CHAPPELL,B. A. (1974). GPotechnique 24, No. 4, 641-654.

Load distribution and deformational response

in discontinua

B. A. CHAPPELL*

The role of discontinuum mechanics is of considerable Le role de la mecanique du discontinu (discon-

relevance to problems in geomechanics. Stress or tinuum) est prochement lie aux problemes de la
geomecanique. Dans la plupart des cas on calcule
load distribution has in most cases been evaluated la distribution de resistance ou de charge selon les
from continuum principles such as the theories of principes du continu (continuum) tels qu’ils se
elasticity and plasticity; failure theories also rely on trouvent dans les theories de l’elasticite et de la
plasticite. D’ailleurs on peut avoir recours a ces
these concepts for their interpretation. In an attempt mCmes principes afin d’expliquer les theories diverses
to understand better the relationship between the sur la rupture. Pour mieux comprendre le rapport
load distribution characteristics of discontinua and entre les caracteristiques de la distribution de charge
selon les theories du discontinu ou du continu, on
continuum theories, photoelastic models of discon- fait construire et on essaie par la suite des modeles
tinua were constructed and tested in such a way that photoelastiques ‘discontinua’ de telle man&e a
stress distribution and deformational response could pouvoir mesurer la repartition des contraintes ainsi
que la reaction deformationelle qui s’en suit. Les
be measured. The results show that compressive resultats de ces essais indiquent que la resistance com-
stress across a joint can change to tension when pressive enregistrte a travers un joint est susceptible
applied or transmitted moments across the joint be- de se transformer en tension lorsque les moments
appliques ou transmis s’elargissent. Les mutations
come large enough. Geometry changes which occur geometriques qui se produisent par suite de defor-
due to the large deformations caused redistributions mations importantes occasionnent des redistributions
of load and also stress redistributions caused by joint de charge, et de resistance, dont les dernieres pro-
viennent du glissement de joint, ainsi que des con-
slip and rotation induced tensile stresses and strains traintes de traction et des deformations de troncons
within blocks. provenant du glissement circulaire.

INTRODUCTION
It is generally realized in the analysis of geotechnical problems involving discontinuous
materials (such as rock and residual soil formations) that the continuum concepts of elasticity
and plasticity do not always adequately predict the true stress distributions. In order to
appreciate why these theories become inadequate in certain cases, the stress distribution
between the individual particles making up the discontinuous material should be examined.
Furthermore, if the stress distribution can be assessed at all stages of loading, then the de-
formational response and probable modes of failure can be better understood and more
confidently predicted.
In order to achieve the above objectives, experiments were performed on photoelastic
models made up of a system of blocks where both the stresses and deformations were measured.
The stress distribution around each block was determined independently by using a numerical
line integral approach to evaluate the photoelastic data. These results were found to be
different from stress distributions for similar but continuous models evaluated by finite element
techniques. It was evident that specific blocks in the photoelastic models had mechanistically
slipped and rotated as well as deformed elastically, and these additional modes of deformation
had created geometry changes which greatly altered the load and consequent stress distribution.
* Senior Geotechnical Engineer, Maunsell and Partners, Australia.

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 642 B. A. CHAPPELL

The implications of these results are important since they indicate the factors which determine
whether continuum or discontinuum concepts are applicable to a particular material.
Deformations measured in a discontinuous mass include the elastic deformations of the
individual blocks and joint systems as well as the deformations due to slip and rotation.
Thus the total deformational response to load will be referred to as the ‘mechanical deforma-
tional response’ as distinct from a purely elastic response. The amount of overall slip which
contributes to the mechanistic response could be determined from the measured deformation,
while the contribution of rotation, or the tendency to rotate, is indirectly determined by
examining the resultant stress distribution on the boundaries of individual blocks.
In this Paper, the results of tests performed on models of underground openings in blocky
material are examined (although slopes and imposed surface loads on blocky materials have
also been studied). It was found that when the mechanisms of slip and rotation occurred, the
load distribution was very much load path dependent. To demonstrate this, the blocks
removed to create the underground opening in the model were first removed before the loads
were imposed, and then the tests were repeated where the blocks were removed after loading.
In the latter case the blocks were removed by hammering which greatly affected the joint
systems near the opening and accentuated the mechanisms of slip and rotation. Of the many
experiments performed (Chappell, 1972) only those in which slip and rotation are evident are
reported here.

