o r y
of the p e o p l e I s r a e l . T h e w o r l d of the spirits, e s p e c i a l l y evil spirits, receives
m u c h m o r e a t t e n t i o n in J u b i l e e s t h a n in s e v e r a l o t h e r J e w i s h w o r k s c o n s i d ­
ered c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s w i t h this b o o k .
A l t h o u g h s e c o n d t e m p l e a n d Q u m r a n studies e v i n c e g r e a t interest in
m e s s i a n i c t e n d e n c i e s , i n c l u d i n g e s c h a t o l o g y , in the v a r i o u s d o c u m e n t s , the
e s c h a t o l o g y of J u b i l e e s has n o t b e e n a m o n g the m o s t s t u d i e d i t e m s in re­
1 2
search o n J u b i l e e s . Often the d i s c u s s i o n of J u b i l e e s focuses o n m e s s i a n i s m ,
or on the s t u d y o f the o n e a p o c a l y p s e in J u b 2 3 . G e n e D a v e n p o r t ' s disserta­
t i o n a n d s u b s e q u e n t m o n o g r a p h w a s d e v o t e d to this i s s u e , i.e., Eschatology
3
of the Book of Jubilees; b u t b e c a u s e his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p a s ­
sages w a s tied to a r e d a c t i o n a l t h e o r y a n d a s c h e m a o f h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p ­
m e n t o f the text that d i d n o t m e e t w i d e s p r e a d r e c e p t i o n , the issue of e s c h a ­
tology, w h i c h m o t i v a t e d his study, h a s n o t received the k i n d of a t t e n t i o n a n d
i m p a c t it d e s e r v e s .
S c h o l a r s have l o n g n o t e d c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n this b o o k , h o w e v e r , a n d
v a r i o u s tendencies a n d beliefs in the Q u m r a n scrolls, w h i c h are frequently
l i n k e d w i t h an a r r a y of e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e n d e n c i e s . T h i s c o n g r u e n c e of t h e o ­
logical tendencies also m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d a l o n g with the i n t r i g u i n g fact that
4
f o u r t e e n (or fifteen) m a n u s c r i p t s of Jubilees w e r e d i s c o v e r e d at Q u m r a n .

I. Defining Eschatology

V a r y i n g d e f i n i t i o n s of e s c h a t o l o g y r e n d e r this d i s c u s s i o n c o m p l e x , since
a g r e e m e n t o n its c o n s t i t u e n t e l e m e n t s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is s e l d o m a t t a i n e d .

1. J. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha

(Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001), comments: "To be sure, eschatology is not a
dominant concern in Jubilees, as it is in some of the Enoch literature" (132).
2. For example, J. Klausner, The Messianic Idea in Israel: From Its Beginning to the
Completion of the Mishnah, trans. W. F. Stinespring (New York: Macmillan, 1955), 302-9.
3. G. L. Davenport, The Eschatology of the Book of Jubilees, SPB (Leiden: Brill, 1971).
4. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, 16.

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 Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees

H i s t o r i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , this t e r m has a s u r p r i s i n g l y b r i e f shelf life in o u r field,

since it w a s " f o r m e d artificially a n d i n t r o d u c e d o n l y in 1 8 0 4 b y the G e r m a n
5
dogmatic theologian K . G . Bretschneider." Continental theologians always
c o n s i d e r e d it c o n n e c t e d w i t h the " d o g m a t i c locus De Novissimis, expressing
6
the c o n c e p t of the 'last t h i n g s ' (eschata) e x p e c t e d b y C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s . " Its
earliest roots can b e f o u n d in p r e r a b b i n i c J e w i s h u s a g e , e.g., in the b o o k of
E c c l e s i a s t i c u s ( B e n S i r a ) 48:24, w h e r e he says of the p r o p h e t I s a i a h : " B y his
d a u n t l e s s spirit he s a w the future, a n d c o m f o r t e d the m o u r n e r s in Z i o n "
( N R S V ) . T y p i c a l h e a d i n g s d e f i n i n g these "last t h i n g s " are, a c c o r d i n g to the
classical d o g m a t i c teachers of L u t h e r a n i s m , De morte et statu animarum post
mortem, De resurrectione mortuorum, De extremo judicio, De consummatione
coeliJ To b e g i n w i t h , e s c h a t o l o g y p o i n t s us t o w a r d the future even as w e are
c o n c e r n e d w i t h issues of the p r e s e n t day.

F u r t h e r r e f i n e m e n t s follow. B o u s s e t (Die Religion des Judentums im

spiithellenistischen Zeitalter) c l a i m e d that J e w i s h e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a n d m e s s i ­
a n i c beliefs differ, since e a c h c o r r e s p o n d s to different n e e d s a m o n g the J e w ­
ish p e o p l e . M e s s i a n i c h o p e w a s p u r p o r t e d l y tied to the " h o p e for r e s t o r a t i o n
of Israel's glories," w h e r e a s e s c h a t o l o g y r e s p o n d e d to a n e e d "for o r i e n t a t i o n
in the individual lives o f the b e l i e v e r s " ( p a r t i c u l a r l y a m o n g the educated
8
classes) r a t h e r t h a n the " U t o p i a o f the c o m m o n m a n . " F o r B o u s s e t , then,
e s c h a t o l o g y h a s a m o r e distinctive c h a r a c t e r t h a n d o e s m e s s i a n i s m , l i n k e d as
it often is to n a t i o n a l i s t i c h o p e s . F o r his p a r t , D a v e n p o r t ' s monograph
s p e a k s m o r e generally, seeing e s c h a t o l o g y as "any v i e w of the future in w h i c h
there are events a n t i c i p a t e d as h a v i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e for the life o f Israel a n d
9
the w o r l d , events b e y o n d w h i c h life w i l l b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y different."
T o d a y there is a m o v e m e n t to a p p r o a c h the issue of definition b y d e ­
s c r i b i n g clusters of e l e m e n t s or m o t i f s t y p i c a l o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l texts. G e z a
X e r a v i t s , for e x a m p l e , defines the adjective " e s c h a t o l o g i c a l " "as 'related o r
p e r t a i n i n g to the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l age.' B y ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a g e ' w e m e a n a p r e ­
e m i n e n t p e r i o d of the histoire sainte, w h e n the a c t u a l p e r i o d of h i s t o r y
1 0
reaches its c l i m a x . " H e then suggests characteristics that m a r k off such p e -

5. J. Schaper, Eschatology in the Greek Psalter, W U N T 2. Reihe (Tubingen: J. C. B.

Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1995), 26.
6. Schaper, Eschatology, 26.
7. Schaper, Eschatology, 26.
8. Schaper, Eschatology, 27-28.
9. Davenport, Eschatology, 8.
1 0 . G. Xeravits, King, Priest, Prophet: Positive Eschatological Protagonists oj the
Qumran Library, STDJ 47 (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2003), 3.

325
John C. Endres, S.J.

r i o d s : " G o d ' s j u d g e m e n t over the created w o r l d , G o d ' s v i c t o r y over evil, the

11
c o m p l e t e e r a d i c a t i o n of evil, a n d the t r i u m p h of G o d ' s p e o p l e . " Michael
K n i b b presents a larger cluster o f characteristics f a m i l i a r f r o m s e c o n d t e m ­
12
ple J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e . T h e s e i n c l u d e : the idea of a final j u d g m e n t w h e r e the
r i g h t e o u s w i l l be r e w a r d e d a n d the w i c k e d p u n i s h e d ; the idea o f a last great
battle w i t h forces of evil; d e s c r i p t i o n s (in the f o r m of b l e s s i n g s ) of the b l e s s ­
i n g s o f the n e w age; the e x p e c t a t i o n of a n e w J e r u s a l e m ; rules for o r d e r i n g
life in a n e w age; an e x p l a n a t i o n for the delay in e x p e c t e d t i m e o f the e n d ;
b e l i e f in r e s u r r e c t i o n of the dead; m e s s i a n i c beliefs. I will i n d i c a t e the p r e s ­
ence o f s e v e r a l o f these m o t i f s in the J u b i l e e s ' texts to b e c o n s i d e r e d .

II. Eschatological Texts Par Excellence

S c h o l a r s of Jubilees g e n e r a l l y identify two lengthy texts w i t h strong eschato­

13
logical l a n g u a g e a n d c o n t e n t . T h e first is G o d ' s m e s s a g e to M o s e s on M o u n t
Sinai, in 1 : ^ - 2 9 (a n a r r a t i v e w i t h clear roots in E x o d 2 4 ) . It follows the m e s ­
sage in the p r o l o g u e , that w e h a v e here "the w o r d s r e g a r d i n g the d i v i s i o n s o f
the times of the l a w a n d of the testimony, o f the events of the y e a r s , of the
w e e k s of their jubilees t h r o u g h o u t all the years of eternity as he related ( t h e m )
to M o s e s o n M t . S i n a i w h e n he w e n t u p to receive the stone tablets" ( p r o l o g u e ,
1 4
first p a r t ) . T h e s e c o n d passage is the a p o c a l y p s e in Jub 2 3 : 1 4 - 3 1 , w h i c h fol­
lows the death of A b r a h a m ( 2 3 : 1 - 8 ) . I will describe a n d discuss each text, sug­
gest s o m e c o m m o n t h e m e s a n d patterns, a n d indicate w a y s in w h i c h they offer
a perspective t h r o u g h w h i c h o n e can v i e w the entire b o o k of Jubilees.

11. Xeravits, King, Priest, Prophet, 3.

12. M. Knibb, "Eschatology and Messianism in the Dead Sea Scrolls," in The Dead Sea
Scrolls after Fifty Years: Volume II, ed. P. Flint and J. VanderKam (Leiden, Boston, and C o ­
logne: Brill, 1999), 379-402 (here 381-82).
13. J. VanderKam, "The End of the Matter? Jubilees 50:6-13 and the Unity of the
Book," in Heavenly Tablets: Interpretation, Identity, and Tradition in Ancient Judaism, ed.
L. LiDonnici and A. Lieber, JSJSup (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2 0 0 7 ) , 267-84 (esp. 267-72).
VanderKam, 270, notes that "the passages which Testuz considered additions were eschato­
logical ones," i.e., 1:7-25,28; 23:11-32; and 2 4 : 2 8 ^ 3 0 ; cf. M. Testuz, Les idees religieuses du Livre
des Jubiles (Geneva: Librairie E. Droz; Paris: Librairie Minard, 1960), 39-40. VanderKam ex­
amines a third passage, Jub 50:6-13, also considered eschatological (VanderKam, 270). The
salient point is the identification o f "odd" passages as likely candidates for the presentation
of an eschatological vision in this book.
14. Unless otherwise noted, all translations are from J. VanderKam, trans., The Book of
Jubilees, CSCO 88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989), hereafter VanderKam, Jubilees.

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 Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees

III. God's Message to Moses at Sinai (1:40-29)

Moses' sojourn of forty days and nights at Mount Sinai forms the scene of
the first eschatological passage. During this time the Lord showed to him all
that had happened before, and what would happen in the future; all these
events were related to the division of all the times, both of the law and of the
testimony (v. 4). God ordered Moses to pay careful attention to all the words
revealed to him on this holy mountain, so that he could write them all down
in a book. This record can be used to educate their offspring on this fact:
God has not abandoned them because of all their "straying from the cove­
nant" between God and them. So the covenant they are making this very day
on Mount Sinai (v. 5) will not be a vehicle for their destruction but will help
them to see that the Lord is more faithful to them than they are to him; in­
deed, the Lord has remained present to them (v. 6). The message follows a
typical pattern, known from Deuteronomic writings: sin, punishment, re­
15
turning to God, saving acts of G o d .

Sin (17-u)

God already knew the people's stubbornness before he brought them into
the land of promise, a land of "milk and honey" (v. 7). But this people will
still commit sin. They will turn to strange gods who cannot deliver them
(v. 8) and they will forget all of God's commandments, follow the ways of
1 6
Gentiles, and serve the Gentiles' gods (v. 9 ) . As a result, they will suffer
greatly: many among this people will be taken captive and will perish be­
cause they forsook their covenant with God. The message returns to Israel's
sins, that they forgot God's statutes, commandments, covenant festivals,

15. R. Werline, Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism: The Development ofa Re­
ligious Institution, SBLEJL 13 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1998), 110-11. In his
study of these passages, J. Scott speaks of the scheme of "sin-exile-restoration (SER)"; cf.
J. Scott, On Earth as in Heaven: The Restoration of Sacred Time and Sacred Space in the Book
ofJubilees, JSJSup (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2005), 77. This rich study of these topics in Jubi­
lees provides a wide-ranging proposal for the chronology of the book, much of which "spec­
ifies" the eschatological perspective. For reasons that will become apparent, I prefer to retain
the notion of "repentance" in the Deuteronomic scheme.
16. That these sins of the nations probably include sexual sins is argued by W. Loader,
Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees on Sexuality: Attitudes toward Sexuality in the Early Enoch Litera­
ture, the Aramaic Levi Document, and the Book of Jubilees (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007),
117.

327
John C. Endres, S.J.

Sabbaths, holy things, tabernacle, and temple (v. 1 0 ) . They will follow some
horrendous practices: constructing "high places" and "(sacred) groves," us­
ing "carved images" for their worship, and — most shocking of all — offer­
17
ing in sacrifice their own children. The language for sinful ways employed
here recalls similar charges against Israel in Deuteronomic language (Deut
31:20-21 and 2 Kings 17:15), a fact that corresponds with the Deuteronomic
theology of history: sin, oppression, outcry to God/repentance, God's saving
activity.

Punishment/Suffering (122-14)

God tries to move Israel toward repentance by telling Moses what will hap­
pen in the future ( w . 1 2 - 1 8 ) . God will send them witnesses, but Israel will not
listen to them; rather they will slay them and persecute those who diligently
study the Torah (v. 1 2 ) . The people will attempt to change and overturn ev­
erything, thus working evil "in my presence" (v. 1 2 ) ; it is a pattern well
known from prophetic texts and the Chronicler (e.g., Jer 25:4; 2 Chron
24:19). Then God will remove his presence from them, handing them over to
their enemies, "for captivity, for booty, and for being devoured" (v. 1 3 ) , even
for dispersal among the nations. After all this, even then this people will for­
get all of God's law, commandments, judgments; rather they will err regard­
ing "the beginning of the month, the sabbath, the festival, the jubilee" (mat­
ters of the Jubilees' calendar, so important to this author), and also the
1 8
"decree" (v. i ) .
4

Repentance (1:15)

Then the Israelites will turn to God: "After this they will return to me from
among the nations with all their minds, all their souls, and all their
strength" (1:15 Ethiopic). This pattern of repeated turning to God ( 3 W ,
shuv) is clear, and the author uses familiar Deuteronomic language (the
1 9
people search, and are found) to express this pattern of repentance (v. 1 5 ) .

17. Recall the condemnation of King Ahaz for such crimes: 2 Chron 28:3 ("made his
sons pass through fire"); here they will offer them to "demons" and to other products of
their own imagination and creativity.
r
18. Cf. Scott, On Earth, 86-87, f ° this assessment.
19. This section of Jubilees exists in the Qumran 4Q216, II (1. 17). The editor,

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 Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees

R e p e n t a n c e a n d r e t u r n to G o d h a v e f o l l o w e d u p o n sin a n d punishment,
a n d G o d s e e m s ever p a t i e n t w i t h t h o s e w h o h a v e s e a r c h e d for h i m " w i t h all
their m i n d s a n d w i t h all their s o u l s " a n d p r o m i s e s to " d i s c l o s e to t h e m
a b u n d a n t peace" in response.

Saving Acts of God (1:16-18)

T h e n e x t step s p e a k s of G o d t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e m into a "plant o f r i g h t e o u s ­

ness," r e m i n d i n g the b i b l i c a l r e a d e r of Jer 32:41 a n d Ps 80:9. T h e l a n g u a g e for
effecting this c h a n g e m i g h t catch readers u n a w a r e s , w h e n G o d p r o c l a i m s
that he w i l l act " w i t h all my m i n d a n d all my s o u l " (v. 1 6 a ) ; here the d i v i n i t y
a p p r o p r i a t e s l a n g u a g e u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the p e o p l e ' s r e s p o n s e to G o d ,
e.g., D e u t 6:5 (the Shem'a Yisrael). A s a result, this p e o p l e shall b e "a b l e s s i n g ,
n o t a c u r s e " (v. 1 6 b ) , e c h o i n g G o d ' s w o r d s to J u d a h a n d I s r a e l in Z e c h 8 : 1 3 .
T h e shift f r o m curse to b l e s s i n g m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d as an o l d e r c o v e n a n t for­
m u l a r y that has u n d e r g o n e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in s o m e s e c o n d t e m p l e texts. In
his s t u d y of the c o v e n a n t , K l a u s B a l t z e r suggests that the c u r s e s (seen in the
h i s t o r i c a l past, or even the p r e s e n t of the p e o p l e ) are b a l a n c e d b y b l e s s i n g s
2 0
that s e e m c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e a n d t o n e . Spe­
cifically, G o d w i l l g a t h e r t h e m f r o m a m o n g the G e n t i l e s b a c k to their l a n d
(v. 1 5 b ) , w i l l t r a n s f o r m t h e m into a " r i g h t e o u s p l a n t " (v. 1 6 ) , w i l l ( r e ) b u i l d
the t e m p l e a m o n g t h e m a n d live w i t h t h e m (v. 1 7 ) a n d b e c o m e their G o d ,
a n d t h e y w i l l b e c o m e G o d ' s "true a n d r i g h t e o u s p e o p l e . " G o d w i l l n e v e r
again alienate or a b a n d o n t h e m , for " I a m the L o r d their G o d " (v. 1 8 ) . M o s t
significant for an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l v i s i o n is the e n d o f G o d ' s s p e e c h in v. 1 5 : " I
w i l l r i g h t l y disclose to t h e m abundant peace!'

J. VanderKam, retrojects from the Ge'ez version a Hebrew word, citing as a good parallel for
his decision a similar text in l Kings 8:48: "if they repent (IMP!) with all their heart and soul
in the land o f their enemies . . ." ( N R S V ) .
20. K. Baltzer, The Covenant Formulary in Old Testament, Jewish, and Early Christian
Writings, trans. D. Green (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1 9 7 1 ) . In several places, dealing with Jewish
texts, especially lQS, Jubilees, C D (Damascus D o c u m e n t ) , and Testaments in Jubilees and
Testaments o f the Twelve Patriarchs, the author notes a transformation of the blessings and
curses with a fairly specific "eschatology" in the text of the blessings ( 1 0 4 - 1 0 5 , 1 0 7 , Manual of
Discipline; 1 1 7 , Damascus D o c u m e n t ; 153-155, Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs). He does
not discuss Jub 1 or 23.

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John C. Endres, S.J.

Prayer of Moses (i:ig-2i)

After G o d ' s p r o m i s e o f a blessed future, M o s e s p r a y s to G o d for his p e o p l e

( w . 1 9 - 2 1 ) , that G o d not forsake t h e m or deliver t h e m into the p o w e r o f their
21
e n e m i e s (v. 1 9 ) . H e b e g s G o d to s h o w t h e m mercy a n d "create for t h e m a
just spirit" (v. 2 0 a ) . M o s e s also p r a y s that "the spirit o f Belial n o t rule t h e m "
(v. 2 0 b ) . A s if G o d r e q u i r e s m o t i v a t i o n to act, M o s e s r e m i n d s the L o r d that
"they are y o u r p e o p l e a n d y o u r h e r i t a g e w h o m y o u h a v e r e s c u e d " f r o m
E g y p t i a n p o w e r . N e a r the e n d of his p r a y e r the w o r d s " C r e a t e for t h e m a
p u r e m i n d a n d a h o l y s p i r i t " r e m i n d the hearers of Ps 5 1 : 1 0 . T h e final w i s h is
that t h e y n o t be c a u g h t u p in their sins forever (v. 2 1 ) . In the s e c o n d t e m p l e
era, to ask G o d to g r a n t a spirit of holiness m a y b e a w a y of e x p r e s s i n g the n o ­
t i o n o f a s p i r i t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of G o d ' s p e o p l e "at the eschaton," since
s p e a k i n g of the spirit o f h o l i n e s s "denotes a n e w s p i r i t u a l d i s p o s i t i o n i m ­
2 2
p a r t e d b y G o d to i n d i v i d u a l J e w s . " T h e y n e e d these gifts to g u a r d their
f r e e d o m f r o m the spirit o f B e l i a l . M o s e s asks G o d for mercy, a n o t i o n that
m a y p o i n t f o r w a r d to the " k i n d n e s s " o f the L o r d in the J u b i l e e s A p o c a l y p s e
( 2 3 : 3 1 ) . T h e m e n t i o n of the ( m a t e r n a l ) n o t i o n of " m e r c y " here m a y r e s o n a t e
w i t h " k i n d n e s s " in the later text.

Response of God: Recapitulates

the Pattern of Sin and Return (1:22-25)

G o d tells M o s e s that he k n o w s the sinful past a n d w a y s o f this p e o p l e , b u t

later t h e y w i l l r e t u r n to G o d " i n a fully u p r i g h t m a n n e r a n d w i t h all (their)
m i n d s a n d all (their) s o u l s " (v. 2 3 a ) . M o s t i m p o r t a n t , G o d w i l l "cut a w a y the
foreskins o f their m i n d s a n d the foreskins of their d e s c e n d a n t s ' m i n d s "
(v. 2 3 b ) . To c i r c u m c i s e "the h e a r t s of the Israelites a n d their d e s c e n d a n t s " is
23
an act i n t e n d e d to e l i m i n a t e "all p o s s i b i l i t y of future a p o s t a s y . " The divine

21. This t e r m appears several times in Jubilees, including three times in Rebekah's
blessing prayer for Jacob, 25:2, 1 9 , 23 (where it is translated by VanderKam as "(my) affec­
tion"). The word mehrat has connotations of "compassion, pardon, mercy, pity, clemency,"
and may relate to the Heb. rhmym. In the Ge'ez Bible this term mehrat and also its cognate
forms appear frequently, often in reference to the deity.
22. B. Smith, " 'Spirit o f Holiness' as Eschatological Principle o f Obedience," in Chris­
tian Beginnings and the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. J. Collins and C. Evans (Grand Rapids: Baker
Academic, 2 0 0 6 ) , 75-99 (here 7 6 ) .
23. Smith, "Spirit o f Holiness," 77.

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 Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees

response has a public character as well, since God promises that all spirits
and angels will know them and the special relationship between Israel and
God. All "of them will be called children of the living God," who is here
called "their father" (v. 2 5 ) . Moses' prayer leads God to promise that sin will
be followed by joyful "return."

God Orders the Writing Down of the Message (1:26-29)

The message constitutes a vision of the blessings of a new age and a new Je­
rusalem, both eschatological motifs. There appear to be two commands to
write down all these words; the first, in v. 26, contains an imperative form,
seemingly directed to Moses, to write down all the words God "will tell you
on this mountain." In a second line, God tells the angel of presence, "Dictate
to Moses" all this history, from the very beginning until its ending time,
when God will descend and actually live with his people (v. 2 7 ) . This change,
a command to Moses in the first and an order to the angel to dictate in the
second, has long proved a crux interpretum; Davenport interpreted it as evi­
dence of redactional activity, arguing that the notion of a dictating angel
24
corresponds to a later redactional level. VanderKam suspects that the dif­
ferent verbs in Ethiopic could reflect imprecisions of the Greek translator,
who might have failed to recognize the difference between qal and hiphil
25
forms of the verb.
Then the Lord will appear so that all can see and recognize him as "the
God of Israel, the father of all Jacob's children, and the king on Mt. Zion"
(v. 2 8 ) . The covenant promise, originally associated with Moses as the cen­
tral figure, greatly expands here as it now extends to all Jacob's family of
twelve descendants, but finally to the claim that Jerusalem and Zion are holy
— even more surprising in the earlier worldview. This chapter concludes
(v. 29) when the angel of presence takes the tablets with all this information
inscribed on them and displays them. In a foretaste of things to come in this
book, the audience learns that these tablets will contain a complete picture
of all the "times" important for their history, including a look ahead to the
renewal of all creatures, when the Lord's temple will be created in Jerusalem.
Even the luminaries will be renewed, so that they can effect "healing, health,

24. Davenport, Eschatology, 15C This point was a key element for his reconstruction of
the redactional history of this text.
25. VanderKam, Jubilees, 6, note to v. 27.

331
John C. Endres, S.J.

and blessing for all the elect ones of Israel" (v. 2 9 ) . The imagery here con­
tains significant eschatological motifs, including the glowing descriptions of
the "blessings of the new age," the expectation of a "new Jerusalem," and
26
rules for ordering life in a new age. This eschatological horizon in Jub 1
should provide a helpful lens for grasping the ultimate end of the interpre­
tive retelling of many narratives in the lives of the patriarchs and matriarchs
of Israel: taken together, the eschatological and narrative elements suggest
concrete ways for the people of Israel to live out their covenant responsibili­
ties, with a focus on the reality to come.

IV. The Apocalypse in Jubilees (23:14-31)

The second eschatological passage comes at an odd place in the narrative, di-
recdy after the description of Abraham's death ( w . 1 - 7 ) but before the cycle
of stories about Isaac and his family. This cycle begins with the well-known
story of Esau selling his birthright to Jacob (Jub 24:2-8), leaving a gap be­
tween Abraham's death and the sale of the birthright. The book of Genesis
also features a type of hiatus between these two events, but there it contains
a genealogy of Ishmael (Gen 25:12-18) and the birth account of Esau and Ja­
cob (Gen 2 5 : 1 9 - 2 7 ) .
Jubilees has greatly altered the sequence of events in this part of the
narrative. Since Jacob and Esau were born while Abraham was yet living
(Jub 1 9 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) , in this version there passed fifteen years while Abraham was
living and able to see these two grandsons. The audience hears of Abraham's
love for Jacob (19:15-31) and his last words to his children and grandchildren.
Jubilees recalls Abraham celebrating Shavuoth with his sons Isaac and
Ishmael, and also Jacob, and there follows a farewell address of Abraham to
his grandson Jacob (22:10-23). This testamentary speech contains many ele­
ments of a typical covenant formulary: repeating the blessings to Jacob's
forebears, a clear list of covenant stipulations, and a renewed version of the
27
blessing prayer for Jacob. Grandfather Abraham inveighed against any
kind of mixing with Gentiles ( 2 2 : 1 6 - 1 7 ) , idolatry (22:18 and 2 2 ) , intermar­
riage (22:20), and warned that idolaters can expect "to descend to sheol and

26. Knibb, "Eschatology and Messianism," 381-82.

27. In Jubilees the blessing was uttered by Abraham, though in Genesis Isaac pro­
claimed it. For analysis of this section, cf. J. Endres, S.J., Biblical Interpretation in the Book of
Jubilees, CBQMS 18 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1987), 43-
44-

332
 Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees

go to the p l a c e of j u d g m e n t " ( 2 2 : 2 2 b ) . In this afterlife the deceased h a v e "no

28
h o p e in the l a n d of the l i v i n g a n d n o r e m e m b r a n c e o f t h e m after death."
After this s p e e c h the t w o of t h e m lay d o w n , J a c o b s l e e p i n g "in the b o s o m of
his g r a n d f a t h e r A b r a h a m " ( 2 2 : 2 6 ) . A b r a h a m b l e s s e d h i m a g a i n ( 2 2 : 2 7 - 3 0 ) ,
a n d t h e n A b r a h a m e x p i r e s , a t t e n d e d o n l y b y J a c o b , w h o is n o t a w a r e o f his
death until he a w a k e n s to find his g r a n d f a t h e r " c o l d as ice" ( 2 3 : 3 ) .
So Jubilees has g r e a t l y altered the f l o w of the story, w i t h m a n y f a m i l y
events o c c u r r i n g after the b i r t h o f E s a u a n d J a c o b but before A b r a h a m ' s
d e a t h . T h e a u t h o r m a y h a v e d i s c o v e r e d an exegetical a n o m a l y in the G e n e s i s
text, i.e., that the n a r r a t i v e f l o w of events does n o t c o r r e s p o n d to the c h r o ­
2 9
n o l o g y d i s c e r n e d in the ( p r i e s t l y ) text of G e n e s i s . T h e s e c h a n g e s also serve
to h e i g h t e n the p o s i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f A b r a h a m , w h i c h is v e r y i m p o r ­
t a n t for Jubilees at this p o i n t of the a c c o u n t . T h e a d d i t i o n a l stories a b o u t
A b r a h a m a n d his f a m i l y in Jubilees a l m o s t force the a u t h o r to e x p l a i n w h y
A b r a h a m , "perfect w i t h the L o r d in e v e r y t h i n g that he did," lived a m u c h
s h o r t e r life t h a n the ancients h a d . B e f o r e the f l o o d , their lives g e n e r a l l y e x ­
t e n d e d n i n e t e e n j u b i l e e s (19 x 49 = 9 3 1 y e a r s ) , b u t A b r a h a m dies after o n l y
175 y e a r s ("three j u b i l e e s a n d f o u r w e e k s o f y e a r s " ; 3 x 49 p l u s 4 x 7 y e a r s ) .
T h e n e w e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n w i l l offer a s o l u t i o n to this p r o b l e m : the i n ­
crease o f evil in the w o r l d has i n e v i t a b l y led to a s h o r t e r life s p a n for h u ­
m a n s . N o clearer i n d i c a t o r of the evil c a n be i m a g i n e d t h a n their s h o r t e r life
s p a n ( J u b 2 3 : 1 1 ) , especially as they " g r o w old q u i c k l y " b e f o r e "the great d a y
of judgment!' A n o t h e r a n d m o r e d e v a s t a t i n g p r o b l e m is that " k n o w l e d g e
w i l l leave t h e m b e c a u s e o f their o l d a g e " (v. 1 1 ) . In this l i t e r a r y b u i l d u p to the
A p o c a l y p s e ( w . 1 4 - 3 1 ) , the readers a l r e a d y e n c o u n t e r the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l fears
a n d h o p e s o f the c o m m u n i t y , e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n i n g the d a y of j u d g m e n t , a
s h o r t e r life s p a n ( o n e a n d o n e - h a l f j u b i l e e s ) , a n d the p r e m a t u r e loss of
k n o w l e d g e . T h e y e a r s they live will b e p l a g u e d b y "difficulties, toil, and dis­
tress w i t h o u t p e a c e " (v. 12) d e r i v i n g f r o m injuries a n d b l o w s t h e y w i l l receive
c o n t i n u a l l y as p u n i s h m e n t s (v. 1 3 ) .

O n e a p p r o a c h to this text is to attend to the r e w r i t i n g a n d r e d a c t i o n of

30
b i b l i c a l t r a d i t i o n s in this e s c h a t o l o g i c a l section of the t e x t . Traditions from
Jer 6:23a ( J u b 23:23b) a n d D e u t 28:49-50 ( J u b 23:23) a n d Ps 79:2 ( J u b 23:23)
a l l o w e d this a u t h o r to m e d i t a t e o n the m e s s a g e f r o m the a n g e l a n d to reflect

28. Endres, Biblical Interpretation, 45.

29. For details, cf. Endres, Biblical Interpretation, 24. The author of Jubilees m a y have
been following a priestly chronology.
30. Endres, Biblical Interpretation, 52-62.

333
John C. Endres, S.J.

it in a n e w text. A D e u t e r o n o m i c h i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n o f c o v e n a n t life w i t h G o d
also s h a p e s this text, w h i c h c o n t a i n s the f o u r " m o m e n t s " of sin ( w . 1 6 - 2 1 ) ,
a
punishment ( w . 22-25), t u r n i n g p o i n t (v. 2 6 ) , a n d s a v i n g a c t i o n o f G o d
31
( w . 2 7 - 3 1 ) . C o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e n o t e d this p r o g r e s s i o n , and I previously
32
c o n s i d e r e d the s e c t i o n t h r o u g h the lens of i n t e r t e x t u a l i t y a n d r e w r i t i n g .
T h e A p o c a l y p s e b e g i n s w i t h a s t a t e m e n t that the m a n y a n d v a r i e d suf­
ferings o f h u m a n s c o m e as a result of the sin of m a k i n g the "earth c o m m i t
sin t h r o u g h s e x u a l i m p u r i t y , c o n t a m i n a t i o n , a n d their detestable a c t i o n s "
3 3
(v. 1 4 ) . T h e text again m e n t i o n s that the length of days for h u m a n s has
b e e n d e c r e a s i n g — f r o m as m a n y as a t h o u s a n d y e a r s in days of o l d to a life
of s e v e n t y y e a r s , or e i g h t y for the s t r o n g , i n the p r e s e n t d a y (v. 1 5 a ) . E v e n the
days w e h a v e are evil, a n d "there is n o p e a c e d u r i n g the d a y s o f that evil g e n ­
e r a t i o n " (v. 1 5 b ) .

Sin (23:16-21)

H e a r e r s of this a c c o u n t m a y b e w o n d e r i n g w h e n a n d h o w the p r e s e n t evils

w i l l e n d , so the a u t h o r p u l l s together a v a r i e t y o f n o t i o n s o f sin, g o i n g b e ­
y o n d the earlier m e n t i o n of s e x u a l i m p u r i t y a n d c o n t a m i n a t i o n a n d s i m i l a r
a c t i o n s . Y o u n g p e o p l e s t r u g g l e w i t h their elders b e c a u s e of sin a n d injustice,
w h i l e other p e o p l e a b a n d o n k e y aspects of the c o v e n a n t a n d forget the w o r ­
ship r e g u l a t i o n s a n d c a l e n d a r g i v e n t h e m b y G o d . A n d there are m a n y other
evils. A s a result, p e o p l e suffer, w a r s i n c r e a s e , the entire c o s m o s w i l l b e d e ­
g r a d e d , as the m e s s a g e specifies that "the earth w i l l i n d e e d be d e s t r o y e d b e ­
c a u s e o f all that t h e y d o " (v. 1 8 ) . W a r f a r e a n d v i o l e n c e result f r o m the sins o f
this g e n e r a t i o n , as do also the r a p a c i o u s n e s s o f the rich a g a i n s t the p o o r , a n d
finally, d e f i l e m e n t o f the H o l y o f H o l i e s (v. 2 1 ) . S i n r u n s the g a m u t o f the h u ­
m a n a r e n a : w o r s h i p , sexuality, s o c i a l injustice, v i o l e n c e , d e f i l e m e n t o f s a c r e d
p e r s o n s , t i m e s , a n d s p a c e s ; there is here n o p a r t i a l , restricted v i e w o f life.

31. Werlinc, Penitential Prayer, 1 1 3 - 1 6 . Klausner, Messianic Idea in Israel, 306.

32. For a very different approach to this text, cf. J. Kugel, "The Jubilees Apocalypse,"
DSD 1, no. 3 (1994): 322-37. His reading of this apocalypse, with Ps 90 as intertext, points to a
time of suffering followed by "a golden age" (337), but also provides a way of reading their
past history.
33. For comment on the sexual nature o f these sins, cf. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubi­
lees, 122-25.

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 Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees

Punishment (2322-25)

Punishment will come as the people are delivered up to the violence of "sin­
ful nations who will have no mercy or kindness for them and who will show
partiality to no one" (v. 2 3 ) . There are visions of bloodshed and chaos and
young children whose "heads will turn white with gray hair" (v. 2 5 ) . Their
condition will be dire. Even their outcries to God and prayers for rescue will
go unheeded (v. 2 4 ) .

Turning Point/Repentance (2326)

As usual in this pattern, there comes a turning point; here it is signaled only
by the notice that "the children will begin to study the laws, to seek out the
commands, and to return to the right way." Perhaps all three verbs function
synonymously: studying laws, searching out God's commands, and return­
ing to God's ways. The verb "return" (myt/meta, probably translating 2W)
also appeared in the similar passage in Jub 1:15, in which God says, "After this
they will return to me." One connotation of this verb is "to be converted
34
(relig. sense), and it fits well this context.

Salvation by God (232,7-31)

Salvation by God has a dual appearance in this text: an earthly, newly ac­
35
quired longevity, and passing through death of the just. God's saving acts
are not explicitly political, even though the punishments in w . 2 2 - 2 5 have of­
36
ten been interpreted in this way. Eschatological signs of salvation include
longer lifetimes, lived in peace and joy, without satans or evil destroyers; in
short, people in the eschaton will enjoy lives of "blessing and healing" (v. 2 9 ) .
Especially significant is the notion that the life span of the just may again

34. T. Lambdin, Introduction to Classical Ethiopic (Ge'ez), HSS 24 (Missoula: Scholars

Press, 1978), 417-
35. Cf. G. Aranda Perez, "Los Mil Aflos en el Libro de los Jubileos y Ap 20,1-10," EstBib
57 (1999): 3 9 - 6 o , esp. 44-47.
36. For example, R. Charles saw in w. 22-23 a description of "the sufferings of the na­
tion during the civil wars and internal trouble that took place down to Simon's high priest­
hood (142-135 B.C.)": Charles, The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis (London: Adam and
Charles Black, 1902), 148.

335
John C. Endres, S.J.

reach a thousand years (v. 2 7 ) , seemingly the perfect age for humans (which
Adam did not attain because he had eaten of the fruit in the garden [Jub
4:30]). Then the message reaches its peak and terms that might be taken as
eschatological impulses appear in italics:

3oThen the Lord will heal his servants. They will rise and see great peace.
He will expel their enemies. The righteous will see (this), offer praise, and
be very happy forever and ever. They will see all the punishments and
curses on their enemies. 3iTheir bones will rest in the earth and their
spirits will be very happy. They will know that the Lord is one who exe­
cutes judgmentbxit shows kindnessto hundreds and thousands and to all
who love him.

These eschatological blessings include several of the categories identified

earlier as eschatological: triumph of God's people (v. 3 0 ) , descriptions of the
blessings of the new age ( w . 2 9 - 3 0 , with great peace and blessing), the notion
of a final judgment with reward for the righteous (v. 3 0 ) , and the triumph of
the righteous.
Another sign of the eschaton comes in Jub 23:31, which considers the
crisis of individuals who have proven faithful to the covenant. Jubilees ad­
dresses the issue of life after death for the righteous, but in very muted
terms: their bones will rest in peace in the ground, but their "spirits will be
very happy" (v. 3 1 ) . VanderKam assesses the teaching of this passage thus:
"the writer does not anticipate a physical resurrection of the righteous dead
(the wicked do not come into consideration because they are destroyed) but
a continued existence for their spirits. In that form they will participate in
37
the new age." The precise meaning of the phrase continues to elicit inter­
pretive work.
A covenant formulary seems to stand in the background of this apoca­
lypse, while its final stage, the blessings, is transformed into an eschatologi­
cal vision of a hopeful future, with an added note that the spirits of the faith­
ful ones of Israel will continue. The eschatological horizon, however,
strongly suggests a perspective for viewing their life and relationship with
God. God's friend Abraham represents the hopes of all of Jacob's descen­
dants: when they study the laws (Torah), seek out God's commands, and re­
turn/repent, they will experience a type of life characterized by all the signs
of the eschaton. The eschatological vision of this apocalypse should instill

37. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, 59.

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 Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees

hope for the future, for m a n y of the descendants of A b r a h a m : living the life
of covenant with the G o d of mercy offers hope for the future.

V. Conclusion

In m y opinion, the most important aspect of these eschatological passages is

the n e w perspective they offer for the reading of the rest of the b o o k of Jubi­
lees. T h e y assess characters in new ways, focusing on their living the appro­
priate halakah within the perspective of both past and future life of the peo­
ple. T h e text clarifies m a n y points of Jewish law, showing their significance
in the overall covenant pattern of their life as a people. It particularly invites
readers to fasten on notions of peace and healing as eschatological reality,
and thus contributes to a notion of the G o d of Israel as ultimately a G o d
whose mercy is greater than anything their actions deserve.

337
Amplified Roles, Idealized Depictions:
Women in the Book of lubilees

Kelley Coblentz Bautch

One contribution of contemporary scholarship to the study of Judaism and

Christianity in antiquity has been a focus on matters related to gender and
sexuality. This interest is reflected in several fine studies of the b o o k of Jubi­
lees undertaken in the last decade that have concentrated on the depiction of
w o m e n and sexuality. T w o of the most comprehensive works that deserve
mention are Betsy Halpern-Amaru's Empowerment of Women in the Book of
Jubilees (Brill, 1999) and most recently William Loader's Enoch, Levi, and Ju­
bilees on Sexuality: Attitudes towards Sexuality in the Early Enoch Literature,
the Aramaic Levi Document, and the Book of Jubilees (Eerdmans, 2 0 0 7 ) . Since
Maxine Grossman has recently examined masculinity in the book of Jubi­
1
lees, I will direct m y comments especially to the depiction of w o m e n in J u ­
bilees and h o w these representations relate to those of w o m e n in the
Enochic corpus. There is good reason to compare Jubilees with these texts
associated with E n o c h as Jubilees draws upon m a n y E n o c h i c traditions and
2
perhaps texts in its rewriting of Genesis and E x o d u s .

1. "Affective Masculinity: The Gender o f the Patriarchs in Jubilees," Hen 3 1 , no. 1

(2009).
2. On Jubilees' use of Enochic works, see, for example, J. C. VanderKam, "Enoch Tra­
ditions in Jubilees and Other Second-Century Sources," in SBLSP 18, ed. P. Achtemeier
(Missoula: Scholars Press, 1978), 1:229-51; also in From Revelation to Canon: Studies in He-

I would like to acknowledge St. Edward's University and its Presidential Excellence Award
which allowed m e to undertake the research for this paper. — KCB

338
 Amplified Roles, Idealized Depictions: Women in the Book of Jubilees

T h e b o o k o f Jubilees is i n d e e d a m e a t y text to e x p l o r e for the s c h o l a r

interested in r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of w o m e n in s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d texts. In this
rewriting of m u c h of Genesis and Exodus, w o m e n appear more prominently
3
t h a n t h e y do in the b i b l i c a l n a r r a t i v e s . R o l e s o f w o m e n f a m i l i a r f r o m the
b i b l i c a l texts are d e v e l o p e d further or n u a n c e d , or n e w f e m a l e characters are
i n t r o d u c e d altogether. S o m e t i m e s these m e t a m o r p h o s e s a n d a d d i t i o n s re­
s p o n d to e x e g e t i c a l c o n c e r n s , s o m e t i m e s to p o l e m i c s ; the r a t i o n a l e s for s u c h
r e v i s i o n s are n o t a l w a y s m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . A s H a l p e r n - A m a r u demon­
strates, f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r s are s i g n i f i c a n t for the b o o k of Jubilees b e c a u s e of
the w o r k ' s c o n c e r n for e n d o g a m y a n d the p r o p e r l i n e a g e . I n that respect o n e
has the o p p o r t u n i t y to l e a r n m u c h as w e l l a b o u t the v i e w o f s e x u a l i t y that is
i m p l i c i t l y a n d explicitly p r e s e n t e d in the text; such a s t u d y has in fact b e e n
4
undertaken by Loader.

O n e m i g h t h o p e that Jubilees w o u l d s h e d light on w o m e n a n d their

status in v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s of the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . P e r ­
h a p s , o n o c c a s i o n , the b o o k d e l i v e r s . T h e interjection o f h a l a k a h into the
n a r r a t i v e a n d references to l e g i s l a t i o n , for e x a m p l e , are i n f o r m a t i v e a b o u t
p o s i t i o n s taken b y the a u t h o r o n suitable m a r r i a g e p a r t n e r s , i n t e r m a r r i a g e ,
5
a n d v i e w s o f p u r i t y a n d i m p u r i t y that relate to w o m e n . W h i l e o n e m a y n o t
b e able to u n c o v e r as m u c h as o n e w o u l d like a b o u t the lives o f real w o m e n ,
w h e n w e e x a m i n e d e p i c t i o n s of w o m e n a g a i n s t E n o c h i c literature, w e m a y
g a i n n e w i n s i g h t as to h o w w e s h o u l d v i e w the b o o k of Jubilees w i t h i n the
m a t r i x o f s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d J u d a i s m . I b e g i n w i t h an o v e r v i e w of h o w

brew Bible and Second Temple Literature, JSJSup 62 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) , 305-31, and
M. Knibb, "Which Parts of 1 Enoch Were Known to Jubilees? A Note o n the Interpretation of
Jub. 4.16-25," in Reading from Right to Left: Essays on the Hebrew Bible in Honour of Da­
vid J. A. Clines, ed. J. C. E x u m and H. G. M. Williamson, JSOTSup 373 (London: Sheffield
Academic Press, 2 0 0 3 ) , 254-62. For a counterview, see J. T. A. G. M. van Ruiten, "A Literary
Dependency of Jubilees on 1 Enoch: A Reassessment o f a Thesis o f J. C. VanderKam," Hen 26
(2004): 205-9.
3.1 use the word "biblical" to identify those texts we associate with the Hebrew Bible
today; I do n o t imply that such works were part of a fixed canon in the early second temple
period. Texts like Genesis and Exodus clearly had great appeal to certain communities and
were understood by these as authoritative. See also VanderKam, "Biblical Interpretation in
1 Enoch and Jubilees," in From Revelation to Canon, 276-304 (here 277-78).
4. W. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees on Sexuality: Attitudes towards Sexuality in the
Early Enoch Literature, the Aramaic Levi Document, and the Book of Jubilees (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2 0 0 7 ) .
5. O n such matters, see the contribution o f L. Doering ("Purity and Impurity in the
Book o f Jubilees") to this volume, and that o f W. Loader ("Jubilees and Sexual Transgres­
sion," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 [2009]).

339
Kelley Coblentz Bautch

Jubilees represents women and then compare these depictions to representa­

tions of women in Enochic texts.

I. The Amplification of Women in Jubilees

Many of the female characters in Jubilees are presented in an idealized form,

shaped to speak to the concerns of the author, while communicating too little
about the lives of real women at the time of the work's composition. At the
same time, women are prominent within the book of Jubilees, and when
compared to Genesis and Exodus, their roles are amplified. The matriarch
Rebekah provides the most striking instance of a character whose story is sig­
6
nificantly augmented and refined in Jubilees. Not only is Rebekah's visibility
increased in Jubilees through the addition of material (Abraham entrusts
Rebekah with the news that Jacob will continue the patriarchal line and
charges her to guard him [Jub 19:16-30]; Rebekah is informed by Jacob about
Abraham's death and, in turn, tells Isaac [Jub 23:4]; Rebekah instructs Jacob
about marriage partners and blesses him [Jub 25:1-23; cf. Gen 26:35; 27:46;
7
28:1]), but also she is presented, in the words of Loader, "as an ideal woman."
Just as Jacob is valorized by Jubilees, so too is the mother who favors him.*
In recasting Rebekah, the book of Jubilees eliminates aspects of her
story that might be thought unflattering or unhelpful to the larger aims of
the work. There is no reference to Rebekah being barren and to Isaac en­
treating God on her behalf, for example (cf. Gen 25:21); perhaps this could be
9
taken as an inauspicious introduction. Likewise, Rebekah's part in the de-

6. See, for example, J. C. Endres, S.J., Biblical Interpretation in the Book of Jubilees,
CBQMS18 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1987), 51-84,173-76,
217-18; B. Halpera-Amaru, The Empowerment of Women in the Book of Jubilees, JSJSup 60
(Leiden: Brill, 1999), 37-42; and R. Chesnutt, "Revelatory Experiences Attributed to Biblical
Women in Early Jewish Literature," in "Women Like This": New Perspectives on Jewish
Women in the Greco-Roman World, ed. A.-J. Levine, Early Judaism and Its Literature 1 (At­
lanta: Scholars Press, 1991), 107-25 (here 108-11). For a critical text of the book of Jubilees, I
refer to J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees: A Critical Text, CSCO 510 (Louvain: Peeters,
1989), and for translation, VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, CSCO 511 (Louvain: Peeters,
1989). For a survey of the scope, theology, and history of the book of Jubilees, see, for exam­
ple, J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001).
7. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 260.
8. See Endres, Biblical Interpretation, 85-119, esp. 92.
9. Cf. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 56, and Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Ju­
bilees, 255. Halpern-Amaru (34) observes that Jubilees also omits initial reference to the bar-

340
 Amplified Roles, Idealized Depictions: Women in the Book of Jubilees

ception of Isaac (Jub 26:1-13; Gen 27:1-17) seems understandable within Jubi­
lees in light of Abraham's directives concerning Jacob (Jub 1 9 : 1 6 - 3 0 ) . In sum,
Rebekah is the impeccable matriarch with no awkward history.
Moreover, an outstanding aspect to the story of this biblical figure is
Rebekah's extensive blessing for Jacob, which, as John Endres observes, is the
10
longest in Jubilees. For Endres, Jubilees' shaping of Rebekah recalls the role
of a prophetess; for Halpern-Amaru, Jubilees emphasizes Rebekah's mater­
11
nal concern and promotes her as partner in an ideal marriage. In any
event, the portrait of Rebekah is a sympathetic one according to the Weltan­
schauung of Jubilees, as the matriarch even appears to outshine Isaac in this
12
work. Matriarchs like Sarah and Rebekah enjoy elevated roles in Jubilees,
according to Halpern-Amaru, because they are partners with their husbands
in promoting and safeguarding the covenant, in addition to being wives and
13
mothers of patriarchs.
Also, the portraits of women in Jubilees are often keyed to exegesis. Of­
ten the reworkings provide additional information about female figures
when the biblical text requires clarification or when divergent biblical tradi­
14
tions might suggest the need for reconciliation. Such dynamics seem to
stand behind the developing portraits of several women in large measure. For
example, how does one account for God creating the human being, male and
female, in his image according to Gen 1:26-28 and then creating first Adam in
Gen 2:7 and then Eve at a later time from Adam's rib (Gen 2:21-25)? The book
of Jubilees clarifies the discrepancy: the man and woman were created in the
first week of creation, which corresponds to the events of Gen 1 (Jub 2:14); on
the sixth day of the second week, the woman is taken out of man, completed
15
and presented to him (Jub 3 : 8 ) . This harmonization of creation accounts,
which allows Adam's earlier appearance, also provides an etiology for the law

renness of Sarah (cf. Gen 11:30). Though the motif of barrenness serves well the purposes of
Genesis, it does not conform to the aims or concerns of Jubilees and thus is ignored. The
topic does emerge, however, with the introduction of Hagar as a surrogate wife (cf. Jub 14:21-
24). Loader, 251.
10. Endres, Biblical Interpretation, 84.
11. Respectively, Biblical Interpretation, 84, and Empowerment of Women, 60-61,63.
12. See, for example, Endres, Biblical Interpretation, 83-84,217-18.
13. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 5,55-64.
14. Cf., for example, Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 6 , 1 3 3 - 4 6 .
15. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 11. Cf. also van Ruiten, Primaeval His­
tory Interpreted: The Rewriting of Genesis 1-11 in the Book of Jubilees, JSJSup 66 (Leiden: Brill,
2000), 75, and J. R. Levison, Portraits of Adam in Early Judaism from Sirach to 2 Baruch,
JSPSup 1 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press [JSOT], 1988), 90-91. 214-15 n. 10.

341
Kelley Coblentz Bautch

of the p a r t u r i e n t of L e v 1 2 : 1 - 5 : w o m e n r e m a i n i m p u r e for seven days after the

16
b i r t h of a m a l e child a n d fourteen days for a female child ( J u b 3 : 8 ) .
Jubilees' c o m m i t m e n t to p a r t i c u l a r t h e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s or to p o l e m i ­
cal v i e w s also affects the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of b i b l i c a l w o m e n . F o r e x a m p l e , J u ­
bilees elaborates u p o n G e n 35:22 (cf. also G e n 49:4 a n d 1 C h r o n 5 : 1 ) , w h i c h
o n l y briefly notes s e x u a l relations b e t w e e n R e u b e n a n d B i l h a h . T h e a c c o u n t
in Jubilees n o t o n l y clarifies the n a t u r e of the e n c o u n t e r , but also entirely ex­
culpates B i l h a h . J u b 33:2-8 m a k e s clear that B i l h a h d o e s n o t p a r t i c i p a t e in
any w a y in the e n c o u n t e r ; she is i n n o c e n t . In fact, Jubilees defends B i l h a h b y
1 7
p r e s e n t i n g her as a v i c t i m of r a p e . T h e r e m a y be a responsibility, h o w e v e r ,
to defend B i l h a h as m o t h e r of N a p h t a l i , a tribal chief t o w a r d w h o m Jubilees
18
is s y m p a t h e t i c .
Jubilees m a g n i f i e s w o m e n especially t h r o u g h the a d d i t i o n of c h a r a c ­
ters to the g e n e a l o g i c a l r e c o r d , w o m e n l a c k i n g in the biblical n a r r a t i v e s .
W i v e s and m o t h e r s o f the p a t r i a r c h s are g i v e n n a m e s ; similarly, p a t e r n a l lin­
eage — in this context, i n fact, w h a t a m o u n t s to their credentials, p e r
19
H a l p e r n - A m a r u — is i d e n t i f i e d . W h e r e a s G e n e s i s d o e s n o t a d d r e s s the
m a t t e r o f the w i v e s of C a i n a n d Seth (their i d e n t i t y o r o r i g i n ; cf. G e n 4 : 1 7 , 2 6 ;
5 : 6 - 7 ) , J u b i l e e s s u p p l i e s the n a m e s o f their w i v e s (respectively, A w a n [ J u b
4:9] a n d A z u r a [Jub 4:11]), w h o are also p r e s e n t e d as their sisters. A d d i ­
tionally, J u b i l e e s i n c l u d e s a n d n a m e s the w i v e s of the p a t r i a r c h s w h o de­
s c e n d f r o m Seth (cf. G e n 5 ) . T h e c o n c e r n for c o m p r e h e n s i v e n e s s in listing
the w o m e n w h o are p a r t of the Sethite line is e x t e n d e d t h r o u g h o u t Jubilees
( C a i n ' s line is i g n o r e d , h o w e v e r , f o l l o w i n g his death [Jub 4 : 3 1 - 3 2 ] , a n d s u b s e ­
2 0
q u e n t l y the g e n e a l o g y of Irad to L a m e c h o f G e n 4 : 1 8 - 2 4 is o m i t t e d ) .
T h e a d d i t i o n of these w o m e n addresses o m i s s i o n s in the b i b l i c a l g e n e ­
alogies a n d also serves p o l e m i c p u r p o s e s as w e l l . S u c h a c o n c e r n for c o m p r e ­
h e n s i v e n e s s in the g e n e a l o g i e s is tied to h e r a l d i n g p r o p e r u n i o n s , and m a r ­
2 1
riage is n o s m a l l m a t t e r i n J u b i l e e s g i v e n its e m p h a s i s o n e n d o g a m y . The

16. M. Segal, The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology, and Theology,
JSJSup 117 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 7 ) , 52.
17. Segal, The Book ofJubilees, 74; cf. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 1 1 0 - 1 1 .
18. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 108, 118-19.
19. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 4, and "The First Woman, Wives and
Mothers in Jubilees" JBL 113 (1994): 609-26 (here 622).
20. Van Ruiten, Primaeval History Interpreted, 1 1 9 , 174-75.
21. See, for example, Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 4-5; VanderKam, The
Book of Jubilees, 132; Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 186-96; and also L. Arcari, "The Myth
of the Watchers and the Problem o f Intermarriage in Jubilees," Hen 31, no. 1 (2009).