PHOTOELASTIC METHOD
In the analysis of blocky models, the stress distribution on the boundaries of individual
blocks making up the model is required, and of the many photoelastic methods available to
obtain principal stress differences (isochromatics) and principal stress directions (isoclinics) at
any point within a model, the most commonly used is that of shear differences. In this method,
the evaluation is started at a boundary of known loading, and then using the photoelastic
data and incremental distances, the stresses at points within the boundary are progressively
evaluated. Thus any error made diffuses through the entire process of data reduction (Hartree,
1958) and is not minimized by the use of computers as the error derives from dimensional
accuracy, data interpretation and measurement. Thus the method is far too cumbersome
and prone to error to be used on the analysis of block models.
In an attempt to overcome these limitations of conventional methods, a numerical method
of reducing the photoelastic data for each block was developed, based on a technique which
uses the line integral process of evaluating boundary stresses from internal stresses (Cruse,
1969; Butterfield, 1972). As values of isoclinics are difficult to determine accurately, the
technique is organized in such a way that only the values of the isochromatics need to be
known to determine the boundary loading on the block being analysed.
Details of the calculation are contained in the Appendix.

PHOTOELASTIC MODELS
The stress fields applicable to the modelling of large plane areas in geotechnical problems
are of a relatively low magnitude (- 50 lb/in2 to + 200 lb/in2) when compared with the stress fields
required in the more common application of photoelasticity to stress concentrations. It is
therefore necessary to use a material with a high ‘order of merit’ (Young’s modulus/fringe
value) and a high sensitivity to obtain good results from the low stress fields. Araldite D was
used for constructing the models (Hattersley, 1964) because it generally meets these require-
ments as well as being easy to use and inexpensive. Sheets of Araldite were cast with nominal
thicknesses varying between 3 in. and 1 in. (and with a tolerance of _+0.0005 in. maintained on

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 LOAD DISTRIBUTION AND DEFORMATIONAL RESPONSE IN DISCONTINUA 643
LOID Is lw_AIwE IYSPLACENENT
TS4 BlLX~Kyyl
Y
&a= 75 Sd

00, 002 003

lb) DL~LAcEMElvI:,N.

Fig. l(a). Typical blocky model of 1 in. square blocks; (b) deformational response with all blocks in place and
with three removed as indicated in Fig. l(a)

these thicknesses) from which the blocks for the models were cut. A reasonable photoelastic
model for 1 in. square blocks is attainable if a tolerance of +O*OOlin. is maintained in the
dimensions between adjacent blocks. The tolerances were readily achieved by cutting the
cast sheets with a large diameter (24 in.) diamond rock saw which had been stiffened in the
cutting plane and, by using fabricated templates, the strips and subsequent blocks cut from the
sheets were accurately controlled. Before cutting, however, a Perspex backing was glued to
the sheets to restrict any unwanted relative movements in the sheet being cut. Thus all the
blocks cut from a sheet retained their positions relative to one another, and gave a model
which easily met the stated tolerances. Roughness on the cut faces was measured with a
profilometer and was found to vary between 20 and 70 pm.
It is important to note that no matter how accurately the blocks of the model are fabricated
or how tightly they are fitted together, there remain gaps between the contact surfaces greater
than those existing in the prototype. Thus the size of the blocks should not be too small,
and the frequency of the discontinuities in the model should be considerably smaller than
exists in the prototype, to avoid too great a reduction in the overall modulus of deformation
(Fumagalli, 1968).
Models with block sizes of $ in., 4 in., $ in., 3 in. and 1 in. square were constructed with
horizontal and vertical jointing systems, and additional models with the same blocks were
constructed with the jointing systems at 30”, 45” and 60” to the horizontal. Rectangular
models with blocks having aspect ratios (length to breadth) of 3 in. x 2 in., and 2 in. x 1 in.,
were also built with the jointing systems horizontal and vertical. Differently sized openings
which gave varying ratios of block size to opening size were also examined (Chappell, 1972).

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 644 B. A. CHAPPELL

Initially all the blocks in the model were left in place and the loads applied while the defor-
mations and stress patterns were measured. In the second general configuration examined,
single openings were created by removing certain blocks (as shown in Figs 3 and 6) and in
the third case these openings were extended by removing blocks in the hanging wall. At first
blocks were extracted before the loads were applied, and then the same experiments were
repeated with the blocks being extracted after the loads were applied.

H 380
V 380

Fig. 2(a). Dimensional tolerances between blocks are relatively good; (b) dimensional tolerances between
blocks are bad

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 LOAD DISTRIBUTION AND DEFORMATIONAL RESPONSE IN DISCONTINUA 645
DEFORMATIONAL RESPONSE AND PHOTOELASTIC METHODS

If all the blocks were of perfect fit and all in place as in Fig. l(a), the deformational response
under hydrostatic load would be elastic. However, because the joints have roughness, and
create a porosity, the blocky mass is less stiff at the lower applied loads, shown in Fig. l(b).
Nevertheless at the higher confining loads the deformational response does approach that
which would be expected if the mass were an elastic continuum.
If the jointing system is such as to cause no increase in pore space (planar joints) and all the
blocks are in place, the load distribution under hydrostatic loading should give a uniform
load picture, that is a picture of one tone, as in Fig. 2(a). If a uniform load state is not
achieved, the resulting isochromatic picture gives a measure of the lack of fit caused by joint
roughness, lack of planarity, and squareness (Fig. 2(b)).
The following factors have been found to influence the initial stress state in the model when
all blocks are in place

(a) Joint roughness and planarity

(b) Orthogonality of the jointing systems
(c) Equality in size between contiguous blocks
(d) Stacking geometry
(e) Ratio of the magnitude of applied loads
(f) Direction of jointing systems relative to applied loads
(g) Loading sequence
(h) Loading history

It was found that the main effect of these factors was on the initial stress conditions, in the
same way as reported by Ergun (1970). When the initial stress state is disturbed by creating
the underground opening, mechanisms of deformation are initiated which control the sub-
sequent load distribution. Additional factors which control these deformations are also
introduced. These are constraints, imposed or caused by the induced loads and the change
of boundary conditions created by the opening.
A typical photoelastic pattern depicting the deformational response to hydrostatic loading
in the case with four blocks removed is shown in Fig. 3(a). It became apparent that as equal
incremental loads were applied, the deformations were not consistent with the expected equal
increments in deformation. The deformations were haphazard in magnitude, and it was
found that the closure of the opening could not be accounted for by the elastic relief of stress
above and below the opening. The only other means available to produce the extra defor-
mation is the relative slip between the blocks. This mode of deformation is purely mechanical
in effect, and thus the term ‘mechanistic slip’ has been used to describe it.

SINGLE PLANAR OPENINGS

When a single opening in an elastic continuum is subjected to a unaxial compressive load,
two important results are the development of tensile stress and the development of large
compressive stresses. The large compressive stresses induced around the corners are local in
extent and if failure ensues the radius of curvature at the corners is increased while the large
compressive stresses are correspondingly reduced. Figs 3 and 4 show isochromatics for a
single planar opening, in blocks (2 in x 1 in.), with an aspect ratio of 8 to 1. The loading
sequence was such that the horizontal and vertical loads were increased by equal increments
to a specific value (Fig. 3) and then the vertical load was increased to twice the value of the
horizontal load (Fig. 4).

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 646 B. A. CHAPPELL

For a rectangular opening in an elastic continuum the stress intensity in the hanging and
foot walls can change from compression to tension, dependent on the magnitude of horizontal
stress. Also in a continuum the stress intensity at the abutments increases and there is an
arching action of the stress above and below the opening (Denkhaus, 1965). In the blocky
models this arching action is greatly accentuated (Fig. 4) but in this instance slips have occurred
and, as will be noted when examining individual blocks, rotations have also concomitantly
occurred.
H 630

u4 v 630

(a)

H 630
v 1260
u4

Fig. 3(a). Isochromatics of 2 in. x 1 in. rectangular blocks subjected to equal horizontal and vertical forces;
(b) isochromatics of 2 in. x 1 in. rectangular blocks subjected to a load system where the vertical load is twice
the magnitude of the horizontal load

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 LOAD DISTRIBUTION AND DEFORMATIONAL RESPONSE IN DISCONTINUA 647

An important factor in the mobilization of this arching action in a blocky material is the
horizontal thrust. If the magnitude of the original horizontal thrust is such as to reduce or
minimize slip, the change in stress intensity above and below the opening tends to that of a
continuum, and the mechanistic arching action is reduced. This again becomes apparent
when examining the stress distribution on the boundaries of individual blocks. (The stresses
on the boundary of an opening are given in Fig. 5 where the concentration factor is the ratio
of the induced stresses relative to the applied horizontal stress.)