342
 Amplified Roles, Idealized Depictions: Women in the Book of Jubilees

b o o k of Jubilees d e m o n s t r a t e s a keen interest in the w i v e s a n d m o t h e r s o f

the a n t e d i l u v i a n a n d p a t r i a r c h a l p e r i o d s since w o m e n , t h r o u g h their role in
c h i l d b e a r i n g , are critical to the m a i n t e n a n c e of the p r o p e r l i n e a g e . Jubilees
c o m m u n i c a t e s this c o n c e r n at n u m e r o u s p o i n t s in its retelling of the b i b l i c a l
narrative.
W h e r e the b i b l i c a l texts take u p g e n e a l o g y b u t o m i t reference to w i v e s
or m o t h e r s , Jubilees fills in the g a p a n d even s u p p l i e s the n a m e s o f such fig­
ures to c o m p l e t e the g e n e a l o g i c a l r e c o r d , especially that o f the p u r e f a m i l y
22
line that is t r a c e d . W h a t ' s in a n a m e ? T h e b o o k of Jubilees c o n v e y s a g r e a t
deal of i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the w o m e n it inserts into the n a r r a t i v e a n d / o r
a b o u t the c o n s e q u e n c e or o u t c o m e of the u n i o n s m a d e w i t h the w o m e n
t h r o u g h the n a m e s g i v e n to these c h a r a c t e r s . W i v e s of p a t r i a r c h s in the p r e ­
ferred f a m i l y line are g i v e n n a m e s that c o n v e y p o s i t i v e s e n t i m e n t s , a n d n o t
c o i n c i d e n t a l l y their m a r r i a g e s a n d o f f s p r i n g are s a n c t i o n e d w i t h i n the n a r ­
rative. T h u s , the n a m e o f Seth a n d A z u r a h ' s d a u g h t e r , N o a m , is related to
DIM, a r o o t that c o n n o t e s "to b e lovely." N o a m is m a r r i e d to her b r o t h e r
E n o s h ( 4 : 1 3 ) , the first to call u p o n the L o r d ' s n a m e ( J u b 4 : 1 2 ) ; this is an e x ­
a m p l e o f an a u s p i c i o u s u n i o n . T h e i r s o n K e n a n m a r r i e s M u a l e l i t , w h o s e
1
n a m e s u g g e s t s a f o r m of V ?!"!, "to p r a i s e " ( m a y b e "she w h o praises G o d " ) . 2 3

W i v e s of i g n o b l e characters h a v e n a m e s that c o m m u n i c a t e n e g a t i v e
traits or set the reader u p for an u n f a v o r a b l e o u t c o m e or g e n e r a t i o n ; it is n o
s u r p r i s e that the wife of C a i n is n a m e d A w a n ( J u b 4:9), a n a m e that is p r o b a ­
bly related to the H e b r e w w o r d for " i n i q u i t y " a n d "guilt" (J157) or for " w i c k ­
24
e d n e s s " a n d " t r o u b l e " (JIN). A s J o h n R o o k o b s e r v e s , i m m e d i a t e l y after n o t ­
i n g her birth ( J u b 4 : 1 ) , Jubilees m a k e s reference to the m u r d e r of A b e l (4:2-
2 5
4). S u c h telltale n a m e s are also g i v e n to offspring of q u e s t i o n a b l e u n i o n s
(see b e l o w ) . It is d e b a t e d w h e t h e r Jubilees w a s d e p e n d e n t u p o n sources for
these n a m e s . T h e r e is s o m e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n n a m e s g i v e n to w i v e s in Jubilees
2 6
a n d other texts of the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d . I t h i n k R o o k is correct to state

22. Van Ruiten, Primaeval History Interpreted, 369.

23. See J. Rook, "The Names o f the Wives from A d a m to A b r a h a m in the B o o k of Ju­
bilees," JSP 7 (1990): 1 0 5 - 1 7 (here 1 0 8 - 9 ) , who follows W. L. Lipscomb, "A Tradition from the
Book of Jubilees in Armenian," JJS 29 (1978): 149-63 (here 1 5 3 ) , and R. H. Charles, The Book
of Jubilees or the Little Genesis (London: A. & C. Black, 1 9 0 2 ) , 33 n. 4.
24. Rook ("Names of the Wives," 1 0 7 ) favors the former translation.
25. Rook, "Names o f the Wives," 108.
26. For example, the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n includes the names o f Bitenos and A m -
zara, wives respectively o f L a m e c h and Noah, which Jubilees supplies as Betanosh ("daugh­
ter o f humankind") and E m z a r a (possibly "mother o f offspring"; see Rook, "Names o f the

343
Kelley Coblentz Bautch

that w h i l e it m a y b e i m p o s s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r Jubilees relied on a

s o u r c e , it is clear that these n a m e s c o n t r i b u t e to a n d f u n c t i o n w i t h i n the n a r ­
27
rative a n d assist in defining u n i o n s a n d a f a m i l y or g e n e r a t i o n .
K i n s h i p also c o m m u n i c a t e s i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t respective u n i o n s . A s
H a l p e r n - A m a r u o b s e r v e s , " T h e level of k i n s h i p relation b e t w e e n husband
a n d wife . . . b e g i n s at the closest d e g r e e of c o n s a n g u i n i t y a n d p r o g r e s s i v e l y
28
m o v e s further out." It is i m p o r t a n t for the a u t h o r that e n d o g a m y is at
w o r k f r o m the b e g i n n i n g o f the f a m i l y l i n e . T h u s , the initial m a r r i a g e s f r o m
Seth to A z u r a ( J u b 4 : 1 1 ) a n d K e n a n to M u a l e l i t (4:14) are brother-sister
29
u n i o n s . T h i s e n s u r e s that the f a m i l y n e e d n o t i n t e r m a r r y w i t h C a i n i t e s .
Thereafter, as the d e s c e n d a n t s of Seth h a v e g r o w n a n d the n u m b e r of
w o m e n available w i t h i n the f a m i l y h a s i n c r e a s e d , m a r r i a g e s o c c u r b e t w e e n
3 0
first c o u s i n s . A t t e n t i o n to close k i n s h i p w a n e s b y the fifteenth generation,
s u c h that the line of S h e m is diluted b y i r r e g u l a r u n i o n s . To s i g n a l a r e t u r n to
order, the b r o t h e r - s i s t e r u n i o n r e a p p e a r s ( t h u s , A b r a m ' s m a r r i a g e to S a r a i
[Jub 1 2 : 9 ] ) . O n c e e n d o g a m o u s relations are r e e s t a b l i s h e d in this m a n n e r ,
c o u s i n m a r r i a g e s , such as that of Isaac to R e b e k a h ( J u b 1 9 : 1 0 ) a n d J a c o b to
3 1
Leah and Rachel (27:10; 28:1-10), r e s u m e .

S u c h u n i o n s c a n n o t afford to be c a s u a l l y u n d e r t a k e n . To give o n e e x ­
a m p l e , H a l p e r n - A m a r u has o b s e r v e d that in its retelling of the s t o r y o f the
w a t c h e r s w h o m a t e w i t h w o m e n , Jubilees e m p h a s i z e s that the sin o f the
3 2
w a t c h e r s consists of their m a r r i a g e to w h o m e v e r t h e y c h o s e ; that p o i n t —
that the w a t c h e r s selected m a t e s a c c o r d i n g to their preferences ( J u b 7 : 2 1 ) —

Wives," 1 1 3 - 1 4 ) ; cf. Jub 4:28, 33. Similarly the Animal Apocalypse lists the n a m e o f Enoch's
wife as Edna (1 En 85:3), not entirely dissimilar from Jubilees' Edni (Jub 4:20); see van
Ruiten, Primaeval History Interpreted, 123; Rook, n o , and also below.
27. Rook, "Names o f the Wives," 1 0 6 .
28. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , Empowerment of Women, 149.
29. See, for example, H a l p e r n - A m a r u , Empowerment of Women, 1 9 , and "The First
Woman," 617.
3 0 . The descendant would m a r r y the daughter o f their father's brother or sister (for
example, Malalael marries Dinah, presented as the daughter o f Barakiel, the brother o f
Malalael's father [Jub 4 : 1 5 ! ) .
31. Cf. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , Empowerment of Women, 34-37. In this instance, one might
think Jubilees to be addressing the scenes of Gen 1 2 : 1 1 - 1 3 and 20:2 in which A b r a m presents
Sarai as his sister. H a l p e r n - A m a r u suggests that since Jubilees does not feature a deception
when A b r a m is in Egypt (Sarai was taken by force and there is no reference to their relation­
ship as siblings) and omits the account o f A b r a m in Gerar altogether, the intent does not
seem to be the clarification of the biblical text. Cf. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , 36.
32. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 2 2 , 147.

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 Amplified Roles, Idealized Depictions: Women in the Book of Jubilees

is f o l l o w e d i m m e d i a t e l y b y reference to the b i r t h of the giants a n d b y a n o ­

tice of the i n c r e a s e of w i c k e d n e s s o n earth ( J u b 5 : 1 - 2 ; cf. G e n 6 : 1 1 ) . T h e p r o o f
of the p r o b l e m is to b e o b s e r v e d in the o f f s p r i n g . A s L o a d e r s u g g e s t s , the n a ­
t u r e o f the s i n , for J u b i l e e s , is that the r e l a t i o n s (here f o r n i c a t i o n , or
w 33
zemmut) led to u n c l e a n n e s s (rek s). T h e sin, essentially, is o n e of m i x i n g
w i t h i n a p p r o p r i a t e p a r t n e r s , a n d such m i x i n g defiles (cf. J u b 4 : 2 2 ) . U n l i k e
the h a p h a z a r d m i x i n g of the angels, Jubilees stresses that m a r r i a g e s are to b e
3 4
arranged with great c a r e ; for e x a m p l e , the u n a n t i c i p a t e d m e e t i n g b e t w e e n
Isaac a n d R e b e k a h of G e n 2 4 : 6 4 - 6 7 is o m i t t e d in J u b i l e e s , w h i c h prefers, in­
stead, a b r i e f n o t i c e that A b r a h a m b r o k e r e d the r e l a t i o n s h i p ("he t o o k a w i f e
3 5
for his s o n , I s a a c " ; J u b 1 9 : 1 0 ) . M a r r i a g e s m a d e w i t h less care a n d u n i o n s
w i t h u n s u i t a b l e p a r t n e r s are reflected in the p r o g e n y o f such u n i o n s , as
n o t e d a b o v e in the case of the g i a n t s , o f f s p r i n g t h a t c a n s e e m d e t e r m i n a t i v e
of the n a t u r e of an entire g e n e r a t i o n . T h e child o f Peleg a n d L o m n a , a
w o m a n of u n c e r t a i n l i n e a g e , for e x a m p l e , is n a m e d R a g e w ( " e v i l " ) ; his b i r t h
c o i n c i d e s w i t h the b u i l d i n g o f the T o w e r o f B a b e l ( J u b 1 0 : 1 8 - 2 6 ) .

W h i l e the retelling o f G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s affords an o p p o r t u n i t y for

" s u b t l e " c r i t i q u e o f e x o g a m y b y h i g h l i g h t i n g p r o b l e m a t i c u n i o n s a n d their
o f f s p r i n g , the p r o h i b i t i o n o f i n t e r m a r r i a g e is r e i n f o r c e d t h r o u g h the i n ­
s t r u c t i o n s o f A b r a h a m to his s o n s a n d g r a n d s o n J a c o b ( J u b 2 0 : 3 - 6 , esp. 2 0 : 4 ;
2 2 : 2 0 ) , a n d o f R e b e k a h to J a c o b ( J u b 2 5 : 1 - 3 ) . F u r t h e r , the a c c o u n t of the r a p e
of D i n a h ( J u b 3 0 : 1 - 2 6 ; G e n 3 4 : 1 - 3 1 ) p r o v e s the o c c a s i o n for an explicit d e ­
n o u n c e m e n t of i n t e r m a r r i a g e . T h e b o o k o f Jubilees o m i t s entirely H a m o r
a n d J a c o b ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f i n t e r m a r r i a g e a n d the p r o p o s a l of c i r c u m c i s i o n as
a c o n d i t i o n (cf. G e n 3 4 : 6 - 2 4 ) . E v e n the p r o s p e c t o f c o n v e r s i o n — not s i m p l y
36
i n t e r m a r r i a g e — in fact, is off-limits for J u b i l e e s . S i m e o n a n d L e v i are p o r ­
trayed unambiguously as h e r o e s , w h o mete out punishment on the
S h e c h e m i t e s that h a d b e e n d i v i n e l y p r e o r d a i n e d ( J u b 3 0 : 5 ) . T h e b r o t h e r s '
s l a u g h t e r o f the S h e c h e m i t e s is justified b y the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e w h o
m a k e s clear that n o Israelite is to give his d a u g h t e r or sister to a foreigner,
3 7
n o r is he to m a r r y a foreign w o m e n ( J u b 30:7, 1 1 ) .

e s
33. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 126-45, P -
34. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 156-57.
35. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 3 8 , 4 1 - 4 2 . See also, though, Endres, Bib­
lical Interpretation, 21, who understands the omission as related to Jubilees' disinterest in
Isaac.
36. See, for example, Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 129-58; Loader,
Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 167.
37. Though endogamous unions are favored for the patriarchs and matriarchs,

345
Kelley Coblentz Bautch

W h i l e m o r e can b e ( a n d has b e e n ) said a b o u t the d e p i c t i o n of w o m e n

in J u b i l e e s , w e h a v e o b s e r v e d t h r o u g h s u c h p o r t r a i t s m u c h a b o u t the v a l u e s
a n d c o n c e r n s of this s e c o n d - c e n t u r y w o r k . W o m e n are h i g h l y v i s i b l e in the
b o o k of J u b i l e e s , a n d s e e m i n g l y m o r e c r u c i a l to the events of G e n e s i s a n d
E x o d u s in s o m e respects t h a n are their b i b l i c a l c o u n t e r p a r t s . E v e n so, J u b i ­
lees' r e c a s t i n g of w o m e n c h a r a c t e r s is a l o n g i d e o l o g i c a l lines a n d at t i m e s
exegetically d r i v e n . T h e w o m e n , f r o m their d e p i c t i o n to their n a m e s , t e n d to
be v e r y stylized c o n s t r u c t s ; in this respect, t h e y serve w e l l the a u t h o r ' s c o n ­
c e r n s , as t h e y c a n b e c i p h e r s e s p e c i a l l y in a d d r e s s i n g the matter of
e n d o g a m o u s a n d e x o g a m o u s u n i o n s . In the c o n t e x t of the s e c o n d t e m p l e
p e r i o d , the e x p a n d e d or a m p l i f i e d roles g i v e n to w o m e n in Jubilees are c o m ­
p a r a b l e to w h a t o n e e n c o u n t e r s in J o s e p h a n d A s e n e t h a n d T h e T e s t a m e n t o f
3 8
Job. G i v e n the s h a r e d t r a d i t i o n s w e find i n E n o c h i c literature a n d J u b i l e e s ,
it is s t r i k i n g t h e n that E n o c h i c d e p i c t i o n s of w o m e n are so little d e v e l o p e d .
A s w e w i l l see w i t h E n o c h i c literature, w o m e n are c e r t a i n l y n o t as v i s i b l e a n d
n o t n e a r l y as utilized to u n d e r s c o r e f u n d a m e n t a l concerns.

II. The Depiction of Women in Enochic Traditions

T h e r e is a c h a l l e n g e t h a t w o u l d a c c o m p a n y a n y c o m p a r i s o n o f E n o c h i c lit­
e r a t u r e a n d the b o o k o f J u b i l e e s . First, w h i l e Jubilees m a y reflect the use o f
3 9
different s o u r c e s or r e d a c t i o n , E n o c h i c literature w o u l d b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d

H a l p e r n - A m a r u and C. W e r m a n ("Jubilees 3 0 : Building a Paradigm for the Ban on Inter­

marriage," HTR 90 [1997]: 1-22, here 3) have argued that Jubilees tolerates marriages of the
patriarchs to lower-status wives o f other backgrounds, so long as they are not Canaanite. For
example, Hagar poses no difficulty for Jubilees — and her presentation is not altered (Jub
14:22-23) — since the descendants of H a m , including Egyptians, are not cursed even while
Canaan is (Jub 7:10 and 1 0 : 2 9 - 3 3 ) . W h e r e the backgrounds of wives are not provided in the
biblical text, Jubilees supplies the genealogical data that will render a w o m a n fit or inappro­
priate for marriage to a patriarch. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , Empowerment oj Women, 104. Thus, Ju­
bilees portrays Keturah, the third wife o f Abraham, and Bilhah, concubine or wife to Jacob,
as w o m e n from the households in order to remove speculation that they are women o f the
land (Jub 1 9 : 1 1 ; 28:6). H a l p e r n - A m a r u , Empowerment of Women, 1 0 3 - 6 . See, however, Loader,
Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 192-93, who argues that Jubilees is m o r e tolerant o f marriage to
Egyptians than to other Gentiles in general (cf. Jub 1 1 : 9 ) .
38. See Chesnutt, "Revelatory Experiences Attributed to Biblical W o m e n in Early
Jewish Literature."
39. See Segal, The Book of Jubilees, and also "The Composition of Jubilees," in this
volume.

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 Amplified Roles, Idealized Depictions: Women in the Book of Jubilees

on this matter by degree, as it is more heterogeneous. Enochic literature re­

fers to a variety of works — for example, the anthology 1 Enoch — that
40
emerge from diverse contexts. In some instances, like the Book of the
Watchers, individual works betray use of several sources. To further com­
plicate the task of comparison, while certain interests or foci — for exam­
ple, eschatological concerns — are found in many of these texts associated
with Enoch, the works also indicate development, as well as attempts to nu­
ance and perhaps even to discount theological positions taken in others of
41
the writings. Given the complexity of and diverse perspectives taken
within Enochic works, the portrayal of women in this literature not sur­
prisingly also is varied.
Second, the temporal scope of Enochic literature — here I refer to the
aforementioned collection of texts in 1 Enoch as well as the Book of the Gi­
ants (1Q23; 1 Q 2 4 ; 2 Q 2 6 ; 4 Q 2 0 3 ; 4 Q 5 3 0 - 5 3 3 ; 6 Q 8 ) — is considerably narrower
than Jubilees. With the exceptions of the Animal Apocalypse (1 En 8 5 - 9 0 )
and the Apocalypse of Weeks (93:1-10; 9 1 : 1 1 - 1 7 ) , both historical apocalypses,
the narratives of such Enochic texts are situated in the antediluvian world of
the patriarch Enoch. Though the literature frequently anticipates the time of
God's visitation at the end of the current era, other chapters of Israelite his­
tory are not of interest. Thus, the women who appear prominently in these
texts are Eve (32:6; 69:6; 85:3-8); the wives of the watchers (especially 6:1-2;
7:1-2; 8:1,3; 9:8-9; 1 0 : 3 , 9 , 1 1 , 1 5 ; 12:4; 15:3; 19:2; 69:4-5); the wife of Enoch, Edna
(85:3); and the unnamed wives of Methuselah and Lamech (106:1). As the
portraits we do encounter are limited to antediluvian women, we will not
find a depiction of Rebekah, for example, to hold against that in Jubilees.
Like Jubilees, though, the women can serve as ciphers for assorted val­
ues and concerns of the respective authors of Enochic literature. The litera­
ture's concern for eschatological judgment and the antediluvian context in
which its hero, Enoch, lives are related to the literature's fascination with the
tradition of the fallen watchers. That tradition, even variously expressed, not
only serves to illustrate the result of disobedience, but it also communicates

40.1 am not suggesting a fixed canon of Enochic literature or that the booklets and
order of our contemporary 1 Enoch reflect a collection from the second temple period; I
simply refer to those texts from the second temple period in which Enoch and traditions as­
sociated with the patriarch are especially prominent.
41. Cf. my "Adamic Traditions in the Parables? A Query on 1 Enoch 69:6" in Enoch
and the Messiah Son of Man: Revisiting the Book of Parables, ed. Gabriele Boccaccini, with
J. von Ehrenkrook (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007), 352-60 (here 359-60), and "Enoch, First
Book of," in NIDB (2007), 2:262-65 (here 264).

347
Kelley Coblentz Bautch

a c o n c e r n for i n t e r m a r r i a g e o r s e x u a l m i s d e e d s , b o u n d a r y c r o s s i n g , a n d i l ­
licit k n o w l e d g e . T h e s e c o n c e r n s i n f l u e n c e as w e l l the d e p i c t i o n o f w o m e n i n
E n o c h i c literature.

I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the s t o r y o f the a n g e l s ' d e s c e n t , w o m e n are e s p e ­

c i a l l y d e f i n e d i n E n o c h i c l i t e r a t u r e as s e x u a l b e i n g s , t h o u g h t h e y are n o t p a r ­
4 2
t i c u l a r l y c o n d e m n e d o r d e m o n i z e d as s u c h . A s if to u n d e r s c o r e the p o i n t ,
the B o o k o f t h e W a t c h e r s h a s G o d a n n o u n c e t h a t w o m e n w e r e e s s e n t i a l l y
4 3
c r e a t e d to r e p r o d u c e a n d p e r p e t u a t e the m a l e l i n e (cf. l E n 1 5 : 7 ) . It is c l e a r
f r o m s o m e o f the s t r a t a t h a t w o m e n are n o t faulted for the a n g e l s ' d e c i s i o n
to d e s c e n d , as t h e y are i n o n e o f the earliest t r a d i t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the w a t c h ­
ers' s i n , a n a r r a t i v e t h a t f o c u s e s o n the d e s c e n t o f S h e m i h a z a h a n d his b a n d
4 4
of rebellious a n g e l s . In this n a r r a t i v e , for e x a m p l e , the angels led b y
S h e m i h a z a h h a t c h a p l a n to c h o o s e f o r t h e m s e l v e s w i v e s a n d t h r o u g h t h e m
to b e g e t c h i l d r e n ( l E n 6 : 2 ) . A s V a n d e r K a m h a s o b s e r v e d o f this s t r a t u m , the
4 5
g u i l t f o r the s i n f u l u n i o n lies w i t h t h e a n g e l s a l o n e a n d n o t the w o m e n .

The w i v e s a p p e a r as r a t h e r a m b i v a l e n t figures i n E n o c h i c l i t e r a t u r e ,
h o w e v e r , for t w o r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e y b e c o m e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h forbidden
k n o w l e d g e a n d the p r a c t i c e o f illicit crafts, a t o p i c w e a d d r e s s b e l o w . S e c o n d ,
v a r i a n t r e a d i n g s o f 1 E n 8:1 ( S y n c e l l u s ) a n d 1 E n 19:2 ( E t h . M S S T a n a 9, B e r l i n ,
a n d G a r r e t t ) s u g g e s t that the w i v e s led a s t r a y o r s e d u c e d the a n g e l s , a n d c e r ­
t a i n later t r a d i t i o n s o u t s i d e the E n o c h i c c o r p u s ( T R e u 5:5-6; Targum Pseudo-

42. As Loader demonstrates, sexuality and procreation are not deemed negative for
humankind within these traditions. See his Enoch, Levi, and jubilees, 80. O n women as sex­
ual beings, thusly defined through their service to husbands, see G. W. E . Nickelsburg,
1 Enoch 1: A Commentary on the Book ofi Enoch 1-36, 81-108, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: For­
tress, 2 0 0 1 ) , 1:272, and Marie-Theres Wacker, "'Rettendes Wissen' im athiopischen H e n o c h -
buch," in Rettendes Wissen. Studien zum Fortgang weisheitlichen Denkens im Fruhjudentum
und im fruhen Christentum, ed. K. Loning, AOAT 3 0 0 (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2 0 0 2 ) , 115-54
(here 1 5 0 ) .
43. According to 1 E n 15:5, m e n , mortal beings, are given women so that they might
have children through them; angels, eternal spirits, have no need for children, and therefore
w o m e n are not created for them (15:7). This latter statement implies that heavenly, spiritual
beings are male. See K. Sullivan, "Sexuality and Gender o f Angels," in Paradise Now: Essays
on Early Jewish and Christian Mysticism, ed. A. DeConick (Atlanta: Society o f Biblical Litera­
ture, 2 0 0 6 ) , 2 1 1 - 2 8 (here 2 1 4 ) .
44. On this stratum within 1 En 6 - 1 1 , see, for example, S. Bhayro, The Shemihazah and
Asael Narrative of 1 Enoch 6-11: Introduction, Text, Translation, and Commentary with Refer­
ence to Ancient Near Eastern and Biblical Antecedents, AOAT 322 (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag,
2 0 0 5 ) , 29-31.
45. See J. C. VanderKam, Enoch: A Man for All Generations (Columbia: University o f
South Carolina Press, 1995), 32-33.

348
 Amplified Roles, Idealized Depictions: Women in the Book of Jubilees

46
Jonathan; Gen 6:2) certainly make this point. One observes that while the
wives could have been used to make points about eschatology within the
Enochic texts, as is the case with the watchers and their sons whose punish­
ments are elaborated, there is only brief allusion to the fate of the women
(1 En 19:2), which most likely points to their demise and their relative lack of
47
importance to the Enochic authors. This helps us to account for the fact
that the ultimate outcome of the wives has been curiously ignored in second
temple and late antique works that do offer colorful expansions of Enochic
texts and traditions concerning the fate of the fallen watchers.
There is a certain anxiety, however, about miscegenation and inter­
marriage that is communicated through various Enochic works, and it is in
that regard that wives (and not only those of the watchers!) in this literature
48
receive much attention. The Animal Apocalypse, drawing on traditions re­
lated to both Shemihazah and Asael, takes up in allegorical fashion inappro­
49
priate sexual activity that involves intermingling. While calling attention
to the tradition of the forbidden union of the angels and mortal women, the
Animal Apocalypse seems also to hold Asael accountable for provoking in­
50
termarriage between the Sethites and Cainites. Moreover, 1 En 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 , like
the Genesis Apocryphon, takes up the matter of sexual misdeeds and dem­
51
onstrates some anxiety about miscegenation. Given the baby Noah's other­
worldly appearance (1 En 1 0 6 : 2 - 3 , 5 ; cf. also lQapGen 2 - 5 ) , the paternity is in
question; Methuselah consults with Enoch, on his son's pleading, to deter-

46. On Syncellus's reading, see S. Bhayro, "The Use of Jubilees in Medieval Chronicles
to Supplement Enoch: The Case for the 'Shorter' Reading," Hen 31, no. 1 (2009), and my
b
"Decoration, Destruction and Debauchery: Reflections on 1 Enoch 8 in Light of 4QEn ,"
DSD (2008). On text-critical matters relating to 19:2, see my "What Becomes of the Angels'
'Wives'? A Text Critical Study of 1 En. 19:2," JBL125 (2006): 766-80 (here 769 n. 15).
47. Bautch, "What Becomes," 778-79.
48. Concern with intermarriage may be expressed further in the story of the watchers
to the extent that the account is intended to be a parody that disparages priests who have en­
tered into inappropriate marriages or engaged in prohibited sexual conduct. See D. W. Suter,
"Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest: The Problem of Family Purity in 1 Enoch," HUCA 50 (1979): 115-
35; G. W. E. Nickelsburg, "Enoch, Levi, and Peter: Recipients of Revelation in Upper Galilee,"
JBL 100 (1981): 575-600; and E. Tigchelaar, Prophets of Old and the Day of the End: Zechariah,
the Book of Watchers, and Apocalyptic, OtSt 35 (Leiden: Brill, 1996), 198-203.
49. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 61.
50. See, for example, Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1,1:373; Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 61.
51. For a comparison of the two, see G. W. E. Nickelsburg, "Patriarchs Who Worry
about Their Wives: A Haggadic Tendency in the Genesis Apocryphon," in George W. £
Nickelsburg: An Ongoing Dialogue of Learning, ed. J. Neusner and A. J. Avery-Peck, JSJSup 80
(Leiden: Brill, 2003), 177-212.

349
Kelky Coblentz Bautch

mine whether one of the angels joined with Lamech's unnamed wife to fa­
ther the unusual-looking baby (1 En 1 0 6 : 7 - 8 ) . "
Even while the narratives may not indicate that the women are culpa­
ble in provoking the sexual encounters, the watchers are portrayed as defiled
53
through these unions (1 En 7 : i ) . Defilement, as in the book of Jubilees, is
the result of the watchers having sexual intercourse with people forbidden to
54
them. As one sees in Jubilees, itself dependent on these or comparable tra­
ditions, forbidden unions result in troublesome offspring; in the Enochic lit­
erature the problematic progeny are giants who initiate violence and leave as
a legacy their immortal spirits as demons (1 En 6; 7:2-6; 9:7-8; 1 5 ) . The illicit
nature of the sexual relationship is also reflected in how the Book of the
Watchers refers to the offspring of the union: bastards, half-breeds, and sons
of miscegenation ( 1 0 : 9 ) . "
Women also appear in Enochic texts in association with illicit knowl­
56
edge, a significant theme that runs throughout this literature. In one of the
strata that make up 1 En 6 - 1 1 , angels teach the wives sorcery, charms, and the
cutting of roots and plants after they have sexual relations (cf. 7:1; 8:3; 1 6 : 3 ) . "

52. While Enoch selects a mateforhis son, Methuselah, the Greek (Chester Beatty-
Michigan Papyrus) of 1 En 106:1 suggests that Lamech chooses his own wife; this detail sets
the stage for the remarkable (and troubling) appearance of Noah. One recalls that choosing
one's mate, from the perspective of Jubilees, could be seen as a careless and dangerous ap­
proach to matrimony. Cf. Jub 7:20-21; Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 3 8 , 4 1 - 4 2 ,
and above.
53. Loader observes that the Ethiopic features dammara ("were promiscuous with,"
"united with," or "mixed with"), whereas Panopolitanus reads uiaivsoSai ("to defile").
Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 12 n. 28. The theme of women defiling the watchers occurs also in
1 En 9:8; 10:11; and 15:4. For possible interpretations of these occurrences, see Loader, Enoch,
Levi, and Jubilees, 12-15, and Helge Kvanvig, "Gen 6,3 and the Watcher Story," Hen 25 (2003):
277-300 (here 291).
54. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 15. See also Arcari, "The Myth of the Watchers
and the Problem of Intermarriage in Jubilees"
55. See Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 22.
56. On the theme of illicit knowledge, see A. Yoshiko Reed, Fallen Angels and the His­
tory of Judaism and Christianity: The Reception of Enochic Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2005), 29-49.
57. The Book of the Watchers includes a third stratum that also takes up illicit knowl­
edge. In this instance the angel Asael teaches the manufacturing of weapons of war, adorn­
ments, and cosmetics. These forbidden arts then lead to impiety (1 En 8:1-2). Because Asael
teaches men the arts, who, in fact, produce adornments and cosmeticsfortheir daughters as
well as the weapons of war for themselves, I do not see the daughters given special censure in
the narrative.

350
 Amplified Roles, Idealized Depictions: Women in the Book of Jubilees

Tal I l a n p o s i t s that w o m e n c a m e to b e associated w i t h such arts b e c a u s e " o f

their e x p e r i e n c e w i t h c h i l d b i r t h , h e a l i n g , the p r e p a r a t i o n of p o t i o n s and
5 8
m e d i c i n e s a n d even l a m e n t a t i o n s at the g r a v e . " This particular narrative
p r o v i d e s an e t i o l o g y for a n d n e g a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f s u c h p r a c t i c e s that m a y
h a v e b e e n u n i q u e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w o m e n in this p e r i o d . L o a d e r also a s s o ­
ciates such p r a c t i c e s ( a n d " d a n g e r o u s k n o w l e d g e " ) w i t h foreign w i v e s in
p a r t i c u l a r a n d suggests that this t r a d i t i o n m a y b e r o o t e d in c o n c e r n for
59
endogamous relations. T h e a s s o c i a t i o n of w o m e n , e s p e c i a l l y o f the w i v e s
of the a n g e l s , w i t h f o r b i d d e n or illicit k n o w l e d g e d i m i n i s h e s w i t h i n the
E n o c h i c w o r k s . T h e A n i m a l A p o c a l y p s e a n d J u b i l e e s , even w h i l e t h e y m a y
k n o w the t r a d i t i o n c o n c e r n i n g A s a e l , for e x a m p l e , m a k e n o m e n t i o n o f the
6 0
theme. In g e n e r a l , the w i v e s of the w a t c h e r s s e e m less "interesting" to later
Enochic works.

Eve e x c h a n g e s places w i t h the w i v e s in these n a r r a t i v e s as E n o c h i c

texts d e m o n s t r a t e an i n c r e a s i n g u n e a s i n e s s w i t h the first w o m a n . T h e earli­
est reference to E v e a m o n g E n o c h i c texts o c c u r s in the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s .
Eve, like A d a m , is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w i s d o m a n d the p r o t a g o n i s t of the litera­
ture, the p a t r i a r c h E n o c h ( l E n 3 2 : 3 - 6 ) . I n later t r a d i t i o n s , s u c h as the s e c o n d
c e n t u r y B . C . E . A n i m a l A p o c a l y p s e a n d first c e n t u r y B . C . E . o r C . E . P a r a b l e s ,
Eve's lot w o r s e n s as she b e c o m e s d i s t a n c e d f r o m A d a m a n d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
61
the C a i n i t e line (85:3) or w i t h b e i n g d e c e i v e d b y a m a l e v o l e n t a n g e l ( 6 c ; : 6 ) .
In c o n c l u s i o n , E n o c h i c w o r k s d o n o t a m p l i f y w o m e n in the s a m e
m a n n e r as the b o o k o f J u b i l e e s . T h e d e p i c t i o n s of w o m e n f a m i l i a r f r o m the
a n t e d i l u v i a n w o r l d of G e n e s i s are n o t s h a r p l y d r a w n ; the references to s u c h
w o m e n are not in great s u p p l y . In c o n t e x t , E n o c h i c literature d o e s not share
in the t r e n d to e x p a n d roles for w o m e n f a m i l i a r f r o m the H e b r e w B i b l e , as
o n e o b s e r v e s in the case of J u b i l e e s , J o s e p h a n d A s e n e t h , a n d the T e s t a m e n t
6 2
of J o b . M o r e o v e r , b e c a u s e of the c o m p l e x n a t u r e o f the v a r i o u s w o r k s w e
a s s o c i a t e w i t h E n o c h i c l i t e r a t u r e , w e are n o t a b l e to p r e s e n t a single

58. T. Ilan, Jewish Women in Greco-Roman Palestine: An Inquiry into Image and Status
(Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1995), 225.
59. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 46. Tigchelaar has also read the account of the
watchers as an indictment on intermarriage between Jerusalem priests and Samaritan
women. See Prophets of Old, 198-203.
60. See Segal, The Book of Jubilees, 117, who also notes that Jubilees lacks the tradition
of angels teaching women crafts of a questionable nature.
61. See m y "Adamic Traditions," 355-58.
62. See Chesnutt, "Revelatory Experiences Attributed to Biblical Women in Early
Jewish Literature."

351
Kelley Coblentz Bautch

"Enochic view of women." The study of the depiction of women illumines

key themes within both the book of Jubilees and Enochic literature; women
are, however, far more prominent within and seemingly useful for the book
of Jubilees.

352
Enochic and Mosaic Traditions in Jubilees:
The Evidence of Angelology and Demonology

Annette Yoshiko Reed

For those w h o propose the existence of a distinctive "Enochic Judaism" in

second temple times and/or w h o see an opposition between E n o c h i c and
Mosaic traditions, the retellings of the angelic descent myth in the B o o k of
the Watchers and Jubilees have proved pivotal (1 E n 6 - 1 6 ; Jub 4:15-22; 5 : 1 - 1 1 ;
7:21-25; 8:3-4; 10:5). Paolo Sacchi has d r a w n attention to the B o o k of the
Watchers' claim that evil originated with the antediluvian descent of the an­
gels (cf. G e n 6 : 1 - 4 ) , proposing that this idea lies at the heart of a distinctive
1
m o v e m e n t within second temple J u d a i s m . Building on Sacchi's w o r k ,
Gabriele Boccaccini has interpreted Jubilees' version of the angelic descent
myth, not only as evidence for its dependence on the B o o k of the Watchers,
2
but also as an emblem of its alignment with "Enochic Judaism." In his esti­
mation, Jubilees "stems from the same priestly party that produced the

1. P. Sacchi, Jewish Apocalyptic and Its History, trans. W. J. Short, JSPSup 20 (Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), esp. 47-87; Sacchi, "History o f the Earliest Enochic Texts," in
Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection, ed. G. Boccaccini (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005), 401-7.
2. G. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Parting of the Ways between
Qumran and Enochic Judaism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 86-98. For a survey of the ev­
idence for Jubilees' use o f Enochic literature, see, e.g., J. Bergsma in this volume.

For their c o m m e n t s and suggestions o n earlier forms o f this essay, special thanks to
B. Halpern-Amaru, G. Boccaccini, D. Boyarin, G. Davenport, T. Hanneken, M. Himmelfarb,
H. Kvanvig, and H . Najman; it also benefited much from the lively discussion in the Enoch
Seminar session on angels and demons in Jubilees.

353
Annette Yoshiko Reed

b o o k s o f E n o c h " a n d " s h a r e s the g e n e r a t i v e i d e a o f E n o c h i c J u d a i s m , the

i d e a that e v i l is s u p e r h u m a n and is c a u s e d b y the sin o f the Watchers
3
(7:2iff.)." For Boccaccini, Jubilees' interweaving of traditions from G e n 6:1-
4 a n d the B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s t h u s e x e m p l i f i e s its efforts to b r i d g e t w o
c o m p e t i n g w o r l d v i e w s : ( 1 ) the " E n o c h i c J u d a i s m " t h a t p u r p o r t e d l y e x a l t e d
the p r e - S i n a i t i c s a g e , d o w n p l a y e d the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the P e n t a t e u c h , and
s a w the p r i e s t h o o d o f the s e c o n d t e m p l e as c o r r u p t , a n d ( 2 ) the " Z a d o k i t e
J u d a i s m " that h e l d a u t h o r i t y in the t e m p l e , f o r m e d the T a n a k h , a n d em­
4
b r a c e d M o s e s as c e n t r a l to J e w i s h identity.

Just h o w c e n t r a l , h o w e v e r , is the a n g e l i c d e s c e n t m y t h to J u b i l e e s ' t h e ­

5
o l o g y , c o s m o l o g y , a n d n a r r a t i v e ? A r e B o c c a c c i n i a n d o t h e r s c o r r e c t to r e a d
its i n t e g r a t i o n o f this m y t h as a s i g n o f its a g r e e m e n t w i t h the B o o k o f t h e
W a t c h e r s ' b e l i e f s i n the s u p e r n a t u r a l o r i g i n s o f evil? I n s o f a r as m o s t r e s e a r c h
o n J u b i l e e s h a s p r o c e e d e d f r o m the a s s u m p t i o n o f its c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p to
6
the P e n t a t e u c h , we might also q u e s t i o n the d e g r e e to w h i c h its u s e o f
E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s s t a n d s i n t e n s i o n w i t h its o v e r a r c h i n g a p p e a l to M o s a i c
a u t h o r i t y . Is o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f J u b i l e e s a i d e d b y the a s s u m p t i o n o f a n
early o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n E n o c h i c and M o s a i c traditions?

T r a d i t i o n s a b o u t a n g e l s a n d d e m o n s w i l l h e r e s e r v e as a f o c u s for r e ­
f l e c t i n g o n these q u e s t i o n s . I w i l l b e g i n w i t h a b r i e f s u r v e y o f the a n g e l o l o g y

3. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, 87.

4. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, 1 2 - 1 6 , 68-79; see also his contribution in
this volume for a m o r e nuanced articulation o f the same argument. A similar point is m a d e
in H. Kvanvig, "Jubilees — between E n o c h and Moses: A Narrative Reading," JSJ 35, no. 3
( 2 0 0 4 ) : 243-45. Kvanvig here suggests that Jubilees integrates Mosaic traditions into an
Enochic worldview, pointing to the interpretation o f Gen 6:3 in Jub 5 as paradigmatic; he re­
frains, however, from any generalizations about distinct "Judaisms."
5. Assessments o f Jubilees that downplay the significance o f the fallen angels within
the text as a whole include J. C. VanderKam, "The Angel Story in the Book o f Jubilees," in
Pseudepigraphic Perspectives: The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha in Light of the Dead Sea
Scrolls, ed. E. G. Chazon and M. E . Stone (Leiden: Brill, 1999), esp. 154; T. R. Hanneken, "An­
gels and D e m o n s in the Book o f Jubilees a n d C o n t e m p o r a r y Apocalypses," Hen 28 ( 2 0 0 6 ) :
1 4 - 1 8 . See also L. Stuckenbruck's contribution to this volume.
6. Its close relationship to the corresponding portions o f Genesis and Exodus has
been established by a number o f studies on Jubilees as exegesis; this approach and its value
are exemplified by J. van Ruiten, Primaeval History Interpreted: The Rewriting of Genesis 1—11
in the Book of Jubilees (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) . In addition, its resonance with the rest o f Exodus
(esp. 19; 23:10-33; 2 4 ) has been recently established by J. C. VanderKam, "The Scriptural Set­
ting o f the B o o k o f Jubilees," DSD 13 ( 2 0 0 6 ) : 6 1 - 7 2 . Its discursive and epistemological conti­
nuities with Deuteronomy are richly explored in H. Najman, Seconding Sinai: The Develop­
ment of Mosaic Discourse in Second Temple Judaism, JSJSup 77 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 3 ) , 16-69.

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 Enochic and Mosaic Traditions in Jubilees

a n d d e m o n o l o g y o f J u b i l e e s . T h e n , I will ask h o w fallen angels fit w i t h i n its

s c h e m a . Lastly, I w i l l c o n s i d e r w h a t these t r a d i t i o n s m a y tell us a b o u t its a u ­
7
t h o r ' s attitudes t o w a r d the P e n t a t e u c h a n d early E n o c h i c l i t e r a t u r e .

i. Angels, Knowledge, and the Exaltation of Israel

D e p i c t i o n s of angels in Jubilees r e v o l v e a r o u n d t w o m a i n t h e m e s : ( l ) the

t r a n s m i s s i o n o f k n o w l e d g e a n d ( 2 ) the e l e v a t i o n of Israel.
8
T h e first is e x e m p l i f i e d b y the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e . In 1 : 2 7 - 2 9 , G o d
o r d e r s this a n g e l to "dictate for M o s e s f r o m the b e g i n n i n g o f the c r e a t i o n
u n t i l the t i m e w h e n M y t e m p l e is built a m o n g t h e m t h r o u g h o u t the ages of
9
e t e r n i t y " ( i : 2 7 ) . T h e rest of Jubilees is p r e s e n t e d as the w o r d s o f this a n g e l ,
w h o is t h u s p l a c e d in an a u t h o r i a l a n d a u t h o r i z i n g p o s i t i o n in relation to J u ­
1 0
bilees itself, w i t h M o s e s as his s c r i b e .
T h r o u g h o u t J u b i l e e s ' n a r r a t i v e p o r t i o n s , angels also serve a m e d i a t o r y
f u n c t i o n closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h r e v e l a t i o n a n d w r i t i n g . N o t o n l y do they d e ­
liver d i v i n e m e s s a g e s to h u m a n k i n d ( 1 2 : 2 2 - 2 4 ) , b u t t h e y m a k e t r u t h s in
h e a v e n k n o w n o n earth b y r e v e a l i n g the contents o f h e a v e n l y w r i t i n g s to h u ­
m a n s , w h o i n s c r i b e their r e v e l a t i o n s in earthly b o o k s ( 4 : 1 8 - 9 ; 8:11; 1 0 : 1 3 ;
1 1
12:25-27; 21:10; 32:21-26; 4 5 : 1 6 ) . F o r this, angels are d e p i c t e d as s p e c i a l l y
qualified, i n a s m u c h as t h e y are also said to serve as w i t n e s s e s to the w o r d s
a n
a n d deeds o f G o d (3:4; 1 0 : 2 2 - 2 4 ) d to w a t c h h u m a n k i n d , see e v e r y t h i n g ,
a n d r e p o r t e v e r y t h i n g to G o d ( 4 : 6 ) .
For J u b i l e e s ' a s s o c i a t i o n of angels a n d k n o w l e d g e , there is s o m e p r e c e -

7. In this article, I thus limit myself to exploring parallels with the Pentateuch and
early Enochic literature. Points of contact with other early Jewish traditions about angels
and demons are further explored, e.g., by G. Ibba and I. Frohlich in their E n o c h Seminar
contributions. It is indeed important to remember that, even as the authors/redactors of Ju­
bilees convey a relatively systematic and rationalizing account of the place o f otherworldly
spirits in the divinely ruled cosmos, they seem to weave this orderly a c c o u n t from the
threads o f apotropaic prayers, folklore, and popular "magic," no less than from Pentateuchal
and Enochic precedents.
8. J. C. VanderKam, "The Angel o f the Presence in the Book o f Jubilees," DSD 7
( 2 0 0 0 ) : 382-84.
9. J. C. VanderKam, "The Putative Author o f Jubilees" JSS 26 (1981): 2 0 9 - 1 7 .
1 0 . H. Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing: Jubilees and Its Authority
Conferring Strategies," JSJ 30 (1999): 4 0 0 - 4 0 6 .
1 1 . H. Najman, "Angels at Sinai: Exegesis, Theology and Interpretive Authority," DSD
7 (2000): 315-17.

355
Annette Yoshiko Reed

dent in the Pentateuch's presentation of angels as messengers (e.g., Gen 16:7-

11; 19:1; 21:17; 2 2 : 1 1 , 1 5 ; Exod 3:2). Enochic parallels, however, are far more ex­
tensive. Both the Astronomical Book and the Book of the Watchers depict
angels as revealing heavenly truths to humankind (1 En 33:3-4; 81:1; 82:2;
82:7). In addition, the Episde of Enoch stresses that angels witness all human
deeds (1 En 98:6-8; 99:3; 100:10-11; 104:1).
The second major role of angels in Jubilees is as foils for the exaltation
of Israel and its priests. Angels are paralleled to Israel inasmuch as they are
circumcised, observe Sabbath, and celebrated Shavuoth prior to Noah (Jub
2:17-21; 15:27). They also serve as the heavenly parallels to Israel's earthly
priesthood (30:18). Yet angels are subordinated to Israel inasmuch as they
a
do not serve God by choice (cf. 12:19) ° d insofar as they have no path to
atonement if they sin (cf. 5:17). Accordingly, in Jubilees' patriarchal narra­
tives, the angelic tasks of teaching are increasingly taken over by Israel's an­
cestors. Moreover, in the end, angels stand outside of God's special relation­
ship to Israel, as evident both in his direct rule of the chosen nation (15:32)
and in his sole involvement in their eschatological punishment and re­
12
demption ( 2 3 : 3 0 - 3 1 ) .
For the relationship between angels and Israel in Jubilees, we may also
find some precedent in Enochic literature. In the Book of the Watchers, an­
13
gels are likened to priests in the heavenly temple, and Enoch's own angel­
like status is suggested by his actions of mediating the petition of the
Watchers (1 En 13:4-6; cf. 15:2), entering the heavenly temple (chap. 1 4 ) , and
rebuking the Watchers (12:4-6; 13:8; 15:2). Yet the Book of the Watchers de­
picts the human sage Enoch as granted direct access to God, in a manner not
available even to angels (14:21). In effect, Jubilees extends Enoch's preroga­
tives to all of Israel, proposing that this nation's status as the children of God
14
ultimately surpasses the status of God's angels.

12. Hanneken, "Angels," 13-14, 22-23.

13. M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1993), 20-23.
14. This pattern mirrors Jubilees' extension of the priestly prerogatives in the Penta­
teuch to all o f Israel, as discussed in M. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests: Ancestry and
Merit in Ancient Judaism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 53-84. On
the significance of the depiction of all Israel as angels, see also Himmelfarb's contribution to
this volume.

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2 . Demons, Gentiles, and the Testing of Israel

A l t h o u g h J u b i l e e s ' a n g e l o l o g y o w e s m u c h to E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s , its d e m o n -
o l o g y m a y b e m o r e i n d e b t e d to P e n t a t e u c h a l a n d other b i b l i c a l m o d e l s . In
Jubilees d e m o n s s e r v e t w o m a i n r o l e s . First a n d f o r e m o s t is their role as
agents of d i v i n e j u s t i c e . U n d e r the l e a d e r s h i p of M a s t e m a , d e m o n s are
c h a r g e d w i t h testing h u m a n k i n d , b r i n g i n g h u m a n sins to G o d ' s a t t e n t i o n ,
a n d d e s t r o y i n g the w i c k e d at G o d ' s b e h e s t ( J u b 1:20; 1 0 : 1 1 ; 48:15; 4 9 : 2 ) . S e c ­
o n d is their role as the overseers o f G e n t i l e s . N o t o n l y do they rule G e n t i l e
n a t i o n s (15:31; 4 8 ) , b u t t h e y also are objects of n o n - J e w i s h w o r s h i p ( 1 : 1 1 ; 1 1 : 4 )
a n d the forces b e h i n d the efficacy of f o r e i g n " m a g i c " ( 4 8 : 9 - 1 1 ) . A c c o r d i n g l y ,
in Jubilees d e m o n i c i n f l u e n c e is first felt w h e n the n a t i o n s take f o r m , w i t h
1 5
the s e p a r a t i o n of the earth b e t w e e n N o a h ' s s o n s ( 1 1 : 2 - 6 ) . W h e n Israel a n d
its a n c e s t o r s live u n d e r f o r e i g n rule ( 1 : 2 0 ; 1 1 : 1 8 - 2 2 ; 4 8 ) , they t o o are affected
by the strife, b l o o d s h e d , f a m i n e , a n d disease c a u s e d b y d e m o n s . C o n v e r s e l y ,
d e m o n i c i n f l u e n c e is a b s e n t w h e n J a c o b r u l e s E g y p t a n d w h e n Israel's ene­
m i e s are finally d e s t r o y e d f r o m the earth (23:29; 40:9; 46:2; 5 0 : 5 ) .

In d e p i c t i n g d e m o n s as a g e n t s o f d i v i n e j u s t i c e , J u b i l e e s a p p e a r s to
d e v e l o p b i b l i c a l t r o p e s o f the satan ( e s p . J o b 1 ) , as is p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t in
its c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f M a s t e m a (e.g., J u b 1 0 : 1 1 ) . L i k e w i s e , its a s s o c i a t i o n o f
1 6
d e m o n s w i t h G e n t i l e s m a y b e r o o t e d in D e u t 32:8-9 a n d Ps 1 0 6 : 3 5 - 3 7 . We
may also see traces o f E n o c h i c i n f l u e n c e i n J u b i l e e s ' d e m o n o l o g y . F o r i n ­
s t a n c e , the i m a g e o f d e m o n s as o b j e c t s o f s a c r i f i c i a l w o r s h i p finds p r e c e ­
dent in the B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s (1 E n 1 9 : 1 ) , as d o e s the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
d e m o n s as d e r i v i n g f r o m the spirits o f the slain s o n s o f the fallen a n g e l s
1 7
(i :8- ).
5 9

N e v e r t h e l e s s , J u b i l e e s ' d e m o n o l o g y d e p a r t s f r o m E n o c h i c literature in
significant w a y s . In the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s , the d e m o n i c t e r r o r i z a t i o n o f
h u m a n k i n d is definitive o f p o s t d i l u v i a n h i s t o r y ; after the flood, the w i c k e d
spirits o f the G i a n t s rise u p against h u m a n k i n d (1 E n 1 5 : 1 1 ) , a n d it is p r o ­
c l a i m e d that they w i l l c o n t i n u e to do so u n t i l the last j u d g m e n t ( 1 6 : 1 ; 1 9 : 1 ) . In
J u b i l e e s the spirits o f the W a t c h e r s ' s o n s c a u s e sin, b l o o d s h e d , p o l l u t i o n , ill­
ness, a n d f a m i n e after the f l o o d (esp. J u b 1 1 : 2 - 6 ) . It is m a d e explicit, h o w e v e r ,

15. Hanneken, "Angels," 18.

16. J. C. VanderKam, "The D e m o n s in the B o o k o f Jubilees," in Die Ddmonen, ed.
A. Lange, H. Lichtenberger, and K. F. Diethard Romheld (Tubingen: M o h r Siebeck, 2 0 0 3 ) ,
353-54-
17. See Giovanni Ibba, "The Evil Spirits in Jubilees and the Spirits o f the Bastards in
4 Q 5 1 0 , with Some Remarks on Other Q u m r a n Manuscripts," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .

357
Annette Yoshiko Reed

that they do so as p a r t o f G o d ' s p l a n . D u r i n g the lifetime of N o a h , d e m o n s

are d i m i n i s h e d in n u m b e r a n d s u b o r d i n a t e d to M a s t e m a to help h i m in his
d i v i n e l y a p p o i n t e d task of d e s t r o y i n g a n d m i s l e a d i n g the w i c k e d ( 1 0 : 8 - 9 ) .
Lest the reader i m a g i n e M a s t e m a a n d his h o s t s as the d a r k side of a c o s m i c
d u a l i s m a n d / o r as evil forces in active conflict w i t h G o d , Jubilees stresses
that their existence o n the earth is the result of G o d ' s a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f
h u m a n k i n d ' s c h r o n i c w i c k e d n e s s ( 1 0 : 8 - 9 ) . D e m o n s m a y c a u s e suffering, b u t
the r e a d e r is a s s u r e d that their a c t i o n s are p a r t of an u n e r r i n g l y fair s y s t e m
of d i v i n e j u s t i c e (cf. 5 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) .
M o r e o v e r , d e m o n i c i n f l u e n c e d i m i n i s h e s as the n a r r a t i v e p r o g r e s s e s .
D e m o n s h a v e n o c o n t r o l over Israel ( 1 5 : 3 2 ) . A n d , j u s t as Israel takes on the
f u n c t i o n s o f G o d ' s angels, so G e n t i l e s c o m e to replace d e m o n s as the m a i n
e n e m y a g a i n s t w h o m I s r a e l s t r u g g l e s . E v e n t h o u g h foreign n a t i o n s are r u l e d
by d e m o n s ( 1 5 : 3 1 ) , t h e y are n o t forces of i n d e p e n d e n t evil a n y m o r e t h a n the
spirits t h e y s e r v e ; J u b i l e e s stresses, in fact, that all n a t i o n s b e l o n g to G o d
( 1 5 : 3 1 ) . C o n s i s t e n t w i t h D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c p r i n c i p l e a n d its e x p a n s i o n in b i b ­
lical p r o p h e c y , G e n t i l e s c a n o v e r t a k e I s r a e l o n l y w h e n G o d c o m m a n d s ( 1 : 1 3 ;
2 3 : 2 3 ) . J u s t as the satan is an a g e n t of d i v i n e j u s t i c e , testing a n d a c c u s i n g h u ­
m a n k i n d , so f o r e i g n n a t i o n s h a v e their p l a c e in the s y s t e m o f d i v i n e j u s t i c e
as a m e a n s for p u n i s h i n g Israel's d i s o b e d i e n c e (e.g., 1 : 1 3 ; 2 3 : 2 3 ) .
In o n e sense, then, J u b i l e e s ' d e m o n o l o g y m a y b e best u n d e r s t o o d as a
development of D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c understandings of divine justice, ex­
p a n d e d b y m e a n s o f the t y p o l o g i c a l e q u a t i o n of G e n t i l e s w i t h demons.
G e n t i l e s a n d d e m o n s share the s a m e f u n c t i o n in s a c r e d history, n a m e l y , to
test Israel's faithfulness a n d to m e d i a t e G o d ' s p u n i s h m e n t o f their u n f a i t h ­
fulness. M u c h like the n a t i o n s in the D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c h i s t o r y a n d b i b l i c a l
p r o p h e c y , d e m o n s in Jubilees p o s e a threat to Israel o n l y w h e n m e m b e r s o f
the c h o s e n n a t i o n stray f r o m G o d a n d his commandments.

3 . Fallen Angels and the Temptations of Apostasy

W h a t , then, of fallen angels? J u b i l e e s ' v e r s i o n of the a n g e l i c descent m y t h has

g a r n e r e d so m u c h s c h o l a r l y a t t e n t i o n that w e m i g h t b e t e m p t e d to take their
i n c l u s i o n for g r a n t e d . W h e n w e c o n s i d e r the rest of its a n g e l o l o g y a n d de­
m o n o l o g y , h o w e v e r , their p r e s e n c e stands in n e e d of s o m e e x p l a n a t i o n . A s
w e h a v e seen, J u b i l e e s ' d e p i c t i o n of angels a n d d e m o n s serves to e v o k e an o r ­
d e r l y c o s m o s in w h i c h b o t h g o o d a n d b a d spirits s e r v e his w i l l a n d in w h i c h
the e a r t h is c l e a r l y d i v i d e d b e t w e e n G o d - r u l e d J e w s a n d demon-ruled

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G e n t i l e s . W h y w o u l d the a u t h o r ( s ) c h o o s e to i n c l u d e sinful angels w h o b l u r

these b o u n d a r i e s ?
In early E n o c h i c literature, c h a o s a n d e a r t h l y evils are c o n s i s t e n t l y a s ­
s o c i a t e d w i t h angels w h o t r a n s g r e s s their p r o p e r r o l e s . T h e A s t r o n o m i c a l
B o o k d e s c r i b e s angels w h o d e v i a t e f r o m their celestial duties a n d t h u s frus­
1 8
trate h u m a n a d h e r e n c e to the c o r r e c t c a l e n d a r ( l E n 80:6-8; cf. 1 8 : 1 5 ) . The
first v i s i o n in the B o o k of D r e a m s b l a m e s b o t h angels a n d h u m a n s for a n ­
g e r i n g G o d ( 8 4 : 4 ) . L i k e w i s e , the A n i m a l A p o c a l y p s e alludes b o t h to fallen
angels w h o c a m e to earth b e f o r e the f l o o d ( 8 6 : 1 - 6 ) a n d to the a n g e l i c leaders
w h o w e r e p l a c e d over all h u m a n n a t i o n s , o n l y to stray a n d c o m m i t v i o l e n c e
against their c h a r g e s ( 8 9 : 5 9 - 9 0 : 2 5 ) .
E v e n m o r e striking is the f u n c t i o n of angelic d i s o b e d i e n c e in the B o o k
of the W a t c h e r s . W h e r e a s the A s t r o n o m i c a l B o o k a n d E p i s t l e of E n o c h stress
1 9
h u m a n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for sin (1 E n 8 0 : 1 ; 9 8 : 4 ) , the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s
p r o p o s e s that h u m a n sinfulness w a s p r e c i p i t a t e d b y a b r e a c h in h e a v e n l y
h a r m o n y . T h e W a t c h e r s a b a n d o n e d h e a v e n , their a p p o i n t e d h o m e ( 1 5 : 3 , 7,
1 0 ) . W h e n t h e y t o o k o n the h u m a n p r e r o g a t i v e s of l i v i n g o n e a r t h , m a r r y i n g
w o m e n , a n d h a v i n g c h i l d r e n ( 1 5 : 4 - 5 ) , their acts i n v e r t e d the d i v i n e l y set roles
in the c o s m i c order. T h e p r o b l e m o r i g i n a t e d in h e a v e n , a n d the results w e r e
d i s a s t r o u s for earth: their t e a c h i n g s c o r r u p t e d h u m a n k i n d , a n d their s o n s
s l a u g h t e r e d e a r t h l y creatures.
B y contrast, Jubilees integrates E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t fallen angels
into a c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d t h e o d i c a l f r a m e w o r k that diffuses their p o w e r as
c o s m i c forces of c h a o s a n d r e b e l l i o n . T h e r e a d e r is a s s u r e d that n o b r e a c h in
h e a v e n l y h a r m o n y b r o u g h t evil to the earth. H e r e , h u m a n b e i n g s are far
f r o m b e i n g u n w i t t i n g v i c t i m s o f evils w r o u g h t b y o t h e r w o r l d l y forces. S i n
r e m a i n s a strictly e a r t h l y p h e n o m e n o n — even for the angels ( J u b 4:15; 5 : 1 ) .
M o r e o v e r , in place o f the B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s ' e m p h a s i s on the c o r r u p t i n g
;
force of the fallen a n g e l s ' t e a c h i n g s (1 E n 7 : 1 ; 8 : 1 - 3 ; 9 6 ) , w e here find a stress
20
on the p o s i t i v e influence of a n g e l i c i n s t r u c t i o n t h r o u g h o u t h u m a n h i s t o r y .

18. Whereas the Book o f the Watchers presents angelic rebellion as a cause of sin and
suffering on earth, the Astronomical Book depicts the corruption as spreading upward —
from earthly sinners (80:1) to the earth (80:2-3) to the luminaries (80:4-5) to the angels who
rule them (80:6).
19. On the departure from the Book of the Watchers' understanding of the fallen an­
gels in the Book o f Dreams and the Epistle of Enoch, see A. Y. Reed, Fallen Angels and the
History of Judaism and Christianity: The Reception of Enochic Literature (Cambridge: C a m ­
bridge University Press, 2005), 71-80.
20. Reed, Fallen Angels, 87-95.

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Annette Yoshiko Reed

According to Jubilees, heavenly angels even instructed humans in gardening

a n
(Jub 3:15), medicine (10:10-14), d the Hebrew language (12:26-27); fallen
angels taught only divination (8:3-4).
If their influence is so diminished, why are fallen angels even included
in Jubilees? What part do they play in its angelology, demonology, cosmology,
and covenantal theology? To answer these questions, it might prove helpful to
look to the literary function of these figures. In the Book of the Watchers, for
21
instance, fallen angels function as foils for the elevation of Enoch. Whereas
they abandon heaven for earth and catalyze earthly corruption through their
teachings, he is taken from earth to heaven and, as a result, can teach salvific
knowledge that inspires righteous deeds among his sons. In the Book of the
Watchers, Enoch is thus presented as a paradigm for the proper
epistemological process, whereas the fallen angels emblematize knowledge
falsely gained and improperly transmitted. Inasmuch as Jubilees downplays
the teachings of the fallen angels, this particular dichotomy is here not oper­
ant. In its place, however, we may find a related function, rooted instead in the
Israel-angels/Gentiles-demons typology so central to the rest of Jubilees.
Fallen angels are atypical of Jubilees' overarching angelology and de­
monology: they are the only spirits depicted as transgressing the boundaries
of their divinely ordained role in the cosmos. This, however, may be pre­
cisely the reason for their significance. Betsy Halpern-Amaru has demon­
strated that Jubilees uses the Watchers both as narrative exemplars of the
dangers of exogamy and as literary markers that draw the reader's attention
22
to human genealogies marred by improper marriages. We might take her
insight even further, suggesting that the fallen angels serve both as prece­
dents for intermarriage and as paradigms for the Jewish adoption of Gentile
practices more broadly.
Intermarriage is a central concern of Jubilees (20:4; 22:20-22; 3 0 : 7 - 1 7 ) .
The practice is here presented as defiling, not just for the individual and de­
scendants, but also for the whole nation, the divine name, and the sanctuary
23
(30:10,15-16). Like incest and the abandonment of circumcision (15:33-34;

21. A. Y. Reed, "Heavenly Ascent, Angelic Descent, and the Transmission of Knowl­
edge in 1 Enoch 6-16," in Heavenly Realms and Earthly Realities in Late Antique Religions, ed.
R. S. Abusch and A. Y. Reed (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 47-66.
22. B. Halpern-Amaru, The Empowerment of Women in the Book of Jubilees, JSJSup 60
(Leiden: Brill, 1999), 20-28; see also Kvanvig, "Jubilees," 249-50, and Luca Arcari, "The Myth
of the Watchers and the Problem of Intermarriage in Jubilees!' Hen 31, no. 1 (2009).
23. C. Werman, "Jubilees 30: Building a Paradigm for the Ban on Intermarriage,"
HTR 90 (1997): 12-15; Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 69-72.

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33:13-14; 41:25-26), this act is presented as a sin for which no atonement is

possible (30:13-16). Hence, it is perhaps telling that Jubilees stresses the fallen
angels' sexual sins and describes them as acts of fornication and impurity
(4:22; 7:21; 20:5-6) — two categories also paired in the description of inter­
marriage in 30:7-17. In Noah's testimony, their sin is called the "beginning of
impurity" (7:21); together with the bloodshed caused by the Giants, their
acts are said to defile the earth and necessitate the flood. Abraham's speech
similarly cites the destruction of the Giants to warn against fornication and
impurity: just as the fallen angels saw the Giants slain by God's sword in 5:9,
so the human children of fornication and impurity will be doomed to de­
struction by the sword (20:5-6; cf. 30:5).
In light of Jubilees' association of Israel with the angels, the possibility
arises that the sins of the fallen angels are meant to be paradigmatic of the
broader phenomenon of Jewish apostasy. Notably, the text's preoccupation
with intermarriage is just one expression of its recurrent concern with Jews
who abandon the covenant to follow Gentile practices (e.g., 1:8-11; 3:31; 6:35;
15:33-34; 21:22-23; 2 2 : 1 6 - 2 2 ) . Here, moreover, Jews can be defiled, not just
through marriage to Gentiles, but also through contact with them and
through adoption of their practices (1:9; 21:23; 22:16). In this regard, it is in­
teresting to note the Watchers' punishment for their sins: they are "up­
rooted) from (positions of) authority" and bound in prisons beneath the
earth (5:6-7), just as Jews who do not circumcise their sons make "them­
ar
selves like the nations so as to be uprooted from the earth" (10:33) >d just as
those who walk in the ways of the nations are "uproot(ed) from the earth"
(21:21).

One of the effects of Jubilees' Israel-angels/Gentiles-demons typology

is to depict the act of adopting Gentile practices as contrary to the cosmic
order that governs heaven as well as earth. When Jews adopt foreign worship
and festivals, marry non-Jews, and refrain from circumcising their sons, they
are committing sins with dire consequences: they align themselves with
Gentiles, thereby placing themselves under the rule of demons, dooming
their children to destruction, and exempting themselves and their children
from the special angel-like status granted to Israel.
The temptation to transgress, moreover, is poignantly expressed by Ju­
bilees' distinctive approach to the Watchers' earthly sojourn. Angelic sin is
here imagined, not as a breach of heavenly harmony (cf. Gen 6:1-2; 1 En 6:1-3;
15:3), but as a corruption that occurred during the prolonged earthly sojourn
of certain angels from heaven. They descended with good intentions (Jub
4:15), and they did not sin until after they had already spent fourteen jubilees

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on earth. Just as Israel is likened to the angels, so the d e s c r i p t i o n of the

e a r t h l y c o r r u p t i o n of the fallen angels r e s o n a t e s w i t h its r e p e a t e d w a r n i n g s
to Jews a b o u t G e n t i l e t e m p t a t i o n s to a p o s t a s y ( 1 : 1 9 - 2 0 ; 2 1 : 2 2 - 2 3 ; 2 2 : 1 6 - 2 3 ;
3 0 : 7 - 1 5 ) . T h e i r p u n i s h m e n t (5:6-7) thus serves as an apt w a r n i n g for Jews
who are t e m p t e d — p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g p e r i o d s of f o r e i g n rule ( 1 : 1 9 ) — to
f o l l o w the " w a y s of the n a t i o n s " a n d / o r to take f o r e i g n w i v e s .
If I a m c o r r e c t to d r a w this c o n n e c t i o n , then the r e d e p l o y m e n t o f
E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s m a y s e r v e the i m p o r t a n t p u r p o s e o f e x t e n d i n g J u b i l e e s '
a n g e l o l o g i c a l a n d d e m o n o l o g i c a l s c h e m a to s p e a k to the p r o b l e m s of its
o w n t i m e . W i t h i n its c o s m o l o g y a n d t h e o d i c y , a n g e l - l i k e Jews w i l l e v e n t u a l l y
be s a v e d , a n d d e m o n - r u l e d G e n t i l e s d e s t r o y e d . T h o s e w h o p o s e a p r o b l e m
24
are the o n e s in b e t w e e n . F o l l o w i n g the l o g i c of J u b i l e e s ' p u r i t y r e g u l a t i o n s ,
the acts of these J e w s threaten all of Israel a n d defile the s a n c t u a r y . W h e n
even a single J e w i s h m a n or w o m a n i n t e r m a r r i e s , the w h o l e p e o p l e suffer
" b l o w u p o n blow, curse u p o n curse" (30:14-15).
F r o m J u b i l e e s ' z e a l o u s w a r n i n g s a g a i n s t the a b a n d o n m e n t of S a b b a t h
o b s e r v a n c e (2:25-27; 5 0 : 8 - 9 , 1 2 - 1 3 ) , c i r c u m c i s i o n ( 1 5 : 1 4 , 2 5 - 2 6 , 3 3 - 3 4 ) , a n d e n ­
d o g a m y ( 2 2 : 2 0 - 2 1 ; 3 0 : 1 0 - 1 6 , 2 2 ) , w e m i g h t infer that the text is p a r t i c u l a r l y
c o n c e r n e d w i t h Jews w h o are t e m p t e d to a b a n d o n the p r a c t i c e s that differ­
entiate t h e m f r o m n o n - J e w s . A s w i t h the r e p e a t e d w a r n i n g a g a i n s t f o l l o w i n g
"the w a y s o f the nations," this c o n c e r n fits w e l l w i t h w h a t w e k n o w a b o u t the
t u m u l t u o u s d e c a d e s s u r r o u n d i n g the M a c c a b e a n revolt. In this r e g a r d , it is
p e r h a p s n o t s u r p r i s i n g that Jubilees d e s c r i b e s "the evil g e n e r a t i o n " as a d ­
dicted to the sins of f o r n i c a t i o n a n d p o l l u t i o n (23:14; cf. 2 3 : 1 7 ; 50:5); b e f o r e
the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e d e m p t i o n a n d p u r i f i c a t i o n , the text w a r n s that the earth
a n d the s a n c t u a r y w i l l b e defiled (23:18, 2 1 ) a n d that Israel w i l l suffer " b l o w
u p o n b l o w , w o u n d u p o n w o u n d , distress u p o n distress, b a d n e w s u p o n b a d
n e w s , disease u p o n d i s e a s e " ( 2 3 : 1 3 ) .

If w e f o l l o w this r e a d i n g of the a n g e l i c descent m y t h , the fallen angels

e m e r g e as an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in J u b i l e e s ' s a c r e d history. T h e y are n o t p a r ­
a d i g m s for h u m a n sin in any u n i v e r s a l s e n s e . N e i t h e r d o e s their i n c l u s i o n in
Jubilees suffice to s i g n a l its e m b r a c e of a c o s m o l o g y in w h i c h s u p e r n a t u r a l
forces c a u s e evil on earth. R a t h e r , they serve as p r e c u r s o r s , m o r e specifically,
for an " i n - b e t w e e n " c a t e g o r y of s p e c i a l interest to the a u t h o r , n a m e l y , m e m ­
bers o f the c h o s e n n a t i o n w h o sin — or are t e m p t e d to sin — b y e m b r a c i n g
non-Jewish ways and wives.
T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n also raises the p o s s i b i l i t y that J u b i l e e s o w e s yet a n -

24. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 61-72.

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other debt to the Book of the Watchers. David Suter and George Nickelsburg
have shown how the Book of the Watchers' depiction of fallen angels (esp.
1 En 1 2 - 1 6 ) resonates with polemics against the impure marriage practices of
25
priests of their own times. Jubilees may expand this polemic in a manner
26
consistent with its extension of priestiy prerogatives to all of Israel. Rather
than symbolizing fallen priests, Jubilees' fallen angels may provide proto-
logical precedents for Jews who defile nation, earth, and sanctuary by choos­
ing to align themselves with Gentiles. Inasmuch as they sin in the twenty-
fifth jubilee, it is fitting that Moses learns of them in the fiftieth, just prior to
the rebellious generation of the wilderness. It is also fitting that the au­
thors) may write of them in years surrounding the Maccabean revolt, when
some Jews were engaging Hellenistic culture and dismissing the need for
27
separation from other nations (1 Mace i:n).

4. Angelology, Epistemology, and the Status

of the Pentateuch and Enochic Literature

What, then, might Jubilees' angelology and demonology tell us about its atti­
tudes toward Enochic and Mosaic traditions? In my view, its representation
of angelic teaching may prove especially telling, allowing us to consider the
relative value of different earthly books from the perspective of Jubilees' own
28
epistemology.
Jubilees' epistemology centers on a view of heaven as the ultimate
source for all true knowledge. Angelic teachings are here cited to explain hu­
man access to a rather dazzling array of information, including agricultural,
astronomical, and medicinal skills as well as laws, records of all human
deeds, predictions of the future, and information about astronomical, festal,
and eschatological cycles. According to Jubilees, selections from this knowl-

25. D. W. Suter, "Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest: The Problem of Family Purity in 1 Enoch
6-16," HUCA 50 (1979): 115-35; G. W. E. Nickelsburg, "Enoch, Levi, and Peter: Recipients of
Revelation in Upper Galilee," JBL 100 (1981): 575-600.
26. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 51-84.
27. In dating Jubilees, recent scholarship has generally followed J. C. VanderKam,
Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of Jubilees, HSM 14 (Missoula: Scholars Press,
1977)) 207-85. For a new approach to dating this text and explaining its preoccupation with
intermarriage, however, see Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 77-78.
28. On Jubilees' epistemology in relation to sapiential and prophetic approaches to
knowledge, see the contributions of B. Wright and H. Najman in this volume.

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edge h a v e b e e n revealed to certain h u m a n s c r i b e s , such that h e a v e n l y k n o w l ­

29
edge — i n c l u d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the h e a v e n l y t a b l e t s — n o w circulates
on earth in w r i t t e n f o r m s .
I n a s m u c h as angels m e d i a t e access to such k n o w l e d g e , its t r a n s m i s s i o n
f r o m h e a v e n to earth is l i m i t e d to the c h o s e n line of Israel. O n c e o n earth,
the b o o k s c o n t a i n i n g h e a v e n l y k n o w l e d g e s e e m to b e t r a n s m i t t e d in a single
line: E n o c h ' s b o o k s pass to N o a h , a n d N o a h ' s l i b r a r y passes to S h e m , j u s t as
A b r a h a m , J a c o b , a n d L e v i i n h e r i t the library, as e x p a n d e d b y a d d i t i o n a l
w r i t i n g s , each u p o n the death of its p r e v i o u s g u a r d i a n . T h e a s s u r a n c e of the
a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e to M o s e s that L e v i ' s d e s c e n d a n t s p o s s e s s a n d r e n e w
this t r o v e of w r i t i n g s "until this d a y " (45:16) serves to trace the line o f t r a n s ­
3 0
m i s s i o n to M o s e s ' o w n t i m e .
Insofar as this m o d e l of textual t r a n s m i s s i o n grants h e a v e n l y pedigrees
to all b o o k s in this line, Jubilees' e p i s t e m o l o g y a p p e a r s to p r e s u p p o s e the w i d e ­
s p r e a d practice o f biblical p s e u d e p i g r a p h y . Interestingly, it also e x p l a i n s a n d
defends it. Lest a n y o n e d o u b t the a n t i q u i t y a n d authenticity of E n o c h i c litera­
ture, for instance, Jubilees p u r p o r t s to record e v i d e n c e for E n o c h ' s acts of au­
t h o r s h i p as w e l l as e v i d e n c e for the t r u s t w o r t h y t r a n s m i s s i o n of his b o o k s .
T h i s e v i d e n c e , m o r e o v e r , is attributed to n o less a figure than the angel of the
presence, w h o has seen e v e r y t h i n g that h a p p e n e d on earth from the b e g i n n i n g
of history! E n o c h i c b o o k s are a d d i t i o n a l l y verified a n d v o u c h s a f e d b y d e s c r i p ­
tions of their use b y r i g h t e o u s m e n o f the past, such as N o a h a n d A b r a h a m .
F u r t h e r m o r e , the b o o k s of E n o c h , N o a h , A b r a h a m , J a c o b , a n d M o s e s
are p r e s e n t e d as h a r m o n i o u s i n s o f a r as t h e y s t a n d in the s a m e t r a d i t i o n o f
t r a n s m i s s i o n ( p a t r i a r c h a l a n d p r i e s t l y ) a n d i n a s m u c h as they derive f r o m
the s a m e u l t i m a t e s o u r c e ( a n g e l i c r e v e l a t i o n a n d / o r h e a v e n l y t a b l e t s ) . In ef­
fect, Jubilees takes the s e l f - a u t h o r i z i n g c l a i m s o f earlier b o o k s like the A s t r o ­
n o m i c a l B o o k a n d the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s a n d situates t h e m w i t h i n the
h i s t o r y of Israel u p to the t i m e of M o s e s .
Just as Jubilees accepts a n d e x t e n d s E n o c h i c m o d e l s of t e x t u a l a u t h o r -

29. O n the heavenly tablets, see, e.g., M. Himmelfarb, "Torah, Testimony, and Heav­
enly Tablets: The Claim to Authority o f the Book o f Jubilees," in A Multiform Heritage:
Studies on Early Judaism and Early Christianity in Honor of Robert A. Kraft, ed. B. G. Wright
(Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999), 19-29, here 27; F. Garcia Martinez, "The Heavenly Tablets in
the Book of Jubilees," in Studies in the Book of Jubilees, ed. M. Albani et al., TSAJ 65
(Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997), 243-60; Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing,"
389-400; Boccaccini in this volume.
30. Cf. E. Tigchelaar, "Jubilees and 1 Enoch and the Issue o f Transmission," in Enoch
and Qumran Origins, 1 0 0 .

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 Enochic and Mosaic Traditions in Jubilees

ity, so it utilizes Pentateuchal models. As Najman has shown, the text adopts
a stance akin to Deuteronomy, authorizing its own contribution with appeal
to the Sinaitic setting, Mosaic mediation, and divine revelation of
covenantal and priestiy Law as described in Exodus, Leviticus, and Num­
31
bers. In the process, Jubilees also defends the authority of the Pentateuch
against anyone who might assume that this anonymous writing is merely an
earthly creation: it begins by emphasizing the Sinaitic revelation as a privi­
leged occasion for the transmission of heavenly knowledge to earth and,
throughout the narrative, reminds the reader of its angelic narrator. And,
lest anyone wonder why Israel's purportedly eternal and immutable laws
32
were revealed at such a suspiciously late date in human history, it traces
some laws back to the distant past, reveals some as written on heavenly tab­
lets, and parallels some to angelic practices in heaven. By describing Enoch
as penning multiple books on different topics during his sojourn with the
angels ( 4 : 1 7 - 1 9 ) , the text also grounds the plausibility for its own claim that
multiple books on different matters came down to us from Moses and
Mount Sinai — not just the Pentateuch but also Jubilees itself.
Following Jubilees' own model of "authorship" and transmission, the
authority of the Pentateuch and Enochic literature is subordinated to the
33
heavenly writings from which Jubilees also draws its authority. Does this
subordination imply a challenge to Mosaic authority and/or Jubilees' affilia­
tion with a "Judaism" in which the Pentateuch was not always accepted as
authoritative? To make such an argument, one would need to assume that
the text of the Pentateuch was already accepted by other Jews, not just as an
authoritative source for law, wisdom, and history, but as revealed and au­
thoritative in a unique sense not granted to any other books. Personally, I am
not sure whether our data can bear the weight of such an assumption. In
light of our evidence for the continued production and circulation of other
revealed literature — in the second century and well beyond — we may not
be able to assume that any book held a status akin to that of "the Bible" in
the later Jewish and Christian sense of that term (i.e., an exclusively privi­
leged site for interpretation, the very text of which is sacred, immutable, and
omni-significant); for, indeed, the boundaries of scriptural authority re-

31. Najman, Seconding Sinai, 16-69.

32. On the broader cultural context of the impulse to "back-date" Pentateuchal law,
see J. C. VanderKam, "The Origins and Purpose of Jubilees," in his Textual and Historical
Studies in the Book of Jubilees, 19-22; Kvanvig, "lubilees," 257-58.
33. Najman, "Angels at Sinai," 317-18; Himmelfarb, "Torah," 27.

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Annette Yoshiko Reed

m a i n e d fluid for quite s o m e t i m e , a n d even a u t h o r i t a t i v e b o o k s c i r c u l a t e d in

34
different text-traditions.
It m a y be m o r e apt to a p p r o a c h the m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . as a
m o m e n t in the p r e h i s t o r y of the b i b l i c a l c a n o n , m a r k e d b y d i v e r s i t y a n d d y ­
3 5
namism. E v e n if all Jews a c c e p t e d the a u t h o r i t y o f the P e n t a t e u c h b y then,
it is likely that t h e y — like Jews a n d C h r i s t i a n s l o n g after t h e m — held a
b r o a d r a n g e o f different o p i n i o n s a b o u t the precise n a t u r e of its authority,
the s c o p e of k n o w l e d g e that c o u l d be g a i n e d f r o m it, its status in r e l a t i o n to
other I s r a e l i t e / J e w i s h b o o k s , a n d its status in r e l a t i o n s h i p to n o n - J e w i s h
books.
In m y v i e w , the c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n " Z a d o k i t e J u d a i s m " a n d " E n o c h i c J u ­
d a i s m " p r o v e s helpful insofar as it forces us to take s e r i o u s l y the full r a n g e o f
o u r extant e v i d e n c e , as n o w e x p a n d e d b y the D e a d S e a Scrolls. T h e r e is n o
d o u b t that the s c h o l a r l y m o d e l p r o p o s e d b y B o c c a c c i n i also p u s h e s us to
seek a n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f texts t r a d i t i o n a l l y d i s m i s s e d as " O l d T e s t a m e n t
P s e u d e p i g r a p h a " a n d w h a t t h e y m i g h t tell us a b o u t the r e l i g i o u s l a n d s c a p e
of s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m . H i s t h e o r i e s e x p o s e the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s
i n v o l v e d in a s s u m i n g , e v e n after the Q u m r a n d i s c o v e r i e s , that there w a s a
single " n o r m a t i v e " or " m a i n s t r e a m " J u d a i s m in s e c o n d t e m p l e t i m e s f r o m
w h i c h r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m d e v e l o p e d a n d f r o m w h i c h C h r i s t i a n i t y b r o k e . In
a d d i t i o n , the v e r y idea of " E n o c h i c J u d a i s m " r e p r e s e n t s a b o l d — a n d n e c e s ­
s a r y — c h a l l e n g e to the often u n q u e s t i o n e d a s s u m p t i o n that the P e n t a t e u c h
h e l d an e x c l u s i v e or central p o s i t i o n for all Jews in s e c o n d t e m p l e t i m e s .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , it m a y be telling that Jubilees itself — as o u r m o s t e x ­

plicit early e v i d e n c e for the a c c e p t a n c e o f E n o c h i c b o o k s — p r e s e n t s the
B o o k of the W a t c h e r s as c o n s o n a n t w i t h the P e n t a t e u c h a n d reads the t w o as
s u p p l e m e n t a r y a c c o u n t s of e a r t h l y events as i n t e r p r e t e d f r o m a h e a v e n l y
p e r s p e c t i v e . In the n a r r a t i v e p o r t i o n s o f J u b i l e e s , w e see s o m e hints that the
text of the P e n t a t e u c h is g r a n t e d a level of a u t h o r i t y n o t g r a n t e d the text o f
36
the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s . Yet E n o c h i c m o d e l s are a r g u a b l y m o r e central
for the text's o v e r a r c h i n g d e p i c t i o n of t e x t u a l authority, its angelic m e d i a ­
37
tors, a n d its h u m a n a g e n t s . J u b i l e e s ' d e p i c t i o n of angels a n d fallen angels
d r a w s h e a v i l y o n E n o c h i c m o d e l s . Yet it t r a n s f o r m s these m o d e l s b y s u b o r -

34. Himmelfarb, "Torah," 28-29.

35. J. C. VanderKam, From Revelation to Canon: Studies in Hebrew Bible and Second
Temple Literature, JSJSup 62 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) , 1-30.
36. I. van Ruiten, "A Literary Dependency o f Jubilees on 1 Enoch?" in Enoch and
Qumran Origins, 90-93.
37. Kvanvig, "Jubilees," esp. 260.

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dinating them to a theodicy more in line with the Deuteronomistic princi­

ple, and its depiction of demons falls closer to Job's image of the satan and to
Deuteronomistic and prophetic views of the role of "the nations" in the his­
tory of Israel. Arguments for the superiority of one can readily be matched
by arguments for the superiority of the other.
If it is difficult to determine Jubilees' assessment of the relative worth
of Enochic and Mosaic texts, this is perhaps not accidental. The task of
weighing the relative worth of the constitutive elements of Israel's literary
heritage does not seem particularly central for the text itself. Rather, the
main function of Jubilees' epistemology — aside, of course, from asserting
38
its own authority — may be to argue that the Jewish people actually pos­
sessed a literary heritage that predated the life of Moses.
Indeed, perhaps the most striking element of Jubilees' presentation of
earthly knowledge is the categorical exclusion of all non-Jews from any
claim to wisdom. True knowledge is here presented, always and everywhere,
39
as a prerogative of the chosen people. The trope of angelic revealers and
narrators serves to render the human practice of composing true writings
inseparable from the heavenly practice of selecting worthy scribes. Likewise,
the transmission of books on earth is shaped by decisions about the righ­
teousness of potential tradents. Noah, for instance, chooses to give the books
that protect humankind from demons to Shem alone, thereby dooming
Japheth and Ham to demonic destruction (10:14). Later, Jacob selects the
righteous Levi (45:16).
Jubilees thus asserts that Israel's ancestors were privy to angelic revela­
tions, which were regularly renewed and faithfully transmitted by the most
worthy among them. By contrast, the closest thing that Gentiles have to re­
vealed wisdom is the corrupting knowledge about divination spread by
40
fallen angels (8:3-4; n : 9 ) . Within Jubilees, knowledge and chosenness are
coterminous categories, and Gentiles are excluded from both. Tacit is the
suggestion that Jews have no need for the books or learning of Gentiles,
whether philosophical, religious, or "scientific"; their own literary heritage
includes information — directly from heaven — about astronomy, medi-

38. Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing," 379-410.

39. For an elegant assessment of the broader cultural context of this concern, see
Stuckenbruck in this volume.
40. This raises another possible reason that the teachings of the Watchers are here
limited to divination — perhaps it was important for Jubilees to associate illicit angelic in­
struction with something that good Jews do «of practice; contrast, e.g., the association of the
Watchers with metalworking in the Book of the Watchers (1 En 8:1).

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Annette Yoshiko Reed

cine, calendar, laws, h u m a n history, the beginning of time, and the end of
the w o r l d .
A s with its concerns for Jewish temptations to apostasy, this concern
may well resonate with the temptations posed by Hellenistic culture in par­
ticular. In light of its calendar and its status at Q u m r a n , Jubilees has often
been culled for hints of inner-Jewish schisms and debates. Yet, far from ex­
alting a righteous remnant, Jubilees depicts Israel as a unified whole — so
m u c h so, in fact, that the sins of individuals threaten to defile the entire peo­
41
ple. Perhaps tellingly, the only Jews actively excluded from the bounds of
Israel are those w h o exclude themselves, by choosing to abandon the marks
of Jewish separateness (e.g., circumcision, Sabbath, e n d o g a m y ) . Like the an­
gels w h o lingered too long on earth in the days before the flood, some of the
author's contemporaries m a y have found themselves tempted to join
Gentiles in meals, marriage, festivals, and friendship. To them, Jubilees re­
veals the cosmic ramifications of such seemingly m u n d a n e acts: to follow
"the ways of the nations" is to trade away the status of angels for the rule of
demons.

41. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 51-84.

368
Worship in Jubilees and Enoch

Erik Larson

Worship in Genesis was simple, direct, and personal. People sacrifice, set up a
pillar and pour oil on it, pray, worship, prostrate themselves, and bless. There
is only one priest of the true G o d mentioned in Genesis, Melchizedek. There
is no one place where G o d is worshiped. Instead, there are many sites where
altars are built and m a n y places where worship takes place such as M o u n t
Ararat, Bethel, Beersheba, M a m r e , M o u n t Moriah, and Shechem. There are
1
m a n y acts of sacrifice, but never is there an act of atonement in Genesis.
T h e question this paper seeks to address is h o w the b o o k of Jubilees re­
sponds to this situation. W h a t aspects of the worship of G o d does its author
play up and what aspects does he minimize? A n d not only that, but whose
worship does he play up and whose does he minimize? W e will then c o m ­
pare the results with how worship is described in the works that make up
1 Enoch.

Worship in Jubilees

T h e sole act of worship attributed to A d a m in Jubilees is the burning of in­

cense. According to Jub 3:27, "On that day, as he was leaving the Garden of

1. The word kipper does occur in Gen 6:14 and 32:20. But in the first instance it refers
to covering the ark with pitch, and in the second to Jacob's attempt at appeasing Esau when
he goes back to the land of Canaan.

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Erik Larson

E d e n , he b u r n e d i n c e n s e as a p l e a s i n g f r a g r a n c e — f r a n k i n c e n s e , g a l b a n u m ,
stacte, a n d a r o m a t i c spices — in the early m o r n i n g w h e n the sun r o s e at the
2
t i m e w h e n he c o v e r e d his s h a m e . " O n e c o u l d h a v e h o p e d for m o r e . A s
A d a m w a s the first to b e a r the d i v i n e i m a g e a n d likeness, to see the p r i s t i n e
s p l e n d o r of G o d ' s c r e a t i o n , a n d to c o m m u n i c a t e directly w i t h the C r e a t o r
w i t h n o sense of guilt or s h a m e , his w o r s h i p before the fall c o u l d h a v e b e e n
v e r y useful to the a u t h o r o f Jubilees as a p a t t e r n for all his posterity. B u t in­
stead w e catch o n l y a g l i m p s e o f the w o r s h i p of P a r a d i s e as A d a m is o n his
w a y out. It is m o r e t h a n w e l e a r n f r o m G e n e s i s . A c u r i o u s b e g i n n i n g , b u t a
3
b e g i n n i n g n o n e t h e l e s s . A d a m is a p r i e s t .
T h e earliest rite of w o r s h i p , for the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s , is the b u r n i n g of
i n c e n s e . W h a t is the r e a s o n for this? O n e p o s s i b l e a n s w e r is that at the t i m e
of A d a m h u m a n s w e r e n o t a l l o w e d to eat a n i m a l s a n d so it w a s n o t fitting
for A d a m to offer u p a n i m a l sacrifice. F u l l use of a n i m a l s w o u l d c o m e i n the
days of N o a h , a n d for the a u t h o r of Jubilees he w o u l d b e the first to offer
t h e m . T h e p r o b l e m w i t h this s o l u t i o n is the sacrifice of C a i n a n d A b e l , w h i c h
is p r e - N o a c h i c . O n e c o u l d persist b y n o t i n g that w h i l e the w o r d " s a c r i f i c e " is
u s e d in the Jubilees a c c o u n t o f C a i n a n d A b e l , it is n o w h e r e explicitly stated
w h a t those sacrifices w e r e . B u t s e v e r a l p a s s a g e s in Jubilees s e e m to p r e s u p ­
p o s e that the reader has k n o w l e d g e of G e n e s i s , a n d the C a i n a n d A b e l s t o r y
is likely o n e o f t h e m . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , a n o t h e r r e a s o n for i n c e n s e m i g h t b e that
the w o r s h i p of the first h u m a n s h o u l d c o m e closest to that o f h e a v e n , a n d in
h e a v e n n o a n i m a l sacrifices are m a d e . P e r h a p s .

T h a t A d a m b u r n s the i n c e n s e o n his w a y o u t of E d e n is significant

since a c c o r d i n g to J u b 4:26, this is o n e o f the four places o n earth that b e ­
l o n g s to the L o r d . It is w h e r e E n o c h offers his sacrifice as w e l l . A d a m p e r ­
f o r m s his act of w o r s h i p at the rising of the s u n , as w o u l d later be c o m ­
m a n d e d in E x o d 3 0 : 7 .
A s n o t e d , the first sacrifice a c c o r d i n g to G e n e s i s is offered b y C a i n a n d
A b e l . In G e n 4:3-5 the H e b r e w minchah is u s e d to d e s c r i b e the offerings o f
b o t h b r o t h e r s . T h i s w o r d c a n m e a n either a sacrifice or a n o n s a c r a l gift. In
the L X X this d i s t i n c t i o n is r e c o g n i z e d so that minchah is translated either b y
thusia ( 1 4 0 t i m e s ) or doron (30 t i m e s ) . Interestingly, the L X X refers to C a i n ' s
offering as thusia a n d A b e l ' s as down, likely to e m p h a s i z e that there w a s a

2. All quotations of Jubilees are from J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, C S C O 511
(Louvain: Peeters, 1989).
3. This becomes clear by comparison with the author's description in Jub 4:25 o f
E n o c h as a priest who offered incense, on which see the discussion below.

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 Worship in Jubilees and Enoch

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t the t w o b r o t h e r s p r e s e n t e d to G o d . B u t n o a t t e m p t
at differentiation is f o u n d i n J u b 4:2 w h e r e A b e l ' s offering is referred to as a
sacrifice. T h i s agrees w i t h J o s e p h u s , w h o l i k e w i s e refers to the a c t i o n s o f
b o t h b r o t h e r s u s i n g the w o r d s thuein a n d thusia {Ant 1.54). M o r e i m p o r ­
tantly, h o w e v e r , the a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s has p a s s e d o v e r a n o p p o r t u n i t y to e x ­
plain h o w the p r a c t i c e o f sacrifice c a m e into b e i n g a n d w h a t it is that m a k e s
4
a sacrifice a c c e p t a b l e o r u n a c c e p t a b l e .
In the g e n e r a t i o n after C a i n a n d A b e l , i n the days o f E n o s h , a p r a c t i c e
5
to call u p o n the n a m e o f the L o r d w a s b e g u n ( G e n 4 : 2 6 ) . S o b e g i n s c o m m u ­
n i c a t i o n w i t h G o d b y m e a n s o f s p e e c h , o r w o r s h i p o f the w o r d . J u b i l e e s
notes the fact w i t h o u t further c o m m e n t , m e r e l y c h a n g i n g the indefinite
" w a s b e g u n " to specify E n o s h himself: " H e w a s the first o n e to call o n the
L o r d ' s n a m e o n the earth" ( J u b 4 : 1 2 ) . Interestingly, i n all the o t h e r p a s s a g e s
in G e n e s i s w h e r e " c a l l i n g o n the n a m e o f the L o r d " is m e n t i o n e d , it is i n
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the b u i l d i n g o f a n altar ( G e n 12:8; 1 3 : 4 ; 2 6 : 2 5 ) . T h e a u t h o r of
J u b i l e e s i n c l u d e s all three o f these p a s s a g e s i n h i s retelling a n d a d d s i n
c h a n g e s o f his o w n . I n the first t w o , w h i c h m e n t i o n A b r a h a m ' s w o r s h i p , the
w r i t e r gives the a c t u a l w o r d s o f A b r a h a m ' s a d d r e s s to G o d a n d e x p l i c i t l y
states that sacrifice w a s offered. T h e t h i r d r e g a r d s I s a a c , a n d o n e c a n see the
changes below:

Gen 26:25 J u b 24:23

" S o h e built a n altar there, called o n
the n a m e of the L O R D , a n d p i t c h e d
his tent there."
" T h e r e h e built the altar w h i c h his
father A b r a h a m h a d first built. H e
called o n the L o r d ' s n a m e a n d
offered a sacrifice to the G o d o f his
father A b r a h a m . "

4. Gary Herion, in considering Genesis, has suggested the very simple and appealing
answer that Cain's sacrifice was unacceptable because it was an offering from the ground
that until the time o f Noah lay under a curse. T h e curse lasted from the time o f Gen 3:17 un­
til Noah's sacrifice, which elicited God's promise never again to curse the ground. If this so­
lution works for Genesis, it works even better for Jubilees where the atoning significance o f
Noah's sacrificing is stressed. Cf. G. Herion, "Why God Rejected Cain's Offering: T h e Obvi­
ous Answer," in Fortunate the Eyes That See: Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman in Cele­
bration of His Seventieth Birthday, ed. Astrid B. Beck, Andrew H. Bartelt, Paul R. Raabe, and
Chris A. Franke (Grand Rapids: E e r d m a n s , 1995), 52-65.
5. So MT, though the text is somewhat ambiguous. Cf. the discussion in S. Fraade,
"Enosh and His Generation Revisited," in Biblical Figures outside the Bible, ed. M. E. Stone
and T. Bergren (Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity, 1 9 9 8 ) , 6 0 - 6 1 .

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Erik Larson

In this i n s t a n c e , the w o r d s o f the p r a y e r are not g i v e n , b u t sacrifice is s p e c i ­

fied o n c e a g a i n . M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , the a u t h o r t w i c e m e n t i o n s A b r a h a m to
e m p h a s i z e the c o n t i n u a t i o n b e t w e e n the practices o f Isaac a n d his father.
T h e fact that n o such c o n n e c t i o n s are m a d e b e t w e e n the calling of E n o s h
a n d that of A b r a h a m / I s a a c invites s p e c u l a t i o n . It c o u l d be that he w a s a w a r e
of the t r a d i t i o n f o u n d in the later r a b b i n i c w r i t i n g s that G e n 4:26 a c t u a l l y
6
d e s c r i b e s the b e g i n n i n g of i d o l a t r y . B u t the fact that he a c k n o w l e d g e s that
E n o s h called o n the L o r d w o u l d m e a n that he d i d n o t agree w i t h that inter­
p r e t a t i o n . T h i s is further s u p p o r t e d b y the fact that in J u b 1 9 : 2 4 - 2 5 , a p a s s a g e
not paraphrasing Genesis, Abraham d e s c r i b e s his l i n e a g e as running
through Shem, N o a h , E n o c h , Malaleel, E n o s , Seth, and A d a m .
E n o c h plays a significant role in J u b i l e e s , as is w e l l k n o w n . A b o u t his
w o r s h i p J u b 4:25 states, " H e [ E n o c h ] b u r n e d the e v e n i n g i n c e n s e of the
7
s a n c t u a r y w h i c h is acceptable before the L o r d o n the m o u n t a i n of incense!'
T h e c o n t e x t indicates that this m o u n t a i n is in or n e a r E d e n . J u b 4:26 g o e s o n
to s a y that there are f o u r places o n earth w h e r e the L o r d w i l l accept sacrifice:
the G a r d e n of E d e n , the m o u n t a i n o f the east ( p r o b a b l y M o u n t L u b a r , w h e r e
8
the ark c o m e s to rest in J u b 5:28 a n d w h e r e N o a h w i l l s a c r i f i c e ) , M o u n t S i ­
n a i , a n d M o u n t Z i o n . C l e a r l y E n o c h is a p r i e s t . T h e offering u p o f i n c e n s e
c o n n e c t s his a c t i v i t y w i t h that o f A d a m . T h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y n a t u r e o f their
w o r s h i p is s h o w n b y the fact that A d a m b u r n e d his i n c e n s e in the m o r n i n g
9
( E x o d 30:7) w h i l e E n o c h offers incense in the e v e n i n g ( E x o d 3 o : 8 ) .
T h e a u t h o r o f Jubilees c e r t a i n l y k n e w a b o u t s e v e r a l of the texts that

6. Cf. Fraade, "Enosh," 74-80 and 81 n. 7 1 .

7. R. H. Charles (The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis [London: A d a m 8c Charles
Black, 1 9 0 2 ] , 39) suggested, and O. W i n t e r m u t e ("Jubilees," in OTP 2:63 n. n ) attempted to
demonstrate, that E n o c h offered incense o n the m o u n t o f the east. Charles further proposed
as one possibility that this m o u n t was close to Eden. W i n t e r m u t e on the other hand leaned
toward Taima/Teiman in Arabia due to its connections with the spice trade. But since Jub
3:27 already has Adam burning precisely incense in Eden, we should not rule out Eden since
4:23-24 clearly locates him there. If E n o c h is in Eden, then we can see the m o u n t o f the east
as another place, and I prefer Ararat since it is where Jubilees has N o a h offer his sacrifice.
This is another o f Charles's alternatives. F o r a full discussion o f the view that E n o c h is in
Eden, cf. J. C. VanderKam, Enoch and the Growth of an Apocalyptic Tradition, C B Q M S 16
(Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association, 1984), 184-88.
8. That the mountain of the east is not near the other three places mentioned here is
also indicated from Jub 8:19, which says that Eden, Mount Sinai, and M o u n t Zion all face
each other. The only one not mentioned is the m o u n t a i n of the east, which is most likely
M o u n t Ararat referred to in 8:21.
9. For the textual problem regarding the phrase "evening incense of the sanctuary," cf.
the discussion in VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, 28.

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1 0
presently m a k e u p the w o r k w e refer to as 1 E n o c h . B u t the idea of E n o c h as
priest d i d n o t c o m e f r o m l E n o c h . A n d there is n o m e n t i o n i n a n y o f the i n ­
d i v i d u a l E n o c h i c d o c u m e n t s that he offered incense o r sacrifice o f any k i n d .
H o w e v e r , they d o state m a n y times that E n o c h b l e s s e d a n d p r a i s e d G o d , ei­
ther as a result o f his b e h o l d i n g the o r d e r a n d g l o r y o f creation ( l E n 36:4;
81:3; 8 3 : 1 1 - 8 4 : 3 ) o r b e c a u s e o f the r e v e l a t i o n o f G o d ' s justice in j u d g i n g the
2 : 2 :
w i c k e d a n d r e w a r d i n g the r i g h t e o u s (22:14; 5 7 J 7 5 ! 81:3; 9 0 : 4 0 ) . T h e a u t h o r
of Jubilees passes over in silence this aspect o f E n o c h ' s w o r s h i p .
G e n e s i s gives m o r e attention to N o a h t h a n to a n y o n e p r e v i o u s . J u b i ­
lees f o l l o w s suit. T h e first a n d o n l y act o f w o r s h i p p e r f o r m e d b y N o a h i n
G e n e s i s is sacrifice. H e r e is a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n w h a t w e find i n G e n e s i s
a n d w h a t is in J u b i l e e s :

Gen 8:20-21 Jub 6:1-4

" T h e n N o a h built a n altar to the
L O R D , a n d t o o k of every clean
a n i m a l a n d o f every clean bird, a n d
offered b u r n t offerings o n the altar.
And w h e n the L O R D s m e l l e d the
pleasing odor, the L O R D said in his
heart, T w i l l never again curse the
g r o u n d b e c a u s e o f h u m a n k i n d , for
the inclination o f the h u m a n heart
is evil from y o u t h .
" O n the first o f the third m o n t h he
left the a r k a n d built a n altar o n this
m o u n t a i n . H e appeared o n the
earth, t o o k a k i d , a n d a t o n e d w i t h
its b l o o d for all the sins o f the earth
b e c a u s e everything that w a s o n it
h a d b e e n obliterated except for
those w h o w e r e in the a r k w i t h
N o a h . H e placed the fat o n the altar.
T h e n he t o o k a bull, a r a m , a sheep,
goats, salt, a turtledove, a n d a dove
and offered (them as) a b u r n t
offering o n the altar. H e p o u r e d o n
them an offering m i x e d with oil,
sprinkled with wine, and put
frankincense o n e v e r y t h i n g . H e sent
u p a pleasant fragrance that was
pleasing before the L o r d . T h e L o r d
smelled the pleasant fragrance a n d
m a d e a covenant w i t h h i m that
there w o u l d b e n o flood waters
w h i c h w o u l d destroy the earth. . . ."

1 0 . Cf. J. C. VanderKam, Enoch: A Man Jor All Generations (Columbia: University o f

South Carolina Press, 1995), 1 1 0 - 2 1 .

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N o a h ' s a c t i o n s in Jubilees are m u c h m o r e explicit t h a n w h a t w e find in G e n ­

11
esis. H e m a k e s a t o n e m e n t for the sins of the e a r t h . H e offers sacrifices o f
o n l y the a n i m a l s that are later p r e s c r i b e d b y the T o r a h . A n d the details a b o u t
the w i n e , oil, a n d f r a n k i n c e n s e are l i k e w i s e in a c c o r d w i t h w h a t is f o u n d in
the T o r a h (cf. E x o d 2 9 : 4 0 ) . C l e a r l y N o a h j o i n s the r a n k s of the p r e - M o s a i c
1 2
priests a l o n g w i t h A d a m a n d E n o c h .
T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n N o a h a n d E n o c h is p a r t i c u l a r l y stressed b y
the a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s . In J u b 7:38-39 N o a h says the a g r i c u l t u r a l laws he gave
to his s o n s in the p r e c e d i n g verses c a m e o r i g i n a l l y from E n o c h . A n d in J u b
2 1 : 1 0 , w h e r e A b r a h a m i n s t r u c t s I s a a c a b o u t the p r o p e r w a y to sacrifice, he
says, "All w h o eat it [a p e a c e offering left until the third d a y ] w i l l b r i n g guilt
on t h e m s e l v e s b e c a u s e this is the w a y I f o u n d (it) w r i t t e n in the b o o k of m y
a n c e s t o r s , in the w o r d s of E n o c h a n d the w o r d s o f N o a h . " Priestly k n o w l e d g e
c o m e s to the c h o s e n p e o p l e v i a E n o c h a n d N o a h .
T h e sacrifice of N o a h is f o l l o w e d b y the w e l l - k n o w n p r o h i b i t i o n of eat­
ing m e a t w i t h b l o o d in it. In Jubilees, n o t o n l y is N o a h g i v e n this c o m m a n d ,
b u t he a n d his s o n s s w e a r that they will k e e p it as a c o v e n a n t forever ( J u b
6 : 1 0 ) , a detail n o t f o u n d in G e n e s i s . T h i s c o v e n a n t w i t h N o a h , as those w i t h
A b r a h a m ( 1 4 : 2 0 ) a n d M o s e s ( 1 : 1 ) , is p l a c e d in the third m o n t h . A s a y e a r l y re­
n e w a l o f it, N o a h a n d his s o n s kept the Feast of W e e k s ( 6 : 1 7 - 1 8 ) . B u t w h e n
N o a h d i e d , his s o n s b o t h left off o b s e r v i n g the feast a n d v i o l a t e d the p r o h i b i ­
tion of eating m e a t w i t h b l o o d . T h e Feast o f W e e k s w o u l d b e o b s e r v e d again
o n l y w h e n A b r a h a m , I s a a c , a n d J a c o b r e v i v e d it ( 6 : 1 9 ) . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s e e m s
to be that n o w o n l y the Israelites h a v e the right to celebrate this festival (as al­
r e a d y indicated in 6 : 1 4 ) . T h i s is s i m i l a r to the s e n t i m e n t expressed earlier in
Jubilees a b o u t the S a b b a t h . J u b 2:30-33 b e g i n s b y s a y i n g that the S a b b a t h has
been g i v e n to all h u m a n i t y , but q u i c k l y c h a n g e s to say that G o d "did n o t s a n c ­
tify any p e o p l e ( s ) a n d n a t i o n s to keep S a b b a t h o n it except Israel alone."

So does this m e a n that the a u t h o r of Jubilees s a w n o w o r s h i p o f G o d

fitting for G e n t i l e s ? W e r e they c o m p l e t e l y shut out? A p p a r e n t l y n o t . Jub 7:20
states: " D u r i n g the t w e n t y - e i g h t h j u b i l e e N o a h b e g a n to p r e s c r i b e for his
g r a n d s o n s the o r d i n a n c e s a n d the c o m m a n d m e n t s — e v e r y statute w h i c h he
k n e w . H e testified to his s o n s that t h e y s h o u l d do w h a t is right, cover the
s h a m e of their b o d i e s , bless the o n e w h o h a d created t h e m , h o n o r father a n d

a
11. lQapGen 10:13 l s ° refers to Noah atoning for the earth.
12. D. Dimant, "Noah in Early Jewish Literature," in Biblical Figures outside the Bible,
142, notes the association of Noah with proper calendar and calendrical calculation in Jubi­
lees and concludes, "Noah was, then, the one best qualified for celebrating festivals, namely,
for functioning as a priest."

374
 Worship in Jubilees and Enoch

m o t h e r , love o n e another, a n d k e e p t h e m s e l v e s f r o m f o r n i c a t i o n , u n c l e a n -
ness, a n d f r o m all injustice." T h i s p a s s a g e i n d i c a t e s that b l e s s i n g G o d w a s as
i n c u m b e n t on h u m a n i t y after the f l o o d as c o v e r i n g one's b o d y a n d h o n o r i n g
father a n d m o t h e r . A u n i v e r s a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
G e n e s i s reveals m o r e o f A b r a h a m ' s w o r s h i p t h a n of a n y other c h a r a c ­
ter. T h e a c t i v i t y m o s t c o m m o n l y a t t r i b u t e d to h i m is sacrifice. T h e r e are six
i n s t a n c e s w h e r e A b r a h a m offers sacrifice in G e n e s i s a n d s e v e n in J u b i l e e s :

Genesis Jubilees Location

12:7 13H Shechem
12:8 137-9 Bethel
13:3-4 13:15-16 Bethel
13:18 Hebron
15:7-21 14:7-20 Hebron
1 5 : 1 - 2 Weeks Hebron
1 6 : 2 0 - 3 1 Tabernacles Beersheba
22:13 18:12 Passover M o u n t a i n in M o r i a h

Just as w a s the case w i t h N o a h , A b r a h a m t o o keeps the F e a s t o f W e e k s . B u t

w i t h N o a h the text o f G e n e s i s p r o v i d e d a nice l e a d - i n r e g a r d i n g the date
w i t h its s t a t e m e n t that the f l o o d h a d s u b s i d e d a n d the earth w a s d r y at the
e n d of the s e c o n d m o n t h . T h e c o v e n a n t of G e n 8:20 c o u l d therefore be
p l a c e d at the b e g i n n i n g of the third m o n t h a n d u n d e r s t o o d as the Feast o f
Weeks. For A b r a h a m , Jubilees manufactures an entirely n e w occasion,
t h o u g h c o m i n g close o n the heels o f the c o v e n a n t c e r e m o n y d e s c r i b e d in
Gen 15:7-21 ( = Jub 14:7-20).
A n e w feast instituted b y A b r a h a m is the Feast o f T a b e r n a c l e s . T h e
event is g i v e n o n l y the slightest c o n n e c t i o n to the text of G e n e s i s in that it
takes p l a c e w h e n A b r a h a m a n d S a r a h are r e j o i c i n g at the i m m i n e n t b i r t h of
I s a a c . T h e feast is celebrated in B e e r s h e b a , a n d Jubilees tells us that A b r a h a m
built an altar there, t h o u g h n o m e n t i o n of this is f o u n d in G e n e s i s . B u t for
the feast to b e o b s e r v e d p r o p e r l y the a u t h o r n e e d s an altar, a n d since I s a a c
was k n o w n to h a v e built o n e there later ( G e n 2 6 : 2 5 ) , it w a s easy e n o u g h to
1 3
a s s u m e that A b r a h a m b u i l t o n e too (cf. J u b 2 4 : 2 3 ) . B e e r s h e b a w a s also the

a
13. A l s o G e n 21:33, verse not used in Jubilees, does associate A b r a h a m w i t h w o r s h i p
in B e e r s h e b a in that he planted a t a m a r i s k tree a n d called u p o n the n a m e o f the L o r d there.
Since the latter activity is often c o n n e c t e d w i t h b u i l d i n g an altar, it w o u l d b e easy e n o u g h to
i m a g i n e that an altar w a s built in this instance as well.

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p l a c e w h e r e A b r a h a m w a s the first to celebrate the Feast of U n l e a v e n e d

B r e a d ( J u b 1 8 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) j u s t after the sacrifice of I s a a c o n M o u n t Z i o n , w h i c h
1 4
the a u t h o r of Jubilees c o n n e c t s w i t h P a s s o v e r ( J u b 1 8 : 1 - 1 3 ) .
In c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t w o of the sacrificial o c c a s i o n s in the table a b o v e ,
A b r a h a m is also said to call u p o n the n a m e o f the L o r d ( G e n 1 2 : 8 ; 1 3 : 4 ) . B u t
in neither of these d o e s G e n e s i s tell w h a t A b r a h a m s a i d . Jubilees fills in the
l a c u n a e . In the first he says, " Y o u , m y G o d , are the eternal G o d , " a n d in the
s e c o n d , " Y o u , L o r d , m o s t h i g h G o d , are m y G o d forever a n d e v e r " ( J u b 13:8,
1 6 ) . In fact, in Jubilees A b r a h a m ' s v e r y first r e a c h i n g o u t to G o d is t h r o u g h
prayer. A s he realized the errors of p a g a n i s m , "he b e g a n to p r a y to the cre­
ator of all that he w o u l d save h i m f r o m the errors of m a n k i n d " ( J u b 1 1 : 1 7 ) .
S o m e y e a r s later, as he l o o k e d u p a n d o b s e r v e d the stars: " T h a t n i g h t he
p r a y e d a n d s a i d : M y G o d , m y G o d , G o d m o s t H i g h , Y o u a l o n e are m y G o d .
Y o u h a v e created e v e r y t h i n g ; e v e r y t h i n g that w a s a n d has b e e n is the p r o d u c t
of y o u r h a n d s . Y o u a n d y o u r l o r d s h i p I h a v e c h o s e n . Save m e f r o m the p o w e r
of the evil spirits w h o rule the t h o u g h t s o f p e o p l e ' s m i n d s . M a y t h e y n o t
m i s l e a d m e f r o m f o l l o w i n g y o u , m y G o d . D o establish m e a n d m y p o s t e r i t y
forever. M a y w e n o t go astray f r o m n o w u n t i l eternity" ( J u b 1 2 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) . In re­
s p o n s e to this prayer, G o d calls A b r a h a m to leave U r a n d p r o m i s e s to m a k e
of h i m a g r e a t p e o p l e .

N o t o n l y is A b r a h a m a m a n o f prayer, b u t he is a m a n of b l e s s i n g as
w e l l . S i x t i m e s Jubilees says that A b r a h a m " b l e s s e d the L o r d " (13:7; 1 3 : 1 5 ;
1 :2
1 6 : 2 6 - 2 7 ; 7 ~3i 2 2 : 4 - 6 ; 2 3 : 1 ) , w h e r e a s the v e r b is n e v e r u s e d w i t h A b r a h a m as
s u b j e c t in G e n e s i s . M o r e o v e r , as is fitting i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the j o y o u s Feast
of T a b e r n a c l e s , each m o r n i n g d u r i n g the festival " h e w o u l d give p r a i s e a n d
j o y f u l l y offer h u m b l e t h a n k s to his G o d for e v e r y t h i n g " ( J u b 1 6 : 3 1 ) . If, there­
fore, Jubilees e n h a n c e s the p o r t r a y a l o f A b r a h a m ' s w o r s h i p t h r o u g h s a c r i ­
fice, it d o e s so even m o r e w i t h r e g a r d to A b r a h a m ' s s p o k e n acts o f w o r s h i p .
In contrast, h o w e v e r , the r e m a r k a b l e p r a y e r s of the u n n a m e d s e r v a n t
w h o goes to H a r a n to get a wife for I s a a c in G e n 24 are totally o m i t t e d f r o m
the a c c o u n t in J u b i l e e s . A n d w h i l e o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n s are p o s s i b l e , o n e w o n ­
ders if s o m e of the l a c k of interest is d u e to the fact that the s e r v a n t w a s n o t
1 5
f r o m the c h o s e n l i n e .

14. Cf. B. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , "The Festivals o f Pesah and Massot in the Book o f Jubi­
lees," in this volume.
15. Betsy H a l p e r n - A m a r u suggests that the main cause o f the author's disapproval
was the irregularity o f the way the marriage arrangements were m a d e , though apparently
Josephus did n o t share this feeling since he includes the servant's prayers in his account in
Ant 1.242-255.

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Of all the Gentiles mentioned in connection with Abraham, the most

interesting and important is Melchizedek. Genesis clearly acknowledges him
as a true priest of God and records that he blessed God (Gen 14:20). If
Melchizedek's role is lessened and his blessing of God passed over in silence,
one could argue that there was an intentional effort to minimize mention of
Gentiles offering acceptable worship to God. Unfortunately, there is a lacuna
in all known manuscripts of Jubilees here that keeps us from knowing
whether Melchizedek was described as a true priest of God and whether the
words of his blessing were recounted. The only thing we know for sure is that
Abraham gave Melchizedek the tithe from his spoils. Still, there is no men­
16
tion of Melchizedek elsewhere in Jubilees, as there is of Enoch and Noah.
And unlike Enoch and Noah, Melchizedek is not said to have passed down
writings, or regulations about sacrificial procedure and worship, or predic­
tions about future events. These facts justify the conclusion that the figure of
Melchizedek was not of special significance for the author of Jubilees in es­
tablishing true religion, either among the Gentiles or among the children of
Abraham.
So the question remains whether with the advent of Abraham and the
concept of the chosen people, there is any role left for the Gentiles in the
worship of the true and living God. The answer is difficult to discern. At the
end of his life, Abraham keeps the Feast of Weeks one last time with his sons
Isaac and Ishmael. After he ate of the feast prepared by Isaac, "he blessed the
most high God who created the heavens and the earth, who made all the fat
things of the earth, and gave them to mankind to eat, drink, and bless their
Creator" (Jub 2 2 : 6 ) . We might think from this that the principle of blessing
God holds for all mankind, but this is countered by the fact that Abraham's
blessing is connected to a feast that would later serve to mark Israel as God's
covenant people. This point is strengthened when we note that eating,
drinking, and blessing the Creator are activities connected with the Sabbath
in Jub 2:21, which is given only to Israel. Moreover, just a little later Abraham
on his deathbed addresses Jacob and warns him to separate from the na­
tions, "for all their actions are something that is impure, and all their ways
are defiled and something abominable and detestable" (22:16). Then follows
a denunciation of their sacrifices made to the dead and their worship offered

16. There is no indication that the author of Jubilees equated Melchizedek with Shem,
as later the rabbis would do, in order to explain that his priesthood passed to Levi. Cf. F. L.
Horton, The Melchizedek Tradition, SNTSMS 3 0 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1976), 114-24.

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Erik Larson

to d e m o n s ( 2 2 : 1 7 - 2 2 ) . It is difficult to see h o w the w o r s h i p o f p e o p l e w h o are

1 7
d e s c r i b e d in these t e r m s c o u l d ever b e a c c e p t a b l e to G o d .
F a r less space is d e v o t e d to Isaac t h a n to either A b r a h a m or J a c o b in
G e n e s i s . T h e s a m e is true in J u b i l e e s . O n e a d d i t i o n Jubilees d o e s m a k e in its
a c c o u n t of I s a a c is his c e l e b r a t i o n of the Feast of W e e k s w i t h A b r a h a m j u s t
b e f o r e his death, as m e n t i o n e d in the p r e v i o u s p a r a g r a p h . A l t h o u g h b o t h
I s h m a e l a n d I s a a c c o m e to H e b r o n , it is I s a a c w h o s l a u g h t e r s the sacrifice o n
his father's altar there. A n d it is I s a a c w h o p r e p a r e s "a j o y f u l feast in front o f
his b r o t h e r I s h m a e l " ( J u b 2 2 : 3 - 4 ) . T h e p a s s i v e i n v o l v e m e n t of I s h m a e l s h o w s
the future c o u r s e of his d e s c e n d a n t s a w a y f r o m the s e r v i c e of G o d . T h i s m a y
also e x p l a i n w h y in J u b 2 0 : 1 - 9 A b r a h a m c o m m a n d s b o t h I s h m a e l a n d I s a a c
to c i r c u m c i s e their c h i l d r e n a n d w o r s h i p the M o s t H i g h G o d rather t h a n
i d o l s , a l t h o u g h in J u b 15:30, in the m i d s t o f a n o t h e r p a s s a g e d e a l i n g w i t h cir­
c u m c i s i o n , the r e v e a l i n g a n g e l says G o d d i d n o t c h o o s e to give the c o v e n a n t
to I s h m a e l or E s a u , b u t c h o s e Israel instead.

T h i s w r i t i n g o u t o f the G e n t i l e s b y the a u t h o r o f Jubilees c o n t i n u e s in

the n a r r a t i v e a b o u t J a c o b . T h i s m a y b e seen w h e n J a c o b leaves H a r a n a n d is
p u r s u e d b y his f a t h e r - i n - l a w L a b a n . In G e n 31:53 L a b a n a n d J a c o b s w e a r an
oath b y "the G o d o f A b r a h a m a n d the G o d o f N a h o r . " B u t Jubilees s i m p l y
says, " J a c o b s w o r e to L a b a n a n d L a b a n to J a c o b " ( J u b 2 9 : 7 ) . A l s o , in Jubilees
J a c o b does n o t ask his k i n s f o l k to h e l p b u i l d the h e a p of s t o n e s that is to
s t a n d as a w i t n e s s b e t w e e n h i m s e l f a n d L a b a n ( J u b 29:8). J a c o b is thus
cleared of i n v o l v e m e n t in any act that m i g h t c o n n e c t h i m w i t h the r e l i g i o n
1 8
of his father-in-law, w h o after all w a s a p a g a n .
M o s t significant is the retelling of the story of D i n a h ' s r a p e b y S h e c h e m
a n d the r e v e n g e taken b y L e v i a n d S i m e o n . T w o p o i n t s stand out. First, in J u ­
bilees, i m m e d i a t e l y after the basic s t o r y has been told, the a n g e l of the p r e s ­
ence, w h o is relating it to M o s e s , b r e a k s in to give a d i s c o u r s e a b o u t the evil o f
i n t e r m a r r i a g e . H e w a r n s : " I f o n e does this or shuts his eyes to those w h o d o
i m p u r e things a n d w h o defile the L o r d ' s s a n c t u a r y a n d to those w h o p r o f a n e
his h o l y n a m e , then the entire n a t i o n will be c o n d e m n e d together b e c a u s e o f
all this i m p u r i t y a n d this c o n t a m i n a t i o n . T h e r e w i l l b e n o f a v o r i t i s m n o r p a r -

17. Cf. also Jub 15:26-34 where, although it is stated that all nations belong to God
(v. 3 1 ) , circumcision is given to Israel in order to make them like the angels who were created
circumcised (v. 2 7 ) . All those not part of this human-angelic assembly, i.e., the Gentiles, are
destined for destruction. If true worship is to imitate or join with the angels, then it would
seem the Gentiles are excluded from it.
18. Cf. also Jub 3 1 : 2 , which explicitly says the idols Rachel stole from her father were
destroyed later on.

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 Worship in Jubilees and Enoch

tiality; there will b e n o r e c e i v i n g from h i m o f fruit, sacrifices, offerings, fat, o r

the a r o m a of pleasing fragrance so that he s h o u l d accept it. ( S o ) is any m a n or
w o m a n in Israel to b e w h o defiles his s a n c t u a r y " ( J u b 3 0 : 1 5 - 1 6 ) . Clearly, for
the a u t h o r o f Jubilees the entire sacrificial system is threatened b y i n t e r m a r ­
r i a g e . S e c o n d , the a n g e l a n n o u n c e s that L e v i a n d his d e s c e n d a n t s are d e s t i n e d
for the p r i e s t h o o d b e c a u s e of his desire to see j u s t i c e d o n e ( J u b 3 0 : 1 8 ) .
T h e p r e d i c t i o n m a d e is fulfilled in J u b 3 2 , t h o u g h for a different r e a s o n .
R a c h e l is p r e g n a n t w i t h B e n j a m i n a n d J a c o b is g i v i n g his tithe of all he h a d to
the L o r d , i n c l u d i n g p e o p l e . C o u n t i n g his s o n s in o r d e r from B e n j a m i n u p , the
tenth w a s L e v i a n d so L e v i b e c o m e s priest (32:3). J a c o b gives the tithe to h i m ,
a n d he acts as priest in the p r e s e n c e of his father ( 3 2 : 8 - 9 ) . A l l this h a p p e n s
d u r i n g the seventh m o n t h , the t i m e of the Feast of T a b e r n a c l e s , at B e t h e l . J a ­
cob has it in m i n d to b u i l d a p e r m a n e n t s a n c t u a r y in B e t h e l , b u t is told b y
G o d in a d r e a m n o t to do it. A s readers, w e k n o w w h y : it is not o n e o f the four
places o n earth that b e l o n g to the L o r d , a c c o r d i n g to J u b 4:26.
W h i l e J a c o b k e e p s the Feast of T a b e r n a c l e s j u s t as A b r a h a m d i d , there
is a n e w o b s e r v a n c e a t t r i b u t e d to h i m as well. A n d it t o o o c c u r s in the sev­
e n t h m o n t h . O n the tenth o f this m o n t h , J a c o b ' s s o n s falsely tell h i m o f the
death o f J o s e p h , w h e n t h e y h a d really s o l d h i m into slavery. T h e guilt t h e y
i n c u r r e d b y c a u s i n g their father s u c h g r i e f w o u l d b e r e m o v e d b y an act o f
sacrificial a t o n e m e n t , b e i n g r e m e m b e r e d b y their d e s c e n d a n t s in a n a n n u a l
D a y of A t o n e m e n t . In the w o r d s of the a n g e l : " T h i s d a y h a s b e e n o r d a i n e d so
that they m a y b e s a d d e n e d o n it for their sins, all their t r a n s g r e s s i o n s , a n d all
their e r r o r s ; so that they m a y p u r i f y t h e m s e l v e s o n this d a y o n c e a y e a r " ( J u b
3 4 : 1 9 ; cf. also 5 : 1 7 - 1 8 ) .
Still, J o s e p h w a s not dead, a n d a j o y f u l r e u n i o n w i t h his father eventually
results. G e n 46:30 reports the w o r d s of J a c o b u p o n their m e e t i n g as follows,
" N o w I can die, h a v i n g seen for m y s e l f that y o u are still alive." B u t Jubilees e x ­
p a n d s this greatly: "Israel said to J o s e p h , ' N o w let m e die after I h a v e seen y o u .
N o w m a y the L o r d , the G o d o f Israel, the G o d of A b r a h a m , a n d the G o d of
Isaac — w h o has not w i t h h e l d his k i n d n e s s a n d his m e r c y from his s e r v a n t J a ­
cob — be blessed. . . . M a y the L o r d m y G o d be blessed forever a n d ever a n d
m a y his n a m e be b l e s s e d . ' . . . H e blessed the creator of all w h o h a d p r e s e r v e d
h i m a n d p r e s e r v e d his twelve sons for h i m " ( J u b 45:3-5). A s w i t h A b r a h a m , the
p o r t r a i t of J a c o b in Jubilees is richer t h a n w h a t w e find in G e n e s i s w i t h r e g a r d
1 9
to his w o r s h i p of G o d t h r o u g h speech (cf. also 29:4; 3 1 : 3 1 ; 3 2 : 7 ) .

19. It is interesting in Jub 29:1-4 that while overall the text shortens the account found
in Genesis, the statement about Jacob's blessing God is added.

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Erik Larson

Summary of Conclusions

In G e n e s i s , sacrifice is m e n t i o n e d twelve t i m e s ( G e n 4:4-5; 8 : 2 0 - 2 1 ; 12:7, 8;

l : : 2
13:4, 18; 2 2 : 1 3 ; 26:25; 3 5 4 ; 3 3 ° ; 3 5 : 1 - 7 ; 4 6 : 1 ) . In Jubilees this is a l m o s t d o u ­
2 2 : :
b l e d to t w e n t y - t h r e e t i m e s ( J u b 4:2; 6 : 1 - 4 , H> > 7 3~5> 3°> 13 4> 9> 1 6 ; 1 4 : 9 - 1 9 ;
2
15:2; 1 6 : 2 0 - 2 3 ; 1 8 : 1 2 ; i : 7 - i 9 ; 2 2 : 3 - 5 ; 24:23; 3 0 : 1 6 ; 3 2 : 4 - 6 ; 32:27; 34:18; 44:1; 49:22;
5 0 : 1 0 ) . T h e references t e n d to e m p h a s i z e the place, p r o c e d u r e , a n d p e o p l e
that m a k e sacrificial w o r s h i p p r o p e r a n d a c c e p t a b l e .
T h e a u t h o r of Jubilees c o u l d not get a r o u n d the fact that in G e n e s i s
there is n o o n e p l a c e w h e r e sacrifice w a s offered. A s w e s a w a b o v e , therefore,
J u b i l e e s f o l l o w s the G e n e s i s a c c o u n t in h a v i n g A b r a h a m offering sacrifice in
S h e c h e m , B e t h e l , a n d H e b r o n . In fact, r a t h e r s u r p r i s i n g l y , Jubilees adds a
n e w site to the list b y r e f e r r i n g to an altar that A b r a h a m b u i l t in B e e r s h e b a
that is n o t m e n t i o n e d in G e n e s i s ( J u b 1 6 : 2 0 ) . In spite o f this, h o w e v e r , the
a u t h o r m a n a g e s to i n d i c a t e that the t r u e intent of G o d is to l i m i t the places
that are a c c e p t a b l e to G o d for ritual w o r s h i p . We see this early o n w i t h the
s t a t e m e n t in J u b 4:26 that there are f o u r places that b e l o n g to the L o r d : the
2 0
G a r d e n o f E d e n , the m o u n t a i n o f the east, M o u n t S i n a i , a n d M o u n t Z i o n .
A s p e c i a l p r o m i n e n c e is g i v e n to M o u n t Z i o n , as o n e m i g h t e x p e c t . A c ­
c o r d i n g to 4:26, it w a s to h a v e a s p e c i a l role in the r e n e w a l of the earth since
f r o m there "the e a r t h w i l l b e sanctified f r o m all its sins a n d f r o m its u n c l e a n -
ness into the h i s t o r y of eternity." J u b 8:19 refers to Z i o n as the " m i d d l e o f the
21
earth." A n d a c c o r d i n g to J u b 8:13, A b r a h a m offers u p I s a a c on M o u n t Z i o n .
T h e n , finally, in J u b 32 J a c o b desires to b u i l d a p e r m a n e n t s a n c t u a r y in
B e t h e l , b u t G o d f o r b i d s it. After a l l o w i n g J a c o b to read the h e a v e n l y tablets
in w h i c h future events are i n s c r i b e d , G o d tells h i m , " D o n o t b u i l d u p this
p l a c e , a n d do n o t m a k e it an eternal t e m p l e . D o n o t live here b e c a u s e this is
n o t the p l a c e " ( 3 2 : 2 2 ) . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n is clear: the future lies w i t h M o u n t
Zion.
A p p r o a c h i n g G o d in the p r o p e r w a y is also v e r y i m p o r t a n t to the a u ­
t h o r of J u b i l e e s . O f c o u r s e , this u s u a l l y m e a n s f o l l o w i n g the prescriptions
that w o u l d later be laid d o w n in the T o r a h . B o o k s w e r e w r i t t e n w i t h the p r e -
Mosaic Torah regulations. T h e y were authored by Enoch and Noah (Jub
2 1 : 1 0 ) . N o a h p a s s e d his b o o k s o n to his son S h e m , a n d f r o m h i m t h e y w e r e
p a s s e d to A b r a h a m ( 1 0 : 1 4 ; 1 2 : 2 7 ) . On o n e o c c a s i o n J a c o b w a s a l l o w e d to r e a d

20. Later o n in Jub 8:19 only three sites are identified as places holy to the Lord.
21. Cf. J. Scott, Geography in Early Judaism and Christianity: The Book of Jubilees,
SNTSMS 113 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2 0 0 2 ) , 34.

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in the h e a v e n l y tablets a b o u t c e l e b r a t i n g the Feast o f T a b e r n a c l e s an a d d i ­

t i o n a l d a y ( 3 2 : 2 8 ) . I n f o r m a t i o n w a s also p a s s e d o n b y w o r d of m o u t h . A b r a ­
h a m gives detailed i n s t r u c t i o n to I s a a c before he dies a b o u t h o w to w o r s h i p
God (21:5-20).
T h i s leads us to c o n s i d e r the p e o p l e w h o are fit to offer u p w o r s h i p . In
J u b i l e e s a shift takes place w i t h the g i v i n g of the c o v e n a n t to A b r a h a m . U p
u n t i l that t i m e , the sacrifice o f A b e l is a c c e p t a b l e a n d E n o s h can call u p o n
the n a m e of the L o r d . B u t the l a c k of e n t h u s i a s m that the a u t h o r has for
these figures is clear w h e n seen in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h his d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the
worship of A d a m , E n o c h , and especially N o a h .
W i t h the a p p e a r a n c e o f A b r a h a m , a s p e c i a l effort is m a d e to s e p a r a t e
a n d d i s t i n g u i s h the r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e of A b r a h a m , Isaac, a n d J a c o b f r o m
that of all others. A s m e n t i o n e d , w h e n A b r a h a m gives his farewell address to
Isaac, it is full o f i n s t r u c t i o n a b o u t sacrificial r i t u a l . B u t it is n o t e w o r t h y that
w h e n he s i m i l a r l y a d d r e s s e s for the last t i m e I s h m a e l a n d K e t u r a h ' s s o n s , he
gives t h e m c o m m a n d s a b o u t a v o i d i n g i m m o r a l i t y a n d i d o l a t r y , b u t n o t h i n g
a b o u t sacrifice ( 2 1 : 1 - 1 0 ) . T h e y d o n ' t n e e d to k n o w . W h e n I s h m a e l a n d I s a a c
celebrate the Feast of T a b e r n a c l e s w i t h their father, J u b i l e e s is v e r y careful to
say that I s a a c offered the sacrifice a n d p r e p a r e d the m e a l . T h e s t o r y of the
r a p e o f D i n a h is used as an o p p o r t u n i t y for the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e to
b r e a k i n a n d w a r n a g a i n s t i n t e r m a r r i a g e , w h i c h w i l l defile the s a n c t u a r y a n d
i n v a l i d a t e its sacrifices.
W i t h this d e t e r m i n e d w r i t i n g o u t o f the G e n t i l e s b e g i n n i n g in the t i m e
of A b r a h a m , it w o u l d b e o f greatest interest to k n o w w h a t the a u t h o r of J u b i ­
lees m a d e of the e n i g m a t i c M e l c h i z e d e k . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , textual c o r r u p t i o n
has r o b b e d us o f the ability to k n o w as m u c h as w e w o u l d like. I m m e d i a t e l y
after a l a c u n a of u n c e r t a i n length, A b r a h a m gives M e l c h i z e d e k the tithe. B u t
the t e r m s a n d c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h A b r a h a m d o e s this are u n k n o w n . T h e
fact that the p a t r i a r c h s n e v e r refer to M e l c h i z e d e k as o n e of their s o u r c e s of
priestly k n o w l e d g e is telling.
So far w e h a v e l i m i t e d o u r r e v i e w to sacrifice a n d related m a t t e r s . B u t
w h a t a b o u t the less f o r m a l a p p r o a c h to G o d t h r o u g h prayer, p r a i s e , a n d
blessing? H e r e t o o there is a significant difference b e t w e e n the stories told in
G e n e s i s a n d those told in J u b i l e e s . In G e n e s i s , the b l e s s i n g of G o d o c c u r s
o n l y t w o t i m e s , a n d b o t h are d o n e b y the s a m e p e r s o n — the u n n a m e d ser­
v a n t of A b r a h a m w h o finds I s a a c a b r i d e ( G e n 24:27, 4 8 ) . W h i l e all m e n t i o n
of this s e r v a n t is o m i t t e d f r o m J u b i l e e s , G o d is still b l e s s e d e i g h t e e n t i m e s .
: 2
O n l y n o w it is b y N o a h ( J u b 7 : 2 0 ) , A b r a h a m (13:7; 1 3 : 1 5 ; 1 6 : 2 6 - 2 7 ; ! 7 " 3 ; 2 2 : 4 -
6; 2 3 : 1 ) , R e b e k a h ( 2 5 : 1 1 - 1 5 ) , J a c o b (29:4; 3 1 : 3 1 ; 32:7; 4 5 : 3 - 5 ) , L e v i ( 3 2 : 1 ) , a n d the

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people of Israel (2:21; 49:6; 50:9). Often this blessing is connected with praise
and thanksgiving.
An important question is whether, for the author of Jubilees, this
noncultic worship is possible for Gentiles. In Jub 7:20 Noah includes a com­
mand to "bless the one who had created them" as he prescribes for his
grandsons what is required of them. But succeeding events make it clear that
they do not live up to their responsibilities. Is the right then forfeited? Espe­
cially after the covenant with Abraham when cultic worship becomes the
prerogative of the descendants of Abraham alone? The one passage that
might help answer this is Jub 22:6. After Abraham eats a feast prepared by
Isaac, "he blessed the most high God who created the heavens and the earth,
who made all the fat things of the earth, and gave them to mankind to eat,
drink, and bless their Creator." This would seem to indicate that the Noachic
ordinance still stands. But the rest of Jubilees is so negative about the
Gentiles that one could well imagine that its author never seriously enter­
tained the idea that a Gentile would or could offer sincere praise to God (cf.
Jub 2 2 : 1 6 - 2 2 ) .

Jubilees and Enoch

Examination of all the passages dealing with worship in the works that make
up 1 Enoch shows that blessing is by far the most common. It appears eight
times in the Book of the Watchers (10:21; 22:14; 25:7; 27:3-5 [3X]; 36:4 [2x]),
sixteen times in the Book of the Parables ( 3 9 : 7 , 9 [ 2 x ] , 1 0 , 1 2 [ 2 x ] , 13; 4 0 : 4 , 5 ;
47:2; 4 8 : 5 , 1 0 ; 61:7, 9; 7 1 : 1 1 , 1 2 ) , three times in the Astronomical Book (81:3
[2x], 1 0 ) , twice in the Book of Dream Visions (83:11; 84:1), and once in the
Epistle of Enoch (90:40). As we have seen, blessing is also characteristic in
descriptions of worship in Jubilees, suggesting an immediate connection. In
Jubilees the only activity mentioned more frequently than blessing is sacri­
fice. In stark contrast to Jubilees, however, none of the Enochic works men­
22
tions sacrifice as a way to approach G o d . It is true that the temple is re­
23
ferred to often in the Animal Apocalypse, and the temple implies sacrifice.
But it is still remarkable that among all the references to worship throughout
the entire corpus, no direct reference to sacrifice occurs. For me this raises

22. The sole occurrence of the word is in 1 En 19:1, which speaks about the spirits of
the angels leading men astray to sacrifice to demons.
23. Cf. 1 En 8 9 : 3 6 , 4 0 , 5 0 , 5 4 . 5 6 . 6 6 - 6 7 , 7 2 - 7 3 , 7 6 (?); 9 0 : 2 8 - 2 9 , 3 3 - 3 4 , 3 6 ; 91:13 (?): 9 3 7 - 8 .

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the question of the extent to which priestly issues were truly a concern to the
authors or communities behind these works.
I want to look briefly at one passage that further demonstrates the dif­
ference of thought between the works of Enoch and Jubilees. The passage is
1 En 10:20-22:

And you [Michael], cleanse the earth from all wrong, and from all iniq­
uity, and from all sin, and from all impiety, and from all the uncleanness
which is brought about on the earth; remove them from the earth. And
all the sons of men shall be righteous, and all the nations shall serve and
bless me, and all shall worship me. And the earth will be cleansed from
all corruption, and from all sin, and from all wrath, and from all tor­
ment; and I will not again send a flood upon it for all generations for
24
ever.

This passage expresses an ideal of universal worship that is elsewhere found

in the Book of the Watchers, at 36:4. In the Book of the Parables it occurs at
48:5 and 57:3. A hint of it may appear in the Book of Dream Visions, at 84:1.
While not connected with the idea of worship, a universal hope for the
Gentiles appears in the Epistle of Enoch at 90:37-38 and 91:14. Thus, intrigu-
25
ingly, the idea occurs throughout the corpus.
Where does this viewpoint come from? The concept of universal bless­
ing is closest to sentiments found in Pss 67:3-5 and 145:5. The idea of a future
for the nations after a time of judgment is perhaps most clearly expressed in
Isa 2 4 - 2 7 . But the verbal parallels are not clear enough to be certain that
these passages provided the inspiration. There may be a reference to Deut
26
28:12 in 1 En n:i, though in my opinion the egalitarian nature of 10:21 rules
out reading Enoch in the light of Deut 28. In any event, the universalistic
worship envisioned in the Enochic works certainly marks a great divide with
the view expressed in Jubilees.

24. Translation of M. Knibb, The Ethiopic Book of Enoch (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, J978), 2:91.
25. A slightly different view is expressed in 1 En 90:30 where the Gentiles signify their
recognition of God by reverencing Israel. This idea has clear connections with Deut 28:12-13;
Isa 60:11; 61:6; 66:12; Zech 8:20-23; and Hag 2:6-9.
26. But the "opening of the storehouses of blessing" might be read against Gen 7:11
"the windows of the heavens were opened."

383
The Book of Jubilees and Early Jewish Mysticism

Martha Himmelfarb

Does the book of Jubilees belong to the history of Jewish mysticism? Jubilees
contains neither a vision of the merkabah, the chariot throne of G o d from
the b o o k of Ezekiel, nor ascent to heaven, the features central to the Jewish
mysticism of antiquity as delineated by Gershom Scholem in his pioneering
1
work, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism. Yet Jubilees shares other significant
features with other texts of the second temple period that are often associ­
ated with early Jewish mysticism such as the B o o k of the Watchers (1 E n 1 -
36) and the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, as well as with the hekhalot texts,
the literature of the fully developed merkabah mysticism of late antiquity.
A n d while scholarly literature on early Jewish mysticism has in general paid
little attention to Jubilees, it figures prominently in Rachel Elior's recent
book on early Jewish mysticism, The Three Temples: On the Emergence of
2
Jewish Mysticism, which I discuss below.

As m y discussion already suggests, scholars have tended to treat early

Jewish mysticism as a textual tradition defined b y the presence of several in­
terrelated motifs and ideas, most prominent a m o n g them the vision of the
merkabah and ascent to heaven noted in the previous paragraph. In this they

1. G. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (New York: Schocken, 1961; 1st ed.
1941), 1-39; o n early Jewish mysticism, 5.
2. R. Elior, The Three Temples: On the Emergence of Jewish Mysticism, trans. David
Louvish (Oxford and Portland, Oreg.: Littman Library o f Jewish Civilization, 2004). The
Hebrew original is entitled Temple and Chariot, Priests and Angels, Sanctuary and Heavenly
Sanctuaries in Early Jewish Mysticism (Jerusalem: Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2002).

384
 The Book of Jubilees and Early Jewish Mysticism

are f o l l o w i n g S c h o l e m ' s lead. W h i l e the c o m m e n t s on the r e l i g i o u s c h a r a c t e r

of merkabah m y s t i c i s m scattered t h r o u g h the s e c o n d c h a p t e r of Major
Trends are still of interest despite a d v a n c e s in the m o r e t h a n sixty-five y e a r s
since he w r o t e , S c h o l e m did not s p e n d m u c h t i m e o n a theoretical d i s c u s ­
s i o n of the n a t u r e of early J e w i s h m y s t i c i s m ; the d i s c u s s i o n of the n a t u r e of
m y s t i c i s m in the first chapter of Major Trends is c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h
k a b b a l a h , the classical f o r m of J e w i s h m y s t i c i s m that e m e r g e d in the M i d d l e
3
Ages. S c h o l a r s since S c h o l e m h a v e g i v e n r a t h e r little a t t e n t i o n to defining
the m y s t i c i s m o f the early J e w i s h m y s t i c a l t r a d i t i o n as a r e l i g i o u s p h e n o m e ­
4
n o n in t e r m s that c o u l d be u s e d for c o m p a r a t i v e p u r p o s e s . A recent e x c e p ­
t i o n to this g e n e r a l i z a t i o n is P h i l i p S. A l e x a n d e r ' s Mystical Texts, in the C o m ­
p a n i o n to the Q u m r a n S c r o l l s series, w h i c h treats the S o n g s of the S a b b a t h
5
Sacrifice a n d o t h e r texts f r o m a m o n g the D e a d Sea S c r o l l s . T w o features of
A l e x a n d e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n are p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e w o r t h y , his c l a i m that p r a x i s is
c e n t r a l to the definition o f m y s t i c i s m , a n d his challenge to S c h o l e m ' s v i e w
that the merkabah t r a d i t i o n d i d n o t i n v o l v e unio mystical T h i s is n o t the
p l a c e for an e v a l u a t i o n o f A l e x a n d e r ' s v a l u a b l e b u t p r o b l e m a t i c w o r k ; in m y
v i e w , m a n y aspects of A l e x a n d e r ' s r e a d i n g s o f the texts are quite p e r s u a s i v e ,
b u t I a m skeptical a b o u t the c l a i m that the scrolls reflect a m y s t i c a l p r a c t i c e
a n d unio mystica.

F u r t h e r , w h i l e the benefits of a clear d e f i n i t i o n of m y s t i c i s m are e v i ­

dent for the p u r p o s e s o f c r o s s - c u l t u r a l c o m p a r i s o n o r even for e x p l o r a t i o n
of the p r o b l e m of c o n t i n u i t y f r o m early J e w i s h m y s t i c i s m to k a b b a l a h , in
this p a p e r I m a k e use of a m o t i f - b a s e d d e s c r i p t i o n of a t r a d i t i o n i n s t e a d . T h e
q u e s t i o n o f interest for this p a p e r is n o t w h e t h e r Jubilees truly b e l o n g s to the
phenomenon of " m y s t i c i s m " — if m y s t i c i s m d e m a n d s p r a x i s , m u c h less
unio mystica, then s u r e l y it d o e s n o t — but r a t h e r h o w Jubilees relates to a
b o d y of texts that share a constellation o f m o t i f s . T h e h i s t o r y of s c h o l a r l y
d i s c u s s i o n of these texts m a k e s "early J e w i s h m y s t i c i s m " a c o n v e n i e n t w a y to
refer to t h e m . W h i l e the results m a y n o t tell us m u c h a b o u t the phenomenon

3. Scholem, Major Trends, 1-39 (chap. 1, "General Characteristics o f Jewish Mysti­

cism"), 40-79 (chap. 2, "Merkabah Mysticism and Jewish Gnosticism").
4. On this point, see E. R. Wolfson, "Mysticism and the Poetic-Liturgical C o m p o s i ­
tions from Q u m r a n : A Response to Bilhah Nitzan," JQR 85 (1994): 1 8 4 - 2 0 2 ; Michael D.
Swartz, "The Dead Sea Scrolls and Later Jewish Magic and Mysticism," DSD 8 ( 2 0 0 1 ) : 182-90.
5. Philip S. Alexander, Mystical Texts, C o m p a n i o n to the Q u m r a n Scrolls 7, Library of
Second Temple Studies 61 (London: T. & T. Clark, 2 0 0 6 ) .
6. Alexander, Mystical Texts, 7 - 1 0 , 9 3 - 1 2 0 , 136-38. Scholem asserts reservations, very
briefly, about the centrality o f unio mystica in mysticism, Jewish and other; Major Trends, 5.

385
Martha Himmelfarb

of mysticism, Jubilees' relationship to these texts is nonetheless of consider­

able interest, with important implications for the understanding of Jubilees.
In Major Trends, Scholem delineated three stages of merkabah mysti­
cism: traditions found in the apocalyptic literature of the second temple pe­
riod; the speculation of the Tannaim, the rabbis of the first and second centu­
ries of this era; and finally the hekhalot texts, which Scholem dated to the
7
period of the amoraim, the rabbis of the third through fifth centuries. The
scholarship of the last decades of the twentieth century developed and re­
fined Scholem's understanding of merkabah mysticism, but it also raised im­
8
portant questions about his representation of each of the three stages. For
the third stage, the hekhalot texts, in which Scholem saw ascent to heaven as
the defining interest, recent scholarship has pointed out that the adjuration
9
of angels is also a central concern; there have also been strong arguments for
10
moving the date of the hekhalot texts forward into the Islamic period. For
the second stage, the merkabah mysticism attested in early rabbinic literature,
scholarship since Scholem has questioned the existence of a tradition of mys­
tical practice and has emphasized the exegetical aspect of the Tannaitic tradi­
11
tions and even of later material in classical rabbinic sources, thus demon­
strating that the relationship of these merkabah materials to the hekhalot
12
literature is less direct and more complex than Scholem suggested.

7. Scholem, Major Trends, 43.

8. To the best of my knowledge, there is no article or book chapter devoted to a criti­
cal discussion of scholarship on the hekhalot literature since Scholem. For recent listings of
publications that supplement each other, see Rebecca Macy Lesses, Ritual Practices to Gain
Power. Angels, Incantations, and Revelation in Early Jewish Mysticism, HTS 44 (Harrisburg,
Pa.: Trinity, 1998), 3 n. 8; and James R. Davila, Descenders to the Chariot The People behind
the Hekhalot Literature, JSJSup 70 (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 316-17.
9. Peter Schafer, "The Aim and Purpose of Early Jewish Mysticism," in Hekhalot-Studien,
a n
TSAJ19 (Tubingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 1988), 277-95, d The Hidden and Manifest God: Some
Major Themes in Early Jewish Mysticism, trans. Aubrey Pomerance (Albany: State University of
New York Press, 1992), esp. 142-46,151-57; David J. Halperin, The Faces of the Chariot: Early Jew­
ish Responses to Ezekiel's Vision, TSAJ 16 (Tubingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 1988), esp. 376-87.
10. Most recently, Ra'anan S. Boustan, "The Emergence of Pseudonymous Attribu­
tion in Heikhalot Literature: Empirical Evidence from the Jewish 'Magical' Corpora," JSQ14
(2007): 18-38.
11. David J. Halperin, The Merkabah in Rabbinic Literature, AOS 6 2 (New Haven:
American Oriental Society, 1980), esp. 179-85.
12. For a range of views on the nature of the relationship, all at some distance from
Scholem's, see P. S. Alexander, "The Historical Setting of the Hebrew Book of Enoch," JJS
28 (1977): 156-80; Halperin, Faces of the Chariot, esp. 427-46; Schafer, "Aim and Purpose,"
289-95, and Hidden and Manifest God, 157-61; Michael D. Swartz, Scholastic Magic: Ritual

386
 The Book of Jubilees and Early Jewish Mysticism

The first stage of merkabah mysticism, the traditions found in the

apocalyptic literature of the second temple period, is the least developed
stage in Scholem's discussion. Scholem touched briefly on apocalyptic litera­
ture in Major Trends and had only a little more to say in his one book on
early Jewish mysticism, Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and Tal-
13
mudic Tradition. The last third of the twentieth century saw dramatic
growth in scholarly interest in apocalyptic literature, and several scholars
took up the challenge posed by Scholem's work, offering more detailed dis­
cussions of the themes and motifs of merkabah mysticism as they appeared
14
in the apocalypses.
The last decades of the twentieth century also saw the ongoing publi­
cation of the Dead Sea Scrolls, a corpus of major significance for our under­
standing of the apocalypses and early Jewish mysticism. Scholem was clearly
aware of the potential significance of the scrolls for early Jewish mysticism,
and in Jewish Gnosticism he noted some parallels between the poetry of the
hekhalot texts and that of the Hodayot and the "Angelic Liturgy," as the early
publication of a portion of the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice was called. But
the slow pace of publication meant that he was not in a position to offer an
overall evaluation of their significance for early Jewish mysticism before his
death in 1982. By the end of the twentieth century, however, the relationship
of the scrolls to merkabah mysticism had become a topic of considerable
15
scholarly interest. Alexander's Mystical Texts is the first book-length study

and Revelation in Early Jewish Mysticism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996),
esp. 209-29.
13. Gershom G. Scholem, Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and Talmudic Tra­
dition (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America, i960).
14. See, e.g., Ithamar Gruenwald, Apocalyptic and Merkavah Mysticism, AGJU 14
(Leiden: Brill, 1980); Halperin, faces of the Chariot, 63-114; Martha Himmelfarb, "Heavenly
Ascent and the Relationship of the Apocalypses and the Hekhalot Literature," HUCA 59
(1988): 73-100; Himmelfarb, "The Practice of Ascent in the Ancient Mediterranean World,"
in Death, Ecstasy, and Other Worldly Journeys, ed. John J. Collins and Michael Fishbane (Al­
bany: State University of New York Press, 1995), 121-37; James R. Davila, "The Hekhalot Lit­
erature and the Ancient Jewish Apocalypses," in Paradise Now: Essays on Early Jewish and
Christian Mysticism, ed. April DeConick, SBLSymS 11 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature,
2006), 105-25.
15. See the review article of Elisabeth Hamacher, "Die Sabbatopferlieder im Streit um
Ursprung und Anfange der jildischen Mystik," JJS 27 (1996): 119-54. Since 1996, see, e.g.,
James R. Davila, "The Dead Sea Scrolls and Merkavah Mysticism," in The Dead Sea Scrolls in
Their Historical Context, ed. Timothy H. Lim (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2000), 249-64;
Swartz, "The Dead Sea Scrolls and Later Jewish Magic and Mysticism"; and Ra'anan Abusch,
"Sevenfold Hymns in the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice and the Hekhalot Literature: Formal-

387
Martha Himmelfarb

of the scrolls and merkabah mysticism, as far as I know; as I have noted, it fo­
cuses particularly on the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, but it also finds evi­
dence for this mysticism in other texts among the scrolls, especially liturgical
texts and the so-called Self-Glorification Hymn. Following Johann Maier,
Alexander understands merkabah mysticism to have originated among Jeru­
salem priests; eventually some of their heirs brought the tradition to
Qumran, where it underwent a reworking with the concerns of a sect alien­
16
ated from the Jerusalem temple in view. With the destruction of the tem­
ple, the tradition was maintained by priests who became members of the
rabbinic movement, though it stood in considerable tension with the domi­
nant ideology of the rabbis; the hekhalot literature that appears toward the
end of the rabbinic period is, in Alexander's view, a somewhat rabbinized
version of the merkabah tradition. Although he catalogues a body of paral­
lels between the Qumran texts and the hekhalot literature, Alexander em­
phasizes the "oblique" character of the relationship between the two forms
of merkabah mysticism: the former is a "sectarian reworking of a priestly
doctrine," while the latter is a reworking of that original doctrine "more in
17
keeping with the rabbinic ethos."
But what is most important in Alexander's book for our purposes is
the very brief consideration of Jubilees in its discussion of the larger context
of the relevant scrolls in the literature of the second temple period. Alexan­
der points out that Jubilees shares with the Book of the Watchers and other
works of the second temple period two important and interrelated features
that appear elsewhere in the tradition of merkabah mysticism: an under­
standing of heaven as temple and of a group of human beings as the earthly
18
counterpart of the angels. I shall return to their significance for Jubilees'
relationship to the early Jewish mystical tradition shortly.
While Alexander's book focuses primarily on the scrolls, Rachel Elior's
Three Temples, which appeared a few years before Alexander's book, under­
takes to sketch the entire early history of Jewish mysticism from the Bible
through the hekhalot texts. I have offered my views on Elior's work at some

ism, Hierarchy and the Limits of Human Participation," in The Dead Sea Scrolls as Back­
ground to Postbiblical Judaism and Early Christianity: Papers from an International Confer­
ence at St. Andrews in 2001, ed. lames R. Davila, STDJ 46 (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2003),
220-47.
16. Alexander, Mystical Texts, 128-31; Johann Maier, Vom Kultus zur Gnosis, Kairos
Religionswissenschaftliche Studien 1 (Salzburg: Otto Mueller, 1964).
17. Alexander, Mystical Texts, 122-38; quotations, 135.
18. Alexander, Mystical Texts, 55-56,139.

388
 The Book of Jubilees and Early Jewish Mysticism

19
length e l s e w h e r e . H e r e I will focus o n l y o n the aspects o f her d i s c u s s i o n o f
early J e w i s h m y s t i c i s m in w h i c h Jubilees p l a y s a central r o l e .
L i k e M a i e r a n d A l e x a n d e r , E l i o r finds the o r i g i n s of early J e w i s h m y s t i ­
cism in priestly circles, a n d like A l e x a n d e r , she e m p h a s i z e s the c o n t r i b u t i o n
to its d e v e l o p m e n t of priests alienated f r o m the p r i e s t l y e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the
s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d . In her v i e w the scrolls a n d other w o r k s of the p e r i o d ,
especially the a p o c a l y p s e s , are the w o r k of these alienated priests. M o r e t h a n
A l e x a n d e r , E l i o r sees the hekhalot texts as s t a n d i n g in direct c o n t i n u i t y w i t h
w h a t she calls the " h e a v e n l y c o r p u s " of these priests, t h o u g h she notes the
" n e u t r a l i z a t i o n " of their c r i t i q u e of the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e e s t a b l i s h m e n t in
the hekhalot literature, w h i c h w a s c o m p o s e d l o n g after the d e s t r u c t i o n of
2 0
that t e m p l e .
Jubilees figures p r o m i n e n t l y in E l i o r ' s p i c t u r e of early J e w i s h m y s t i ­
c i s m . T h o u g h E l i o r h a s little to say a b o u t the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e in J u b i l e e s ,
like A l e x a n d e r , she notes the i m p o r t a n c e o f the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f h e a v e n
a n d earth for it. B u t E l i o r also f o c u s e s c o n s i d e r a b l e attention o n an a s p e c t of
that c o r r e s p o n d e n c e that does n o t figure at all in A l e x a n d e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n , cal­
2 1
endar:

A c c o r d i n g to the authors of Jubilees and the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks, n o t

o n l y does cyclic t i m e , as represented b y the calendar, flow i n an eternal
sevenfold r h y t h m t h r o u g h the sabbaths of the year — but the w h o l e of
history, from b e g i n n i n g to end, m a r c h e s f o r w a r d in recurrent cycles of
sabbaths, years, sabbaticals, jubilees, a n d a g e s . . . . H e a v e n a n d earth have
thereby been linked together since the seven days of C r e a t i o n , t h r o u g h
signs, covenants, a n d oaths that constitute b o n d s b e t w e e n G o d a n d
m a n , t h r o u g h the sacrifices that m a n offers G o d , in a fixed, sevenfold
22
p r o g r e s s i o n g o v e r n e d b y the solar calendar a n d o b s e r v e d by the a n g e l s .

T h e p i c t u r e of that c a l e n d a r that E l i o r c o n s t r u c t s d r a w s o n the contents o f a

n u m b e r of texts; the c o n f l a t i o n of s o u r c e s is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of E l i o r ' s a p ­
p r o a c h to w h a t she takes to be a c o m m o n b o d y of m y s t i c a l t r a d i t i o n . It

19. Martha Himmelfarb, "Merkavah Mysticism since Scholem: Rachel Elior's The
Three Temples!' in Wege mystischer Gotteserfahrung/Mystical Approaches to God, ed. Peter
Schafer, Schriften des Historischen Kollegs Kolloquien 65 (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2 0 0 6 ) , 1 9 -
36.
20. Elior, Three Temples, 232-33.
21. She devotes chaps. 3 - 6 of Three Temples to the calendar, 82-152.
22. Elior, Three Temples, 135.

389
Martha Himmelfarb

w o u l d b e difficult to d e d u c e m o s t of w h a t E l i o r c l a i m s a b o u t the m y s t i c a l
c a l e n d a r f r o m the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s , w h i l e the idea of a s u c c e s s i o n o f
ages is b y n o m e a n s o b v i o u s in J u b i l e e s . F u r t h e r , it is clearly Jubilees that
p r o v i d e s the key to u n d e r s t a n d i n g the c a l e n d a r ' s s i g n i f i c a n c e . B u t the p r o b ­
l e m s in the a s s u m p t i o n that J u b i l e e s a n d the A p o c a l y p s e o f W e e k s share the
s a m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c a l e n d a r n e e d n o t detain us h e r e . W h a t is m o s t i m ­
p o r t a n t for us is that E l i o r calls a t t e n t i o n to the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n h e a v e n
a n d earth built into c r e a t i o n t h r o u g h the i n s t i t u t i o n of the S a b b a t h w i t h its
o n g o i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s that is central to J u b i l e e s : " [ J u b i l e e s ' ] a i m is to r e c o u n t
the m y t h i c a l , m y s t i c a l , a n d angelic n a t u r e o f the oaths a n d the c o v e n a n t s , to
d e m o n s t r a t e their cultic n a t u r e a n d the eternal v a l i d i t y of the command­
m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m , to i n d i c a t e their r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the s e v e n f o l d
s t r u c t u r e of the solar calendar, w h i c h links the h e a v e n s w i t h the earth, the
angels m i n i s t e r i n g in h e a v e n w i t h the priests m i n i s t e r i n g o n earth, t h r o u g h
23
the s u c c e s s i o n of w e e k s a n d s a b b a t h s , sabbaticals a n d j u b i l e e s . "

D e s p i t e m y r e s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t h e r h a r m o n i z i n g a p p r o a c h a n d her use
of t e r m s such as " m y t h i c a l " a n d " m y s t i c a l " in the p a s s a g e j u s t q u o t e d , I agree
w h o l e h e a r t e d l y w i t h E l i o r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the c a l e n d a r of Jubilees as re­
flecting the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d earth. Yet Jubilees uses the
idea o f the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d earth, h e a v e n l y t e m p l e a n d
e a r t h l y t e m p l e , a n g e l i c s e r v i c e a n d h u m a n s e r v i c e , to v e r y different ends
f r o m other w o r k s in w h i c h these c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s p l a y a role.
T h e idea of h e a v e n as a t e m p l e is w i d e s p r e a d in literature of the s e c o n d
t e m p l e p e r i o d , b u t it h a s its r o o t s in the B i b l e a n d the a n c i e n t N e a r East,
w h e r e the t e m p l e s in w h i c h h u m a n b e i n g s w o r s h i p are u n d e r s t o o d as repli­
cas of the t r u e h o u s e of the g o d , l o c a t e d on a distant m o u n t a i n or, in the case
2 4
of the G o d of Israel, in h e a v e n . In the a p o c a l y p s e s of the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e ­
r i o d , h e a v e n is u n d e r s t o o d either as G o d ' s p a l a c e , as in the b o o k of D a n i e l ,
or as a t e m p l e , as in the B o o k o f the Watchers; the t w o i m a g e s are c o m p l e ­
m e n t a r y , t w o different w a y s of c h a r a c t e r i z i n g G o d ' s a b o d e . In the B o o k o f
the W a t c h e r s the p i c t u r e o f h e a v e n as t e m p l e is i m p o r t a n t for the n a r r a t i v e
a n d c r u c i a l to the m e s s a g e of the w o r k . In s o m e later a p o c a l y p s e s , in w h i c h
h e a v e n is r e p r e s e n t e d as a t e m p l e , this fact is of little c o n s e q u e n c e for the
n a r r a t i v e or the m e s s a g e of the w o r k ; it is s i m p l y taken for g r a n t e d .