Fig. 4. Isochromatics of opening where some hanging wall blocks have been removed

ratio 2vert:l her.

Fig. 5. Concentration factor of the forces on the boundary of the opening shown in Figs 3(a) and (b)

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 648 B. A. CHAPPELL

Fig. 6. Isochromatics of 3 in. X2 in. rectangular block subjected to a load where the vertical load is twice
the magnitude of the horizontal load

HOR.Ld.= 315 Ibs.

VER.Ld:= 630 I&s.

Fig. 7. Concentration factor of the forces on the boundary of the opening shown in Fig. 6

A rectangular opening of aspect ratio 3 was created in the 3 in. x 2 in. blocky material and
both the vertical horizontal loads were increased by equal increments until the stress was 84 lb/in2
(Fig. 6). After this the vertical load was incrementally increased until the vertical stress was
168 lb/in2. The stresses around the periphery of the blocky opening are shown in Fig. 7 in
terms of a concentration factor relative to the applied vertical stress. Similar stress patterns
were obtained for the 3 in. x 2 in. model and 2 in. x 1 in. model as those resulting from the
opening in the 2 in. x 1 in. blocks (Figs 4 and 5).

BOUNDARY STRESSES ON SPECIFIC BLOCKS

In an elastic continuum tensile stresses can readily develop when an opening is created.
However in the discontinuous models examined, tension within the joints is impossible. This
latter criterion, however, does not preclude the development of tension within individual
blocks, and in fact the mechanisms of rotation and slip create situations where tensile stresses
or strains more readily appear.

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 LOAD DISTRIBUTION AND DEFORMATIONAL RESPONSE IN DISCONTINUA

C
++

Fig. 8 (above). Typical boundary load-

ings induced on individual blocks when an
opening is created: (a) block abutments
A of the opening; (b) blocks B directly
above and below theabutments; (c)blocks
C where beaming action occurs; (d)
blocks D where arching action occurs

Fig. 9 (right). Block layout and iso-

chromatics of l+ in. square block subjec-
ted to a load system where the vertical
load is twice the magnitude of the hori-
zontal load. Blocks were first extracted
and then the loads imposed

Four specific cases were examined where tensile stresses or strains develop (Fig. 8). Blocks
which have the boundary loads imposed on them as shown will develop either tensile stresses
or effective tensile strains. Effective tensile strain is a Poisson type strain which is the tensile
strain induced transversely in a body loaded uniaxially in compression (Brown and Trollope,
1967). If the block loadings as shown in Fig. 8 occur in the models, then concomitantly
tensile strains occur in the blocks.
In the case of Figs 8(a) and 8(c) the effective tensile strain concept (Brown and Trollope,
1967) is evident and slabbing is possible. Slabbing is common in many practical situations
where abutment or pillar failures have occurred. In the case of Figs 8(b) and 8(d) tensile
stresses are induced by a punching or ‘digging in’ action of contiguous blocks as their tendency
to rotate or slip is inhibited. The stress distribution on the boundaries of the blocks in Figs
8(b) and 8(d), although in equilibrium, induces a torsion. When equilibrium is not satisfied
this torsional effect causes the block to rotate with the consequent interaction between blocks.
Figure 9 is a 13 in. square blocky model with a continuous joint system dipping at 60”. The
aspect ratio of the opening is 5 to 1. Before the hydrostatic loads were applied the five blocks
as shown were removed. Also in Fig. 9 certain blocks are identified by the lettering A, B, C,
D and E. By using the photoelastic method of data evaluation already described and the

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 650 B. A. CHAPPELL

shear difference method, the boundary loads acting on blocks A, B, C and D were determined.
The results in terms of concentration factors relative to the applied hydrostatic stress are
shown in Fig. 10. It is important to note that the resultant load patterns are much the same
as those in Fig. 8. Hence the prevalence of tensile stresses and effective strains within the
blocks should be readily appreciated.