W h i l e Jubilees n e v e r m a k e s the idea of h e a v e n as t e m p l e explicit, it is

23. Elior, Three Temples, 135.

24. See the discussion of Torleif Elgvin, "Biblical Roots of Early Mystical Traditions
on the Heavenly Temple," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .

390
 The Book of Jubilees and Early Jewish Mysticism

implicit in Jubilees' claim that the Sabbath (Jub 2:30) and the Feast of Weeks
(6:18) were observed in heaven before they were observed on earth. It is pos­
sible that Jubilees also means to claim that the Feast of Booths was observed
in heaven before Abraham established it on earth since it describes Abraham
25
as the "first man on earth" to celebrate it ( i 6 : 2 i ) . Jubilees explicidy requires
26
sacrifices for these festivals as they are observed on earth; this suggests that
their heavenly observance would also have required use of a sanctuary,
though Jubilees offers no hint of how it understands the heavenly equivalent
27
of sacrifice, a topic on which some texts are more forthcoming.
The only point related to the heavenly temple on which Jubilees is ex­
plicit is the correspondence between earthly priests and angels. Thus Isaac
blesses Levi, "May the Lord give you and your descendants greatness and
glory, and set you and your descendants apart from all mankind to minister
to him and to serve him in his sanctuary like the angels of the presence and
the holy ones" (Jub 31:14). This is a correspondence with a long history. It
goes back at least as far as Ezekiel, who describes angels as dressed in linen
(Ezek 9 : 2 , 3 , 1 1 ; 1 0 : 2 , 6 , 7 ) , the fabric of priests' garments (Exod 28:42), a de­
scription picked up in the book of Daniel (Dan 10:5; 1 2 : 6 - 7 ) . Once heaven is
understood as a temple, the comparison is perhaps inevitable. In Jubilees
priests are compared not to angels in general, but to specific classes of angels,
the angels of the presence and the holy ones, the two highest classes of angels
(Jub 2:18). The comparison flatters priests, but it can also be used to hold
priests to account when they fail to live up to the high standards appropriate
to their duties, as in the Book of the Watchers.
But for Jubilees the correlation between angels in heaven and priests on
earth is only one aspect of a larger and more important correlation. As the
heavenly observance of the Sabbath and the Feast of Weeks indicates, Jubilees
understands not only priests but also the entire people of Israel to be the
earthly counterpart of the angels; indeed, all Jews are the counterparts of the
angels of the presence and the holy ones, the very classes of angels to which
Levi's descendants are compared, since these are the angels who observe the
Sabbath with God from its creation. This point is crucial. Jubilees is one of

25. All quotations from Jubilees are taken from the translation of R. H. Charles, rev.
C. Rabin, in The Apocryphal Old Testament, ed. H. F. D. Sparks (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984).
26. Sabbath: "to burn frankincense and present offerings and sacrifices in the Lord's
presence every day and every sabbath" (Jub 50:10); Feast of Weeks: "I have written in the
book of the first l a w . . . the details of its sacrifices" (Jub 6:21).
27. See Martha Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 33-36.

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Martha Himmelfarb

m a n y texts to extend the idea of the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n angels in h e a v e n

a n d priests o n earth to suggest that a select g r o u p of n o n p r i e s t l y h u m a n b e i n g s
are also the c o u n t e r p a r t s of the angels. B u t Jubilees stands a p a r t from other
texts of the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d in a v e r y i m p o r t a n t way. In contrast to the
B o o k of the Watchers, w h i c h depicts o n e e x e m p l a r y h u m a n b e i n g as the equal
of the angels, or to the sectarian scrolls, w h i c h u n d e r s t a n d all m e m b e r s of the
sectarian c o m m u n i t y as the earthly c o u n t e r p a r t s of the angels, Jubilees claims
that it is n o t e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y r i g h t e o u s heroes of the past or m e m b e r s of a sec­
28
tarian elite b u t the entire Jewish p e o p l e that is like the a n g e l s .
E v e n m o r e s t r i k i n g is the c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n J u b i l e e s a n d the s e c t a r i a n
scrolls. F o r the s e c t a r i a n s the t r u e Israel, the c h i l d r e n o f light, w e r e defined
by piety. F o r J u b i l e e s , o n the o t h e r h a n d , Israel is a p e o p l e defined b y g e n e a l ­
o g y w i t h o u t r e g a r d to piety; J u b i l e e s has n o place for c o n v e r s i o n to Juda­
2 9
ism. B o t h the g o o d a n d the w i c k e d are Israel, or, as the r a b b i s , w h o are s u r ­
p r i s i n g l y close to J u b i l e e s o n this p o i n t , w o u l d later p u t it, " E v e n if h e sins,
3 0
an Israelite r e m a i n s a n Israelite" (b. Sanhedrin 44a). T h u s Israel is a k i n g ­
d o m of priests in p a r t b e c a u s e o n e b e c o m e s an Israelite b y b i r t h r a t h e r t h a n
m e r i t , j u s t as J e w i s h priests a t t a i n e d their status t h r o u g h descent f r o m A a r o n
31
r a t h e r t h a n b y a n y c l a i m to p i e t y o r l e a r n i n g .
I take Jubilees' insistence on g e n e a l o g y as the w a y to define m e m b e r s h i p
in the p e o p l e of Israel as a s i g n of active o p p o s i t i o n to the s e c t a r i a n i m p u l s e
3 2
that e m e r g e d in the H a s m o n e a n e r a . In his c o n t r i b u t i o n to this v o l u m e ,
A h a r o n S h e m e s h suggests that frg. 7 of 4 Q 2 6 5 p r o v i d e s further e v i d e n c e for
J u b i l e e s ' T o r a h - l i k e status at Q u m r a n b e c a u s e it consists of three instances o f
r e w o r k i n g o f Jubilees, i n c l u d i n g r e v i s i o n of Jubilees' S a b b a t h laws a n d the
laws g o v e r n i n g relations w i t h G e n t i l e s , b o t h in light of the yahad's v i e w of it­
33
self as Israel a n d all other Jews as G e n t i l e s . T h o u g h S h e m e s h a p p e a r s to a c -

28.1 make this point in greater detail in my book, A Kingdom of Priests: Ancestry and
Merit in Ancient Judaism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 53-84.
29. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 72-78.
30. F o r the rabbis' view on the genealogical character o f Jewish identity, see
e s
Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 160-85, P - W - S i -
31. For the significance o f Jubilees' insistence on genealogy for defining the Jewish
people as well as the priesthood, see Betsy Halpern-Amaru, The Empowerment of Women in
the Book o f Jubilees (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 154-55.
32. I prefer a date for Jubilees during the last third of the second century B . C . E .
(Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 77), but this dating is not crucial for m y argument.
33. Aharon Shemesh, "4Q265 and the Authoritative Status o f Jubilees at Qumran." On
authoritative status at Q u m r a n , see also Jamal-Dominique Hopkins, "The Authoritative
Status of Jubilees at Qumran," Hen 31, no. 2 (2008).

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 The Book of Jubilees and Early Jewish Mysticism

34
cept sectarian p r o v e n a n c e of J u b i l e e s , the two e x a m p l e s j u s t n o t e d serve to
h i g h l i g h t the distance b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the yahad o n precisely the p o i n t
m o s t c r u c i a l to sectarian identity, the definition of the p e o p l e of Israel.
J u b i l e e s ' insistence that all J e w s are the earthly c o u n t e r p a r t s of the a n ­
gels b r i n g s into relief an i m p o r t a n t difference b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the other
texts of the early J e w i s h m y s t i c a l t r a d i t i o n in the f u n c t i o n of the h e a v e n l y
t e m p l e . T h e r e is n o n e c e s s a r y t e n s i o n b e t w e e n h e a v e n l y t e m p l e a n d earthly,
as can be seen in texts of the a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t or the first t e m p l e p e r i o d ; i n ­
d e e d , the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e u n d e r s t o o d as p r o t o t y p e of the e a r t h l y serves to
g u a r a n t e e the status of the e a r t h l y t e m p l e . Yet the idea of a h e a v e n l y t e m p l e
is n o t p r o m i n e n t in literature of the first t e m p l e . In the p e r i o d o f the s e c o n d
t e m p l e , h o w e v e r , the idea b e c o m e s m o r e p r o m i n e n t a n d the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e
takes o n a different r o l e . T h o s e dissatisfied w i t h the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e s a w
the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e in its p e r f e c t i o n as a r e p r o a c h to t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e for
the c o r r u p t i o n of the earthly. I do n o t b e l i e v e that the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e of the
B o o k of the W a t c h e r s reflects rejection of the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e ; i n d e e d , it is
s t r i k i n g that the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s d o e s n o t p r e s e n t the h e a v e n l y p r i e s t ­
h o o d as perfect in o r d e r to r e b u k e its e a r t h l y c o u n t e r p a r t . R a t h e r , it projects
the failings of s o m e J e r u s a l e m priests o n t o the a n g e l i c p r i e s t h o o d — but it is
important to n o t e that in h e a v e n as on earth n o t all priests h a v e g o n e
35
astray. T h e S o n g s o f the S a b b a t h Sacrifice, in contrast, w a s u s e d b y a c o m ­
m u n i t y that rejected the t e m p l e in J e r u s a l e m ; the recitation of its detailed
d e p i c t i o n of the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e a n d its e l a b o r a t e l i t u r g y m u s t h a v e s e r v e d
at least in a v e r y l i m i t e d w a y as a substitute for the rejected t e m p l e . T h e heav­
enly t e m p l e o f the hekhalot texts s e e m s u n r e l a t e d to c r i t i c i s m of the earthly
t e m p l e , b u t since the texts w e r e w r i t t e n c e n t u r i e s after the d i s a p p e a r a n c e of
the e a r t h l y t e m p l e , this is n o t s u r p r i s i n g .

In contrast, J u b i l e e s , w r i t t e n at a t i m e w h e n m a n y of the p i o u s w e r e
d e e p l y dissatisfied w i t h the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e , uses the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e n e i ­
ther as a substitute for a rejected t e m p l e o n earth n o r as the ideal a g a i n s t
w h i c h to m e a s u r e the e a r t h l y i n s t i t u t i o n a n d the b e h a v i o r of its priests. O n e
aspect of J u b i l e e s ' insistence that m a n y of the l a w s of the T o r a h w e r e in force
even b e f o r e the T o r a h itself w a s g i v e n to Israel is its p i c t u r e of the o b s e r v a n c e
of the S a b b a t h a n d the Feast of W e e k s in h e a v e n b e f o r e they w e r e o b s e r v e d

34. Shemesh, "4Q265," where he considers the implications for sectarian authorship
of the time that would have had to elapse for Jubilees to achieve its authoritative status.
35. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 1 9 - 2 1 . N o r do 1 believe that the B o o k of the
Watchers rejects or ignores the Torah of Moses ( 3 9 - 4 1 ) .

393
Martha Himmelfarb

on earth. Its brief allusions to the heavenly temple make explicit an aspect of
the idea of the heavenly temple implicit in its function of prototype for the
earthly temple that other texts of the second temple period fail to exploit: it
has been there since the beginning. Jubilees' emphasis on the heavenly tem­
ple as a venue for observances that take place on earth only after the emer­
gence of the people of Israel and the giving of the Torah has a great deal in
c o m m o n with the original understanding of the heavenly temple as a proto­
type of the earthly: it serves to valorize the rituals of the earthly temple
rather than to criticize them.

394
PART FOUR

WHERE DOES JUBILEES BELONG?

Jubilees, the Temple, and the
Aaronite Priesthood

David W. Suter

Now the author of Jubilees sought to do for Genesis what the

Chronicler had done for Samuel and Kings, and so he rewrote it in
such a way as to show that the law was rigorously observed even by
the Patriarchs. . . . Our author's procedure is of course in direct
antagonism with the presuppositions of the Priests' Code in Gene­
sis, for according to this code "Noah may build no altar, Abraham
offer no sacrifice, Jacob erect no sacred pillar. N o offering is re­
corded till Aaron and his sons are ready" (Carpenter, The Hexa-
teuch, 1 . 1 2 4 ) . This fact seems to emphasize in the strongest man­
ner how freely our author reinterpreted his authorities for the
past.
1
R. H . C H A R L E S

The above epigram is the seed of m y argument in a recent article examining

2
the place of the temple in the early E n o c h tradition. Specifically, I argued

1. F r o m R. H . Charles, Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, vol. 2,

Pseudepigrapha (Oxford: Clarendon, 1913), 7. The reference to Carpenter, The Hexateuch,
would appear to be to J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch according to
the Revised Version (London and New York: Longmans, Green, 1900).
2. D. W. Suter, "Temples and the Temple in the Early E n o c h Tradition: Memory, Vi­
sion, and Expectation," in The Early Enoch Literature, ed. Gabriele Boccaccini and John J.
Collins (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 195-218.

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David W. Suter

that the p o r t r a i t of E n o c h as a priest offering i n c e n s e in a s a n c t u a r y in J u b

4:25-26 reflects the r e d a c t i o n a l interests o f the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s a n d s h o u l d
therefore be treated s e p a r a t e l y from the early m a t e r i a l in 1 E n o c h in estab­
lishing the role of t e m p l e , p r i e s t h o o d , a n d cult in that t r a d i t i o n . A s R . H .
C h a r l e s suggests, Jubilees s h o w s a c o n c e r n for h a v i n g the p a t r i a r c h s sacrifice
f o l l o w i n g L e v i t i c a l p r o c e d u r e , l e a d i n g the w r i t e r to e x p a n d significantly the
role of the p a t r i a r c h s in b u i l d i n g altars a n d offering sacrifices. T h e a b s e n c e
of s u c h an i m p u l s e in 1 E n o c h , h o w e v e r , m a k e s it a p p a r e n t that the early
E n o c h t r a d i t i o n as a w h o l e is s i n g u l a r l y u n i n t e r e s t e d in the m a t t e r of priestly
f u n c t i o n i n a sacrificial cultus, a l t h o u g h in o t h e r respects it reflects a priestly
p e r s p e c t i v e a n d has a d e e p a n d a b i d i n g interest in the t e m p l e , i n c l u d i n g the
celestial t e m p l e a n d the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e m p l e to b e built b y G o d at the e n d
of d a y s . F o r that r e a s o n , in the p r e v i o u s article I set aside the p o r t r a i t o f
E n o c h as p r i e s t in J u b 4 a n d c h o s e to deal e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h the early E n o c h
t r a d i t i o n in 1 E n o c h . T h i s essay is i n t e n d e d to p i c k u p w h e r e the p r e v i o u s ar­
ticle leaves off b y e x p l o r i n g the r e l a t i o n of E n o c h to t e m p l e a n d p r i e s t h o o d
3
f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e o f his i n c l u s i o n in the larger enterprise of J u b i l e e s .

W h i l e C h a r l e s ' s q u o t a t i o n p r o v i d e s f o o d for t h o u g h t , it is n o t w i t h o u t
p r o b l e m s , since it a s s u m e s that the a u t h o r of Jubilees w o u l d h a v e b e e n able
to d i s t i n g u i s h the Priestly C o d e f r o m the o t h e r s t r a n d s p r e s e n t in G e n e s i s ,
w h i c h do i n v o l v e the p a t r i a r c h s in the offering of a sacrifice or the b u i l d i n g
of an altar. W h a t b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t as the s t u d y p r o c e e d s , h o w e v e r , is that
the a u t h o r o f Jubilees s y s t e m a t i c a l l y reads later priestly p r a c t i c e c h a r a c t e r i s ­
tic of the Priestly d o c u m e n t b a c k i n t o the cultic a c t i v i t y o f A b r a h a m , I s a a c ,
a n d J a c o b . W h i l e the Y a h w i s t a n d the E l o h i s t do represent the p a t r i a r c h s as
: 2
sacrificing (see G e n 8 : 2 0 - 2 2 ; 1 2 : 7 - 8 ; 1 3 : 4 , 1 8 ; 2 2 : 9 ; 26:25; 3 3 ° ; a n d 3 5 : 1 - 7 ) , a n d
w h i l e the a u t h o r of Jubilees d r a w s u p o n those a c c o u n t s in his n a r r a t i v e ( J u b
6:4; 13:4; 1 4 : 1 1 - 1 2 ; 1 5 : 2 ; 18:8; 24:23; a n d 3 1 : 3 ) , it is a p p a r e n t that his c o n t r i b u ­
t i o n to these n a r r a t i v e s p r e s u p p o s e s an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of priestly p r a c t i c e as
reflected in the Priestly C o d e a n d n o t s i m p l y an a d a p t a t i o n of the Y a h w i s t i c

3. In his response to the second group o f papers at the Fourth E n o c h Seminar,

G. Nickelsburg c o m m e n t e d , "I was struck by the observations of David Suter in his paper
for the last session. Perhaps the first to champion the anti-temple polemics in the Book o f
the Watchers, he is cautious about reading the Jubilees material about E n o c h the priest back
into the Book of the Watchers." Also note that in his contribution to the present volume,
"Worship in Jubilees and Enoch," from the F o u r t h E n o c h Seminar, E. Larson likewise con­
cludes that the portrait o f E n o c h as a priest does not come from 1 Enoch. Larson also notices
the lack o f interest o f the early E n o c h literature in sacrifice, a feature I noted in contrast to
Jubilees in "Temples and the Temple in the Early E n o c h Tradition."

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 Jubilees, the Temple, and the Aaronite Priesthood

and Elohistic narratives. Although it is unlikely that the author of Jubilees is

aware of the Priesdy Code per se and its presuppositions concerning sacri­
fice, Charles is correct in drawing a sharp contrast between that strand and
Jubilees.
What seems obvious in reading Jubilees is that the book engages in a
4
kind of selective anachronism in its treatment of the antediluvians and the
patriarchs in light of the "subsequent" history of the Israelite cultus, and
while it might be a mistake to conclude too quickly that the purpose of the
cultic portrait of the patriarchs involves a polemic directed toward the party
responsible for the Priestly Code per se, the treatment of cultic issues in Ju­
bilees is too distinctive to assume that it is simply the result of consider­
ations resulting from the narrative adaptation of Genesis.
The priestly activity of Adam and Enoch, for example, suggests a pro­
gressive unfolding of cultic practice leading up to the roles of Noah, Abra­
5
ham, Isaac, and Jacob. Adam offers incense in the morning and Enoch in
the evening, corresponding to later priestly practice. Adam offers his sacri­
fice on the morning of the day on which the couple is expelled from the gar­
den (Jub 3:27), and it is difficult to determine whether the sacrifice is offered
within the garden or outside of it. The sacrifices of Abel and Cain follow in
Jub 4:2, but the author seems only to mention them in passing rather than as
a part of his account of the development of sacrifice. Enoch institutes the
evening sacrifice of incense by offering it in the sanctuary on Mount Qater,
apparently the mountain of the east, one of the four sanctuaries to be sancti­
6
fied in the new creation (Jub 4 : 2 5 - 2 6 ) . Elsewhere Jubilees cites Enoch as the
source of commandments regarding ritual (see 7:39 and 21:10), giving the
role of Enoch in Jubilees a decidedly priestly cast.
Noah's sacrifice upon disembarking from the ark in 6:1-4 reflects fur­
ther development of cultic practice in that Jubilees pictures him following
what would appear to be Levitical practice in making a sin offering, includ­
ing the use of frankincense to make a sweet savor before God. Gen 8:20-21
merely tells us that upon leaving the ark Noah builds an altar and makes a
burnt offering. God smells the pleasing odor and resolves never again to de-

4. Here compare W. Loader, "Jubilees and Sexual Transgression," Hen 31, no. 1 (2009).
5. In "Worship in Jubilees and Enoch," Larson describes in similar terms the presenta­
tion of worship in Jubilees as a process that unfolds, reaching some conclusions about the
balance of interests in Jubilees but stopping short of offering a system behind the way that
the process unfolds.
6. Following the translation and notes of O. S. Wintermute, "Jubilees," in OTP, 2:35-
142.

399
David W. Suter

stroy all creatures. Jubilees, however, adds material suggestive of passages

like Exod 29:40 and Lev 2:2-5to specify the animals included in the offering
and the flour, oil, frankincense, and wine that accompany it. Martha
Himmelfarb notes that interest in the sweet savor created by the inclusion of
incense in the offering of a sacrifice is a significant aspect of the priesdy sac­
rificial cultus and that Jubilees is systematic in mentioning the inclusion of
7
frankincense in the sacrifices of the patriarchs. The short account of Noah's
planting a vineyard in Gen 9:20 becomes in Jub 7:1-6 the occasion for the ini­
tiation of the rules regarding the treatment of the firstfruits of a vineyard
(compare Lev 19:23 and Jub 7:34-39). The observance also becomes the occa­
sion for a sacrifice with details of the sacrifice suggestive of Num 29:2-3,* and
including frankincense and a sweet odor pleasing to God.
In Jubilees the practice of building altars and offering sacrifices is most
characteristic of the story of Abraham, to the extent that we might suggest
that Jubilees represents an Abrahamic more so than an Enochic or Mosaic
form of Judaism. At times in Jubilees' telling of the story of Abraham, all we
find is a passing reference to an altar and a burnt offering. More extensive,
however, is the narrative of Abraham's dream, sacrifice, and covenant in Jub
14:1-20, which, aside from mentioning the building of an altar, seems to fol­
low the Yahwist's seemingly primitive details of the sacrifice as described in
Gen 15:7-11 without updating them in light of the details of sacrificial prac­
tice taken from Leviticus. This narrative is also notable in that it is a fairly
extensive account of sacrifice that omits a mention of frankincense and a
sweet odor pleasing to God. Jub 21:1-20 represents an extensive adaptation of
a biblical narrative about Abraham involving the account of his last will and
testament to Isaac. In Gen 25:5-7 the narrative is a straightforward will in
which the patriarch leaves all his property to Isaac and makes gifts to other
sons by other wives. In Jubilees the testament includes lengthy instruction to
Isaac on peace offerings suggestive of Lev 3:7-10, with the authority for the
instructions attributed to Enoch and Noah.
In addition to the extensive detailing of the patriarchal sacrificial prac­
tice, Jubilees traces to the patriarchal period the institution of various festi-

7. M. Himmelfarb, "Earthly Sacrifice and Heavenly Incense: The Law of the Priest­
hood in Aramaic Levi and Jubilees" in Heavenly Realms and Earthly Realities in Late Antique
Religions, ed. R. S. Boustan and A. Yoshiko Reed (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2 0 0 4 ) , 103-22.
8. In this paper, suggestions for the sources in the Torah used in Jubilees to amplify
the narratives of the patriarchs are derived from the marginal notes supplied in Wintermute,
OTP, 2:35-142.

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 Jubilees, the Temple, and the Aaronite Priesthood

vals a n d o b s e r v a n c e s i n c l u d e d in the M o s a i c l e g i s l a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n to the

firstfruits ( J u b 7:34-39; 1 5 : 1 - 4 ) , A b r a h a m ' s c e l e b r a t i o n o f the Feast of B o o t h s
at B e e r s h e b a is m e n t i o n e d in J u b 1 6 : 2 0 - 3 1 , w i t h the i n c l u s i o n of s i g n i f i c a n t
detail r e g a r d i n g the sacrifices offered. T h e Feast of W e e k s or O a t h s ( d e p e n d ­
i n g u p o n the v o c a l i z a t i o n of sb'wt) is i n t r o d u c e d as a c o v e n a n t - r e n e w a l festi­
val in 6 : 1 7 - 2 2 , w h e r e it is said to be w r i t t e n in the h e a v e n l y tablets. It is o b ­
s e r v e d in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the c o v e n a n t w i t h N o a h in 6 : 4 - 1 6 , s u g g e s t i n g that
the m e a n i n g " o a t h s " m a y u n d e r l i e the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the feast in Jubi­
9
l e e s . T h e c o v e n a n t w i t h A b r a h a m in J u b 15 also s e e m s to be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
this festival, a n d it s h o u l d be n o t e d that in this case w e also h a v e the institu­
tion of the p r a c t i c e of c i r c u m c i s i o n . T h e l a w o f the tithe is i n t r o d u c e d to
A b r a h a m in 1 3 : 2 5 - 2 7 . It is also o b s e r v e d b y J a c o b in 3 2 : 1 - 1 5 , w h e r e J a c o b ful­
fills the o r i g i n a l v o w that he m a d e u p o n d e p a r t i n g f r o m C a n a a n . T h i s n a r r a ­
tive c o m e s s u b s e q u e n t to the b l e s s i n g o f L e v i as p r i e s t a n d features L e v i ' s in­
vestiture a n d his s e r v i c e as J a c o b ' s priest in the a c c o u n t of the sacrifice
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the tithe. T h e i n s t i t u t i o n of the tithe in the h e a v e n l y tablets
is m e n t i o n e d in 3 2 : 1 0 - 1 5 , a l o n g w i t h the n o t a t i o n that it is to b e l o n g to the
priests, w h o are to eat it b e f o r e G o d y e a r after year. T h i s last detail is interest­
i n g in t h a t in its use in Jubilees it antedates the r e a s o n g i v e n for its institu­
tion in the M o s a i c l e g i s l a t i o n w h e r e it serves to p r o v i d e for the priests, w h o
are g i v e n n o t e r r i t o r y in the d i v i s i o n of the l a n d of C a n a a n a m o n g the t r i b e s .
H o w e v e r , it s h o u l d also b e n o t e d that G e n e s i s shares this a n a c h r o n i s m in
that J a c o b ' s v o w in G e n 2 8 : 2 0 - 2 2 i n v o l v e s a tithe. Jubilees seizes u p o n the d e ­
10
tail to b u i l d its p r e s e n t a t i o n of the i n s t a l l a t i o n of L e v i as a p r i e s t .

Jubilees c o n c l u d e s w i t h the institution o f P a s s o v e r in c h a p . 49 a n d the

S a b b a t h in c h a p . 5 0 , g i v i n g us t w o s i g n i f i c a n t festivals a s s o c i a t e d in o n e w a y
or a n o t h e r w i t h the t e m p l e that a p p e a r n o t to be o b s e r v e d b y the p a t r i a r c h s .
The p l a c e m e n t of these last t w o festivals suggests that w e s h o u l d l o o k for
s o m e sort of a s y s t e m i n v o l v e d in the i n t r o d u c t i o n of sacrifice, festivals, a n d
other o b s e r v a n c e s , b u t so far the o n l y c o n s i d e r a t i o n I can d i s c o v e r is n a r r a ­
11
tive a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s . T h i s s e e m s to be the case, for e x a m p l e , b o t h in the
use of the F e s t i v a l of W e e k s / O a t h s in the c o n t e x t of c o v e n a n t m a k i n g a n d in

9. See the note in W i n t e r m u t e , OTP, he. ext.

10. For a study o f Levi in Jubilees, see J. C. VanderKam, "jubilees Exegetical Creation
of Levi the Priest," RevQ 17 (1996): 359-73.
1 1 . In a paper entitled "Ritual in Jubilees" presented at the Fourth E n o c h Seminar,
M. A. Daise m a d e an interesting contribution to the issue o f system in the presentation o f
sacrifice in Jubilees, although his approach does not necessarily deal with the question o f
progression that interests m e .

401
David W. Suter

the use of the tithe in the c o n t e x t o f L e v i ' s investiture as priest. T h e i n t r o ­

d u c t i o n of P a s s o v e r at the e n d of the n a r r a t i v e p r o b a b l y reflects the fact that
this festival has s u c h a s t r o n g historic c o n t e x t that it w o u l d be difficult to ex­
12
ercise creative a n a c h r o n i s m in i n c l u d i n g it in the p r a c t i c e of the p a t r i a r c h s .
O n the other h a n d , the p r e s e n t a t i o n of the S a b b a t h in Jubilees is a p u z ­
zle. T h e c e l e b r a t i o n of the festival is first m e n t i o n e d in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the
G a r d e n of E d e n , w h e r e w e are told that the S a b b a t h is a festival i n t e n d e d for
Israel a l o n e , a n d w h e r e the angels of the p r e s e n c e a n d the angels o f sanctifi­
c a t i o n , the t w o h i g h e s t a n g e l i c o r d e r s , are d e p i c t e d as o b s e r v i n g the S a b b a t h
in h e a v e n f r o m the b e g i n n i n g . T h e c o n n e c t i o n o f I s r a e l w i t h the t w o h i g h e s t
o r d e r s of angels is s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e angelic o b s e r v a n c e of the S a b b a t h sug­
gests the m u c h m o r e elaborate S o n g s o f the S a b b a t h Sacrifice f r o m the D e a d
Sea Scrolls, a n d this m a y b e the o n l y p o i n t i n Jubilees w h e r e the celestial
t e m p l e c o m e s into play. T h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , that A d a m a n d E v e
o b s e r v e the S a b b a t h , in spite o f A d a m ' s role in i n i t i a t i n g the priestly cultus
w i t h the m o r n i n g offering o f i n c e n s e , a n d there is n o i n d i c a t i o n o f the o b ­
13
s e r v a n c e o f the S a b b a t h b y the p a t r i a r c h s — a l t h o u g h there is a p p a r e n t l y
an a t t e m p t in 2:24 to l i n k the b l e s s i n g of the S a b b a t h to the b l e s s i n g of the
1 4
seed o f J a c o b . It c o u l d be n o t e d also that A d a m a n d E v e reside in E d e n for a
S a b b a t h of y e a r s ( 3 : 1 5 - 1 6 ) . H o w e v e r , w h i l e the p a s s a g e d e a l i n g w i t h c r e a t i o n
a n d the o b s e r v a n c e o f the S a b b a t h b y the angels i n c l u d e s the S a b b a t h l a w
( 2 : 1 7 - 3 3 ) , the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the S a b b a t h to Israel c o m e s at the v e r y e n d o f
the b o o k , w h e n the festival b e c o m e s the final t h i n g r e v e a l e d to M o s e s in
c h a p . 50 f o l l o w i n g the i n s t i t u t i o n of P a s s o v e r in c h a p . 49. S u c h an a r r a n g e ­
m e n t is p a r t i c u l a r l y c u r i o u s g i v e n the p r o m i n e n c e o f s a b b a t h s of y e a r s in the
c a l e n d r i c a l s y s t e m utilized in J u b i l e e s . T h e selective a n a c h r o n i s m of J u b i l e e s ,
w h i c h reads the sacrificial cultus of the t e m p l e b a c k into the p r a c t i c e of the
p a t r i a r c h , d o e s n o t s e e m to i n c l u d e the o b s e r v a n c e of the S a b b a t h at the h u -

12. However, see the essay in the present volume by B. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , "The Festivals
of Pesah and Massot in the Book o f Jubilees," which convincingly relates Passover in Jub 49
to the seven-day festival in Jub 1 8 : 1 7 - 1 9 resulting from the narrative of the Akedah, leaving us
only with the Sabbath without patriarchal roots.
13. In her study o f the calendar at Q u m r a n , A. Jaubert argues that in Jubilees there is
one day upon which the patriarchs do not travel, which must therefore be the Sabbath (The
Date of the Last Supper [Staten Island, N.Y.: Alba House, 1 9 6 5 ] , 27). Her argument would give
us an implicit rather than an explicit observance in Jubilees of the Sabbath by the patriarchs;
however, after detailed analysis in "A Reexamination o f the Calendar in the Book of Jubilees"
(a paper supplied to the author by A. B a u m g a r t e n ) , J. Kugel and L. Ravid conclude that the
calendar used in Jubilees cannot be interpreted in that way.
14. W i n t e r m u t e , OTP, 2:37 n. z.

402
David W. Suter

the use of the tithe in the c o n t e x t o f L e v i ' s investiture as priest. T h e i n t r o ­

d u c t i o n of P a s s o v e r at the e n d of the n a r r a t i v e p r o b a b l y reflects the fact that
this festival has s u c h a s t r o n g historic c o n t e x t that it w o u l d be difficult to ex­
12
ercise creative a n a c h r o n i s m in i n c l u d i n g it in the p r a c t i c e of the p a t r i a r c h s .
O n the other h a n d , the p r e s e n t a t i o n of the S a b b a t h in Jubilees is a p u z ­
zle. T h e c e l e b r a t i o n of the festival is first m e n t i o n e d in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the
G a r d e n of E d e n , w h e r e w e are told that the S a b b a t h is a festival i n t e n d e d for
Israel a l o n e , a n d w h e r e the angels of the p r e s e n c e a n d the angels o f sanctifi-
c a t i o n , the t w o h i g h e s t a n g e l i c o r d e r s , are d e p i c t e d as o b s e r v i n g the S a b b a t h
in h e a v e n f r o m the b e g i n n i n g . T h e c o n n e c t i o n o f I s r a e l w i t h the t w o h i g h e s t
o r d e r s of angels is s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e angelic o b s e r v a n c e of the S a b b a t h sug­
gests the m u c h m o r e elaborate S o n g s o f the S a b b a t h Sacrifice f r o m the D e a d
Sea Scrolls, a n d this m a y b e the o n l y p o i n t i n Jubilees w h e r e the celestial
t e m p l e c o m e s into play. T h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , that A d a m a n d E v e
o b s e r v e the S a b b a t h , in spite o f A d a m ' s role in i n i t i a t i n g the priestly cultus
w i t h the m o r n i n g offering o f i n c e n s e , a n d there is n o i n d i c a t i o n o f the o b ­
13
s e r v a n c e o f the S a b b a t h b y the p a t r i a r c h s — a l t h o u g h there is a p p a r e n t l y
an a t t e m p t in 2:24 to l i n k the b l e s s i n g of the S a b b a t h to the b l e s s i n g of the
1 4
seed o f J a c o b . It c o u l d be n o t e d also that A d a m a n d E v e reside in E d e n for a
S a b b a t h of y e a r s ( 3 : 1 5 - 1 6 ) . H o w e v e r , w h i l e the p a s s a g e d e a l i n g w i t h c r e a t i o n
a n d the o b s e r v a n c e o f the S a b b a t h b y the angels i n c l u d e s the S a b b a t h l a w
( 2 : 1 7 - 3 3 ) , the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the S a b b a t h to Israel c o m e s at the v e r y e n d o f
the b o o k , w h e n the festival b e c o m e s the final t h i n g r e v e a l e d to M o s e s in
c h a p . 50 f o l l o w i n g the i n s t i t u t i o n of P a s s o v e r in c h a p . 49. S u c h an a r r a n g e ­
m e n t is p a r t i c u l a r l y c u r i o u s g i v e n the p r o m i n e n c e o f s a b b a t h s of y e a r s in the
c a l e n d r i c a l s y s t e m utilized in J u b i l e e s . T h e selective a n a c h r o n i s m of J u b i l e e s ,
w h i c h reads the sacrificial cultus of the t e m p l e b a c k into the p r a c t i c e of the
p a t r i a r c h , d o e s n o t s e e m to i n c l u d e the o b s e r v a n c e of the S a b b a t h at the h u -

12. However, see the essay in the present volume by B. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , "The Festivals
of Pesah and Massot in the Book o f Jubilees," which convincingly relates Passover in Jub 49
to the seven-day festival in Jub 1 8 : 1 7 - 1 9 resulting from the narrative of the Akedah, leaving us
only with the Sabbath without patriarchal roots.
13. In her study o f the calendar at Q u m r a n , A. Jaubert argues that in Jubilees there is
one day upon which the patriarchs do not travel, which must therefore be the Sabbath (The
Date of the Last Supper [Staten Island, N.Y.: Alba House, 1 9 6 5 ] , 27). Her argument would give
us an implicit rather than an explicit observance in Jubilees of the Sabbath by the patriarchs;
however, after detailed analysis in "A Reexamination o f the Calendar in the Book of Jubilees'
(a paper supplied to the author by A. B a u m g a r t e n ) , J. Kugel and L. Ravid conclude that the
calendar used in Jubilees cannot be interpreted in that way.
14. W i n t e r m u t e , OTP, 2:37 n. z.

402
David W. Suter

pie to be built on Mount Zion by God's hands at the end of days. The Apoca­
lypse of Weeks in 1 Enoch is similar to the Animal Apocalypse. It treats the
generation of the restoration as an apostate generation, does not mention
the second temple at all, and anticipates God's building the eschatological
temple at the end of days.
Although there is no direct reference to Jeremiah's prophecy in Jubi­
lees, the book reflects the same understanding of the second temple and the
eschatological temple that appears in the Animal Apocalypse and the Apoc­
alypse of Weeks in 1 Enoch. In Jub 1, the restoration of the temple on Mount
Zion is treated as an eschatological rather than a "historical" event. The pres­
ent of the writer is one of the sons of Israel going astray among the Gentiles.
He anticipates the time when Israel, among the Gentiles, will repent and be
restored to the land, and when God will create a clean heart within them for
all eternity. Twice it is said that God will build his sanctuary on Mount Zion
for all eternity. With the rebuilding of the temple, God will be king on
Mount Zion for all eternity. The heavenly bodies will be renewed for peace
and blessing, and God will defend his people from the Gentiles. While it is
possible to read the passage as referring to the restoration of the second tem­
ple, its general tenor is eschatological, written during the time of the second
temple with the implication that the restoration is yet to happen.
Beyond chap. 1, Knibb finds this treatment of the second temple and
the eschatological temple implied elsewhere in Jubilees. In Rebecca's blessing
of Jacob in 2 5 : 1 4 - 2 2 , the matriarch prays that God will dwell with his people
and that his sanctuary will be built in their midst for all ages (see 25:21b).
The eschatological passage in Jub 23:8-32 asserts that the "evil generation" of
v. 14 will "defile the holy of holies through the impure corruption of their
1 6
contamination" (v. 2 1 ) . The reference to defiling the Holy of Holies Knibb
takes as implicating the high priest in the corruption. He interprets the cor­
ruption as involving illegitimate marriages, implied by the allusion to sexual
impurity (reflecting the Hebrew zenuth) and contamination in w . 1 4 and 21
(cf. Jub 30:15, where the author warns that marriages with foreigners will de­
file the Lord's sanctuary). Knibb relates the polemic to the one in the Book
17
of the Watchers in 1 Enoch and observes that Jubilees reflects the perspec­
18
tive of dissident priests opposed to the Jerusalemite priesdy establishment.

16. Knibb, "Temple and Cult," 410.

17. See my study of the polemic in D. W. Suter, "Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest: The Prob­
lem of Family Purity in 1 Enoch 6-16," HUCA 50 (1979): 115-35.
18. Knibb, "Temple and Cult," 409-10.

404
 Jubilees, the Temple, and the Aaronite Priesthood

Jubilees thus affirms the sanctity of Mount Zion, which it sees as primordi-
ally established and eschatologically predestined. However, it questions the
legitimacy of its current priesthood and consequently of the current temple
occupying that site.
In sorting out the role of Mount Zion in the book, one must take ac­
count of the fact that Jubilees seems to recognize a multiplicity of sanctuar­
19
ies. In the passage that pictures Enoch offering the evening incense, there
are four: Mount Sinai, Mount Zion, Eden, and the mountain of the east,
which will be places where God dwells at the end of days — an eschatologi­
cal idea. Jub 8:19, on the other hand, mentions the existence of three sanctu­
aries from creation, which will become part of the territory of Shem in the
division of land among the sons of Noah. They are the Garden of Eden,
Mount Sinai, and Mount Zion. Eden is treated as the Holy of Holies, the
dwelling place of God; Sinai as the center of the desert; and Zion as the navel
of the earth. The three places face each another, and the concept may be that
the three are the debt, the hekhal, and the 'ulam of one temple. Clearly Jubi­
lees reflects a certain degree of creativeness in working with the Deuterono­
mistic one-sanctuary rule. The passage in chap. 49 dealing with the Passover
as a temple festival emphasizes the role of the tabernacle located at various
places in the land as an anticipation of the temple on Mount Zion in Jerusa­
lem. Perhaps the intent is to reconcile the multiplicity of places mentioned
in the Torah as dwelling places of God with the centrality of Zion.

It is also possible that the creativity reflected here needs to be coupled

with the roles of the antediluvians and the patriarchs in the evolution of
priestly sacrifice as an indication that Jubilees is seeking to make a statement
not about the priestly role of the laity who are contemporaries of the
20
writer but about the role of priesthood, temple, and sacrifice as fundamen­
tal to the order of creation. Here we can note George Brooke's discussion of
the ten temples of the Qumran literature, which would appear to support a
cosmological significance of the idea of temple in Jubilees by treating Eden
21
in that work as "the primordial temple." For Brooke, the fact that Adam
and Eve are brought into the Garden of Eden forty and eighty days after their

19. It also appears to reject one location, Bethel, as a sanctuary. See J. Schwartz, "Jubi­
lees, Bethel, and the Temple of Jacob," HUCA 56 (1985): 63-85.
20. See M. Himmelfarb, '"A Kingdom of Priests': The Democratization of the Priest­
hood in the Literature of Second Temple Judaism," Journal ofJewish Thought and Philosophy
6 (1997): 89-104.
21. G. J. Brooke, "The Ten Temples in the Dead Sea Scrolls," in Temple and Worship in
Biblical Israel, ed. J. Day (London and New York: T. 8t T. Clark, 2005), 417-32 (here 419-21).

405
David W. Suter

c r e a t i o n s e e m s to b e n o t so m u c h an a n t i c i p a t i o n of the rules in L e v 1 2 : 2 - 5
r e g a r d i n g the p e r i o d s o f p u r i f i c a t i o n after c h i l d b i r t h to be o b s e r v e d b y a
w o m a n b e f o r e e n t e r i n g the s a n c t u a r y , as it is the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f those
r u l e s . C i t i n g C . T. R . H a y w a r d , he o b s e r v e s that "this i n d i c a t e s that a s a n c t u ­
ary w a s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f c r e a t i o n itself f r o m the outset a n d that it ' h a s a
22
g o o d deal to do w i t h the c o n t i n u i n g stability a n d o r d e r of c r e a t i o n . ' " In
a d d i t i o n to a c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d cultic i d e a l , h o w e v e r , B r o o k e suggests that
the role of E d e n as a p r i m o r d i a l t e m p l e has a p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e in the
early M a c c a b e a n p e r i o d : " T h e a u t h o r of Jubilees m a y . . . have h a d a sense o f
the p o l i t i c a l a g e n d a o f the M a c c a b e e s after the defeat o f the S e l e u c i d s . . . .
T h e s a n c t i f i c a t i o n o f E d e n is a d i v i n e g u a r a n t e e of the p o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n o f
the w o r l d into three s e c t i o n s w i t h the d e s c e n d a n t s of S h e m , n o t the G r e e k s ,
2 3
clearly the rightful heirs o f the l a n d of Israel (Jub. 8 : i o - 2 i ) . " James Scott
also gives a g e o p o l i t i c a l twist to the role of the s a n c t u a r i e s in J u b i l e e s in his
s t u d y o f the a p p r o p r i a t i o n in J u b 8-9 o f the table of n a t i o n s i n G e n 1 0 , al­
t h o u g h he m a k e s Z i o n r a t h e r t h a n E d e n the focal p o i n t o f the f o u r s a n c t u a r ­
ies a n d suggests that J u b i l e e s anticipates that o n e d a y Z i o n , the " n a v e l of the
2 4
earth" ( J u b 8 : 1 9 ) , r a t h e r t h a n G r e e c e , w i l l rule the earth (see J u b 2 2 : 1 1 - 1 4 ) .
U n l i k e the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s in 1 E n o c h , w h i c h p l a y s u p o n the a n t a g o ­
2 5
nism of Jerusalem and D a n , J u b i l e e s creates a h a r m o n i z a t i o n o f s a c r e d
s p a c e to p r e s e n t a v i e w o f the e a r t h that is at o n c e s a c e r d o t a l a n d p o l i t i c a l i n
character. In c o n t r a s t to the o n e - s a n c t u a r y rule o f the D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c tra­
d i t i o n , w h i c h l i m i t s s a c r e d s p a c e to o n e g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n , J u b i l e e s
26
i m a g i n e s the earth as suffused w i t h s a n c t i t y .

O n e final twist in the s a c e r d o t a l p e r s p e c t i v e of Jubilees is the role o f

the p r a c t i c e o f r i t u a l p u r i t y in the b o o k . G i v e n the s i g n i f i c a n c e of r i t u a l p u ­
r i t y in the s e c t a r i a n literature of the p e r i o d , its relative a b s e n c e f r o m J u b i l e e s
is r e m a r k a b l e . L i o r a R a v i d has a r g u e d that the a b s e n c e of a c o n c e r n for r i t u a l
p u r i t y i n the b o o k is i n d i c a t i v e of a p o l e m i c in the w o r k against the Z a d o k i t e

22. Brooke, "The Ten Temples," 419. See C. T. R. Hayward, The Jewish Temple: A Non-
Biblical Sourcebook (London and New York: Routledge, 1996), 86.
23. Brooke, "The Ten Temples," 420.
24. J. M. Scott, Geography in Early Judaism and Christianity: The Book of Jubilees, ed.
R. Bauckham, SNTSMS (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2 0 0 2 ) , 32-35.
25. See D. W. Suter, "Why Galilee? Galilean Regionalism in the Interpretation o f
1 Enoch 6 - 1 6 , " Hen 25 (2003): 167-212 (here 178-79 and 2 0 1 - 5 ) .
26. Here contrast the conclusion reached by Larson in "Worship in Jubilees and
Enoch," that "the author manages to indicate that the true intent o f God is to limit the places
that are acceptable to God for ritual worship."

406
 Jubilees, the Temple, and the Aaronite Priesthood

2 7
priesthood, w h i l e J a m e s V a n d e r K a m r e s p o n d s that J u b i l e e s is a retelling o f
G e n e s i s , so that the n a r r a t i v e antedates the r e v e l a t i o n of s u c h r u l e s to M o s e s
28
at M o u n t S i n a i a n d the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the t a b e r n a c l e . Its a b s e n c e f r o m
the c o n c e r n s of J u b i l e e s t h u s is n o i n d i c a t i o n o f the i m p o r t a n c e of the c o n ­
cern for the m a i n t e n a n c e o f p u r i t y for the a u t h o r of the b o o k b u t r a t h e r is
the c o n s e q u e n c e of the lack of a t e m p l e in that p e r i o d to w h i c h the rules of
p u r i t y m i g h t refer.
H o w e v e r , w h i l e it m a y be c o r r e c t to a r g u e that the a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s
has s i m p l y c h o s e n to o m i t the p u r i t y r e g u l a t i o n s of L e v i t i c u s f r o m his selec­
tive a n a c h r o n i s m , it is p r o b a b l y better n o t to tie that o m i s s i o n to the l a c k of
a s a n c t u a r y in the p a t r i a r c h a l p e r i o d to w h i c h the r e g u l a t i o n s m i g h t apply.
In effect, the a u t h o r ' s selective a n a c h r o n i s m h a s i n c l u d e d e l e m e n t s o f the
t e m p l e — its sacrificial c u l t u s a n d its s y s t e m o f festivals — in the p a t r i a r c h a l
p e r i o d , a n d it s e e m s n e c e s s a r y to ask w h y the p u r i t y r e g u l a t i o n s w o u l d n o t
a p p l y b y e x t e n s i o n to the t e m p l e s e r v i c e as to the s a n c t u a r y itself. A t the
s a m e t i m e , it is w o r t h n o t i n g that the c o n c e p t o f s a n c t u a r y i n J u b i l e e s is n o t
spatially a n d t e m p o r a l l y defined in quite the s a m e w a y it is in the T o r a h o r
the T e m p l e S c r o l l , w h e r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in the latter case, the t e m p l e s e e m s to
b e i n t e n d e d to b e isolated f r o m the w o r l d a r o u n d it. In J u b i l e e s , s a n c t u a r i e s
— E d e n , S i n a i , Z i o n , a n d the m o u n t a i n of the east — are r o o t e d in the b e ­
g i n n i n g a n d the e n d . T h e y are p a r t of the o r d e r of c r e a t i o n as w e l l as the o r ­
der of the n e w c r e a t i o n at the e n d of d a y s . T h e i r p u r p o s e is the s a n c t i f i c a t i o n
of the entire e a r t h . T h e r i t u a l p r a c t i c e of the p a t r i a r c h s s h o u l d be seen as a
p a r t of that o r d e r in that it a d a p t s e l e m e n t s of the t e m p l e s e r v i c e to a p e r i o d
in w h i c h n o t e m p l e a c t u a l l y exists. T h e i m p l i c a t i o n m a y b e that s a n c t u a r i e s
do n o t r e q u i r e t e m p l e s to sanctify the earth; the s e r v i c e itself w i l l suffice.

Actually, it w o u l d be a m i s t a k e to a r g u e that p u r i t y c o n c e r n s are absent

f r o m Jubilees. T h e b o o k d o e s n o t for the m o s t p a r t read the rules of ritual p u ­
rity b a c k into the w o r l d o f the p a t r i a r c h s in the s a m e w a y that it d o e s the
priestly sacrificial p r a c t i c e . A s w e have o b s e r v e d , h o w e v e r , it d o e s treat the
G a r d e n o f E d e n as a s a n c t u a r y , u s i n g it to c o n n e c t the p u r i f i c a t i o n p e r i o d for
a m o t h e r after c h i l d b i r t h to enter the s a n c t u a r y to the p e r i o d s after their cre­
ation w h e n A d a m a n d Eve are i n t r o d u c e d to the g a r d e n . It m i g h t be better to
suggest that Jubilees s i m p l y is n o t o b s e s s e d w i t h ritual i m p u r i t y , or rather
that the k i n d of i m p u r i t y w i t h w h i c h it is o b s e s s e d is that w h i c h c o m e s f r o m

27. L. Ravid, "Purity and Impurity in the B o o k of Jubilees," JSP 13 (2002): 61-86.
28. J. C. VanderKam, "Viewed from Another Angle: Purity and Impurity in the Book
o f Jubilees," JSP 13 (2002): 2 0 9 - 1 5 .

407
David W. Suter

m a r r i a g e s to G e n t i l e s . T h e b o o k takes several o c c a s i o n s to w a r n against such

m a r r i a g e s , a n d at o n e p o i n t m a r r i a g e to a n o n - I s r a e l i t e is d e s c r i b e d as h a v i n g
the p o t e n t i a l to pollute the s a n c t u a r y ( J u b 3 0 : 1 5 - 1 6 ) . L e v i is a p p r o v e d as priest
in Jubilees b e c a u s e of his zeal a n d v i o l e n c e in acting to p r e v e n t the m a r r i a g e
of his sister D i n a h to the C a n a a n i t e S h e c h e m ( J u b 3 0 : 1 8 - 2 0 ) , a d e v e l o p m e n t
in s h a r p contrast to G e n e s i s , w h i c h has n o such o r d i n a t i o n scene, a n d w h i c h
c o n d e m n s L e v i a n d S i m e o n for their v i o l e n t act (see G e n 34:30 a n d 4 9 : 5 - 7 ) .
W h i l e there are differences b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the early E n o c h literature
over interest in the sacrificial cultus of the t e m p l e and in a p p r o a c h to the c o n ­
cept of s a n c t u a r i e s , the t w o b o d i e s of literature s e e m to share a c o n c e r n w i t h
i m p r o p e r m a r r i a g e s if the m y t h of the fallen angels in the B o o k of the
W a t c h e r s is seen as a p o l e m i c directed t o w a r d priestly m a r r i a g e s .

In this c o n t e x t w e s h o u l d n o t e that L u t z D o e r i n g ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n to the

p r e s e n t v o l u m e deals in s i g n i f i c a n t detail w i t h the c o m p l e x i t y o f the issue o f
p u r i t y a n d i m p u r i t y in J u b i l e e s , e m p h a s i z i n g the a s c e n d a n c y o f w h a t he
2 9
t e r m s " m o r a l " p u r i t y o v e r " r i t u a l " p u r i t y in that b o o k . H e c o n c l u d e s quite
c o r r e c t l y ( j u d g i n g b y m y c o n c l u s i o n that the p r i e s t l y p o r t r a i t o f E n o c h in
J u b 4 is n o t d e r i v e d f r o m the E n o c h t r a d i t i o n ) that " T h e l i n k s w i t h E n o c h i c
t r a d i t i o n are m o r e l i m i t e d in r a n g e , relating to the field of ' m o r a l ' i m p u r i t y :
the a d o p t i o n o f W a t c h e r m y t h , d e a l i n g w i t h s e x u a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n , b l o o d ­
s h e d , a n d i d o l a t r y ; a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s in the e x p e c t a t i o n of an earth c l e a n s e d of
3 0
i m p u r i t y ( J u b 50:5; 1 E n 1 0 : 2 0 , 2 2 ) . "
In the final a n a l y s i s , R a v i d ' s a r g u m e n t r e g a r d i n g the l a w s of p u r i t y in
J u b i l e e s is n o t so easily d i s m i s s e d . W h a t she d e m o n s t r a t e s is n o t the absence
of the laws of i m p u r i t y but the presence o f a fairly r o b u s t system of sanctifi­
c a t i o n b a s e d u p o n the l a w s w r i t t e n in the h e a v e n l y tablets. K e y to this system
is the c o n c e p t o f m e t a p h y s i c a l i m p u r i t y in J u b i l e e s , w h i c h i n v o l v e s n o t j u s t
the m i x t u r e of J e w a n d G e n t i l e t h r o u g h i n t e r m a r r i a g e b u t the c o n f u s i o n o f
J e w i s h a n d G r e e k c i v i l i z a t i o n , a sin o f w h i c h the a u t h o r s e e m s to h o l d the
Z a d o k i t e s guilty. I n s t e a d of rituals o f p u r i f i c a t i o n b y b a t h i n g , R a v i d finds in
J u b i l e e s p r o c e s s e s o f s a n c t i f i c a t i o n i n v o l v e d in a p p r o a c h i n g a n d l e a v i n g an
altar o r h o l y p l a c e (cf. J u b 2 1 : 1 6 ) . T h i s system a n d these l a w s h o l d s w a y as
m u c h for the p a t r i a r c h s as for later g e n e r a t i o n s . T h e a b s e n c e o f certain clas­
sifications of p u r i t y laws a n d her a r g u m e n t for a c r i t i q u e in Jubilees n o t o f

29. Doering's categories are based upon J. Klawans, Impurity and Sin in Ancient Juda­
ism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2 0 0 0 ) .
3 0 . Doering, "Purity and Impurity in the Book o f Jubilees." C o m p a r e Loader, "Jubi­
lees and Sexual Transgression."

408
 Jubilees, the Temple, and the Aaronite Priesthood

the p r i e s t h o o d per se b u t o f the Z a d o k i t e s in p a r t i c u l a r b a s e d u p o n this s y s ­

tem of s a n c t i f i c a t i o n t h u s raise a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m that d e s e r v e s further dis­
c u s s i o n . T h e critiques o f her w o r k b y V a n d e r K a m a n d D o e r i n g s h o u l d go
further in r e c o g n i z i n g the c o n c e p t u a l difference in u n d e r s t a n d i n g the issue
of p u r i t y a n d i m p u r i t y i m p l i e d b y her a r g u m e n t for a s y s t e m o f sanctifica­
t i o n in J u b i l e e s . T h e y also n e e d to e x p l o r e further the c o n u n d r u m p o s e d b y
the selective use of a n a c h r o n i s m in J u b i l e e s , w h i c h reads the sacrificial p r a c ­
tice a n d festivals of the t e m p l e b a c k into the w o r l d o f the p a t r i a r c h s m o r e so
31
t h a n its system o f ritual p u r i t y . W i t h the extensive use o f a n a c h r o n i s m on
the p a r t of the a u t h o r , it is n o t e n o u g h to a r g u e , as D o e r i n g d o e s , that " T o
e x p e c t ritual ( i m ) p u r i t y g e n e r a l l y in ' p r e - T e m p l e ' n a r r a t i v e contexts w o u l d
b e a n a c h r o n i s t i c in the p e r s p e c t i v e of Jubilees."

Conclusions

T h i s s t u d y c o n f i r m s m y c o n c l u s i o n in " T e m p l e s a n d the T e m p l e in the E a r l y

E n o c h T r a d i t i o n " that the role o f E n o c h in Jubilees as a priest offering i n ­
cense in a s a n c t u a r y reflects a r e d a c t i o n a l c o n c e r n o f the a u t h o r o f Jubilees
a n d s h o u l d therefore b e left o u t of a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t e m p l e , cult, a n d
p r i e s t h o o d in the early E n o c h t r a d i t i o n . T h e study, h o w e v e r , a l l o w s m e to re­
fine to s o m e d e g r e e m y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the role of E n o c h in the
r e d a c t i o n a l c o n c e r n s o f J u b i l e e s . T h e sage a n d s c r i b e m a k e s m o r e t h a n a
c a m e o a p p e a r a n c e in Jubilees as a priest offering i n c e n s e in the e v e n i n g . H e
is also cited twice at c r u c i a l p o i n t s in the n a r r a t i v e as the a u t h o r of a b o o k
that represents a k e y s o u r c e of a u t h o r i t y o n sacrificial p r a c t i c e . A l t h o u g h his
role is s m a l l in t e r m s o f the lines a s s i g n e d to h i m , so to speak, it is central to
the p r o c e s s o f selective a n d creative a n a c h r o n i s m that the a u t h o r of Jubilees
uses to read the sacrifices a n d the festivals of the t e m p l e b a c k i n t o the n a r r a ­
tive of the p a t r i a r c h s . T h i s difference b e t w e e n the early E n o c h literature in­
c l u d e d in 1 E n o c h a n d Jubilees n e e d s to b e taken as a starting p o i n t in a n y ef­
fort to d e v e l o p an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the p o r t r a i t of E n o c h in J u b i l e e s . In
J u b i l e e s , E n o c h is p a r t of a s y s t e m of s i g n i f i c a t i o n i n v o l v i n g a r e s t a t e m e n t of
the roles o f priest, t e m p l e , a n d cultus in Israel. T h a t system m u s t be u n d e r ­
s t o o d first of all o n the basis of clues f o u n d w i t h i n the text o f Jubilees itself
r a t h e r t h a n o n the basis o f s y s t e m s i m p o r t e d f r o m o t h e r literature of the p e -

31. Note here Loader, "Jubilees and Sexual Transgression," who seems to recognize the
limits o f anachronism.

409
David W. Suter

riod. The problem is that the writer's clever use of selective anachronism
makes it difficult to reconstruct that system.
In Jubilees, Enoch is presented for the first time as an authority on sac­
rifice, and the book presents sanctuaries and temple service as essential to
the stability of the created order. The selective anachronism of the narrative
32
portrays Israel as a nation of priests whose presence and rule in the navel
of the earth, the land of Israel, are essential to universal order. At the same
time, this nation of priests will be served by a Levitical priesthood of ritual
specialists whose role is reflected in the blessing and investiture of Levi as
priest. The ultimate vision of the book sees this order inherent in creation
with the inclusion of sanctuaries of Eden, Zion, and Sinai in the created or­
der, and it anticipates the restoration of that order with the appearance of
the eschatological temple on Mount Zion, built by the hand of God.

32. Himmelfarb, "A Kingdom of Priests," 89-104.

410
Jubilees and Enochic Judaism

David R. Jackson

Jubilees (ca. 1 6 0 - 1 5 0 B . C . E . ) refers to and uses writings attributed to E n o c h

1
(including B W , A B , B D , and E E ) as authentic and authoritative divine reve­
2
lations. T h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t ( C D - A 1 6 : 1 - 6 ) , in turn, refers to and uses
3
Jubilees as a w o r k having divine authority and authenticity. T h e s e two d o c ­

uments create a direct chain of authority and declare their allegiances to

these E n o c h texts, w h i c h gives us, at least in skeletal f o r m , an observable his­

torical entity to which the label of E n o c h i c Judaism has been applied. T h e

data that identifies the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t as belonging to the Q u m r a n

sectarian texts gives us in turn a p r i m a facie basis on w h i c h to attempt to

"connect the dots."

Immediately w e face the difficulty that in this chain of texts w e are also

dealing with significant diversity within second temple Judaism. Nickles-

1. Respectively, the Book o f the Watchers; the Astronomical Book, being 1 En 7 2 - 8 2 ,

noting that the A r a m a i c texts (4Q208-211) represent a m o r e extensive body o f work; the
B o o k o f Dreams; and the Epistle o f E n o c h .
2. J . C . V a n d e r K a m , "Enoch Traditions in Jubilees a n d O t h e r S e c o n d - C e n t u r y
Sources," in S B L S P 1 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1978), 229-51, found that Jubilees used elements
o f B W (including 1 E n 1 - 5 ) , the A B , the BD, and the E E as well as other sources. G. W. E .
Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1: A Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch, Chapters 1-36; 81-108 (Minne­
apolis: Fortress, 2001), 7 2 - 7 3 , concluded that Jubilees used BW, B D (at least the Animal
Apocalypse [ A A ] ) , AW (Apocalypse o f Weeks), and A B , including particularly 81:1-82:4.
3. See Shemesh's discussion o f the significance o f 4Q265 for Jubilees' canonical status
at Q u m r a n . Aharon Shemesh, "4Q265 and the Authoritative Status o f Jubilees at Q u m r a n , "
in this volume.

411
David R. Jackson

b u r g has o b s e r v e d that J u b i l e e s " m a y b e the earliest attestation o f the E n o c h

4
t r a d i t i o n s a p a r t f r o m the E n o c h i c c o r p u s itself." A s s u c h , it offers a signifi­
cant starting p o i n t f r o m w h i c h to b e g i n to investigate the d e v e l o p m e n t o f
this t r a d i t i o n .

The Enochic Paradigm and Exemplars

l E n 1 - 5 f u n c t i o n s as an i n t r o d u c t i o n to the B W . F r o m the o p e n i n g chapter,

the a u t h o r presents a p a r e n e s i s m a k i n g the e x c l u s i v e c l a i m that o n l y those
who f o l l o w the t e a c h i n g of this b o o k , o u t o f all h u m a n i t y , w i l l b e s a v e d o n
5
"the d a y o f t r i b u l a t i o n " ( 1 : 1 - 2 , 8 - 9 ) . T h e rest are d e e m e d to h a v e " g o n e
6
astray" (5:4-9) a n d t h u s to i n c u r d e s t r u c t i o n .
7
T h e p a r a d i g m e n u n c i a t e d in 1 E n 2 - 5 presents an e x t r e m e u n d e r s t a n d ­
i n g o f the character of G o d as essentially a n d necessarily regular, orderly, a n d
consistent i n v o l v i n g absolute reliability, predictability, a n d s y m m e t r y i n all
his w o r k s a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s . Scott m a k e s the o b s e r v a t i o n that this t r a d i t i o n
a s s u m e s s o m e t h i n g of "a r u d i m e n t a r y ' u n i f i e d field theory,' the ancient
e q u i v a l e n t of the quest of m o d e r n p h y s i c s to find an u n d e r l y i n g b e a u t y o f
8
m a t h e m a t i c a l s y m m e t r y a n d h a r m o n y in the o r d e r of the u n i v e r s e . " T h e
w r i t e r of Jubilees m a y fairly be said to h a v e a p p l i e d this p a r a d i g m w i t h o b s e s ­
9
sive r i g o r in an a t t e m p t to integrate it w i t h the n a r r a t i v e o f the T o r a h . In d o ­
i n g so, he m a d e a substantial c o n t r i b u t i o n to an e x p o n e n t i a l a g e n d a a d d r e s s ­
i n g other w o r k s that c a m e to constitute the T a n a k h , p r o d u c i n g T e s t a m e n t s ,
h a l a k i c studies (e.g., 1 1 Q T ) , p e s h e r i m , a n d other w o r k s that, like J u b i l e e s , at­
1 0
t e m p t e d to integrate this p e r s p e c t i v e w i t h n a r r a t i v e sections of the T a n a k h .

4. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 72.

5. All citations o f 1 Enoch are taken from G. W. E. Nickelsburg and J. C. VanderKam,
1 Enoch: A New Translation Based on the Hermeneia Commentary (Minneapolis: Fortress,
2004).
2 : 1
6. Cf. also 22:9-14; 80:4-10; 82:4-8; 83:8-10; 84:4-6; 90:26-27, 30-37; 91:4, 18-19; 9 ;
93:1-2, 9 - 1 0 , 1 2 ; 94:1-5, 1 1 ; 95:2-3; 95:7-96:4; 96:8-97:6; 98:1-99:3, 1 0 , 14; 100:5, 9; 1 0 2 : 1 0 - 1 1 ;
1 0 : l
103:14-15; 104:6, 1 0 - 1 3 ; 7 ; 108:6.
7. See discussion in D. R. Jackson, Enochic Judaism: Three Defining Paradigm Exem­
plars (London: T. & T. Clark, 2004), 15-28.
8. J. M. Scott, On Earth as in Heaven: The Restoration of Sacred Time and Sacred Space
in the Book of Jubilees (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 222.
9. Cf. the discussion in Karoly Dobos, "The Consolation of History," Hen 31, no. 1
(2009).
10. He was not alone in doing so (cf. Genesis Apocryphon; Aramaic Levi; Cairo

412
 Jubilees and Enochic Judaism

O u t o f this p a r a d i g m w e o b s e r v e the d e v e l o p m e n t of a s p e c i a l v o c a b u ­
l a r y that e x p r e s s e d an absolute level of a p p r o v a l or d i s a p p r o v a l . T h e s e t e r m s
(e.g., " g o i n g a s t r a y " ) , in a n o t h e r s y s t e m , m i g h t b e p a s s e d over as i n c i d e n t a l
c o n v e n t i o n a l labels. W i t h i n the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m , they e x p r e s s e d the ulti­
m a t e level of c a t e g o r i z a t i o n .
In the Active s c e n a r i o o f l E n 1 - 5 , E n o c h is g i v e n a v i s i o n a n d told
w h a t w i l l h a p p e n in the f u t u r e . G o d ' s created o r d e r w o u l d b e v i o l a t e d , es­
t a b l i s h i n g the n e e d for G o d to c o m e d o w n to M o u n t S i n a i a n d restore it.
T h e b l a m e for this d e v i a t i o n here falls u p o n h u m a n i t y . It is s i g n i f i c a n t that
the p h e n o m e n a cited h a v e r e l e v a n c e for the c a l e n d a r . E n o c h ' s t o u r s of the
h e a v e n s as stated in 1 2 : 1 - 2 , 3 3 : 3 - 4 i n v o l v e d h a v i n g access to the b l u e p r i n t s of
G o d ' s d e s i g n for c o s m i c o r d e r a n d r e g u l a r i t y . T h i s c o n s t i t u t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t
b o d y o f E n o c h ' s t e a c h i n g s w h e n he r e t u r n e d to his f a m i l y ( 1 E n 8i:6ff.; J u b
4:21-23).
N e v e r t h e l e s s , the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m w a s n e v e r c o n s t r u c t e d o n the b a ­
sis of o b s e r v e d reality. R a t h e r , it w a s an a p r i o r i l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t b a s e d u p o n
an intensified u n d e r s t a n d i n g of G o d ' s character. A s s u c h , to b e b o t h defensi­
ble a n d useful, the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m h a d to resolve the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n
G o d ' s character, his c o m m i t m e n t s to his c h o s e n p e o p l e , a n d the realities o f
the J e w i s h e x p e r i e n c e u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g the a u t h o r ' s g e n e r a t i o n , a n d so
p r e d i c t a n d i n t e r p r e t the r e s o l u t i o n o f these e x p e r i e n c e s . T h i s w a s a c c o m ­
1 1
p l i s h e d b y m e a n s o f the f o r m u l a t i o n of three p a r a d i g m e x e m p l a r s based
o n the events d e s c r i b e d in G e n 6 : 1 - 4 , w h i c h I h a v e t e r m e d , respectively, the
Shemikhazah, 'Aza'el, and cosmic exemplars.
I d e n t i f y i n g G e n 6 : 1 - 4 as the p o i n t in h i s t o r y w h e r e the c r e a t e d o r d e r
( n o t j u s t h u m a n i t y ) w e n t astray, these three e x e m p l a r s s e r v e d to v i e w a n d
i n t e r p r e t t h a t e v e n t ( a n d its i n i t i a l r e s o l u t i o n c l i m a x i n g in the N o a c h i c
f l o o d ) f r o m t h r e e i n t e r l o c k i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s . H e r e i n lies the b e n e f i t o f see­
i n g these as p a r a d i g m e x e m p l a r s r a t h e r t h a n in t e r m s of the e t i o l o g y of
evil or as t y p o l o g i e s . R e e d n o t e s the l a c k o f e t i o l o g y b e t w e e n p r e - a n d
p o s t d i l u v i a n e v e n t s in J u b i l e e s b u t t e r m s it a " r e c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g " of the
a n g e l i c d e s c e n t . U n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m , t h e y w o u l d be
e n t i r e l y p r e d i c t a b l e replications demonstrating the v a l i d i t y of the para-

Genizah Testament of Levi). See E. Eshel's discussion in this volume, "The Aramaic Levi
D o c u m e n t , the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n , and Jubilees: A Study of Shared Traditions."
1 1 . Paradigm exemplars are ways o f demonstrating that the paradigm works. They
serve both to establish the theory and to suggest applications in which the theory might be
replicated or applied. See T h o m a s S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2 n d ed.
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1 9 7 0 ) , 186-91.

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David R. Jackson

1 2
digm exemplars. E t i o l o g i e s define c a u s e s b u t d o n ' t n e c e s s a r i l y p r o d u c e
s o l u t i o n s . T y p o l o g i e s p r e d i c t o u t c o m e s r e s u l t i n g in p r o c l a m a t i o n . E x e m ­
plars demonstrate h o w a paradigmatic understanding of events can p r o ­
d u c e a r e p l i c a b l e s o l u t i o n to a p r o b l e m , a n d so p r o d u c e p a r e n e s i s . A s s u c h ,
the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m c r e a t e d a m e t h o d o l o g y r a t h e r t h a n j u s t a m y t h .
We can illustrate this b y n o t i n g the w a y in w h i c h the p r e d i l u v i a n d e v i a ­
tion ( J u b 5:2) e n d e d , o n the other side of the f l o o d , w i t h a c o m p l e t e restora­
tion of p u r i t y a n d order ( J u b 5:12; cf. 1 E n 1 0 : 2 0 - 1 1 : 2 ) o n earth, e x t e n d i n g even
to the b i o l o g i c a l p u r i f i c a t i o n of the a n i m a l s . T h i s in t u r n is p r o m i s s o r y o f a
final e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p u r i f i c a t i o n that w i l l last for all g e n e r a t i o n s ( J u b 4 : 1 6 ) . I n
the s a m e w a y J u b i l e e s ' r e c o u n t i n g o f p o s t d i l u v i a n h i s t o r y b r i n g s G o d ' s p e o p l e
into a n o t h e r n e w E d e n w h e r e t h e y will b e c o m e a n o t h e r p l a n t a t i o n of r i g h ­
teousness as they o c c u p y the P r o m i s e d L a n d in the Jubilee o f Jubilees. E a c h
n e w b e g i n n i n g , f o l l o w e d b y a n o t h e r " g o i n g astray" a n d a n o t h e r r e s c u e d r e m ­
n a n t , f o r m s a pattern that can b e u n d e r s t o o d f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e s of these
r e p l i c a t i n g e x e m p l a r s , rather t h a n m e r e l y a chain of c a u s a t i o n that c a n be
traced b a c k to a m y t h . H e r e w e n o t e o n e difference b e t w e e n the D e u t e r o ­
n o m i c a n d E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m s in that the f o r m e r d i d n o t i n c l u d e the revela­
tion or r e - r e v e l a t i o n of texts b a s e d on the h e a v e n l y tablets a n d c o n n e c t e d
w i t h the revelation g i v e n to E n o c h . A u t h o r s w o r k i n g w i t h this m e t h o d o l o g y
c o u l d then m a p all o f Israel's h i s t o r y u p to their o w n t i m e in different w a y s
that still d e m o n s t r a t e d this r e p l i c a t i o n , e.g., A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks a n d A n i m a l
A p o c a l y p s e . T h e pattern of r e p l i c a t i o n c o u l d also be r e a d at different levels
w i t h i n that s y s t e m , such that E n o c h ' s role as the seventh of his e p o c h of ten
g e n e r a t i o n s correlated w i t h the seventh of the ten e p o c h s of w o r l d history,
identifying the fictive author's c o m m u n i t y as constituting an " E n o c h " o n the
13
m a c r o s c a l e of a l o o m i n g e s c h a t o l o g y . T h e s o l u t i o n then w o u l d always be to
r e t u r n to the o r i g i n a l d i v i n e order, E n o c h b e i n g the first m a n to h a v e received
the r e v e l a t i o n of this w a y of s a l v a t i o n . T h i s p a r a d i g m w o u l d fail o n l y at the
p o i n t w h e r e it c o u l d n o l o n g e r credibly a c c o u n t for a g r o w i n g b o d y of c o n t r a ­
d i c t o r y data or a n o m a l o u s e x p e r i e n c e s . S u c h m a y h a v e b e e n the point
r e a c h e d w i t h the o u t c o m e of the w a r w i t h R o m e in 74 C . E .

Jubilees w o r k e d out in great detail h o w each e x e m p l a r w a s replicated

after the f l o o d .

12. A. Yoshiko Reed, Fallen Angels and the History of Judaism and Christianity: The Re­
ception of Enochic Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2 0 0 5 ) , 87-95.
13. Cf. Kvanvig's paper in this volume, "Enochic Judaism — a Judaism without the
Torah and the Temple?"

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The Shemikhazah Exemplar

T h e S h e m i k h a z a h e x e m p l a r u s e d the a c c o u n t o f the sin of S h e m i k h a z a h a n d

the W a t c h e r s , their h u m a n w i v e s a n d o f f s p r i n g , to a d d r e s s the issue of ethnic
1 4
impurity. As H a l p e r n - A m a r u h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d so effectively, the w r i t e r o f
J u b i l e e s " f e n c e d " the T o r a h n a r r a t i v e in o r d e r to m a k e clear that o n l y the
p u r e m a y stand w i t h i n the b o u n d a r y of the elect. T h e r e is here an absolute
d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the p u r e a n d the defiled. T h e o n l y c a n d i d a t e s for salva­
tion are those w h o find t h e m s e l v e s m u c h in the s a m e s i t u a t i o n as E n o c h a n d
N o a h — a c h o s e n p e o p l e ( = p u r e Israelites) l i v i n g in a v i o l e n t a n d defiled
w o r l d w h e r e all b o u n d a r i e s are b e i n g v i o l a t e d a r o u n d t h e m . In the b o o k s o f
E n o c h there is n o s a l v a t i o n p o s s i b l e for the w o m e n w h o i n t e r m a r r i e d w i t h
the W a t c h e r s , for the W a t c h e r s , n o r for their o f f s p r i n g . H u m a n s w h o p a r t i c i ­
p a t e d in s e x u a l p r o m i s c u i t y , v i o l e n c e , eating of b l o o d , a n d other d e c e p t i o n s
of the W a t c h e r s h a d n o w a y b a c k . T h i s p o i n t is stressed as E n o c h is a s k e d to
p e t i t i o n o n b e h a l f of the W a t c h e r s a n d his m i s s i o n is cut off ( l E n 1 2 - 1 6 ) .
H e r e the role of the p r i e s t as m e d i a t o r o f any r e s t o r a t i o n is stressed a n d
l i n k e d directly to the p r o p e r f u n c t i o n of the angels (15:2; 3 0 : 1 8 ) . A s the priests
are to the p e o p l e of Israel, so those w i t h i n the b o u n d a r y o f the elect m u s t be
to t h o s e w i t h i n the h o r i z o n o f the a u t h o r ' s p a r e n e s i s .

Jubilees identified the d e m o n s as the o f f s p r i n g of the W a t c h e r s w h o

s i n n e d ( J u b 1 0 : 5 ) . N o a h a n d his f a m i l y c o m e t h r o u g h the f l o o d to face a
w o r l d c l e a n s e d a n d p u r i f i e d . T h e y h a v e the o p t i o n of a n e w b e g i n n i n g ( J u b
5:12; cf. 1 E n 1 0 : 2 0 - 1 1 : 2 ) . T h e y are the e x e m p l a r of a restored E d e n , a p l a n t a ­
tion o f r i g h t e o u s n e s s ( J u b 7:34-38; 16:26; 3 6 : 1 - 1 7 ; cf. 1 E n 1 0 : 1 6 ; 84:6; 9 3 : 2 , 5 ) ,
as are the target a u d i e n c e of Jubilees ( J u b 1 : 1 5 ; 5 : 1 7 - 1 9 ; 15:27; cf. 1 E n 9 3 : 9 - 1 0 ) .
T h o s e w h o v i o l a t e d the b o u n d a r y o f this p l a n t a t i o n r e p l i c a t e d the v i o l a t i o n
that o c c u r r e d b e f o r e the flood a n d so are " u p r o o t e d " a n d place t h e m s e l v e s
b e y o n d the h o r i z o n of p o s s i b l e f o r g i v e n e s s ( J u b 2:26-28; 5 : 3 - 1 1 ; 6:12; 1 0 : 3 0 ;
1 5 : 1 4 ; 15:34; 16:9; 1 6 : 1 6 , 2 5 ; 2 1 : 2 2 ; 2 2 : 2 0 ; 2 4 : 2 9 - 3 3 ; 2 6 : 9 - 1 1 ; 3 0 : 7 - 1 1 ; 3 1 : 1 7 , 2 0 ; 3 3 : 1 8 -
20; 3 5 : 1 4 ) . T h e o n l y p e o p l e o u t s i d e the b o u n d a r y w h o h a d the o p t i o n to re­
t u r n w e r e those Israelites w h o lived as exiles a n d w h o s e a r c h e d for the L o r d
" w i t h all their m i n d s a n d w i t h all their s o u l s " ( 1 : 1 5 ; cf. 4 : 2 3 - 2 8 ) .

In i n t e g r a t i n g the S h e m i k h a z a h e x e m p l a r w i t h the T o r a h n a r r a t i v e , the

w r i t e r of J u b i l e e s d r e w u p o n w i d e r c o n c e p t i o n s f o u n d in the T a n a k h , a n d in
so d o i n g c o n s t r u c t e d a figure to lead the d e m o n s . T h i s figure is a c o m p o s i t e .

14. B. Halpern-Amaru, The Empowerment of Women in the Book of jubilees (Leiden:

Brill, 1999).

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David R. Jackson

H e r e s e m b l e s the satan of J o b 1 - 2 a n d Z e c h 3:1-6 in that he is the a c c u s e r a n d

o p p o n e n t of G o d ' s elect. H e also c o n f o r m s to the " e v i l s p i r i t s " of 1 S a m 1 6 : 1 4 ,
2
1 8 : 1 0 - 1 1 , 19:9 (cf. 1 K i n g s 2 2 : 2 2 - 2 3 ; C h r o n 1 8 : 2 1 - 2 2 ) w h o are "sent b y G o d "
(Jub 4 9 : 2 - 4 ) . L i k e the scene in D a n 1 0 : 2 0 - 1 1 : 1 , he faces off against the a n g e l i c
defenders o f G o d ' s elect ( J u b 1 7 : 1 6 - 1 8 : 1 2 ; 48:2) a n d m u s t be b o u n d a n d re­
s t r a i n e d b y the L o r d a n d his angels to protect the elect ( 4 8 : 1 5 , 1 8 ) . H i s w o r k is
d e s t r u c t i o n a k i n to the v i o l e n c e a n d b l o o d s h e d of the p r e d i l u v i a n g i a n t s .
But he is also, like S h e m i k h a z a h a n d ' A z a ' e l , a leader s t e p p i n g forth f r o m the
n u m b e r of these h a l f - a n g e l d e m o n s a n d an e n e m y o f G o d . A s the W a t c h e r s
w h o s i n n e d h a d a leader, so n o w the d e m o n s h a v e a leader — also w i t h t w o
n a m e s , Belial ( 1 : 2 0 ; 15:33) a n d M a s t e m a ( 1 0 : 7 - 8 ) , w h i c h s e e m to be inter­
c h a n g e a b l e labels of a b h o r r e n c e .

T h e o n g o i n g w o r k of the d e m o n s after the f l o o d is u n d e r s t o o d to be

the p r i m e cause o f G e n t i l e i d o l a t r y , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the three sins of " f o r n i ­
cation," " i m p u r i t y , " a n d " i n j u s t i c e / v i o l e n c e " ( J u b 7 : 2 0 - 2 4 , 2 7 - 2 8 ; 9 : 1 4 - 1 5 ;
2 0 : 1 - 6 ; 2 3 : 1 4 - 1 7 ; 3 3 : 1 8 - 2 0 ; 50:4-5)-
In N o a h ' s g e n e r a t i o n the e x e m p l a r is replicated as his sons separate from
each other, w h i c h is a p r e l u d e to v i o l e n c e ( J u b 7 : 2 6 - 2 7 ) . N o a h r e m i n d s t h e m o f
E n o c h ' s w a r n i n g s ( w . 3 8 - 3 9 ) . K a i n a n reads the i n s c r i p t i o n left b y the Watchers
a n d p r o c e e d s to cross the b o u n d a r y of e n d o g a m y , m a r r y i n g a Japhethite (8:5).
T h e b o y s then n e e d the i n t e r v e n t i o n of N o a h a n d the angels to rightly divide
the earth, but the d e m o n s m o v e in (chap. 1 0 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y w e find N o a h ' s
offspring replicating the v i o l e n c e of the p r e d i l u v i a n giants ( 1 1 : 2 - 6 ) .
J u b i l e e s m a d e it clear that the d e m o n s h a v e p o w e r over the G e n t i l e s
b u t n o t o v e r Israel ( 1 5 : 2 8 - 3 2 ) . If an Israelite c r o s s e d the b o u n d a r y of e t h n i c
purity, the Israelite c r o s s e d into the d e m o n i c d o m a i n a n d c o u l d n o t r e t u r n .
For those p i o u s , G o d - s e e k i n g Israelites w h o f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s in exile, the
h o m e l e s s p a t r i a r c h s a n d Israel's e x p e r i e n c e in E g y p t set h o p e f u l p r e c e d e n t s .
T h e y r i g h t l y b e l o n g w i t h i n the b o u n d a r y . T h e y h a v e the o p t i o n to " c o m e
h o m e . " If t h e y d o , t h e y p l a c e t h e m s e l v e s b e y o n d the reach of the d e m o n s ,
b u t that r e t u r n i n v o l v e s p l a c i n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s defined
by the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m as i n t e r p r e t e d b y J u b i l e e s . A n y Israelite w h o c h o s e
to r e m a i n o u t s i d e that b o u n d a r y w o u l d b e lost.
W h e n Jubilees explicitly states that ' A z a ' e l w a s sent b y G o d to teach
helpful things to h u m a n s ( J u b 4 : 1 5 ) , a n d that the c r o s s i n g o f b o u n d a r i e s o c ­
c u r r e d s u b s e q u e n t l y , he m a y not (at least n o t s u b s t a n t i v e l y ) h a v e c h a n g e d
1 5
the o r i g i n a l a c c o u n t in the E n o c h b o o k s he h a d to h a n d . T h i s m a y n o t be a

15. See discussion in Reed, Fallen Angels, 35-36, noting the tension already present in

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 Jubilees and Enochic Judaism

"minimizing" of the connection between the prediluvian giants and the

16
postdiluvian demons, as Reed has suggested. It was in marrying women
that the Watchers crossed the boundary of spirit and flesh and so abandoned
their right to return to heaven, not their initial descent (cf. 1 En 6:6; 12:4; 14:5;
1 5 : 3 , 7 , 1 0 ; 16:2; 84:4; 86:1). So it was also for the author's target audience. Liv­
ing in a land ruled by Gentiles would not constitute "going astray." Inter­
marrying with them would. Jubilees did not set aside a concept of an origin
of evil that occurred without a free choice. In the BW the women are not
17
raped but marry — "they are co-perpetrators, not victims."
Jubilees took the opportunity to identify within the Torah narrative
other minor exemplars that conform to the pattern, in particular the experi­
ence of Lot in Sodom (Jub 2 0 : 2 - 7 ) . Joseph demonstrates how an Israelite can
survive under Gentile rule. Because of his rigorous moral purity, Joseph was
not only protected and blessed by God, but no demon or satan could bring
destruction to any who came under his leadership (40:9; 46:2). It is interest­
ing then that in Joseph's case Jubilees seems to have made an exception.
Whereas the writer avoids noticing Moses' marriage to a Midianite or
Amram's marriage to his aunt, no such attempt is made to avoid Joseph's
marriage to an Egyptian (30:17). His culpability is bypassed perhaps as a
union imposed by Pharaoh but perhaps also because the author may have
seen in the future history of Ephraim and Manasseh reason not to omit their
Gentile roots. The concern for purity focuses on the female line.

The 'Aza'el Exemplar

The 'Aza'el exemplar viewed the same event from the perspective of cultural
purity. 'Aza'el (1 En 10:8) was deemed responsible for revealing to humans
heavenly secrets that were forbidden to them and, in so doing, empowering
them to develop deviant and rebellious cultural practices. The 'Aza'el exem­
plar demonized the scholarship, philosophies, education, and therefore the
18
culture of the Gentiles. It also presented the elect righteous with a body of

1 En 9:6-10 and perhaps 86:1-2, and the juxtaposition of human and Watcher culpability in
chaps. 7 and 8; and Bergsma's paper in this volume, "The Relationship between Jubilees and
the Early Enochic Books (Astronomical Book and Book of the Watchers)," section III.
16. Reed, Fallen Angels, 77-78.
17. See discussion in Jackson, Enochic Judaism, 35-36.
18. See D. R. Jackson, "Demonising Gilgamesh," in Gilgamesh and the World of As­
syria, ed. J. Azize and N. Weeks, Ancient Near East Studies Supplement 21 (Louvain: Peeters,

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David R. Jackson

r e v e l a t i o n d e s i g n e d to c o u n t e r these influences a n d so m a i n t a i n the d i s t i n c ­

tive lifestyle o f the elect.
In the b o o k s o f E n o c h that Jubilees u s e d , p o s s e s s i o n of a n d a d h e r e n c e
1 9
to the r e v e l a t i o n s g i v e n to E n o c h d e f i n e d the elect (1 E n 1 : 1 - 3 ) . T h i s b o d y of
r e v e l a t i o n w a s first g i v e n to E n o c h ( J u b 4 : 1 7 - 1 8 8 , 2 1 , 2 3 b ; 7:38-39) a n d then
p a s s e d d o w n , s u p p l e m e n t e d , a n d r e n e w e d t h r o u g h the elect line of N o a h
(8:10-12,18; 10:13), Shem (10:14), A b r a h a m (11:16; 12:25-27; 21:10; 41:28), Jacob
( 1 9 : 1 4 ; 3 2 : 2 4 - 2 6 ; 3 9 : 6 ) , a n d L e v i ( 4 5 : 1 6 ) . After A m r a m t a u g h t M o s e s to w r i t e
:
(47 9)> it c a m e to M o s e s on M o u n t Sinai ( 1 : 1 - 1 8 ) as an a d d i t i o n to "the first
law" (2:24; 6 : 2 2 ) . A t this l o c a t i o n w e are p r e s e n t e d w i t h the reality that Israel
then possessed two canons.
R e a d i n g Jubilees w i t h i n the c o n t e x t of the ' A z a ' e l e x e m p l a r , w e h a v e a
f r a m e w o r k for the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n this r e v e l a t i o n a n d "the first l a w " o r
2 0
T o r a h also r e v e a l e d to M o s e s . We m i g h t best d e s c r i b e this r e l a t i o n s h i p as a
" t w o - c a n o n " s y s t e m . T h i s c o n c e p t labels a b o d y o f texts d e e m e d to b e a u ­
t h e n t i c r e v e l a t i o n s b y G o d , a n d t h u s a u t h o r i t a t i v e , w i t h o u t p r e c l u d i n g the
r e c e p t i o n o f further a d d i t i o n s o v e r t i m e . It d o e s n o t t h e n justify the c l a i m
21
that the c a n o n w a s , at this t i m e , " o p e n . " P r o b a b l y at n o t i m e i n h i s t o r y has
there ever b e e n "one c a n o n " o n w h i c h all J e w s o r all C h r i s t i a n s a g r e e d .
" C a n o n " has a l w a y s b e e n a m a r k e r o f d i v i s i o n s . T h a t d o e s n o t m e a n that
these c a n o n s w e r e "open." N o r does it a s s u m e that a c a n o n h a d to b e defined
b y a t o p - d o w n d e c r e e . R a t h e r , it r e c o g n i z e s a b o t t o m - u p p r o c e s s o f p e r s u a ­
2 2
sion rather than c o e r c i o n .

2 0 0 7 ) , 1 0 7 - 1 4 . See also Henryk Drawnel, "Some Notes on Scribal Craft and the Origins of the
Enochic Literature," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .
19. See also 1 E n 79:1; 8 1 : 1 - 2 , 6; 8 2 : 1 - 1 0 ; 8 3 : 1 - 2 ; 9 1 : 1 ; 92:1; 94:2; 97:1-6; 98:3; 1 0 6 : 1 9 - 1 0 7 : 1 ,
and George W. E. Nickelsburg, "The Nature and Function o f Revelation in 1 E n o c h , Jubilees,
and Some Q u m r a n i c Documents," in Pseudepigraphic Perspectives: The Apocrypha and
Pseudepigrapha in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. Esther Chazon and Michael Stone, STDJ
31 (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 9 2 - 1 2 0 .
20. See the concise and helpful discussion in VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, Guides
to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha 9 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2 0 0 1 ) , 1 3 6 - 4 1 , o f
Jubilees' use of n o t only the Torah but also other parts o f the Tanakh, noting in particular
that Jub 30:12 refers to the Genesis narrative (Gen 3 4 ) as "the words o f the Law."
21. See James C. VanderKam, "Revealed Literature in the Second Temple Period," in
From Revelation to Canon: Studies in the Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Literature, ed.
James C. VanderKam (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) , 1 - 3 0 .
22. Ulrich's distinction between "a collection of authoritative books of scripture" and a
canon breaks down where that "collection" could be identified by its adherents — whether or
not a copy of that list is extant. See Eugene Ulrich, "The Notion and Definition of Canon," in
The Canon Debate, ed. Lee Martin McDonald and James A. Sanders (Peabody, Mass.:

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 Jubilees and Enochic Judaism

W e c a n n o t b e certain as to the limits of "first c a n o n " w i t h i n any p a r t of

the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y at this t i m e . It is clear that there w e r e c a n o n s g o v e r n ­
2 3
ing the faith o f v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s a n d that the T o r a h was widely recog­
n i z e d as c a n o n i c a l in this s e n s e . T h e E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m a p p e a r s to h a v e es­
t a b l i s h e d its o w n t w o - c a n o n s y s t e m . M o d e r n a n a l o g i e s w o u l d be the
24
M o r m o n s a n d the S e v e n t h - D a y A d v e n t i s t s . W h e r e a t w o - c a n o n system is
in place, it is the s e c o n d c a n o n that is seen as d o m i n a n t b y o u t s i d e r s w h i l e
i n s i d e r s u s u a l l y affirm the e q u a l a u t h o r i t y of b o t h . T h e s e c o n d c a n o n d e ­
25
fines the g r o u p ' s elect identity a n d g o v e r n s its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the f i r s t .
T h i s s e c o n d c a n o n ( a n d Jubilees in p a r t i c u l a r ) s e e m s to identify the
first c a n o n as a w o r k that Israel i g n o r e d a n d b y w h i c h Israel w i l l be j u d g e d ,
g i v i n g the s e c o n d c a n o n a m o r e p r o m i n e n t role in p o i n t i n g to the w a y of sal­
v a t i o n for the elect r e m n a n t o f Israel in the last d a y s . H i m m e l f a r b n o t e s that
" F o r the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t , the T o r a h o f M o s e s c o n t a i n s commandments,
w h i l e Jubilees c o n t a i n s the h i s t o r y of Israel's failure to fulfill those c o m ­
2 6
mandments [CD 16:1-4]."
In Jubilees A b r a m b e c o m e s a p a r t i c u l a r m o d e l of h o w o n e b o r n into a
world dominated by demonic idolatry could be saved. A b r a m goes through
a process of realization, separation, seeking, and revelation. This pattern
c o r r e s p o n d s closely w i t h the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t ' s r e c o u n t i n g o f the o r i ­
g i n s of the Y a k h a d ( C D - A 1 : 8 - 1 3 , n o t i n g " t h e y realized their i n i q u i t y . . . t h e y
w e r e like those w h o g r o p e for a p a t h . . . t h e y s o u g h t h i m w i t h an u n d i v i d e d
heart . . . raised u p for t h e m a T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s . . . . A n d he m a d e
k n o w n to the last g e n e r a t i o n s w h a t he h a d d o n e for the last g e n e r a t i o n " ) .
N i t z a n has i n d e p e n d e n t l y o b s e r v e d this p a t t e r n in the s e q u e n c e of events
2 7
l e a d i n g u p to G o d ' s r e v e l a t i o n of Jubilees to M o s e s o n S i n a i .

Hendrickson, 2 0 0 2 ) , 21-35. Where a "collection" of such texts constituted the basis for parenesis
and the subject of polemic, as did the Enochic second canon, it had to have been identifiable.
23. Cf. the use o f "in the Law" in 1 C o r 14:21 to cite Isa 2 8 : 1 1 - 1 2 , and also John 10:34, a
use that renders "the Law" somewhat synonymous with the later concept of a c a n o n .
24. See, for example, the statement from the Seventh-Day Adventist C h u r c h (http://
www.adventist.org/beliefs/fundamental/index.html) and the M o r m o n statement at http://
www.mormon.org/learn/0,8672,12 7 5 - 1 , 0 0 . html.
25. See Grant Macaskill, "Priestly Purity, Mosaic Torah, and the E m e r g e n c e of
E n o c h i c Judaism," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .
26. Martha Himmelfarb, "Torah, Testimony, and Heavenly Tablets: The Claim to Au­
thority o f the Book o f Jubilees," in Multiform Heritage (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999), 2 3 ,
cited in James M. Scott, On Earth, 8 1 - 8 2 . See also Calum Carmichael, "The Integration of
Law and Narrative in Jubilees: The Biblical Perspective," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .
27. See also discussion in Endres, "Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees," in this volume.

419
David R. Jackson

A s Jubilees d e v e l o p e d this c o n c e p t , the a u t h o r p e r c e i v e d this e x e m p l a r

r e p l i c a t e d even b e f o r e the W a t c h e r s ' sin. A d a m a n d E v e v i o l a t e d the b o u n d ­
aries established b y G o d in a c c e p t i n g the deceptive a d v i c e o f the s e r p e n t in
o r d e r to l e a r n a f o r b i d d e n secret ( J u b 3 : 1 9 ) . T h e result w a s s e x u a l s h a m e , fol­
l o w e d b y v i o l e n c e as the n e x t g e n e r a t i o n t u r n e d to m u r d e r , r e q u i r i n g m a n ­
d a t o r y s e p a r a t i o n a n d a n e w b e g i n n i n g w i t h S e t h . O n c e a g a i n , to c o n f o r m to
the e x e m p l a r , o n l y the elect r e m n a n t c o u l d b e s a v e d . A d a m a n d E v e therefore
w e r e p e r m i t t e d to cover their s h a m e , but the a n i m a l s w e r e n o t ( 3 : 3 0 ) .
Jubilees also e x t e n d e d p a r a d i g m c o n s i s t e n c y ( J u b 1 3 : 2 6 ) b y h a v i n g the
l a n g u a g e s of h e a v e n a n d earth b r o u g h t b a c k into r e g u l a r i t y ( 1 2 : 2 5 - 2 7 ) . T h e s e
texts t r a c e d b a c k to E n o c h w e r e in H e b r e w ( 2 1 : 1 0 ; cf. 1 9 : 2 7 ) . T h i s p r e s e n t s us
w i t h an o b v i o u s difficulty g i v e n that the E n o c h texts in o u r p o s s e s s i o n are in
A r a m a i c , as are s e v e r a l other w o r k s p u r p o r t i n g to reflect p r e d i l u v i a n or p a ­
28
t r i a r c h a l n a r r a t i v e s o f this t r a d i t i o n . A H e b r e w o r i g i n a l is n e v e r t h e l e s s a
l o g i c a l n e c e s s i t y if the E n o c h i c a g e n d a w a s the r e s t o r a t i o n a n d defense of a
distinctive Israeli i d e n t i t y u n d e r G e n t i l e d o m i n a t i o n . It is also n o t a b l e that
the v a s t b u l k of the n o n - T a n a k h texts f o u n d in the Q u m r a n l i b r a r y w e r e
w r i t t e n in H e b r e w a n d w r i t t e n after J u b i l e e s . A b e g g notes that c o m m e n t s in
a
iQH 1 0 : 1 9 , 1 2 : 1 6 , 1 5 : 1 0 , a n d C D 5 : 1 1 - 1 2 indicate t h a t the sect u s e d H e b r e w as a
29
matter of principle. T h e close a s s o c i a t i o n of Jubilees w i t h A r a m a i c texts
s u c h as the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , a n d the A r a m a i c L e v i D o c u m e n t , taken
w i t h its d e p e n d e n c e on w h a t w e h a v e o f the b o o k s of E n o c h , m i g h t indicate
that Jubilees effected a l a n g u a g e shift in future a d a p t a t i o n s of the p a r a d i g m .
W h a t e v e r the case, w e are left to w o n d e r w h y , u n l i k e Tobit, w e h a v e n o t r a n s ­
lation o f these w o r k s into H e b r e w a n d w h y they w e r e still b e i n g c o p i e d in
A r a m a i c o v e r a c e n t u r y later.

T h e fact that the s e c o n d c a n o n c l a i m e d to be the p r o d u c t of a n g e l i c

d i c t a t i o n did not p r e v e n t later w r i t e r s (e.g., 4 Q 2 5 2 ) f r o m a d a p t i n g it or even
c o r r e c t i n g i n t e r n a l i r r e g u l a r i t i e s , j u s t as the a u t h o r of Jubilees treated "the
first law." T h i s is consistent w i t h the a p p a r e n t l a c k of c o n c e r n for a consistent
t e x t u a l t r a d i t i o n a m o n g the Q u m r a n T a n a k h m a n u s c r i p t s . O v e r t i m e o n e
w o u l d e x p e c t t w o d e v e l o p m e n t s to arise f r o m this p r o c e s s . Firstly, the first
c a n o n w o u l d be d o m i n a t e d b y the s e c o n d . S e c o n d l y , w o r k s d e a l i n g m o r e di­
rectly w i t h the p a r t i c u l a r s of the target a u d i e n c e ' s d a y w o u l d d o m i n a t e those

28. See Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 1 7 7 , on the reference to Jared as a Hebrew pun in 1 E n

6:5.
29. Martin G. Abegg, Jr., "Hebrew Language," in Dictionary of New Testament Back­
ground, ed. Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter (Downers Grove, 111.: InterVarsity, 2 0 0 0 ) ,
459-63-

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establishing the m e t h o d o l o g y . W e see b o t h d e v e l o p m e n t s over the n e x t t w o

centuries.
T h e r e w a s p r o b a b l y an e l e m e n t of s e c r e c y i n h e r e n t in the ' A z a ' e l e x e m ­
30 3 1
plar that w o u l d a c c o u n t for the use of a n t i l a n g u a g e and cryptic scripts in
this t r a d i t i o n . T h e a s s o c i a t i o n of the s e c o n d c a n o n w i t h the c o n c e p t of
" m y s t e r y " a n d the a p p e a r a n c e of rules o f initiation r e s t r i c t i n g access to these
texts (cf. l Q S 9 : 1 5 - 1 9 ) m a y reflect an a d a p t i v e r e s p o n s e to the totalitarian d e ­
cree of S i m o n M a c c a b e u s r e q u i r i n g s u b m i s s i o n o f all J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s to
his r u l i n g s , a n d b a n n i n g any " m e e t i n g in o u r c o u n t r y w i t h o u t his p e r m i s ­
s i o n " o n p a i n of death (1 M a c e 1 4 : 4 4 - 4 5 ) .
It is the f u n c t i o n of this s e c o n d c a n o n specifically to m a i n t a i n purity,
to e q u i p the elect n o t to b e d e c e i v e d b y the w i s d o m a n d t e a c h i n g s of the de­
m o n s / G e n t i l e s , a n d to l e a r n a n d o b s e r v e the c o r r e c t c a l e n d a r so as to r e a l i g n
their lives w i t h the o r d e r of h e a v e n . A s s u c h , the ' A z a ' e l e x e m p l a r facilitated
the s o l u t i o n s to the c o n c e r n s of the o t h e r t w o e x e m p l a r s , a n d tied these s o l u ­
t i o n s e x c l u s i v e l y to the r e v e l a t i o n s p a s s e d d o w n in this t r a d i t i o n as "testi­
3 2
mony" or p a r e n e s i s .

The Cosmic Exemplar

T h e c o s m i c e x e m p l a r v i e w e d the s a m e event f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of l i t u r g i ­

cal purity. T h e angels w h o w e r e t h o u g h t to g o v e r n the c o s m i c p h e n o m e n a
r e l e v a n t to the c a l e n d a r w e r e u n d e r s t o o d to h a v e rebelled a n d thus t h r o w n
the c o s m o s o u t of s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n w i t h the d i v i n e l y a p p o i n t e d o r d e r a n d
c a l e n d a r ( w h i c h w a s perfect in s y m m e t r y ) a n d in so d o i n g b r o k e the b o n d
b e t w e e n the w o r s h i p of G o d that m u s t take place o n earth a n d that w h i c h
takes p l a c e in h e a v e n .
T h e c o s m i c e x e m p l a r w a s l o c a t e d in h e a v e n a n d so w o u l d n o t be repli­
cated in the c o u r s e of h u m a n history. T h e elect o n e a r t h n e e d e d the E n o c h i c
" s e c o n d c a n o n " r e v e l a t i o n s to l e a r n to i g n o r e the o b s e r v a b l e a n d w o r s h i p a c ­
c o r d i n g to the o r i g i n a l d e s i g n , as first r e v e a l e d to E n o c h d u r i n g his h e a v e n l y
tour.
In B W w e d i s c e r n a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the n o w - d e v i a n t c o s m o l o g i -

30. See Jackson, Enochic Judaism, 19-21.

31. See discussion in Scott, On Earth, 69 n. 119.
32. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, 26, notes that this appears to be the author's title
for his work (Jub 1:8) and that the t e r m is used to identify the content o f angelic revelation
and his central exhortations to obedience to this revelation.

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David R. Jackson

cal phenomena governing the calendar and the Watchers who transgressed,
firstly in the names that are given to them (1 En 6 ) , and also in the correla­
tion between their names and the specific secrets they have wrongfully re­
vealed. A similar correlation can be found with the responsibilities accred­
ited to Uriel (20:2) and Reuel, who is given the responsibility for taking
"vengeance upon the world of the luminaries" (20:4). In the understanding
of these texts, observable cosmic phenomena are operated by spiritual be­
ings alternately called "spirits/winds" (1 En 18:1-5) or angels (cf. Jub 2:2-3;
a
i Q H 9:10-13; cf. also 1 En 69:13-24). We are then introduced to the fact that
the "stars of heaven" "transgressed the command of the Lord" (21:5-6).
This concept appears also in the AB. Throughout the AB we learn that the
astronomical and meteorological phenomena are "led" by spiritual beings hav­
ing a hierarchical chain of command (e.g., 1 En 72:1-3; 74:2; 7 5 : 1 , 3 , 5 ; 79:6). Some
of these winds/spirits are winds/spirits of punishment (76:4). In 80:1 "leading"
involves "turning" the sun, moon, and stars, but "many heads of the stars will
stray from the command and will change their ways and actions and will not
appear at the times prescribed for them" (80:6-7). As a result, sinners will err,
because "the entire law of the stars will be closed to the sinners" and so they will
"take them to be gods" and then evil will multiply and punishments will follow.
This reflects what we find in 1 En 18:15, where Enoch hears about "the
stars and the host of heaven . . . that transgressed the command of the Lord
in the beginning of their rising, for they did not come out in their appointed
time." Like the cohorts of Shemikhazah and "Aza'el, these are "bound... un­
til the time of the consummation of their sins." These leaders are those who
"keep watch so they enter at their times" (82:10). They are "watchers."
Enoch briefs Methuselah (1 En 82:5) on the subject. The specific error
of the human sinners concerns their failure to observe the four days that di­
vide the year into equal quarters (82:3-4). The problem here is the failure to
conform to the symmetry of the year. The fact that observable reality doesn't
line up with any known calendar at the time is not resolved by more accurate
observations. We are told that as a result of this event, "in the days of the sin­
ners" (80:2) the year is shortened and so the seasons are late. The moon does
not appear at the right time (80:4). This Enochic calendar is not a construct
based on observation. It is a theoretical construct based on an a priori un­
derstanding of the character of God expressed in the paradigm of rigorous
33
order and regularity. Glessmer comments: "These considerations indicate

33. See James M. Scott, "The Chronologies of the Apocalypse of Weeks and the Book
of Jubilees," in this volume.

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that if a c o m p r e h e n s i v e h e a d i n g for the c o n c e p t of c a l e n d a r at Q u m r a n is to

b e c h o s e n , the o f t - u s e d t e r m ' s o l a r c a l e n d a r ' is c e r t a i n l y i n a p p r o p r i a t e a n d
s h o u l d be a v o i d e d . F o r those u s i n g this t y p e of c a l e n d a r the constitutive ele­
m e n t w a s the n u m b e r of 3 6 4 d a y s , w h i c h a l l o w s the s c h e m a t i c a s s i g n m e n t of
34
w e e k s or S a b b a t h s . " B e n - D o v n o t e s , " T h i s d e v i c e is n e i t h e r solar n o r lunar,
n o r stellar n o r any other a s t r o n o m i c a l p r e d i c a t e , b u t rather it is a s c h e m a t i c
3 5
3 6 4 [day y e a r ] . " T h e G o d of the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m c o u l d n o t p o s s i b l y
s t a n d b e h i n d or a u t h o r i z e a c a l e n d a r as c o n f u s e d a n d i r r e g u l a r as o n e b a s e d
on the o b s e r v a t i o n s o f d e v i a n t c o s m i c p h e n o m e n a . W h e r e o n e c o u l d p o i n t
out a failure of the E n o c h i c c o n s t r u c t to correlate w i t h o b s e r v e d reality, the
E n o c h i c r e s p o n s e w a s to d e n y the v a l i d i t y of that reality. T h e r e h a d b e e n a
c o s m i c d e p a r t u r e f r o m G o d ' s order, a n d that d e p a r t u r e is c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the
e v e n t s a n d the n a m e s i n v o l v e d in the a c t i o n s o f S h e m i k h a z a h , ' A z a ' e l , a n d
their c o h o r t . T h i s c o r r e l a t i o n m a y b e reflected in the use o f stars as a l l e g o r i ­
a s o
cal r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f these d e v i a n t W a t c h e r s in A A at 1 E n 86:1-3 (cf. l
88:1).
3 6
Drawnel d e m o n s t r a t e s p e r s u a s i v e l y that the m a n n e r in w h i c h A B d e ­
v e l o p e d its c a l c u l a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g the p r o g r e s s i o n of the m o o n a n d the s u n
w o u l d h a v e h a d p o l e m i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e in f a v o r o f the 3 6 4 - d a y c a l e n d a r as
against the d e v i a n c e of the B a b y l o n i a n s c r i b a l t r a d i t i o n . T h e specifically
a n t i l u n a r p o l e m i c o f Jubilees m a y therefore s i m p l y reflect the different s o c i a l
c h a l l e n g e s faced b y the a u t h o r .
It is n o t e w o r t h y that this c o s m i c r e b e l l i o n / d e v i a t i o n directly affected
Israel's o b s e r v a t i o n of the l i t u r g i c a l year, in p a r t i c u l a r , the feasts in 1 E n 82:7.

Conclusion

W i t h i n the E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n each of the three e x e m p l a r s is c o n n e c t e d to the

other t w o . O n l y the e t h n i c a l l y p u r e line of the elect c o u l d s t a n d o u t s i d e the
d o m i n i o n of the d e m o n s . To t h e m w a s g i v e n b y r e v e l a t i o n the skills n e e d e d

34. Uwe Glessmer, "Calendars in the Q u m r a n Scrolls," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after
Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment, ed. Peter W. Flint and James C. VanderKam
(Leiden: Brill, 1999), 2:213-78 (here 2 3 1 ) . See also section II of Bergsma's chapter in this vol­
ume.
35. Jonathan Ben-Dov, "Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar of Jubilees," in this
volume.
36. Drawnel, "Some Notes o n Scribal Craft and the Origins o f the E n o c h i c Litera­
ture"; cf. Ben-Dov, "Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar o f Jubilees."