I A I (bl

(d) (e)
Fig. 10. Normal boundary stresses shown in terms of concentration factors relative to the applied vertical
stress induced on the blocks indicated in Fig. 9

Fig. 11. Block layout and isochromatics of 14 in. square blocks subjected to a load system where the vertical
load is twice the magnitude of the horizontal load. The load system was first applied and the blocks subsequently
and forcibly removed

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 LOAD DISTRIBUTION AND DEFORMATIONAL RESPONSE IN DISCONTMUA 651

I u I I

Fig. 12. Normal boundary stresses shown in terms of concentration factors relative to the applied vertical
stress induced on the blocks indicated in Fig. 11

It has already been established that slip occurs and if the load distribution on block A, for
example, is examined, it is apparent that there is a resultant torsional load due to the normal
forces which is balanced by the shear forces. When slip occurs it means that the shear forces
have been exceeded and that there is an imbalance in the torsional effect and hence a tendency
for the block to rotate.
Figure 11 is the same model as Fig. 9 but in this instance the blocky model was preloaded
before the five blocks were removed. The resultant boundary stresses of the blocks defined in
Fig. 11 are shown in Fig. 12. The main difference here, when Figs 10 and 12 are compared,
is in the hanging wall blocks D and C. The behaviour of the hanging wall blocks for the latter
preloaded case appears to be more like that expected from a blocky beam.
It appears from the foregoing tests that if the blocky models are loaded and then some
blocks extracted, the remaining blocks tend to rotate more than they did for the case where the
blocks are removed before the loads are applied.

PUNCHING EFFECT DUE TO BLOCK INTERACTION

If a block slips or rotates relative to contiguous blocks, interference from the surrounding
blocks occurs. This interference in turn creates a punching effect caused by a corner which
makes contact with an enclosing flat surface. Figs 10 and 12 show abutment blocks A, and A,
where the surrounding blocks have dug in and caused the concentrated loads as shown. The
punching loads cause an effective tensile strain and the abutment blocks in turn dig into the
upper and lower blocks BL and BR which in turn develop tensile forces and strains.

CONCLUSIONS
It was found from the many models examined and loading paths applied that the basic
mechanisms mobilized did not vary significantly. These basic mechanisms are those of slip
and rotation and what has been termed punching. These mechanisms cause the load to
redistribute on the boundaries in such a way that stress gradients become prevalent. It was

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 652 B. A. CHAPPELL

found that the same pattern of redistributed loads on certain blocks occurred repeatedly.
This supports the conclusion that in these instances the mechanisms control the load distribu-
tion. Another conclusion is that constraints tend to determine whether only slip or whether
both slip and rotation will occur.
The stress gradients induced on the boundaries of individual blocks cause tensile forces
within the blocks to develop, and in many instances the punching effect caused by the inter-
action between blocks induced an effective tensile strain. These tensile stresses are prevalent
in the blocks contiguous to the opening created. Also the mechanism of rotation is most
prominent near the surface or boundary where the loading conditions are altered.
Areas of hard or soft (oversize and undersize blocks) inclusions also set in motion mechan-
isms of slip and rotation causing similar load distributions, as discussed in the foregoing. The
extent of load redistribution depends upon the magnitude of applied load and the amount of
relative deformation permitted at the boundary. This is evident when the hanging wall area
is removed and less constraint is offered to the blocks overriding the abutment blocks. In
this instance the stress gradients are greater and the consequent tensile stresses larger.
Generally, it is observed that the maximum compressive stress concentration factor for the
blocky models is less than comparable values obtained from a similar continuum model.
However, the induced or redistributed loads impose conditions where tensile stresses or
effective tensile strains are readily developed. This again raises the questions of whether
compressive or tensile forces control the strength and therefore stability of a blocky material.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work started for the Author under the supervision of Professor I. K. Lee of the Univer-
sity of New South Wales and then proceeded further under the supervision of Professor J. C.
Jaeger of the Australian National University. The Author would like to express his apprecia-
tion to these two gentlemen for their encouragement and guidance.
Mr Peter Burton reviewed the transcript and made many useful suggestions, and to him
the Author is grateful.