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David R. Jackson

to c o u n t e r d e m o n i c p o w e r a n d to live a lifestyle of p u r i t y w i t h o u t idolatry,

f o r n i c a t i o n , or self-destructive v i o l e n c e . T h i s E n o c h i c self-understanding
c o n s t i t u t e d a h o l y p r i e s t h o o d facilitating the r e t u r n of all the d e s c e n d a n t s o f
this c h o s e n line to a right s t a n d i n g b e f o r e G o d on j u d g m e n t day. To t h e m
a l o n e w a s g i v e n the r e v e l a t i o n n e e d e d to live that lifestyle a n d to m a i n t a i n
that d i s t i n c t i o n . It w a s g r o u n d e d in the p e r f e c t i o n of the h e a v e n l y tablets,
communicated through a p u r e line of r i g h t e o u s elect l i v i n g e x e m p l a r y
37
lives u n d e r alien a n d d e v i a n t r e g i m e s . E n o c h s a w these t h i n g s f i r s t h a n d in
the h e a v e n s . H o l y angels dictated this i n f o r m a t i o n to h i m a n d to those w h o
c a m e after h i m d o w n to the t i m e o f the a c t u a l a u t h o r s . T h i s r e v e l a t i o n i n ­
c l u d e d the c o r r e c t c a l e n d a r a n d restored the ability o f the elect to s y n c h r o ­
nize the w o r s h i p o f the saints o n earth w i t h the h o l y o n e s in h e a v e n . D e p a r ­
t u r e f r o m e t h n i c , c u l t u r a l , o r l i t u r g i c a l p u r i t y , as d e f i n e d b y these e x e m p l a r s ,
p l a c e d o n e b e y o n d r e d e m p t i o n . T h e result w a s a p a s s i o n a t e p a r e n e s i s d i ­
rected to s e c o n d t e m p l e Jews b a s e d o n the s e l f - v a l i d a t i n g c l a i m o f the v a r i ­
o u s t r a d e n t s o f this b o d y of r e v e l a t i o n that t h e y w e r e m a r k e d o u t as the
" E n o c h " o f their t i m e b e f o r e an i m p e n d i n g j u d g m e n t of g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n
t h a n N o a h ' s day. T h e s e c l a i m s m a y h a v e b e e n d i s p u t e d b y a v a r i e t y of at­
t e m p t s to d o m e s t i c a t e the p a r a d i g m , m u c h as v a r i o u s d i s p u t e s a r o s e as to
the rightful i d e n t i t y o f "the elect r e m n a n t " o r "the Israel o f G o d , " all o f
w h i c h , taken together, attest to the p o w e r of the c o n s t r u c t to m a k e sense o f
the e x p e r i e n c e of the J e w i s h p e o p l e in this p e r i o d .

Jubilees r e p r e s e n t s a s i g n i f i c a n t a n d g r o u n d b r e a k i n g stage of d e v e l o p ­
m e n t in the early h i s t o r y of the use a n d a d a p t a t i o n of the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m .
In c o m p a n y w i t h the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n a n d A r a m a i c L e v i , it m a r k s the
p o i n t at w h i c h the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m a n d e x e m p l a r s w e r e b e i n g a p p l i e d to
the p o s t d i l u v i a n w o r l d . It t r a c e d a n d a n a l y z e d r e p l i c a t i o n s o f the e x e m p l a r s
u p to the end of the T o r a h n a r r a t i v e a n d even b a c k to the sin o f A d a m a n d
E v e . It p r o v i d e d a m o d e l for i n t e g r a t i n g the E n o c h i c system a n d r e v e l a t i o n s
w i t h those w o r k s v a r i o u s l y a c c e p t e d as first c a n o n . T h e s e w e r e n o t the a r b i ­
t r a r y i m p o s i t i o n s of an alien s t r u c t u r e u p o n the T o r a h b u t a sincere a n d p e ­
38
d a n t i c a t t e m p t to correlate the t w o texts e x e g e t i c a l l y . In so d o i n g , Jubilees
s t i m u l a t e d an e x p o n e n t i a l a g e n d a that p r o d u c e d m a n y of the w o r k s f o u n d
in the Q u m r a n l i b r a r y a n d m o r e . F o r s c h o l a r s t o d a y it p r o v i d e s a direct a n d

37. See Dorothy Peters, "Noah Traditions in Jubilees: Evidence for the Struggle be­
tween E n o c h i c and Mosaic Authority," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .
38. See Carmichael, "The Integration o f Law and Narrative in Jubilees," Hen 31, no. 1
(2009).

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 Jubilees and Enochic Judaism

overt link between those texts. It also enables us to form some idea of an in­
ternal context within which to attempt to understand the variations, ten­
sions, and anomalies that w e find in them.
This system involved an ongoing ability to self-correct. T h e goal of per­
fect internal consistency combined with the flexibility of replicating exem­
plars made the Enochic paradigm a most resilient system as a basis upon
which to understand and deal with the complexities, confusions, powers, and
often the horror of a wide range of Jewish experience over a period of around
three centuries. It is well then to remember that behind and consequent upon
the various texts that claimed this tradition were real people. A s Kvanvig ob­
served in the course of our discussions, "We see their fingerprints, but not
their footprints." This paradigm constitutes those fingerprints.

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Jubilees, Qumran, and the Essenes

Eyal Regev

I. The Act of Comparison

C o m p a r i s o n is one of the theoretical tools of the study of history, and par­

ticularly Religionsgeschichte. In the current stage of Q u m r a n scholarship,
m a n y scholars are engaged in comparing different documents, and in cer­
tain cases, also comparing social phenomena, such as the Essenes, the yahad,
and the D a m a s c u s Covenant. To compare two entities a certain degree of
similarity is necessary, but comparison is provocative and insightful only
1
when one is able to point to significant differences.

II. Similarities

What, then, are the general similarities that enable us to compare Jubilees,
Q u m r a n , and the Essenes? Jubilees and the Q u m r a n sects (or rather, the C o m ­
2
munity Rule and the Damascus D o c u m e n t ) share a belief in predestination

1. F. J. P. Poole, "Metaphors and Maps: Towards Comparison in the Anthropology of

Religion," JAAR 54 (1986): 411-57; R. A. Segal, "In Defense o f the Comparative Method,"
Numen 48 (2001): 339-74; J. Z . Smith, Drudgery Divine: On the Comparison of Early
Christianities and the Religion of Late Antiquity (Chicago: University o f Chicago Press; Lon­
don: School o f Oriental and African Studies, 1990).
2. The belief in predestination in the Instruction o f the Two Spirits corresponds to
Jubilees' conception that the future is written on the heavenly tablets (e.g., Jub 1:29; 23:32).

426
 jubilees, Qumran, and the Essenes

3
a n d the i m m o r t a l i t y o f the s o u l , the c o n c e p t o f h o l y a n d evil angels a n d spirits
4 5
a n d the s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t h e m , a 364-day calendar, the a s s o c i a t i o n o f sin
6
w i t h m o r a l i m p u r i t y in the p u r s u i t o f a t o n e m e n t , h o l i n e s s , a n d e t e r n a l b l i s s .
O n e m a y also a d d S a b b a t h i n t e r d i c t i o n s c o m m o n to J u b i l e e s a n d the D a m a s ­
7
cus D o c u m e n t 1 0 - 1 1 , as w e l l as specific sacrificial l a w s c o m m o n to J u b i l e e s ,
8
the T e m p l e S c r o l l , a n d M M T .

T h e Q u m r a n sects are u s u a l l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the E s s e n e s , w h o w e r e

d e s c r i b e d b y P h i l o , J o s e p h u s , a n d P l i n y the E l d e r : t h e y s h a r e t e n s i o n i n r e l a ­
t i o n to the t e m p l e , a n e m p h a s i s o n m o r a l b e h a v i o r , s e l f - r e s t r a i n t , p u r i t y , a n d
p r a y e r . T h e E s s e n e s a n d the yahad share c o m m o n property, companionship,
g r a d u a l a d m i s s i o n , a n d a c c o r d i n g to m o s t s c h o l a r s , c e l i b a c y . T h e a v o i d a n c e
o f o i l ( s i n c e it is t h o u g h t to defile) a n d r e s t r i c t i o n s o n the S a b b a t h , a n d the
r o l e o f o v e r s e e r s o r officials, are c o m m o n to the E s s e n e s a n d the D a m a s c u s
9
Covenant.

a
3. Jub 23:30-31. For Q u m r a n , see i Q H 9[Sukenik 3 ] : 2 i - 2 3 ; J. Licht, The Thanksgiving
Scroll (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem: Bialik Institute, 1957), 83-84; E . Puech, La Croyance des
Esseniens en la Vie Future: Immortalite, Resurrection, Vie Eternelle? (Paris: Gabalda, 1 9 9 3 ) ,
366-75.
4. Jub 1 0 : 1 1 ; 18:9; 4 8 : 2 - 3 , 1 2 - 1 9 ; lQS 3:18-26; 4 : 1 - 2 . Cf. C D 5:17-19. Similarities between
angelology in Jubilees a n d Q u m r a n , e.g., the W a r Rule, the Hodayot, were noted by
D. Dimant, "bnei shanyim — torat ha-mal*akhim beseferer ha-yovlim le'or kitvei a'dat
qumran," in Tribute to Sara: Studies in Jewish Philosophy and Kabbala, ed. M . Idel,
D. Dimant, and S. Rosenberg (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1 9 9 4 ) , 1 1 0 - 1 8 . For these general theologi­
cal similarities, see also J. C. VanderKam, Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of Jubi­
lees, HSM 14 (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1 9 7 7 ) , 260-80.
5. For the general resemblance between the two calendars, see, e.g., J. C. VanderKam,
"The Temple Scroll and the B o o k o f Jubilees" in Temple Scroll Studies, ed. G. J. Brooke,
JSPSup 7 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989), 2 1 1 - 3 6 . This consensus was first disputed by L. Ravid,
"The Book o f Jubilees and Its Calendar — a Reexamination," DSD 10 ( 2 0 0 3 ) : 371-94. Ravid
has shown that many o f the liturgical characteristics o f the Q u m r a n i c calendar are unat­
tested in Jubilees, but he did n o t prove that there were actual contradictions between the
two.
6. Cf. also G. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Parting of the Ways be­
tween Qumran and Enochic Judaism (Grand Rapids and Cambridge: E e r d m a n s , 1998), 93-98.
7. L. H. Schiffman, Law, Custom, and Messianism in the Dead Sea Scrolls (in Hebrew)
(Jerusalem: Zalman Shazar, 1 9 9 3 ) , 9 0 - 1 3 5 .
8. VanderKam, "The Temple Scroll and the Book o f Jubilees." Cf. the articles o f
Shemesh in this volume a n d J. Hopkins, "The Authoritative Status o f Jubilees at Qumran,"
Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .
9. Todd S. Beall, Josephus' Description of the Essenes Illustrated by the Dead Sea Scrolls,
SNTSMS 58 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); J. M . Baumgarten, "The Dis­
qualifications o f Priests in 4 Q Fragments o f the 'Damascus Document,' a Specimen o f the

427
Eyal Regev

B u t w h a t do Jubilees a n d the E s s e n e s h a v e in c o m m o n ? F o l l o w i n g
B o c c a c c i n i ' s c o m p a r i s o n of the E s s e n e s w i t h the entire E n o c h i c literature,
i n c l u d i n g J u b i l e e s , o n e m a y m e n t i o n the belief in p r e d e s t i n a t i o n a n d i m ­
m o r t a l i t y of the s o u l , as w e l l as the belief in angels a n d the s e n s i t i v i t y to the
10
pitfalls of s e x u a l i t y . N o n e t h e l e s s , it s e e m s to m e that the a s s o c i a t i o n of J u ­
bilees w i t h the E s s e n e s is i n d i r e c t a n d d e p e n d e n t o n their s t r o n g r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p w i t h the Q u m r a n sects.

III. Differences

Jubilees differs f r o m b o t h the yahad a n d the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t in its b a s i c

s o c i a l stance. Jubilees is a d d r e s s e d to the p e o p l e o f Israel, a t t e m p t i n g to c o n ­
v i n c e t h e m to f o l l o w the p a t h o f the eternal c o n v e n t in S i n a i . It e m p h a s i z e s
1 1
the h o l i n e s s of the J e w i s h n a t i o n as a w h o l e , c o n t r a s t i n g the Israelites to
1 2
the i m m o r a l G e n t i l e s a n d c o n d e m n i n g contacts w i t h G e n t i l e s . Admittedly,
Jubilees is critical of the Jews w h o t r a n s g r e s s the l a w s p e r t a i n i n g to the c a l e n ­
1 3
dar, c i r c u m c i s i o n , a n d n u d i t y , a n d p e r h a p s also the S a b b a t h . In o n e in­
stance ( 3 0 : 1 6 ) J u b i l e e s even seeks to p r e v e n t s o m e o n e w h o s e d a u g h t e r m a r ­
r i e d a G e n t i l e f r o m e n t e r i n g the t e m p l e . O n the w h o l e , h o w e v e r , Jubilees
does n o t w a n t certain Jews to s e p a r a t e t h e m s e l v e s f r o m the rest o f the n a t i o n
d u e to their r e l i g i o u s o r h a l a k i c s c r u p u l o u s n e s s .
In contrast, the yahad a n d the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t are sects b y defini­
t i o n . T h e y are s t r o n g l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y the three m a j o r i d e o l o g i c a l c o m p o -

Recovery o f Pre-Rabbinic Halakha," in The Madrid Qumran Congress, ed. J. Trebolle Barrera
and L. Vegas Montaner, STD J 1 1 (Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 2 ) , 2:503-13 (here 5 0 3 - 5 ) . O n e m a y also add
the limitation on the discharge of excretions, mentioned by Philo and in the Temple Scroll
and the War Rule (see below).
1 0 . Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, 165-96. Cf. Josephus, Jewish War 1 . 1 7 1 -
173; Ant 2.154.
1 1 . Jub 2:19, 2 3 , 3 1 - 3 3 ; 15:27, 3 2 ; 1 6 : 1 7 - 1 8 ; 18:19; 1 9 : 1 6 - 1 9 , 2 1 - 2 4 ; 2 1 : 2 4 - 2 5 ; 2 2 : 1 2 - 2 4 ; 24:10;
25; 27:23; 3 1 : 1 4 ; 33:20.
1 2 . F o r the Gentiles' immorality and impurity, see Jub 1 : 8 - 1 1 ; 3:31; 1 1 : 1 6 ; 1 2 : 1 - 8 , 1 2 - 1 4 ; 19;
20:7-8; 21:3, 5; 22:16; 25:1; 3 0 : 1 3 - 1 5 ; 3 1 : 1 - 2 ; 35:14; 36:5; 48:5. For the call for separation from the
Gentiles, see Jub 6:35; 9 : 1 4 - 1 5 ; 15:34; 22:16; 25:1; 3 0 . For Gentile impurity in Jubilees, see
C. Hayes, Gentile Impurities and Jewish Identities: Intermarriage and Conversion from the Bi­
ble to the Talmud (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2 0 0 2 ) , 47, 53, 54, 55. For the prohibition
on intermarriage in Jubilees, see Hayes, 73-81. See also the article by Doering in this volume.
13. Calendar: 6:23-32; 23:19; circumcision: 15:25-26, 33-34; nudity: 3:31; 7:20; Sabbath:
2:29-30; 50:8-9; 23:19.

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 Jubilees, Qumran, and the Essenes

nents of a sectarian worldview: antagonism in relation to the outside world;

social separation from outsiders; and a developed sense of "difference" in
14
their self-identity and practices or rituals. The belief system of the Qum­
ran sects, especially the yahad, is based on condemning Jews outside the sect
15
and social separation from the surrounding society. Contacts such as those
created by commerce are limited or inspected by the sect rules or by the
16
overseers. The rest of the Jews are doomed as long as they persist in reject­
17
ing the sect's doctrine. Simply stated, Jubilees does not correspond to the
definition of a sectarian ideology. The Qumran sectarians do not adopt Jubi­
lees' prohibition on the use of the moon in calculations, and instead follow
Enoch's Astronomical Book harmonizing solar and lunar sequences with
18
each other.
The social position of Jubilees is somewhat clarified in chap. 2 3 (the
so-called Jubilees apocalypse), where the author juxtaposes the "elders" with
the "young ones." The two parties debate "the law and the covenant" (23:16),
especially the calendar. The author associates the elders with impurity, con­
tamination, detestation, and corruption and accuses them of "defiling the
holy of holies with the impure corruption of their contamination" (23:21b).
The author of Jubilees views his movement as the true Israel, but surpris­
ingly, unlike the Community Rule or the Damascus Covenant, he does not
seem to claim that the elders will be cut off from the nation. At the age of
punishment, it seems that all Jews will suffer ( 2 3 : 2 1 - 2 5 ) . No matter how sin­
ful the elders may be, the author does not regard them as doomed. He also
implies that the elders will ultimately accept the teachings of the young ones
(23:26-31). Thus, according to the author, the unity of the Jewish people will
be preserved.
The elders in Jub 23 represent the traditional and conservative elite,
while the young ones are a radical party that challenges the degenerated con-

14. For the definition of sectarianism see R. Stark and W. S. Bainbridge, The Future of
Religion: Secularization, Revival, and Cult Formation (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University
of California Press, 1985), 49-60.
15. £. Regev, "Abominated Temple and a Holy Community: The Formation of the
Concepts of Purity and Impurity in Qumran," DSD 10, no. 2 (2003): 243-78 (here 256-75).
16. Cf. CD 13:14-17; 20:6-8; lQS 5:15-16; 8:20; 9:7-9.
17. CD 7:9-13; 8:2-3; 19:5-11; iQS 4:18-20; 9:23; Licht, The Thanksgiving Scroll, 3 2 - 3 3 .
18. U. Glessmer, "Calendars in the Qumran Scrolls," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty
Years, ed. J. C. VanderKam and P. W. Flint (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 2:213-78 (here 244-55). 4Q252
1 i 8-10 also rectifies the Jub 5:27 error in claiming that the 150 days in Gen 8:3 constituted five
months (Glessmer, 258-59).

429
Eyal Regev

s e n s u s . I therefore believe that the elders c a n n o t b e identified w i t h the

1 9
H e l l e n i z e d J e w s of the S e l e u c i d p e r i o d . T h e a u t h o r ' s p o r t r a y a l of the t w o
parties in t e r m s of age differences, n a m e l y , s e p a r a t e g e n e r a t i o n s , corre­
s p o n d s w i t h w h a t the s o c i o l o g i s t K a r l M a n h e i m called "the p r o b l e m o f g e n ­
erations." T h e categories of g e n e r a t i o n s m a r k t w o s o c i a l classes of s e p a r a t e
20
" h i s t o r i c a l space," n a m e l y , distinct s o c i a l u n i t s . A l l this leads m e to the c o n ­
c l u s i o n that the g e n e r a l characteristics of Jubilees a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y c h a p . 23
2 1
do n o t reflect a sect b u t r a t h e r a r e f o r m m o v e m e n t . Jubilees represents a
g r o u p that a i m s to c h a n g e s o c i e t y r a t h e r than w i t h d r a w from it. It c h a l l e n g e s
the p r e v a i l i n g elite, w i s h i n g to l e a d the p e o p l e in a different p a t h .
T h i s g e n e r a l s o c i a l difference b e t w e e n J u b i l e e s a n d the Q u m r a n sects
also a p p l i e s to the c o m p a r i s o n of J u b i l e e s w i t h the E s s e n e s . A p a r t f r o m
s t r i c t n e s s p e r t a i n i n g to a v o i d a n c e o f w o r k o n the S a b b a t h , the E s s e n e s o ­
cial r e s t r i c t i o n s a n d t a b o o s are u n a t t e s t e d in J u b i l e e s . O n e i n t e r e s t i n g c o n ­
trast b e t w e e n the t w o is t h a t w h e r e a s m o s t E s s e n e s l i v e d in c e l i b a c y w i t h ­
out w o m e n , Jubilees presents an i d e a l i z e d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of b i b l i c a l
2 2
matriarchs.
T h o s e w h o identify the " Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y , " the " Q u m r a n sectari­
ans," o r the " D e a d Sea S c r o l l s sect" w i t h the E s s e n e s t e n d to o v e r l o o k the fact
that at least t w o d i s t i n c t sects are reflected in the s c r o l l s . A l t h o u g h the yahad
of the C o m m u n i t y R u l e a n d the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t o f the D a m a s c u s D o c ­
u m e n t share m u c h t e r m i n o l o g y a n d m a n y g e n e r a l ideas, t h e y differ in s o c i a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n , h i e r a r c h a l o r e g a l i t a r i a n s t r u c t u r e , the s t r i n g e n c y of s o c i a l
23
b o u n d a r i e s , a n d in other i d e o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s . T h i s fact c o m p l i c a t e s the
c o m p a r i s o n of the E s s e n e p r a c t i c e s a n d w a y of life w i t h those in the scrolls,
since in s e v e r a l cases o n e p o i n t o f s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n the E s s e n e s a n d the
yahad a c t u a l l y serves as a d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n the E s s e n e s a n d the D a m a s ­
cus C o v e n a n t , or v i c e v e r s a . T h e m o s t significant e x a m p l e is c o m m u n a l

19. In contrast to scholars such as G. L. Davenport, The Eschatology of the Book of Ju­
bilees (Leiden: Brill, 1971), 41-43, following Charles.
20. K. Manheim, Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1952), 276-320.
21. Cf. already K. Berger, Das Buch der Jubilaen, Jiidische Schriften aus hellenistisch-
romanischer Zeit, II.3 (Giitersloh: Giiterloher Verlagshaus Gerd Mohn, 1981), 298.
22. B. Halpern-Amaru, The Empowerment of Women in the Book of Jubilees, JSJSup 60
(Leiden: Brill, 1999).
23. P. R. Davies, "The Judaism(s) o f the Damascus Document," in The Damascus Doc­
ument: A Centennial of Discovery, ed. J. M. Baumgarten et al., STDJ 34 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) ,
27-43; E. Regev, "The Yahad and the Damascus Covenant: Structure, Organization and Rela­
tionship," RevQ 21, no. 2 (2004): 233-62.

430
 Jubilees, Qumran, and the Essenes

ownership of property, common to the Essenes and the yahad, whereas

24
members of the Damascus Covenant maintained private property.
There are two significant discrepancies between the Essenes, on the
one hand, and the yahad and the Damascus Covenant, on the other hand.
Essene abstinence from taking oaths is not attested in the scrolls, which
specify regulations for taking oaths before judges to affirm lost property and
25
mention vows as a normative and even frequent practice. Essene rejection
of slavery is inconsistent with evidence from the Damascus Covenant, since
CD 11:12 prohibits "pressing" one's servant or maidservant (to work) on the
Sabbath. However, there is no mention of servants in the Community Rule.
Presumably, neither the yahad nor the Essenes used servants, since they both
maintained common property and aimed at socioeconomic equality. Inter­
estingly, recendy discovered ostraca from kh. Qumran mention the delivery
of a slave named Hisdai from Holon, and may attest to the dwellers' readi­
26
ness to accept slaves as property.
Several relatively minor differences are also notable, since they pertain
to social order, rituals, and taboos, on which sects put great emphasis.
Josephus's Essenes differ from both the yahad and the Damascus Covenant
in their social structure and types of leadership. The Essene overseers
(epimeletai) care for the needs of the entire community. They have complete
27
authority in directing the members' work. Josephus also refers to Elders,
28
who are the leaders of the Essene group. The role of the Essene Elders re­
sembles the total authority of overseers and certain priests in the Damascus

24. CD 13:15-16; 14:12-18. For the Essene communal ownership of property, see Philo,
Hypothetica 10.11; Philo, Quod omnis probus liber «'t86; Josephus, Jewish Wiir2.i22; Josephus,
Ant 18.20; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 5.73. For the yahad see, e.g., lQS 6:19-23; for the
Damascus Covenant, see CD 13:14-16; 14:12-17.
25. CD 9:8-12; 16:1-7. For the Essenes, see Philo, Quod omnis probus liber sit 84;
Josephus, Jewish War 2.135; cf- Ant 15.371. On oaths in the Damascus Document, see
Schiffman, Law, Custom, 204-11,220-27. Beall, Josephus' Description, 69-70, draws upon the
silence of the Community Rule in relation to oaths other than those of joining converts, for
creating a false parallelism with Philo and Josephus, while resolving the evidence from the
Damascus Document's different stages of development.
26. For the Essenes, see Philo, Hypothetica 11.4; Quod omnis probus liber sit 79;
Josephus, Ant 18.21. For CD 11:12, see Schiffman Law, Custom, 125-26. For the ostraca, see
F. M. Cross and E. Eshel, "Ostraca from Khirbet Qumran," / £ / 4 7 (1997): 17-28. The conclu­
sion that the dwellers in kh. Qumran accepted slaves as property is reasonable even if one re­
jects the reading of yahad in line 5, a reading according to which the ostraca attest to the ad­
mission of a new member and his property into the yahad.
12
27. Josephus, Jewish War 2 . 1 2 3 , 9 > 134-
28. Josephus, Jewish War 2.146.

431
Eyal Regev

29
Document. Nonetheless, there is only a single and quite insignificant oc­
30
currence of "Elders" in the Damascus Document. Elders are mentioned
31
only once in the Community Rule, where they are lower in hierarchy than
priests, and have no special authority within the yahad, which, unlike the
Essenes, has a democratic and semi-egalitarian social structure with no gov­
erning individual leader. Josephus's assertion that the Essenes "obey their el­
32
ders and the majority" appears to reflect a combination of CD's governing
overseers and priests and the yahad's assembly of the rabbim ("many").
In two cases, what appears to be a parallel between Josephus's Essenes
and the scrolls actually conceals a discrepancy. In their gradual admission of
novices into the sect, the Essenes exclude novices from the "purer water for
purification" (which obviously refers to ritual baths) for one year before the
novices prove their temperance in a probation period. During the subsequent
33
two years, novices are excluded from partaking in the common meals. This
parallels lQS 6:13-23, where converts into the yahad are excluded from "the
purity of the many" in the first year, and from "the drink/liquids of the many"
(which probably also means purification rituals and common meals) in the
second. The Essene probation period is longer, and furthermore, their inclu­
sion in communal practices progresses in an inverse order: new Essene con­
verts are first permitted to participate in ritual baths, and only at a later stage
34
in communal meals, in contrast to the order of inclusion in the yahad. More
generally, the Community Rule and the Damascus Document also mention a
much more lenient admission process compared to the Essenes, which
35
merely requires an oath, with no probation period.

29. CD 9:13-15; 13:15-16; 14:12-17.

30. CD 9:4.
31. lQS 6:8. Beall, Josephus' Description, 47, with bibliography, argued that this is a
point of resemblance.
32. Josephus, Jewish War 2.146.
33. Josephus, Jewish War 2.137-138. Beall, Josephus' Description, 73-74, translates
sumbidsis "common meals," whereas Thackeray (LCL edition, 377) translates "the meeting of
the community."
34. Beall, Josephus' Description, 74-75, emphasized the general parallelism of gradual
acceptance but understated the differences.
35. lQS 5:7-10; CD 15:6-10. The vow of the Essene novice is part of the lengthy admis­
sion process. J. Licht, The Rule Scroll: A Scrollfromthe Wilderness of Judaea, lQSiQSa iQSb;
Text, Introduction, and Commentary (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem: Bialik Institute, 1965), 146-47,
noted that the Essene novice takes an oath at the completion of the admission into the
group, whereas converts to the yahad do so in the first stage of their admission process. Cf.
War 2:139-142; lQS 6:14-15; Beall, Josephus' Description, 77.

432
 Jubilees, Qumran, and the Essenes

36
The Essenes dig a hole with their personal shovels to bury excretions,
whereas the Temple Scroll and the War Rule order the building of perma­
nent latrines. There is no evidence in the scrolls of an implement similar to
the shovel that every Essene receives when he enters the sect and carries with
37
him wherever he goes. As A . Baumgarten noted, the different practices
represent different perceptions of the body.
Each of these differences in practices and taboos may be explained by
the incomplete information of Josephus or Philo, as outsiders, by their indi­
vidual biases, their Gentile audience, or the differences between individual
38
local communities in different places and different periods of time. How­
ever, it is difficult to explain away such a series of discrepancies concerning
different issues related to taboos and social structure, which are extremely
sensitive and meaningful in sectarian organizations.
One interesting Essene phenomenon that is at odds with the Qumran
scrolls is Essene public prophecies and political involvement. Judas the
Essene predicts that Antigonus the Hasmonean will be killed at Strato's
39
Tower. When Herod is young, Menahem predicts that he will be king of the
Jews, and when Herod rules, Menahem predicts that he will reign for twenty
40
or thirty more years but refuses to specify the precise length of his reign.
Simon interprets Archelaus's dream correctly, and predicts that his reign will
41
soon come to an end. In these instances, I suggest, the Essenes use their
competence to foresee the future in order to attain social power and perhaps
also to draw the attention of potential converts.
While several documents from Qumran attest to the belief that mem­
bers (and particularly the Teacher of Righteousness) are able to reveal future
events through divine revelation and interpretation of the words of the
42
prophets, the Qumranic predictions are general and refer to the End of

36. Josephus, Jewish War 2.148-149. Cf. 5.145.

37. A I. Baumgarten, "The Temple Scroll, Toilet Practice, and the Essenes," Jewish History
10 (1996): 9-20. Note that the Temple Scroll and the War Rule rules are Utopian documents. One
may question whether the yahad and the Damascus Covenant actually followed them.
38. A. Dupont-Sommer, The Essene Writings from Qumran, trans. G. Vermes (Cleve­
land and New York: World Publishing Company, 1962), 66-67; I- Strugnell, "Flavius Josephus
and the Essenes: Antiquities XVIII.18-22," JBL 77 (1958): 106-15; G. Vermes, The Dead Sea
Scrolls, Qumran in Perspective, rev. ed. (London: SCM, 1994), 115-17.
39. Josephus, Jewish War 1.78-80.
40. Josephus, Ant 15.371-379.
41. Josephus, Jewish War 2.312-313; Ant 17.345-348.
42. For the general identification of these prophecies with the pesherim, see Beall,
Josephus' Description, 110-11.

433
Eyal Regev

Days, whereas the Essene prophecies focus on a specific historical occasion

43
in the nearest future. Even more surprising is the fact that Menahem and
Simon interact both politically and personally with Herod and Archelaus.
One can hardly imagine distinguished members of the yahad, who shun all
outsiders as "people of Belial," discussing their divine messages with these
rulers, whom even many commoners despise.
Finally, I maintain that the most significant difference between the
Essenes and both the yahad and the Damascus Covenant pertains to celi­
bacy. It is a common assertion that the yahad were celibates, just like the
Essenes, based on the argument of silence: women, children, and families are
not mentioned in the Community Rule. This is convincing as long as one is
blinded by the sweeping identification of the yahad as Essenes. In a forth­
44
coming article in Dead Sea Discoveries 1 maintain that when the evidence is
reexamined, several intriguing questions arise: Is it possible that a celibate
sect would totally ignore the interdiction to marry and procreate? Is celibacy
a marginal taboo to be taken for granted in a legal codex such as the Com­
munity Rule? Is it reasonable to believe that the yahad were celibate while no
single document in Qumran hints at the ideas of celibacy, virginity, etc.? If
the yahad are indeed celibates, their gender taboos should have taken a
prominent place in the Community Rule.
I suggest that one neglected document, 4 Q 5 0 2 , the so-called ritual of
45
marriage, may demonstrate the place of women, children, marriage, and
procreation in the yahad. Joseph Baumgarten interpreted 4 Q 5 0 2 as a ritual
in which married couples declare their commitment to a celibate life since
46
both male and female members participate in a certain ceremony. But
4 Q 5 0 2 opens with references to "man and his wife," "to reproduce off­
spring," "a daughter of truth," and "his wife" (frgs. 1 - 3 ) . I cannot see any rea­
son why these expressions should be taken as merely symbolic. Further­
more, 4 Q 5 0 2 alludes to reproduction, marriage, and young children: "to
reproduce" (frg. 1 ) , "toddlers" (frgs. 28 and 3 1 1 ) , "the girl's father" (frg. 1 0 8 ) ,
"his wife in fruit of the womb" (frg. 3 0 9 ) . The text also mentions "lads and
virgins, young men and young women" (frg. 1 9 ) ; "sons and daughters" (frg.
14); "young men" (frg. 9); "to sisters" (frg. 9 6 ) . They seem to be too young

43. R. Gray, Prophetic Figures in Late Second Temple Jewish Palestine: The Evidence
from Josephus (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 105-7.
44. E. Regev, "Chercher les femmes: Were the Yahad Celibates?" DSD, forthcoming.
45. M. Baillet, Qumran Grotte 4.III, DJD 7 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1982), 81-105.
46. J. M. Baumgarten, "4Q502, Marriage or Golden Age Ritual," JJS 34 (1983): 125-35.
Cf. 4 Q 5 0 2 . frgs. 19, 24, and 34.

434
 Jubilees, Qumran, and the Essenes

to be new converts. These are probably the sons and daughters of the com­
munity members.
There are several indications that 4 Q 5 0 2 is related to the yahad. The
adverb yahad is mentioned at least four times in this very fragmented text.
Furthermore, several terms are particularly characteristic of other docu­
ments of the yahad, namely, the Community Rule, the pesherim, and the
Hodayot: "holy of holies," "the law of God," "daughter of truth" (or "son/
men of truth" in other texts), and teu'dah (testimony, appointed times, stip­
ulation). While none of these points suffices to conclude that 4 Q 5 0 2 origi­
nated in the yahad, taken together I think they demonstrate that this is more
than probable. This may serve as a further argument against the supposed
celibacy of the yahad.
Due to all these discrepancies I find it impossible to argue that the
Qumran sects and the Essenes are the same or that the yahad and the Da­
mascus Covenant are groups within the larger (and ultimately, celibate)
Essene movement. But as I shall argue below, it is hard to deny that there is a
certain, more complex relationship between them.

IV. Social and Historical Relationship

Jubilees' ideology is not sectarian but rather aims to take the lead and reform
Judaism rather than withdraw from the rest of society. Its group therefore
cannot be identified with the Qumran sects. Nonetheless, Jubilees has close
affinities with several Qumranic texts, mainly the Temple Scroll and MMT.
Jubilees shares with the Temple Scroll and M M T several sacrificial
47
laws, and laws pertaining to priestly offerings. Similar to the Temple Scroll,
Jubilees orders that a he-goat (s'eir) for atonement should be sacrificed first,
a n 48
in contrast to the plain text of Num 2 8 - 2 9 d rabbinic halakah. Jubilees
seems to share the Temple Scroll's celebration of the Festival of Weeks
49
(firstfruits of wheat) on the fifteenth of the third month, as well as the fes­
50
tivals of the firstfruits of new wine and oil. Both Jubilees and M M T order

47. VanderKam, "The Temple Scroll and the Book of Jubilees."

48. Jub 7:4; Temple Scroll 14:10-12; 23:11; 26:5-27:4; Y. Yadin, The Temple Scroll (Jerusa­
lem: Israel Exploration Society and the Shrine of the Book, 1977), 1:103,116-17.
49. Jub 15:1; 16:13; Temple Scroll 18:10-16 (the rabbis celebrated it on the sixth of that
month).
50. Temple Scroll 19:11-14; 21:12-16. Admittedly, Jub 7:36 mentions only the offerings
of the first wine and oil. Both the Temple Scroll and Jubilees interpret these offerings as per-

435
Eyal Regev

that the a n i m a l tithe s h o u l d b e g i v e n to the priests, w h e r e a s a c c o r d i n g to the

51
r a b b i s the o w n e r s are the r e c i p i e n t s . J u b i l e e s , the T e m p l e S c r o l l , a n d M M T
o r d e r that the fruits o f the f o u r t h y e a r s h o u l d b e g i v e n to G o d ' s s e r v a n t s
( n a m e l y , the p r i e s t s ) , w h e r e a s the r a b b i s a r g u e d that t h e y s h o u l d b e eaten b y
5 2
their o w n e r s . B o t h Jubilees a n d the T e m p l e S c r o l l call for eating the P a s s ­
over sacrifice in the t e m p l e , w h e r e a s a c c o r d i n g to the r a b b i s it m a y b e eaten
5 3
a n y w h e r e in the city o f J e r u s a l e m . B o t h Jubilees a n d the T e m p l e S c r o l l
5 4
c o m m a n d that the s e c o n d tithe be b r o u g h t to the t e m p l e e v e r y y e a r .
F u r t h e r m o r e , J u b i l e e s ' stress o n the i m p u r i t y o f the G e n t i l e s s h o u l d b e
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h specific cultic laws in M M T : the refusal to a c c e p t sacrifices
f r o m G e n t i l e s , the e x c l u s i o n o f A m m o n i t e s a n d M o a b i t e s f r o m the t e m p l e ,
a n d p e r h a p s also the p r o h i b i t i o n s o n b r i n g i n g G e n t i l e s ' offering/tithe o f
55
w h e a t a n d g r a i n to the t e m p l e (since t h e y are d e f i l e d ) .
O n e interesting p o i n t o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the
T e m p l e S c r o l l is related to the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e m p l e that w i l l replace the
m o n u m e n t a l t e m p l e d e s c r i b e d in the s c r o l l . In T e m p l e S c r o l l 2 9 : 8 - 1 0 , G o d
p r o m i s e s : " I shall sanctify m y [ T e ] m p l e w i t h m y g l o r y , for I shall m a k e m y
g l o r y reside over it u n t i l the d a y o f c r e a t i o n , w h e n I shall create m y T e m p l e ,
establishing it for m y s e l f for all d a y s , a c c o r d i n g to the c o v e n a n t w h i c h I
m a d e w i t h J a c o b in Bethel." T h e c o n c e p t o f the n e w ideal t e m p l e at the t i m e
of the n e w c r e a t i o n is also m e n t i o n e d in J u b 4 : 2 6 , a n d the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l
5 6
t e m p l e a n d the n e w c r e a t i o n are m e n t i o n e d s e p a r a t e l y in s e v e r a l p l a c e s .
T h e r e l e v a n c e of the c o v e n a n t in B e t h e l in relation to the eternal t e m p l e o f
the T e m p l e S c r o l l is p u z z l i n g . Interestingly, this p o i n t is e l u c i d a t e d b y J u b 3 2 ,
5 7
w h e r e B e t h e l is the site of L e v i ' s i n a u g u r a t i o n to the p r i e s t h o o d b y J a c o b .

mission to eat the new crop (a view n o t followed by the rabbis; cf. also Jub 3 2 : 1 1 - 1 4 ; Temple
Scroll 4 3 : 3 - 1 1 ; Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:92-93). However, note that Jubilees also fails to
mention the harvest of the Omer, and therefore its treatment of the festivals is not system­
atic. VanderKam, "The Temple Scroll," 225, believes that the Jubilees author is aware of these
firstfruits holidays.
51. Jub 32:15; M M T B 63-64; m. Zevahim 5:8.
a
52. Jub 7:36; M M T B 62-63; Temple Scroll 60:3-4; 4 Q D 2 ii 6; m. Ma'aser Sheni 5:1-5;
Sifrei Numbers ba-midbar 6 (ed. Horovits 6); y. Pe'ah j:6 ( 2 o b - 2 0 c ) . Jubilees, however, adds
further restrictions concerning sacrificing o f the fruit and refraining from eating the plant
in the fifth year.
53. Jub 49:16, 20; Temple Scroll 17:8-9; m. Zevahim 5:8.
54. Jub 3 2 : 1 0 - 1 1 ; Temple Scroll 4 3 : 1 - 1 7 ; Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:92-94.
55. M M T B 8-9, 3 9 - 4 0 , 3 - 5 , respectively.
56. Eschatological temple: Jub 1:17; new creation: Jub 1:27, 29; 5:12.
57. In his vision, Jacob is handed seven tablets (Jub 3 2 : 3 1 ) , presumably containing sac-

436
 Jubilees, Qumran, and the Essenes

Hence, this tradition is much clearer and more developed in Jubilees than
the abridged account in the Temple Scroll, and it seems that here the Temple
Scroll is dependent on Jubilees.
Jubilees and the homiletic section (C) of M M T share the association
of sin with impurity. In M M T the authors argue, "we have separated our­
58
selves from the multitude of the people [and from all their impurity]."
This impurity is probably moral, since the fragmentary continuation of this
passage relates to moral sins: "and concerning . . . [the malice] and the
treachery... and fornication [some] places were destroyed."... "no] treach­
59
ery or deceit or evil can be found in our hand." Similar accusations are as­
cribed to the "evil generation" in Jub 23:14: (moral) impurity and contami­
nation, sexual impurity (which parallels MMT's fornication) and detestable
actions (which parallel MMT's malice, treachery, and deceit). Further on,
similar accusations are attributed to "the elders" in Jubilees: "they have acted
wickedly... everything they do is i m p u r e . . . all their ways are contamina­
tion," "cheating through wealth... they will defile the holy of holies with the
60
impure corruption of their contamination."
I am not arguing here that the MMT's Multitude of the People is iden­
tical with Jubilees' "evil generation." Rather, the fact that both are described
in the same manner shows that both documents share the belief that sin de­
files and use it as a fundamental conceptualization of their own social posi­
tion in comparison to their adversaries.
Jubilees and M M T col. C also share the belief that the messianic age is
at hand. The authors of M M T declare: "And we are aware that part of the
blessings and curses have occurred that are written in the b[ook of Mos]es.
And this is the End of Days, when they will return in Israel to the L [ a w . . . ]
6I
and not turn bac[k] and the wicked will act wickedly... ." Jub 23:26-31 en­
visions that the "children" will take over after the punishment from the na­
tions, return to the right way of the laws and commands, and an age of great

rificial laws that may be identified with the Temple Scroll's reference to Jacob's covenant. Ja­
cob was commanded not to build an eternal temple in Bethel (Jub 32). This implies that, al­
though the priestly cult officially originated in Bethel, Jerusalem is holier. Note that there
was a major sanctuary in Bethel during the first and early second temple period; see
J. Schwartz, "Jubilees, Bethel, and the Temple of Jacob," HUCA 56 (1985): 63-85.
58. MMT C 7-8.
59. MMT C 4 - 6 , 8 - 9 . See Regev, "Abominated Temple," 249-51.
60. Jub 23:17,21 respectively. For further examples of moral impurity in Jubilees, see
Doering's article in this volume.
61. MMT C 20-22.

437
Eyal Regev

peace, praise, and happiness will arrive. In both cases there is hope for reli­
gious reform that will lead to salvation. Admittedly, the sense of salvation in
M M T is more imminent. The "end of days" is not merely a matter of expec­
tation; it is a fact. This difference can be explained, not only in light of
MMT's special rhetorical aim to persuade the addressee to act according to
the authors' beliefs, but also by the assumption that several years elapsed be­
tween the composition of Jubilees and MMT. During these years the messi­
anic tension may have increased.
I have pointed to halakic and ideological connections of Jubilees with
the Temple Scroll and MMT, which are also not sectarian documents, at least
not in the strict sociological sense of this term. If M M T and the Temple
Scroll are usually regarded as preceding the formation of the yahad and the
Damascus Covenant, Jubilees can certainly be placed in the same category.
Moreover, there are several indications that Jubilees represents the events of
the Hellenistic reform in Jerusalem and the Maccabean wars against the
Seleucids, that is, before the Hasmonean period (a period that is certainly re­
62
flected in the pesherim). 1 therefore believe that Jubilees preceded the for­
mation of the Qumran sects, and should be related to (although probably
not identical with) the group behind the Temple Scroll and (slightly later)
MMT.
The relationship between the Essenes and the Qumran sects is difficult
to reconstruct. In contrast to the Groningen Hypothesis or the Enochic Hy­
63
pothesis, I do not think the Essenes were the parent group of the Qumran-
ites. First, the Essene practices on which the identification with Qumran is
based are described by first century c . e . sources, two centuries after the
emergence of the yahad and the Damascus Covenant. Second, as was shown
above, the similarities between the Essenes and the Qumran sects are quite
general. The only specific points of absolute similarity in the Damascus
Document are prohibitions on moving vessels on the Sabbath, preparations
64
in the course of the Sabbath, and intercourse with a pregnant woman. In
the Community Rule the similarities relate to the role of the priests in the

62. VanderKam, Textual and Historical Studies, 217-38. The polemics against nudity
and neglecting of circumcision, as well as the hatred against the Gentiles, seem to be the
strongest signs for this date. For the pesherim, see H. Eshel, The Dead Sea Scroll and the
Hasmonean State (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem: Yad ben-Zvi Press, 2004).
63. See their evaluation in Enoch and Qumran Origins, ed. G. Boccaccini (Grand
Rapids and Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2005), 249-454.
64. All these are found in the Damascus Document. See Baumgarten, "Disqualifica­
tions," 504-5, for references and bibliography.

438
 Jubilees, Qumran, and the Essenes

6 5
p r e p a r a t i o n of b r e a d a n d the priestly p r a y e r / b l e s s i n g before the m e a l . They
do n o t justify the c o n c l u s i o n that the yahad a n d the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t
w e r e p a r t o f the E s s e n e m o v e m e n t or e m e r g e d f r o m it. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is i m ­
p o s s i b l e to d e n y that there is a certain r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m .
In c o n t r a s t to the yahad a n d the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t , the E s s e n e s p o s e
three m a j o r t a b o o s a n d b o u n d a r i e s o n m a r r i a g e , oaths, a n d slaves. M o r e ­
over, it s e e m s that the E s s e n e s h a v e m u c h in c o m m o n w i t h b o t h the yahad
a n d the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t : the c o m m u n a l o w n e r s h i p o f p r o p e r t y , g r a d u a l
a d m i s s i o n to the sect, a n d c o m m u n a l m e a l s of the yahad, on the o n e h a n d ,
a n d the S a b b a t h p r o h i b i t i o n s a n d s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y of the D a m a s c u s C o v e ­
n a n t on the other. In their attitude t o w a r d the t e m p l e , the E s s e n e s " s e r v e
God n o t w i t h sacrifices of a n i m a l , b u t b y r e s o l v i n g to the s a n c t i t y of their
m i n d s , " w h i c h is quite s i m i l a r to the yahad's conception of prayer and m o ­
66
rality as ( t e m p o r a l ) substitutes for the sacrificial r i t e s . B u t the E s s e n e s also
6 7
s e n d d o n a t i o n s to the t e m p l e , as in the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t . It therefore
s e e m s that the E s s e n e s a d o p t p r a c t i c e s f r o m b o t h the yahad a n d the D a m a s ­
cus C o v e n a n t .

T h e E s s e n e s also h a v e a m o r e c o m p l e x , o n e m a y e v e n say dialectic, i d e ­

ology, c o m b i n i n g strict s e g r e g a t i o n w i t h a t t e m p t s to g a i n p u b l i c p o w e r
t h r o u g h p r o p h e c i e s that c o n c e r n the politics o f the late H a s m o n e a n and
Herodian dynasties.
T h e strict b o u n d a r i e s , the d u a l d e p e n d e n c e o n p r a c t i c e s o f b o t h the
yahad a n d the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t , a n d the use o f p u b l i c p r e d i c t i o n s for p o ­
litical r e a s o n s i n d i c a t e that the E s s e n e s w e r e a m o r e c o m p l e x m o v e m e n t
t h a n either o f the Q u m r a n sects. I t h i n k the m o s t p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n for
this c o m p l e x i t y is that the E s s e n e s w e r e a later d e v e l o p m e n t of the yahad and
6 8
the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t . S u c h s o c i a l or r e l i g i o u s c o m p l e x i t y s e e m s to be a
result o f a p r o c e s s of e v o l u t i o n o v e r s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s , a n d the a d o p t i o n o f
n e w m o d e s of b e h a v i o r that are i n c o r p o r a t e d into older p r a c t i c e s .

65. Josephus, Jewish War 2 . 1 3 1 ; lQS 6:4-5.

66. Philo, Quod omnis probus liber sit75; lQS 9:4-5; Regev, "Abominated Temple," 269-
71-
67. Josephus, Ant 18.19; C D 1 1 : 1 8 - 2 0 .
68. This conclusion holds as long as we follow Josephus and Philo and regard the
Essenes as one m o r e or less unified movement, rather than a conglomerate o f different
groups that differ in various practices.

439
Eyal Regev

V. Conclusions

The Jubilees movement can certainly be regarded as the bedrock of the

Q u m r a n i c ideology, where ideas of angelology, dualism, predestination,
moral impurity, atonement, and strict cultic halakah were first weaved to­
gether. But Jubilees is not a sect in any sense, but rather a reform movement.
The Essenes, on the other hand, are not identical with the yahad and the D a ­
mascus Covenant, but seem to reflect later developments, especially the
practice of celibacy. T h e groups represented in the scrolls and the other re­
lated movements differed in m a n y respects. These differences conceal the
special characteristics and uniqueness of each sect or group. Insiders must
have seen many other differences and nuances that are still hidden from us.
69
We will keep on looking for t h e m .

69. For a detailed analysis of the subjects discussed here, see E. Regev, Sectarianism in
Qumran: A Cross-Cultural Perspective, Religion and Society Series 45 (Berlin and New York:
De Gruyter, 2007), 219-66.

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The Book of Jubilees: A Bibliography, 1850-Present

Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver

T h e p r e s e n t b i b l i o g r a p h y i n c l u d e s s c h o l a r l y w o r k s o n the b o o k of Jubilees
f r o m its first G e r m a n t r a n s l a t i o n in 1850 b y A u g u s t D i l l m a n n u p to the p r e s ­
ent ( o n e m a y also c o n s u l t p r e v i o u s b i b l i o g r a p h i e s , i n c l u d i n g D e l l i n g 1 9 7 5 ,
Charlesworth 1976 and 1981, Berger 1981, Rosso Ubigli 1990, Lehnardt 1999,
a n d D i T o m m a s o 2 0 0 1 — see m a i n b i b l i o g r a p h y b e l o w ) . T h e d i s c o v e r i e s of
the H e b r e w f r a g m e n t s o f Jubilees at Q u m r a n r e p r e s e n t e d a m a j o r step for
the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the B o o k o f Jubilees, a n d the f o l l o w i n g entries h a v e
b e e n d i v i d e d a c c o r d i n g l y i n t o t w o m a i n s e c t i o n s : b e f o r e a n d after Qumran.
E a c h section is further d i v i d e d into t w o parts, the first c o n t a i n i n g a list o f
text e d i t i o n s a n d t r a n s l a t i o n s , the o t h e r s c h o l a r l y articles, m o n o g r a p h s and
b o o k s d i s c u s s i n g v a r i o u s issues related to J u b i l e e s .
A c o m p a n i o n , a n n o t a t e d b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l essay, w h i c h s u m m a r i z e s the
c o n t e n t s of m o s t s c h o l a r l y w o r k s w r i t t e n o n J u b i l e e s , a n d h i g h l i g h t s the dif­
ferent a p p r o a c h e s a n d q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d o v e r the last 150 y e a r s of research b y
scholars, has been published in the j o u r n a l Henoch ( I . W. O l i v e r and
V. B a c h m a n n , " T h e B o o k of J u b i l e e s : A n A n n o t a t e d B i b l i o g r a p h y f r o m the
First G e r m a n T r a n s l a t i o n of 1850 to the E n o c h S e m i n a r of 2007," Hen 3 1 , n o .
1 [ 2 0 0 9 ] ) . R e a d e r s are also i n v i t e d to consult the c o n t r i b u t i o n s o n the h i s t o r y
of research of Jubilees offered by V a n d e r K a m ( " T h e O r i g i n s a n d P u r p o s e s of
the B o o k of Jubilees," in Studies in the Book of Jubilees, ed. M a t t h i a s A l b a n i ,
J o r g Frey, a n d A r m i n L a n g e , Texte u n d S t u d i e n z u m antiken J u d e n t u m 65
[ T u b i n g e n : M o h r S i e b e c k , 1 9 9 7 ] , 4 - 1 6 ; " R e c e n t S c h o l a r s h i p o n the B o o k of
Jubilees," Currents in Biblical Research 6, n o . 3 [ 2 0 0 8 ] : 4 0 5 - 3 1 ) a n d b y S e g a l

441
Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver

(The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology, and Theology,

TSTSup 6 2 [Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 7 ] , 1 1 - 2 1 ) .

Part 1: The Scholarly Works on Jubilees

before the Discoveries of Qumran

1. Text Editions, Translations, and Commentaries

Ceriani, Antonio Maria. "Parva Genesis." In Monumenta sacra et prophana 1.1, 9-54,
63-64. Milan, 1861.
. "Nomina uxorum patriarcharum priorum iuxta librum Hebraeum lobelia
nuncupatum." In Monumenta sacra et prophana 2.1, ix-x. Milan, 1863.
Charles, Robert Henry. "The Book of Jubilees Translated from a Text Based on Two
Hitherto Uncollated Ethiopic MSS." JQR 5 (1893): 703-8; 6 (1894): 184-217,710-
45; 7 (1895): 297-328.
. The Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book ofJubilees. Oxford: Clarendon, 1895.
. The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis, Translated from the Editors Ethiopic
Text, and Edited with Introduction, Notes, and Indices. London: Adam and
Charles Black, 1902.
. "The Book of Jubilees." In Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testa­
ment, 2:1-82. Oxford: Clarendon, 1913.
. The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis [with an introduction by G. H. Box,
Translations of Early Documents. Series 1, Palestinian-Jewish Texts (pre-
rabbinic) 4. London: SPCK; New York: Macmillan, 1917].
Dillmann, August. "Das Buch der Jubilaen oder die kleine Genesis, aus dem
athiopischen ubersetzt." Jahrbiicher der biblischen Wissenschaft 2 (1850): 230-56;
3 (1851): 1-96.
. Mashafa Kufale sive Liber Jubilaeorum, qui idem a Graecis 'H Aenrf) Ttvemc,
inscribitur, aethiopice ad duorum librorum manuscriptorum fidem primum
edidit. Kiel: C. G. L. van Maack; London: Williams and Norgate, 1859.
Langen, Joseph. Das Judenthum in Palastina zur Zeit Christi. Ein Beitrag zur Offen-
barungs- und Religions-Geschichte als Einleitung in die Theologie des Neuen Tes­
taments, 84-102. Freiburg im Breisgau: Herdersche Verlagshandlung, 1866.
Littmann, Enno. "Das Buch der Jubilaen." In Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen
des Alten Testaments, edited by Emil Kautzsch, 2:31-119. Tubingen: Mohr, 1900;
reprint, 1975.
Martin, Francois. "Le Livre des Jubiles. But et proddes de l'auteur. Ses doctrines." RB
8 (1911): 321-44.502-33.
Rahmani, Ignatius Ephraem. Chronicon civile et ecclesiasticum anonymi auctoris.
Monte Libano: Typis Patriarchalibus Syrorum, 1904.

442
 The Book of Jubilees: A Bibliography, 1850-Present

Riessler, Paul. "Jubilaenbuch oder Kleine Genesis." Altjiidisches Schrifttum aufierhalb

der Bibel (Augsburg: B. Filser, 1928; repr. 1966; 1988): 539-666,1304-11.
ROnsch, Hermann. "Die Leptogenesis und das Ambrosianische altlateinische Frag­
ment derselben." ZWT14 (1871): 60-98.
. Das Buch der Jubilaen oder Die kleine Genesis. Leipzig: Fues, 1874; reprint,
Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1970.
Rubin, Salomon. Sefer ha-Yovlim: ha-mekhuneh Midrash Bereshit Zutrata. Vienna:
Holtsvarte, 1870.
Schodde, George H. "The Book of Jubilees Translated from the Ethiopic." BSac 42
(1885): 629-45; 43 (1886): 56-72,356-71, 455-86; 44 (1887): 426-59, 6°2-n, 727-45
[= The Book of Jubilees (Oberlin, Ohio: Goodrich, 1988; reprint, Columbus,
Ohio: Lazarus Ministry Press, 1999)].
Tisserant, Eugene. "Fragments syriaques du Livre des JubileV' RB 30 (1921): 55-86,
206-32. Reprinted in Recueil Cardinal Eugene Tisserant "Ab Oriente et Occi-
dente," 2 vols. (Louvain: Centre international de dialectologie ge"ne"rale, 1955),
1:25-87.

2 . Books, Monographs, and Articles

Albeck, Chanoch. Das Buch der Jubilaen und die Halacha. Berlin: Scholem, 1930.
Albright, William Foxwell. From the Stone Age to Christianity, 266-69. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1940.
Bacon, Benjamin Wisner. "The Calendar of Enoch and Jubilees." Hebraica 8 (1892):
124-31.
Beer, Bernhard. Das Buch der Jubilaen und sein Verhaltniss zu den Midraschim. Ein
Beitragzur orientalischen Sagen- und Alterthumskunde. Leipzig: Gerhard, 1856.
. Noch ein Wort iiber das Buch der Jubilaen. Leipzig: Hunger, 1857.
Bohn, F. "Die Bedeutung des Buches der Jubilaen. Zum 50Jahrigen Jubilaum der
ersten, deutschen Ubersetzung." TSK 73 (1900): 167-84.
Borchardt, Paul. "Das Erdbild der Juden nach dem Buche der Jubilaen — ein Han-
delsstrassenproblem." In Dr. A. Petermanns Mitteilungen aus Justus Perthes'
geographischer Anstalt, edited by P. Langhans, vol. 71, pp. 244-50. Gotha: Justus
Perthes, 1925.
Bousset, Wilhelm. "Neueste Forschungen auf dem Gebiet der religiosen Litteratur
des Spatjudentums II: Zur Litteratur der Makkabaerzeit (Fortsetzung)." TRu 3
(1900): 369-81.
Box, George Herbert. "Introduction to the Book of Jubilees." In The Book of Jubilees
or the Little Genesis, vii-xxxiii. London: SPCK; New York: Macmillan, 1917.
Biichler, Adolphe. "Studies in the Book of Jubilees." RE/82 (1926): 253-74.
. "Traces des idees et des coutumes helienistiques dans le Livre des JubileV
REJ 89 (1930): 321-48.

443
Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver

Charles, Robert Henry. A Critical History of the Doctrine of Future Life in Israel, in Ju­
daism, and in Christianity; or, Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian Eschatology from
Pre-Prophetic Times Till the Close of the New Testament Canon; Being the Jowett
Lectures for 1898-1899, 245-49. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1899.
Dillmann, August. "Das Buch der Jubilaen und sein Verhaltniss zu den Midraschim."
ZDMG11 (1857): 161-63.
. "BeitrSge aus dem Buch der Jubilaen zur Kritik des Pentateuch-Textes."
Sitzungsberichte der Koniglich-Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Ber­
lin 15 (1883): 323-40.
Eppel, Robert. "Les tables de la loi et les tables celestes." RHPR17 (1937): 401-12.
Epstein, Abraham. Beitrage zur jiidischen Althertumskunde (in Hebrew). Vienna:
Lippe, 1887.
. "Le livre des Jubites, Philon et le Midrash Tadshe." REJ 21 (1890): 80-97; 22
(1891): 1-25.
Finkelstein, Louis. "The Book of Jubilees and the Rabbinic Halaka." HTR16 (1923):
39-61. Reprinted in Pharisaism in the Making. Selected Essays (New York: Ktav,
1972), 199-221.
. "The Date of the Book of Jubilees." HTR 36 (1943): 19-24.
Fox, Gresham George. "Ethical Elements in the First Book of Enoch, the Book of Ju­
bilees, and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs." Ph.D. diss., University of
Chicago, 1914.
Frankel, Zacharias. "Das Buch der Jubilaen." MGWJ 5 (1856): 311-16,380-400.
Frenkel, Elias (Erno). A Jubileumok konyve, AdaUkok az dkori zsidosdg egyik
kronoldgiai mfuve'hez (The book of Jubilees, additional materials to an ancient
Jewish chronological writing). Bdlcslcsdoktori 6rtekezes. Budapest: Sarkany
nyomda, 1930.
Frey, J.-B. "Apocryphes de l'Ancien Testament. 2. Le Livre des Jubiles." DBSup 1
(1928): 371-80.
Gelzer, Heinrich. Sextus Julius Africanus und die byzantinische Chronographie, 2:251-
62. Leipzig: Hinrich, 1898; reprint, New York: Burt Franklin, 1967.
Ginzberg, Louis. "Libro dei Giubilei 16,30." Rivista Israelitica 5 (1908): 74.
Hadas, Moses. "Jub. 16:30." A/SI 49 (1933): 338.
Holscher, Gustav. "Die Karte des Jubilaenbuches." In Drei Erdkarten. Ein Beitragzur
Erdkenntnis des hebraischen Altertums, 57-73. Heidelberg: C. Winter, 1949.
Jellinek, Adolph. Ober das Buch der Jubilaen und das Noah-Buch. Leipzig: Vollrath,
1855.
Klein, S. "Palastinisches im lubilaenbuch." Z D P V 5 7 (1934): 7-27.
Kohler, Kaufmann. "The Pre-Talmudic Haggada I." JQR 5 (1893): 399-419.
. "Jubilees, Book of." JE 7 (1904): 301-4.
Kruger, M. J. "Die Chronologie im Buch der Jubilaen, auf ihre biblische Grundlage
zuruckgefuhrt und berichtigt." ZDMG 12 (1858): 279-99.
Kuenen, Abraham. "Der Stammbaum des masoretischen Textes des Alten Testa­
ments." In Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur biblischen Wissenschaft. Aus dem Hol-

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 The Book of Jubilees: A Bibliography, 1850-Present

lifndischen iibersetzt von K. Budde, 82-124. Freiburg im Breisgau and Leipzig:

Mohr, 1894.
Leszynsky, Rudolf. Die Sadduzcler, 179-236. Berlin: Mayer 8c Miiller, 1912.
Levi Delia Vida, Giorgio. "Una traccia del Libro die Giubilei nella letteratura araba
musulmana." Or 1 (1932): 205-12.
Montgomery, James Alan. "An Assyrian Illustration to the Book of Jubilees." JBL 33
(1914): 157-58.
Pfeiffer, Robert Henry. "Jubilees." In History of New Testament Times, with an Intro­
duction to the Apocrypha: Part I; Judaism from 200 BCE to 200 CE, 68-70, 538.
New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949.
Rowley, Harold Henry. The Relevance of the Apocalyptic, 81-85. London: Lutterworth,
1944.2nd ed. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1946), 84-90; 3rd ed. (New York:
Association Press, 1964), 99-105.
. "Criteria for the Dating of Jubilees." JQR 36 (1945-46): 183-87.
Schurer, Emil. Geschichte des judischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 3:371-84. 4th
ed. Leipzig: Hinrichs'sche Buchhandlung, 1909.
Singer, Wilhelm. Das Buch der JubMen oder die Leptogenesis 1: Tendenz und Ursprung
zugleich ein Beitrag zur Religionsgeschichte. Stuhlweissenburg: Singer, 1898.
Torrey, Charles Cutler. "Jubilees." In The Apocryphal Literature: A Brief Introduction,
126-29. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1945.
Uhden, Richard. "Die Erdkreisgliederung der Hebraer nach dem Buche der Jubi­
laen." ZS 9 (1934): 210-33.
Wells, L. S. A. "The Book of Jubilees: The Earliest Commentary on Genesis." IJA 28
(1912): 13-17.
Zeitlin, Solomon. "The Book of Jubilees: Its Character and Its Significance." JQR 30
(1939-40): 1-32. Reprinted in Studies in the Early History of Judaism (New York:
Ktav, 1974), 2:116-46.
. "The Book of Jubilees." JQR 35 (1944-45): 12-16.
. "Criteria for the Dating of Jubaees." JQR 36 (1945-46): 187-89.
. "The Apocrypha." JQR 37 (1947): 219-48.

Part 2: The Scholarly Works on Jubilees

after the Discoveries of Qumran

1. Text Editions, Translations, Commentaries, and Concordances

Agourides, Savas. "K1BHAAIA" (in modern Greek). Theologia 43 (1972): 550-83; 44

(i973): 34-ii8.
Artom, Elia Samuele. "Sefer ha-yovelot." In Sipure agadah 2. 6 vols, in 2. Tel Aviv:
Yavneh Publishing House, 1969.
Baillet, Maurice. "Livre des JubileV In DJD 3, pp. 77-79. Oxford: Clarendon, 1962.

445
Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver

. "Remarques sur le manuscrit du livre des Jubiles de la grotte 3 de Qumran."

RevQ 5 (1965): 423-33.
. "Livre des Jubiles." In DJD 7, pp. 1-2. Oxford: Clarendon, 1982.
Bauer, Johannes B. Clavis apocryphorum supplementum. Complectens voces versionis
germanicae libri Henoch Slavici, libri Jubilaeorum, Odarum Salomonis. GTS 4,
pp. 9-119. Graz: Institut fiir Okumenische Theologie und Patrologie, 1980.
Berger, Klaus. "Das Buch der Jubilaen." In JSHRZ 2.3 (1981), 275-575.
Bonsirven, Joseph. "Le livre des Jubiles ou Petite Genese." In La Bible Apocryphe en
marge de I'Ancien Testament, 78-115. Paris: A. Fayard, 1953.
Caquot, Andre". "Jubiles." In La Bible, Ecrits Intertestamentaires III, 629-810. Paris:
Gallimard, 1987.
Corriente, Federico, and Antonio Pifiero. "Jubileos." In Los apdcrifos del Antiguo
Testamento, 2:65-193. Madrid: Ediciones Cristianidad, 1983.
Deichgraber, Reinhard. "Fragmente einer Jubilaen-Handschrift aus HOhle 3 von
Qumran." RevQ 5 (1965): 415-22.
Denis, Albert Marie. "Lesfragmentsgrecs du Livre des Jubiles." In Introduction aux
pseudepigraphes grecs d'Ancient Testament, 150-62. Leiden: Brill, 1970.
. "Liber Jubilaeorum." in Fragmenta Pseudepigraphorum quae supersunt
Graeca, 70-102. PVTG 3. Leiden: Brill, 1970.
. Concordance latine du Liber Jubilaeorum sive parva Genesis. Informatique et
6tude de textes 4. Louvain: CETEDOC, 1973.
Fusella, Luigi, and Paolo Sacchi. "Giubilei." In Apocrifi ell'Antico Testamento, 1:179-
411. Turin, 1981.
Garcia Martinez, Florentino. "Book of Jubilees." In The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated,
238-45. Leiden: Brill, 1994.
. "Qumran Cave 11II: 11Q2-18,11Q20-31." In DJD 23, pp. 207-21. Oxford: Clar­
endon, 1998.
Garcia Martinez, Florentino, and Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar. The Dead Sea Scrolls Study
Edition. 2 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1998. See 1:22-25; 1:214-15; 1:226-27; 1:360-63; 1:458-
83; 2:964-65; 2:1204-7.
Goldmann, M. "The Book of Jubilees" (in Hebrew). In The Apocryphal Books, edited
by Abraham Kahana, 1:216-313. Tel Aviv: Masada, 1956.
Kondracki, Andrzej. "Ksi^ga Jubileuszow." In Apokryfy Starego Testamentu, edited by
Ryszard Rubinkiewicz, 271-351. Warsaw: Vocatio, 1999.
Lipscomb, W. Lowndes. "A Tradition from the Book of Jubilees in Armenian." JJS 29
(1978): 149-63-
Milik, J6zef Tadeusz. "Livre des Jubiles." In DJD 1, pp. 82-84. Oxford: Clarendon,
1955-
. "Fragment d'une source du psautier (4QPS89) et fragments des Jubiles, du
Document de Damas et d'un phylactere dans la grotte 4 de Qumran." RB 73
(1966): 104, pi. II.
Noack, Bent. "Jubilaeerbogen." In GamPseud 3, pp. 175-301. Copenhagen: Gad, 1958.

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 The Book of Jubilees: A Bibliography, 1850-Present

Parry, Donald W., and Emanuel Tov, eds. The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader III: Parabiblkal
Texts. 6 vols. Leiden: Brill, 2004-2005.
Rabin, C. "Jubilees." In The Apocryphal Old Testament, edited by Hedley F. D. Sparks,
1-139. Oxford: Clarendon, 1984.
RofiS, Alexander. "Further Manuscript Fragments of Jubilees in Qumran Cave 3" (in
Hebrew). Tarbiz 34 (1965): 333-36.
Stokl, Jonathan. "A List of the Extant Hebrew Text of the Book of Jubilees: Their Re­
lation to the Hebrew Bible and Some Preliminary Comments." Hen 28, no. 1
(2006): 97-124.
Torrey, Charles Cutler. "A Hebrew Fragment of Jubilees." JBL 71 (1952): 39-41.
Tov, Emanuel, ed. The Dead Sea Scrolls Electronic Reference Library 3. New York: Brill,
2006.
VanderKam, lames C. The Book of Jubilees. 2 vols. CSCO 510-511. Scriptores Aethi-
opici 87-88. Louvain: Peeters, 1989.
. "The Jubilees Fragments from Qumran Cave 4." In The Madrid Qumran
Congress 2, edited by J. Trebolla Barrera and L. Vegas Montaner, 635-48. STDJ11.
Leiden, New York, and Cologne: Brill, 1992.
VanderKam, James C , and J6zef Tadeusz Milik. "A Preliminary Publication of a Jubi­
lees Manuscript from Qumran Cave 4:4QJub (4Q219)." Bib 73, no. 1 (1992): 62-
83.
. "Jubilees." In DID 13, pp. 1-140. Oxford: Clarendon, 1994.
Vaux, Roland de. "La grotte des manuscrits hSbreux." RB 56 (1949): 602-5.
Vermes, Geza. "Jubilees." In The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, 507-10. New
York: Penguin Press, 1997.
Wintermute, Orval S. "Jubilees: A New Translation and Introduction." In The Old
Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by James H. Charlesworth, 2:35-142. 2 vols.
New York: Doubleday, 1983,1985.
Wise, Michael Owen, Martin G. Abegg, Jr., and Edward M. Cook. "The Book of Jubi­
lees." In The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation, 316-35. Rev. ed. San Francisco:
HarperSanFrancisco, 2005.
Woude, Adam S. van der. "Fragmente des Buches lubilaen aus Qumran Hohle XI." In
Tradition und Glaube. Festgabe fur K. G. Kuhn, edited by Gert Jeremias et al.,
140-46. GOttingen: Vandenhoeck 8c Ruprecht, 1971.

2 . Books, Monographs, and Articles

Adler, William. "Abraham and the Burning of the Temple of Idols: lubilees' Tradi­
tions in Christian Chronography." JQR 77 (1986-87): 95-U7-
. "The Origins of the Proto-Heresies: Fragments from a Chronicle in the First
Book of Epiphanius' 'Panarion.'" JTS 41, no. 2 (1990): 472-501.
Albani, Matthias. "Zur Rekonstruktion eines verdrangten Konzepts: Der 364-Tage-

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Kalender in der gegenwartigen Forschung." In Studies in the Book of Jubilees, ed­

ited by Matthias Albani, JOrg Frey and Armin Lange, 79-126. TSAJ 65. Tubingen:
Mohr Siebeck, 1997.
Alexander, Philip S. "Retelling the Old Testament." In It Is Written: Scripture Citing
Scripture; Essays in Honour of Barnabas Lindars, edited by D. A. Carson and
H. G. M. Williamson, 99-121. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Allen, Joel Stevens. "Notes on the Imago Mundi of the Book of Jubilees." JJS 33
(1982): 197-213.
. The Despoliation of Egypt in Pre-Rabbinic, Rabbinic, and Patristic Traditions.
Supplements to Vigiliae Christianae, vol. 92. Leiden: Brill, 2008.
Anderson, Gary A. "The Status of the Torah before Sinai: The Retelling of the Bible
in the Damascus Covenant and the Book of Jubilees." DSDi, no. 1 (1994): 1-29.
Anderson, Jeff S. "Denouncement Speech in Jubilees and Other Enochic Literature."
In Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection, edited by
Gabriele Boccaccini, 132-36. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005.
Aranda Perez, Gonzalo. "Los mil aflos en el libro de los Jubileos y Ap 20,1-10." EstBib
57 (1999): 39-60.
Arbel, Daphna. "'Scribal Divination' in Jubilees and 3 Enoch" Hen 31, no. 1 (2009).
Arcari, Luca. "The Myth of the Watchers and the Problem of Intermarriage in Jubi­
lees" Hen 31, no. 1 (2009).
Baars, W., and Rochus Zuurmond. "The Project of a New Edition of the Ethiopic
Book of lubilees." JSS 9 (1964): 67-74.
Barthelemy, Dominique. "Notes en marge de publications reantes sur les manu-
scrits de Qumran." RB 59 (1952): 199-203.
Baumgarten, Joseph M. "The Beginning of the Day in the Calendar of lubilees." JBL
77 (i958): 355-60.
. "The Calendar of the Book of Jubilees and the Bible" (in Hebrew). Tarbiz 32
(1963): 317-28.
. "Some Problems of the Jubilees Calendar in Current Research." VT 32
(1982): 485-89.
. "4Q503 (Daily Prayers) and the Lunar Calendar." RevQ 12 (1986): 399-407.
. "The Calendars of the Book of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll." V T 3 7 (1987):
71-78.
. "The Laws of Orlah and First Fruits in the Light of Jubilees, the Qumran
Writings, and Targum Ps. Jonathan." JJS 38 (1987): 195-202.
. "Purification after Childbirth and the Sacred Garden in 4Q265 and Jubilees."
In New Qumran Texts and Studies: Proceedings of the First Meeting of the Inter­
national Organization for Qumran Studies, Paris 1992, edited by George J. Brook
and Florentino Garcia Martinez, 3-10. STDJ15. Leiden: Brill, 1994.
Bedenbender, Andreas. "The Book of Jubilees — an Example of 'Rewritten Torah'?"
Hen 31, no. 1 (2009).
Begg, Christopher T. "Rereading of the 'Animal Rite' of Genesis 15 in Early Jewish
Narratives." CBQ 50, no. 1 (1988): 36-46.

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Ben-Dov, Jonathan. "Jubilean Chronology and the 364-Day Year" (in Hebrew). In
Meghillot: Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolb V-VI; A Festschriftfor Devorah Dimant,
edited by Moshe Bar-Asher and Emanuel Tov, 49-59. Jerusalem: Bialik Institute
and Haifa University Press, 2007.
. "Qumran Calendars: A Survey of Scholarship 1980-2007." Currents in Bibli­
cal Research 7, no. 1 (2008): 124-68.
Ben-Dov, Jonathan, and Wayne Horowitz. "The 364-Day Year in Mesopotamia and
Qumran" (in Hebrew). In Meghillot: Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls I, edited by
Moshe Bar-Asher and Devorah Dimant, 3-26. Jerusalem: Haifa University Press
and Bialik Institute, 2003.
Berger, Klaus. "Jubilaenbuch." In RAC19 (1998), 31-38.
Bergsma, John Sietze. The Jubilee from Leviticus to Qumran: A History of Interpreta­
tion. VTSup 115. Leiden: Brill, 2007. See especially 233-50.
Berner, Christoph. Jahre, Jahrwochen, und Jubilaen: Heptadische Geschichtskonzep-
tionen im Antiken Judentum, 234-324,509-12. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter,
2006.
. "50 Jubilees and Beyond? Some Observations on the Chronological Struc­
ture of the Book of Jubilees." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009).
Bernstein, Moshe J. "Walking in the Festivals of the Gentiles: 4QpHosea" 2.15-17 and
Jubilees 6.34-38." JSP 9 (1991): 21-34.
Berrin, Shani L. "'Heavenly Tablets' in the Book of Jubilees." In Anafim: Proceedings
of the Australian Jewish StudiesForum Held at Mandelbaum House, University of
Sydney, 8-9 February 2004, edited by Suzanne Faigan, 29-47. Sydney: Mandel­
baum Publishing, 2006.
Beyerle, Stefan. "Angelic Revelation in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature." In Angels: The
Concept of Celestial Beings — Origins, Development, and Reception, edited by
Friedrich V. Reiterer, Tobias Nicklas, and Karin Schopflin, 205-23. Deutero-
canonical and Cognate Literature Yearbook. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter,
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The Case for the 'Shorter' Reading." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009).
Boccaccini, Gabriele. Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Partings of the Ways between
Qumran and Enochic Judaism, 86-98. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
, ed. Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005.
Bonneau, Guy, and Jean Duhaime. "AngeMogie et legitimation socio-religieuse dans
le livre des JubileV' EgT 27 (1996): 335-49-
Borgonovo, Gianantonio. "Jubilees' Rapprochement of Enochic and Mosaic Tradi­
tions." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009).
BOttrich, Christfried. "Gottespradikationen im Jubilaenbuch." In Studies in the Book
of Jubilees, edited by Matthias Albani, J6rg Frey, and Armin Lange, 221-42. TSAJ
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Brin, Gershon. "Regarding the Connection between the Temple Scroll and the Book
of Jubilees." JBL 112 (1993): 108-9.
. "The Idea and Sources of Esau's Speech in Jubilees 37 according to
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4QpapJubilees , Unit 2, Col. IV" (in Hebrew). In Studies in Bible and Exegesis,
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Brock, Sebastian P. "Abraham and the Ravens: A Syriac Counterpart to Jubilees 1 1 - 1 2
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Brooke, George J. "Exegetical Strategies in lubilees 1-2: New Lightfrom4QIubilees ."
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BASOR 123 (1951): 30-32.
Camponovo, Odo. Konigtum, Konigsherrschafi und Reich Gottes in den fruhjitdischen
Schrifien, 230-37. OBO 58. Freiburg, Switzerland: Universitatsverlag, 1983.
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. "Deux notes sur la geographie des lubiles." In Hommage a Georges Vajda.
Etudes d'histoire et de pensie juives, edited by Gerard Nation and Charles Touati,
37-42. Louvain: Peeters, 1980.
. "Les Anges inferieurs et les Anges superieurs d'apres le livre des Jubiles."
Bulletin de la Sociite Ernest Renan 29 (1980) = RHR 198 (1981): 114-15.
. "Explication du livre des Jubiles." Annuaire du College de France 82 (1981-82):
541-50.
. "Le livre des Jubiles, Melkisedeq et les dimes." JJS 33 (1982): 257-64.
. "'Loi' et 'Temoignage* dans le Livre des lubiles." In Melanges linguistiques
offerts a Maxime Rodinson, edited by C. Robin, 137-45. Paris: P. Geuthner, 1985.
. "Elements aggadiques dans le livre des lubiles." In Littirature intertesta-
mentaire, 57-68. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1985.
Carmichael, Calum M. "The Story of loseph and the Book of Jubilees." In The Dead
Sea Scrolls in Their Historical Context, edited by Timothy H. Lim, 143-58. Edin­
burgh: T. 8c T. Clark, 2000.
. "The Integration of Law and Narrative in Jubilees: The Biblical Perspective."
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Caubet Iturbe, Javier. "El calendario de Enoc-Jubileos y el antiguo calendario he-
breo." Salmanticensis 6 (1959): 131-42.
Cazelles, Henri. "Sur les origines du calendrier des Jubiles." Bib 43 (1962): 202-12.
Charlesworth, lames H. "Jubilees." In The Pseudepigrapha and Modern Research, 143-
47. SCS 7. Missoula: Scholars Press for the Society of Biblical Literature, 1976.
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. "The Date of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll." In SBLSP 24 (1985), 193-204.
Chestnutt, Randall D. "Revelatory Experiences Attributed to Biblical Women in
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Women in the Greco-Roman World, edited by Amy-Jill Levine, 107-25. SBLEJL1.
Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991.
Choi, P. Richard. "Abraham Our Father: Paul's Voice in the Covenantal Debate of the
Second Temple Period," 76-79,91-94,104-8. Ph.D. diss., Fuller Theological Sem­
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Christiansen, Ellen Juhl. The Covenant in Judaism and Paul: A Study of Ritual Bound­
aries as Identity Markers, 67-103. AGJU 27. Leiden: Brill, 1995.
Clark, E. Douglas. "A Prologue to Genesis: Moses 1 in Light of Jewish Traditions."
Brigham Young University Studies 45, no. 1 (2006): 129-42.
Corinaldi, Michael. "The Relationship between the 'Beta Israel' Tradition and the
Book of Jubilees." In Jews of Ethiopia: The Birth of an Elite, edited by Tudor
Parfitt and Emanuela Trevisan Semi, 193-204. New York: Routledge, 2005.
Cothenet, Edouard. "Jubiles (Le livre des)." In Catholicisme, hier, aujourd'hui,
demain 6 (1965), 1123-28.
. "Purete" et impurete"... Le livre des JubiMs." In DBSup 49 (1973), 509-11.
Crawford, Cory D. "On the Exegetical Function of the Abraham/Ravens Tradition in
Jubilees." HTR 97, no. 1 (2004): 91-97.
Crawford, Sidnie White. Rewriting Scripture in Second Temple Times. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2008.
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Davenport, Gene L. The Eschatology of the Book of Jubilees. SPB 20. Leiden: Brill, 1971.
Day, John. "The Pharaoh of the Exodus, Josephus and Jubilees." V T 4 5 , no. 3 (1995):
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Deichgraber, Reinhard. "Fragmente einer Jubilaen-Handschrift aus Hohle 3 von
Qumran." RevQ 5 (1965): 415-22.
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lona: Garriga, 1963.
. "La fSte des Huttes dans le Rouleau du Temple et dans le Livre des JubileV
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Denis, Albert-Marie, and Jean-Claude Haelewyck. "Le Livre des Jubills ou Lepto-
genese: le calendrier et les tablettes celestes." In Introduction a la literature
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Derrett, J. Duncan M. "A Problem in the Book of Jubilees and an Indian Doctrine."
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Dimant, Devorah. "The Fallen Angels in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Apocryphal
and Pseudepigraphic Books Related to Them" (in Hebrew). Ph.D. diss., Hebrew
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. "Sons of Heaven: Angelology in the Book of Jubilees in Light of the Qumran
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Devorah Dimant, and Shalom Rosenberg, 97-118. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1994.
. "Two 'Scientific' Fictions: The So-called Book of Noah and the Alleged
Quotation of Jubilees in CD 16:3-4." hi Studies in the Hebrew Bible, Qumran,
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84 (1996): 22-28.
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tum. TSAJ 78. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999. See especially 43-118.
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text." JSJ 20 (1989): 1-11.
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Struktur der Gesetzesbegrundung in Schopfungs- und Paradiesgeschichte des
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Eiss, Werner. "Das Wochenfest im Jubilaenbuch und im antiken Judentum." In
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ton, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1987.
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Critical Anthology, edited by M. Kiley et al., 53-58. London: Routledge, 1997.
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tion in Ancient Judaism, edited by Lynn LiDonnici and Andrea Lieber, 31-47.
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Eshel, Esther. "Jubilees 32 and the Bethel Cult Traditions in Second Temple Litera­
ture." In Things Revealed: Studies in Early Jewish and Christian Literature in
Honor of Michael E. Stone, edited by Esther G. Chazon, David Satran, and
Ruth A. Clements, 21-36. JSJSup 89. Boston: Brill, 2004.
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terpretation, Identity, and Tradition in Ancient Judaism, edited by Lynn LiDon­
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Evans, Craig A. "lubilees." In Noncanonical Writings and New Testament Interpreta­
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." 'Invoke at Any Time...': Apotropaic Texts and Belief in Demons in the Lit­
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porary Apocalypses." Hen 28, no. 2 (2006): 11-25.
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derer Beriicksichtigung PalHstinas bis zurMitte des2.Jh. v. Chr. WUNT10. Tubin­
gen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1969; 2nd ed. 1973; 3rd ed. 1988. ET, Judaism and Hellenism:
Studies in Their Encounter in Palestine during the Early Hellenistic Period, 2 vols.
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Inter-Sectarian Polemic." DSD 15, no. 2 (2008): 225-47.
Hilgert, Earle. "The Jubilees Calendar and the Origin of Sunday Observance." AUSS1
(1963): 44-51.
Himmelfarb, Martha. "Some Echoes of Jubilees in Medieval Hebrew Literature." In
Tracing the Threads: Studies in the Vitality of the Jewish Pseudepigrapha, edited
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468
Index
Abegg, Martin G., 2 8 3 , 4 2 0
Abusch, Ra'anan S., 3 6 0 , 3 8 7
Achtemeier, Paul J., 1 4 8 . 3 3 8
Adler, William, 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 8 0
Albani, Matthias, 23, 5 6 , 1 8 1 , 1 9 3 , 259,
2 6 3 , 2 7 9 - 8 0 , 2 9 2 - 9 3 . 441
Albeck, Chanoch, xvi, 2 8 , 3 2 , 1 0 0 , 1 1 2 ,
208
Alexander, Philip S., 7 8 , 8 8 , 2 2 9 , 2 9 2 ,
385-86,388-89
Allegro, John Marco, 5
Andersen, Francis I., 1 3 5 - 3 8 , 1 4 2
Anderson, Gary, 2 6 3 - 6 4
Aranda Perez, Gonzalo, 335
Arcari, Luca, xix, 5 0 , 3 4 2 , 3 5 0 , 3 6 0
Argall, Randal A., 9 2 , 1 7 9
Assefo, Daniel, xix
Attridge, Harold, 1 0 0
Baars, Willem, 1 9
Bachmann, Veronika, 4 4 1 - 7 0
Baillet, Maurice, 5 , 7 - 8 , 4 3 4
Bainbridge, William S., 4 2 9
Baltzer, Klaus, 3 2 9
Bar-Asher, Moshe, xv, 201
Bartelmus, Rudiger, 4 0
Barthelemy, Dominique, 5
Barton, John, 238
Batsch, Christophe, xix
Baumgarten, Albert, xix, 4 0 2 , 4 3 3
Baumgarten, Joseph M., 4 , 3 1 - 3 2 , 1 0 6 ,
2 4 7 - 4 9 . 2 5 1 , 2 6 3 , 2 6 6 , 273, 280-84,291,
4 2 7 . 4 3 0 , 4 3 4 . 438
Bautch, Kelley Coblentz, xix, 1 7 1 , 3 3 8 - 5 2
Beall, Todd S., 4 2 7 , 4 3 1 - 3 3
Beckwith, Roger T., 281
Bedenbender, Andreas, xix, 198
Beer, Bernhard, 29
Ben-Dov, Jonathan, xix, 3 9 , 2 6 6 , 2 7 6 - 9 3 ,
423
Ben-Hayyim, Zeev, 147
Berger, Klaus, 1 3 2 , 1 7 9 . 1 8 4 . 1 8 9 , 2 1 6 , 4 3 0
Bergren, Theodore T., 371
Bergsma, John S., xix, 3 6 - 5 1 , 6 8 , 7 2 , 1 9 7 ,
199.279.353
Berner, Christoph, xix, 56, 6 4 , 6 9 , 1 7 3 -
75.177.278,285
Bernstein, Moshe J., 28, 8 8 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 7 , 1 9 5 ,
221,229,231,303
Bertalotto, Pierpaolo, xv, xviii-xix
Beyer, Klaus, 1 7 7
Bhayro, Siam, xix, 3 4 8 - 4 9
Black, Matthew, 3 9 , 9 9
Blenkinsopp, Joseph, 165
469
Index

Boccaccini, Gabriele, xiv-xxi, 4 2 , 5 5 , 7 2 , Davila, James R., 386-88

168,193-210, 240,285,289,347,353-54. Davis, Michael, xix, 193
366,397,427-28,438 Day, Peggy L., 118
Bock, Darrell, xix Dean, James Elmer, 1 4
Boda, Mark I., 1 6 5 - 6 6 DeConick, April, 3 4 8 , 3 8 7
Borgonovo, Gianantonio, xix, 4 9 , 1 8 5 DeichgrSber, Reinhard, 5
Boustan, Ra'anan S., 2 6 5 , 3 8 6 , 4 0 0 Del Verme, Marcello, xix
Bow, Beverly A., 9 2 , 1 7 9 Denis, Albert-Marie, 15
Bowman, John, 1 4 6 - 4 7 , 1 5 5 Dexinger, Ferdinand, 156-57
Box, George Herbert, 2 0 6 Dillmann, August, xvi, 18, 2 0 6
Boyarin, Daniel, xix, 353 Dimant, Devorah, 4 , 6 , 2 4 , 2 6 - 2 7 , 2 9 , 8 8 ,
Brenner, Athalya, 4 0 100,113,132,227,254,259,374,427
Brin, Gershon, 286 Dobos, Karoly, xix, 4 1 2
Brooke, George J., 6 , 6 3 , 9 4 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 2 , Doering, Lutz, xix, 1 1 3 , 1 8 1 , 2 6 1 - 7 5 , 280-
106, 2 2 9 , 2 3 1 , 2 6 1 , 2 6 3 , 2 8 2 , 2 8 8 , 4 0 5 - 6 , 8 1 , 3 1 4 . 3 3 9 . 4 0 8 - 9 , 428
427 Donahue, Douglas J., 3 7
Broshi, Magan, 3 7 Doudna, Gregory L., 3 7
Drawnel, Lutz, xix, 3 8 - 3 9 , 2 6 5 , 2 6 8 , 4 1 8 ,
Camp, Claudia V., 129 423
Carmichael, Calum, xix, 4 1 9 , 4 2 4 Dupont-Sommer, Andre;, 433
Carpenter, Joseph Estlin, 3 9 7
Ceriani, Antonio Maria, 1 0 , 1 7 - 1 8 Elgvin, Torleif, xix, 3 9 0
Chabot, Jean Baptiste, 1 2 Elior, Rachel, 3 8 4 , 3 8 8 - 9 0
Charles, Robert Henry, xvi, 9 , 1 2 , 1 7 - 1 8 , Ellens, J. Harold, xv, xxi
27,44,104-5,132.196.206,216,335, Endres, John C , xix, 6 3 , 1 9 5 , 3 2 3 - 3 7 . 3 4 ° .
343.372,391.397-99.43» 341.345.419
Charlesworth, James H., xix, 1 0 0 , 1 3 4 , Eppel, Robert, 193
258 Epstein, Abraham, 9 , 2 0 7
Chavel, Charles B., 103 Eshel, Esther, xix, 8 2 - 9 8 , 2 6 5 , 2 6 7 , 2 8 3 ,
Chazon, Esther, xix, 4 7 , 8 8 , 1 0 3 , 1 1 3 , 2 3 8 , 286,431
247, 2 6 7 , 3 1 1 , 3 5 4 . 4 1 8 Eshel, Hanan, xviii-xix, 438
Chesnutt, Randall D., 3 4 0 , 3 4 6 , 3 5 1 Evans, Craig A., 6 3 , 1 4 3 , 3 1 0 , 3 3 0 , 4 2 0
Christiansen, Ellen Juhl, 1 7 8 - 7 9 , 1 8 5 - 8 6 Exum, J. Cherly, 4 3 , 7 2 , 3 3 9
Clements, Ruth A., 8 8 , 1 1 3 , 1 3 0 , 2 6 7
Collins, John J., xv, 5 3 - 5 6 , 6 7 , 6 9 , 1 3 0 , Fabricius, Johann, 3
171,175, 201, 2 2 9 , 2 8 5 , 2 9 3 , 3 3 0 , 3 8 7 , Falk, Daniel, xix, 6 3
397 Feldman, Louis H., 88
Crislip, Andrew T., 17 Finkelstein, Louis, 109
Cross, Frank M., 1 0 , 1 9 9 , 4 3 1 Fishbane, Michael A., 6 0 - 6 2 , 6 5 , 2 0 7 ,
Crown, Alan David, 146 387
Criisemann, Frank, 1 7 0 Fitzmyer, Joseph A., 8 8 - 8 9 , 9 4 - 9 5
Fletcher-Louis, Crispin, xix, 134
Daise, Michael, xix, 4 0 1 Flint, Peter W., 4 , 3 7 . 5 3 - 5 4 . 2 3 2 , 2 5 9 ,
Davenport, Gene, xix, 2 3 - 2 4 , 5 6 , 3 2 4 - 2 5 . 276,285,326, 423,429
3 3 i . 353. 4 3 0 Fossum, Jarl E., 1 3 4 , 1 5 5
Davies, Philip R., 1 0 2 , 4 3 0 Fraade, Steven D., 2 2 9 , 3 7 1 - 7 2

470
 Index

Frey, J6rg, 2 3 , 5 6 , 1 8 1 , 2 5 9 , 263 Himmelfarb, Martha, xx, 9,113,168,

Frdhlich, Ida, xix, 47,355 194-96,200,205, 231-32, 261, 265,353,
356.360,362-66,368,384-94,400,
Gall, August F. von, 147 405,410, 419
Garcia Martinez, Florentino, 6 , 1 0 1 , 1 9 3 , Hjelm, Ingrid, 146
206, 208,229, 231, 235,261,278,303, Hobbins, John F., 56
364 Hoffmann, Heinrich, 169-70,175
Gaster, Moses, 147,156 Holladay, Carl R., 140,149
Geiger, Abraham, 107 Holladay, William L., 91
Gelzer, Heinrich, 14 Hopkins, Jamal-Dominique, xx, 392,
Gianotto, Claudio, xix 427
Gieschen, Charles, xx Horowitz, Wayne, 285, 290, 293
Gilat, Yitzhak D., 251 Horst, Pieter Willem van der, 141
Gilders, William K., xx, 12,178-92 Horton, Fred L., 377
Ginsberg, Harold Louis, 60
Ginzberg, Louis, 152 Ibba, Giovanni, xv, xx, 355,357
Gitin, Seymour, 116,173 Idel, Moshe, 132, 427
Glessmer, Uwe, 276-77,287,422-23,429 Ilan, Tal, 351
Goldmann, M., 179,190 Isser, Stanley J., 156
Grabbe, Lester L., xx, 145-59
Gray, Rebecca, 434 Jackson, David, xx, 168,198-99,206, 411-
Greenfield, Jonas C , 82-84,86, 92-94, 25
96,265,286 Jacobson, Howard, 140
Grelot, Pierre, 43, 227 Jaffee, Martin S., 207
Grossman, Maxine, xx, 338 Janowski, Bernd, 291
Gruenwald, Ithamar, 387 Japhet, Sara, 167,310
Gruneberg, Keith N., 216 Jassen, Alex P., 237
Jaubert, Annie, xvi, 65,178-79,277,281,
Halperin, David J., 386-87 288,402
Halpern-Amaru, Betsy, xx, 88, in, 178- Jellinek, Adolph, xvi, 8-9,207
82,186, 229,309-22,339-42,344-46, Jeremias, Gert, 6
35°. 353,360,376,392,402,415,430 Jokiranta, Jutta, xx
Hamidovic, David, 99-100 lull, A. J. Timothy, 37
Hanneken, Todd, xv, xxi, 353-54,356-57
Hanson, John S., 149 Kahana, Abraham, 179
Harrington, Daniel J., 229 Kampen, John, 107, 221,231,303
Harrington, Hannah K., 263,273 Katzoff, Ranon, 280
Hartman, Lars, 169 Kautzsch, Emil, 29
Hayes, Christine E., 271-72,428 Kister, Menahem, 5, 2 4 , 3 2 , 8 8 , 2 4 8 , 2 5 0 ,
Heidenheim, Moritz, 147 259,268, 283
Hempel, Charlotte, 53,56,118, 231, 241 Klausner, Joseph, 324,334
Henderson, Ian H., 305 Klawans, Jonathan, 261,268,273,408
Hengel, Martin, 292 Klein, Michael L., 133
Henten, Jan Willem van, 40 Knibb, Michael A., 3 7 , 4 0 , 4 3 , 6 ° > 72,
Henze, Matthias, xviii, xx, 52-66 1 3 4 , 1 3 9 , 2 3 3 . 3 2 6 . 3 3 2 , 3 3 9 , 3 8 3 . 403-4
Herion, Gary, 371 Koch, Klaus, 62,170,175

471
Index

Kollmann, Bernd, 305 Metso, Susanne, 256

Kooten, Geurt Hendrik van, 4 0 Milgrom, Jacob, 113, 269, 311
Kraft, Robert A., xx, 5 4 , 9 2 , 1 2 3 , 2 2 9 , Milik, J 6 s e f Tadeusz, 5 - 6 , 8 , 1 5 , 3 7 - 4 0 ,
231-32,235 43,100,104,179, 227
Kratz, Reinhard Gregor, 5 4 Millar, Fergus, 9 9
Kugel, James L., 2 8 , 3 4 - 3 5 , 5 8 , 8 5 , 8 7 , 1 7 1 , Moberly, Robert Walter L., 2 1 6
237. 254. 293. 311, 334. 4 0 2
Kugler, Robert A., 85 Najman, Hindy, xx, 6 3 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 5 , 1 3 2 , 1 4 3 ,
Kuhn, Thomas S., 4 1 3 1 6 7 , 1 7 1 , 1 9 4 - 9 6 , 207, 229-43,353-55.
Kvanvig, Helge S., xx, 5 0 , 1 6 3 - 7 7 , 1 9 8 , 363-65.367
200,202,293,350,353-54.360,365-66, Nelson, H. Lindemann, 164
425 Neubauer, Adolph, 1 4 7
Neugebauer, Otto, 3 9 , 4 4
Lambdin, Thomas O., 3 3 5 Newman, Judith H., 1 7 1 , 237
Lange, Armin, 2 3 , 5 6 , 1 8 1 , 2 0 4 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 7 , Newsom, Carol A., 1 1 8 , 1 6 4 , 1 6 7 , 2 2 9
259. 2 6 3 , 3 0 3 , 3 5 7 Nickelsburg, George W. E., xiv, xx, 2 9 ,
Larson, Erik, xx, 3 6 8 - 8 3 , 3 9 8 - 9 9 , 4 0 6 5 2 , 5 5 , 60-61, 67-68, 71. 9 1 - 9 2 . 9 5 . " 6 .
Lemaire, Andre\ 281 121,156,167-69,171,173-74.177.200,
Lesses, Rebecca M., 3 8 6 227,229,238,348-49.363.398,411-12,
Leszynsky, Rudolf, 2 0 6 418,420
Levenson, Jon D., 6 2 - 6 3 Nitzan, Bilhah, xx, 2 8 6 , 3 8 5 , 4 1 9
Levine, Amy-Jill, 3 4 0 Noam, Vered, 1 0 9 , 2 6 0
Levine, B. A., 1 0 4 Noffke, Eric, x x
Levine, Lee I., 78 Noort, Edward, 3 1 3
Levison, John R., 3 4 1
Licht, Jacob, 2 5 0 , 4 2 7 , 4 2 9 , 4 3 2 Odeberg, Hugo, 139
Lichtenberger, Hermann, 2 2 7 , 3 5 7 Oegema, Gerbern S., 305
LiDonnici, Lynn, 7 0 , 8 8 , 2 6 4 , 3 2 6 Oliver, Isaac W., xv, xxi, 4 4 1 - 7 0
Lieber, Andrea, 7 0 , 8 8 , 2 6 4 , 3 2 6 Olson, Daniel, xx
Lieu, Judith M., 5 6 , 1 1 8 , 2 3 1 , 2 4 1 Olyan, Saul M., 2 7 2
Lignee, Hubert, 9 9 , 2 0 9 Orlov, Andrei A., xviii, xx, 1 3 1 - 4 4
Lim, Timothy H., 3 8 7
Lipscomb, W. Lowndes, 1 7 , 3 4 3 Pakkala, Juha, 1 6 5
Loader, William, xx, 2 6 9 - 7 2 , 3 2 7 , 3 3 4 , Parker, Richard A., 2 9 2
3 3 9 - 4 2 , 3 4 5 - 4 6 . 3 4 8 - 5 1 . 3 9 9 . 408-9 Parry, Donald W., 2 8 3
Loprieno, Antonio, 2 9 2 Perrot, Charles, 2 3 0
Luhrmann, Dieter, 1 7 Peters, Dorothy, xx, 5 0 , 1 9 7 , 4 2 4
Petersen, Anders Klostergaard, x x
Macaskill, Grant, xx, 2 0 2 , 419 Petit, Francois, 16
Macdonald, John, 1 4 7 , 1 5 5 Pfann, Claire, xx
McNamara, Martin J., 133 Pfann, Stephen, xx, 2 8 3 , 2 9 3
Magness, Jodi, 1 1 6 , 1 7 3 Pietersma, Albert, 1 2 4
Maher, Michael, 133 Pinnick, Avital, 1 0 3
Maier, Johann, 2 6 6 , 3 8 8 - 8 9 Piovanelli, Pierluigi, x x
Manheim, Karl, 4 3 0 Poole, Fitz John Porter, 4 2 6
Mazzinghi, Luca, x x Porter, Stanley E., 6 3 , 1 7 8 , 4 2 0

472
 Index

Powels, Sylvia, 1 5 4 Schwarz, Eberhard, 272

Puech, Emile, 7 - 8 , 1 0 0 , 2 3 5 , 4 2 7 Scott, James M., xx, 2 6 , 6 7 - 8 1 , 1 7 8 , 1 8 1 ,
Pummer, Reinhard, 1 4 5 - 4 6 216,285,327-28,380, 406,412,419,
421-22
Qimron, Elisha, 1 0 5 , 1 0 7 , 1 1 2 , 2 6 0 , 2 7 1 Segal, Michael, x x , 2 2 - 3 5 , 7 0 . 2 2 1 - 2 3 ,
2 2 6 - 2 7 , 2 3 0 , 278
Rad, Gerhard von, 165 Segal, Robert A., 4 2 6
Rappaport, Uriel, 6 Shemesh, Aharon, x x , 2 4 7 - 6 0 , 2 6 3 , 2 7 1 ,
Ravid, Liora, 2 4 , 2 6 1 - 6 2 , 2 6 4 - 6 5 , 2 6 8 , 392-93.411. 427
277,279-80,282, 284,288-89,29i-93> Sievers, Joseph, x x
402,406-8, 427 Smith, Barry D., 3 3 0
Reed, Annette Yoshiko, xx, 4 7 , 4 9 , 1 6 8 , Smith, Jonathan Z., 1 3 6 , 1 3 8 - 3 9 , 4 2 6
199-200,204,221,265, 279,321,350, Smith, Mark S., 2 9 1
353-68,400,413-14, 416-17 Stark, Rodney, 4 2 9
Reeves, John C., 9 , 2 3 1 Stegemann, Hartmut, 6 , 2 9 2
Regev, Eyal, xx, 2 0 5 , 4 2 6 - 4 0 Steiner, Richard C , 95
Richards, Kent Harold, 99 Sterling, Gregory E., 130
Rivkin, Ellis, 2 0 6 Stern, Sacha, 1 5 3 , 2 8 0
Roft, Alexander, 5 Stokl Ben-Ezra, Daniel, xx
Ronsch, Hermann, xvi, 1 5 , 1 7 , 2 7 , 2 0 6 , Stone, Michael E., 4 7 , 8 3 - 8 4 , 8 6 , 89, 9 2 -
268 94.96,103,229,238,247,254,265,
Rook, John, 3 4 3 - 4 4 286,354,371,418
Rosenberg, Shalom, 1 3 2 , 4 2 7 Strugnell, John, 1 0 7 , 2 7 1 , 4 3 3
Rowland, Christopher, 134 Stuckenbruck, Loren T., xviii, xxi, 4 7 ,
Ruiten, Jacques van, xiv, xx, 4 1 , 4 3 , 7 1 - 53, 2 9 4 - 3 0 8 , 3 6 7
72, 9 1 , 1 7 8 , 1 8 2 , 1 8 8 , 2 1 1 - 2 8 , 2 9 1 , 3 1 3 , Sullivan, Kevin, 348
339.341-44.354.366 Sussmann, Y., 1 0 7
Suter, David W., xxi, 1 6 8 , 3 4 9 , 3 6 3 , 3 9 7 -
Sacchi, Paolo, xx, 1 9 8 - 9 9 . 2 0 4 , 2 0 8 , 285, 410

353 Swartz, Michael D., 3 8 5 - 8 7

Sanders, Ed Parish, 201
Sanders, Jack T., 173 Tal, Abraham, 1 4 6 - 4 7

Sanders, James A., 418 Talmon, Shemaryahu, xxi, 2 7 6 - 7 7 , 2 8 6 ,

Satran, David, 2 6 7 289-90,310

Saulnier, Stephane, xx, 2 6 6 , 3 1 4 Tedeshe, Sidney, 2 0 7

Schafer, Peter, 3 8 6 , 3 8 9 Testuz, Michel, xvi, 5 7 , 1 3 2 , 2 0 7 , 3 2 6

Schaper, Joachim, 325 Theodor, Julius, 2 8

Schiffman, Lawrence H., xx, 9 9 - 1 1 5 . 1 7 8 , Thomas, Sam, xxi
2 0 8 , 2 4 7 , 2 5 2 , 4 2 7 . 431 Tigchelaar, Eibert, 6 , 1 0 1 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 5 , 2 8 1 ,

Scholem, Gershom G., 3 8 4 - 8 7 , 3 8 9 313.349.351.364

Schreiber, Bertram M., 2 8 0 Tisserant, Eugene, 1 1 - 1 2
Schultz, Joseph P., 2 0 7 Tov, Emanuel, xv, 4 , 3 7 , 1 0 1 , 1 7 8 , 2 0 1 ,

Schurer, Emil, 99 229,259,283

Schwartz, Daniel R., 105 Trebolle Barrera, Julio C , 24, 53, 88,
Schwartz, Joshua J., 405, 437 268,283,428

Schwartz, Seth, 2 0 0 - 2 0 1 Tretti, Cristiana, xxi

473
Index

Tuffin, Paul, 280 Werline, Rodney A., 9 2 , 1 7 9 , 3 2 7 , 3 3 4

Werman, Cana, 1 3 0 , 2 3 1 , 2 5 9 , 2 6 1 , 2 6 5 ,

Ulmer, Rivka, 1 0 2 270,278,281,287,346,360

Ulrich, Eugene, 5 3 , 2 3 0 , 2 3 2 , 4 1 8 White, Sidnie, 101
Wieder, Naphtali, 2 5 4
VanderKam, James C , xiv, xvi, xxi, 3 - 2 1 , Wiesenberg, Ernest, 2 2 - 2 4
23, 2 6 , 3 6 - 4 3 . 4 5 . 4 7 . 5 0 , 5 2 - 5 3 . 5 7 . 6 3 - Williams, Frank, 1 3
6 5 , 6 7 - 6 8 , 7 0 - 7 2 , 7 5 - 7 6 , 84-85,87, 97. Williams, Ralph, xxi
99-101,103-6,112,114,121,125,131-32, Williamson, Hugh G. M., 4 3 , 7 2 , 1 6 5 .
134.137.147.175-76,178-79.184.189. 229,339
1 9 2 , 1 9 6 , 204, 208, 212, 215-16, 227, 230, Wills, Lawrence M., 1 2 6 , 1 3 0 , 2 3 3
232, 241, 259, 2 6 1 - 6 2 , 264, 267, 276, Wintermute, Orval S., 4 9 , 1 1 8 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 4 ,
278-79, 281-82, 2 8 4 , 2 8 7 , 291, 293, 296,
189-92,216,372,399,401-2
298,309-10, 324,326, 329-31.336,338-
Wise, Michael O., 1 0 5
40,342,348,354-55.357.363.365-66,
Wold, Benjamin, xxi
370.372-73.401. 407.409. 411-12.418,
Wolfson, Elliot R., 1 3 3 . 3 8 5
4 2 1 , 4 2 3 , 427, 429, 435-36, 438, 441
Woude, Adam S. van der, 6 , 6 0
Vaux, Roland de, 5
Wright, Benjamin G., xxi, 1 1 6 - 3 0 , 1 9 4 .
Vegas Montaner, Luis, 2 4 , 5 3 , 8 8 , 2 6 8 ,
229, 2 3 1 , 2 3 3 , 2 4 1 , 3 6 3 - 6 4
283,428
Wright, David P., 3 4
Venter, Pieter M., xxi
Vermes, Geza, xvi, 9 9 , 1 3 9 , 2 3 0 , 4 3 3
Xeravits, Geza, 3 2 5 - 2 6
Vermeylen, Jacques, 7 2

Wacholder, Ben Zion, 9 9 . 1 0 2 . 1 Q

6,195.
Yadin, Azzan, xxi
231,281 Yadin, Yigael, 8 8 , 1 0 0 - 1 0 2 , 1 0 4 - 5 , 1 1 0 ,

Wacholder, Sholom, 281 1 1 2 - 1 3 , 3 1 4 - 1 5 . 435-36

Wacker, Marie-Theres, 3 4 8
Wassen, Cecilia, 2 6 3 Zuurmond, Rochus, 1 9

474