APPEND IX
Calculation of boundary stresses from photoelastic data
In a semi-infinite two-dimensional half plane which is isotropic and homogeneous a load p (s) is placed
at a point (s) (Fig. 13(a)). If the boundary of a virtual block is drawn on this half plane, the stresses induced
by the load at the virtual boundary can be evaluated from Flamant’s equation
(I~sd _ 2~6) ~0s $6, r)
R(s, . . . . . . . . .
71

where orad is the induced radial stress at a point (r) on the virtual boundary, R(s, r) is the distance between
the unit load at (s) and point (r) (Fig. 13) and 4(s, r) are angles measured, positive anticlockwise, from the
line of action of the load at a point (s) to the radius R(s, r).
If the block is divided into sixteen segments as shown in Fig. 14 and a system of boundary loads Ln(r)
(normal) and Lt(r) (tangential) are in equilibrium, the following equations are readily derived (Massonnet,
1965)
Ln(r) = p(r) - j%(r) . . . . . . . . . (2)
Lt(r) = q(r)--@(r)
where p(r) and q(r) are the fictitious normal and shear loads and B(r) and ,Gt(r) are relations connecting the
fictitious loads on the boundary (Chappell, 1974).
These expressions are Fredholm equations of the second kind which can be solved for the fictitious loads
p(r) and q(r) by successive approximation.

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 LOAD DISTRIBUTION AND DEFORMATIONAL RESPONSE IN DISCONTINUA 653

(4 (‘4
Fig. 13. Point load on a semi-infinite space and the forces set up on the virtual boundary

Fig. 14. Dimensions of block and nomenclature used in defining boundary forces

Sixteen points (n) are considered within the block being examined and at these points the isochromatics
and isoclinics, (ol - uz) and 4(n) respectively, are measured. This gives 32 known parameters from which
32 unknowns are evaluated, namely, the fictitious forces p(s) and q(s). Once the values of p(s) and q(s) are
determined, the forces acting on the rth element of the boundary can be evaluated using equations

Ln(r) = p(r)- sjt [P(s)N(s, r)+q(s)N*(s, r)] Ar . . . . . . * (3)

Lt(r) = q(r)- $ 1VW% d +qW*(s, 41 At

where N(s, r) N*(s, r) T(s, r) and Z”*(S, r) are the normal and shear stresses induced at a boundary point (r) by
unit normal and shear stresses acting at other boundary points (s).
A computer program using this approach evaluated the photoelastic data obtained from readings observed
within single blocks embedded in the blocky mass.

REFERENCES
Brown, E. T. & Trollope, D. H. (1967). The failure of linear brittle materials under tensile stress. Rock
Mech. and Eng. Geology 5, No. 4, 229-241.
Butterfield, R. (1972). The application of integral equation methods to continuum problems in soil
mechanics. Stress Strain Behaviour of Soils, Cambridge, 573-587.
Chappell, B. A. (1972). The mechanics of block material. PhD thesis, Aust. National Univ.
Chappell, B. A. (1974). Physical and numerical experiments with discontinua. 3rd Congress of the Znt.
Sot. for Rock Mech., Denver, Colorado.
Cruse, T. A. (1969). Numerical solutions of three dimensional elastostatics. Znt. Jnl Solids and Structures,
1259-1274.
Denkhaus, H. G. (1965). Critical review of strata movement theories and their application of practical
problems. Symp. Rock Mech. and Strata Cont. in Mines, S. Afr. Inst. of Min. and Met., 204-226.

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 654 B. A. CHAPPELL

Ergun, D. B. (1970). Stress distribution in jointed media. Proc. 2nd Conf. Znt. Sot. Rock Mech., Belgrade,
Article 2-31.
Fumagalli, E. (1968). Model simulation of rock mechanics problems. Rock mechanics and engineering
Practice (Eds. Stagg and Zienkiewicz). New York: Wiley & Sons.
Hattersley, D. E. (1964). Synthetic resins from photoelastic work. MSc thesis, Univ. of New South
Wales, Aust.
Hartree, D. R. (1958). Numerical analysis. Oxford Univ. Press, 2nd ed.
Massonnet, C. E. (1965). Numerical uses of integral procedures. Stress analysis. (Eds. Zienkiewicz and
Holister.) New York: Wiley and Sons.

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