MA 353

Problem Set IV
Caden Matthews
Definition of Span:
Given a vector space 𝑉 and a subset 𝑆 ⊆ 𝑉, the span of 𝑆 is defined as all vectors in 𝑉 such
that they can be represented as a finite linear combination of vectors in 𝑆.

Definition of Hull:
Given a vector space 𝑉 and a subset 𝑆 ⊆ 𝑉, the hull of 𝑆 is the intersection of all subspaces
of 𝑉 that contain 𝑆.
31.
a. Span(Span(𝑆))=Span(𝑆)
Consider some element 𝑢 of Span(𝑆). Since 𝑢 ∈Span(𝑆), we note by definition of Span that
1 * 𝑢 = 𝑢 ∈Span(Span(𝑆)). Thus, we may conclude that Span(Span(𝑆))⊇Span(𝑆).
Now consider some element 𝑢 of Span(Span(𝑆)). Then 𝑢 can be represented as a finite
linear combination of elements of Span(𝑆). Each of these elements of Span(𝑆) can be
represented as a finite linear combination of elements of 𝑆. Finite linear combinations of
finite linear combinations are finite linear combinations, so by definition, 𝑢 ∈Span(𝑆).
Thus, Span(Span(𝑆))⊆Span(𝑆).
We may now conclude that Span(Span(𝑆))=Span(𝑆).

b. Hull(Hull(𝑆))=Hull(𝑆)
Consider some element 𝑢 of Hull(𝑆). Since 𝑢 is in Hull(𝑆), 𝑢 would be an element of every
vector subspace of 𝑉 containing Hull(𝑆). Thus it would be in the intersection of such
subspaces. By definition, this means 𝑢 is an element of Hull(Hull(𝑆)). Thus, Hull(Hull(𝑆))⊇
Hull(𝑆).
Now consider some element 𝑢 of Hull(Hull(𝑆)). We then know that 𝑢 is in every vector
subspace of 𝑉 containing Hull(𝑆). From the text, we know that intersections of subspaces
are subspaces. Thus, Hull(𝑆) is a vector subspace of 𝑉. Since Hull(𝑆) is a subset of itself, we
know that it must contain 𝑢. Thus, we may conclude Hull(Hull(𝑆))⊆Hull(𝑆).
Finally, we can conclude that Hull(Hull(𝑆))=Hull(𝑆).

c. Span(Hull(𝑆))=Hull(Span(𝑆))
Consider some element 𝑢 of Span(Hull(𝑆)). This means 𝑢 can be represented as a finite
linear combination of elements that belong to every vector subspace of 𝑉 containing 𝑆. By
properties of vector spaces, we know that 𝑢 must then belong to each of such vector
subspaces. It then follows that 𝑢 ∈Hull(𝑆). Since 𝑆 ⊆Span(𝑆) and (from the text) if
𝑆 ⊆ 𝑇 ⊆ 𝑉 then Hull(𝑆)⊆Hull(𝑇), we know that 𝑢 ∈Hull(Span(𝑆)).
Thus, Span(Hull(𝑆))⊆Hull(Span(𝑆)).
Consider some element 𝑢 of Hull(Span(𝑆)). This means 𝑢 is a member of every subspace of
𝑉 that contains Span(𝑆).
Since 𝑆 ⊆Hull(𝑆) and (from the text) if 𝑆 ⊆ 𝑇 ⊆ 𝑉 then Span(𝑆) ⊆Span(𝑇), we may
conclude that Span(𝑆) ⊆Span(Hull(𝑆)). From the text, we know that spans are subspaces.
Thus Span(𝑆) is a subspace of 𝑉 that contains Span(𝑆). Thus 𝑢 ∈Span(𝑆).
Thus, 𝑢 ∈Span(Hull(𝑆)). Thus, we may conclude that Span(Hull(𝑆))⊇Hull(Span(𝑆)).
Finally, we conclude that Span(Hull(𝑆))=Hull(Span(𝑆)).
32. Poly(𝑅)≅Funfin(𝑁, 𝑅) (We will use 𝑁 that does not include 0, but with 0 works as well)
Consider the mapping, ϕ, from
𝑛
𝑖
∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑥 to 𝑓(𝑥)≝𝑎𝑥−1 for 𝑥 ≤ 𝑛 + 1, for all other 𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.
𝑖=0
We note each polynomial maps to a unique function, so this mapping is a function.
If two elements of the domain map to the same element of the codomain, then the two
polynomials must have the same coefficients for every term. This means the polynomials
are equal. Thus, the mapping is injective.
Now consider some element of the codomain. We note we can construct a polynomial with
real coefficients that maps to it by applying our mapping in reverse. That is the value for
𝑓(𝑘) maps to 𝑎𝑘−1. Thus, our mapping is surjective.
We may now conclude that the mapping is bijective.
We now wish to show that it is a vector space homomorphism.
We must show that ϕ(𝑐1𝑣1 + 𝑐2𝑣2) = 𝑐1ϕ(𝑣1) + 𝑐2ϕ(𝑣2).
𝑛 𝑚
𝑖 𝑖
We let 𝑣1 = ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑥 and 𝑣2 = ∑ 𝑏𝑖𝑥 . By definition, we have 𝑐1ϕ(𝑣1) = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐1𝑎𝑥−1
𝑖=0 𝑖=0
for 𝑥 ≤ 𝑛 + 1 and 0 for all other 𝑥. We have that 𝑐2ϕ(𝑣2) = 𝑔(𝑥), 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑐2𝑏𝑥−1 for
𝑥 ≤ 𝑚 + 1 and 0 for all other 𝑥. We arbitrarily choose that 𝑚 ≥ 𝑛. Thus we have that the
sum is 𝑐1𝑎𝑥−1 + 𝑐2𝑏𝑥−1 for 𝑥 ≤ 𝑛 + 1, 𝑐2𝑏𝑥−1 for 𝑛 + 1 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑚 + 1, and 0 for
𝑥 > 𝑚 + 1.
𝑚
𝑖 𝑖
We turn our attention to the left side. 𝑐1𝑣1 + 𝑐2𝑣2 = ∑ 𝑐1𝑎𝑖𝑥 + 𝑐2𝑏𝑖𝑥 . By definition,
𝑖=0
ϕ(𝑐1𝑣1 + 𝑐2𝑣2) = ℎ(𝑥) where ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑐1𝑎𝑥−1 + 𝑐2𝑏𝑥−1 for 𝑥 ≤ 𝑚 + 1 and 0 for
𝑥 > 𝑚 + 1. We note that in the case 𝑛 + 1 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑚 + 1, 𝑎𝑥−1 must be 0, thus
ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑐2𝑏𝑥−1. We see then that this is equivalent to the function the right side maps to.
Thus, ϕ is a vector space homomorphism. Since ϕ is a bijective vector space
homomorphism, it is an isomorphism.
Since there exists an isomorphism between Poly(𝑅) and Funfin(𝑁, 𝑅), they are isomorphic.
33.
a. We check for linear independence. Let 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑣. This gives us -1 = 𝑐 * 1.
This means 𝑐 =-1. However, we also have that 12 = 𝑐 *-1. Meaning, 𝑐 =-12. Absurd. This
means 𝑤 and 𝑣 are independent. This means the span is the set of all vectors of the form
3
< 𝑐1 − 𝑐2, 2𝑐1 − 5𝑐2, 12𝑐1 − 𝑐1 > where 𝑐1, 𝑐2 ∈ 𝑅. (This forms a plane in 𝑅 ).

b. We note 𝑢 =-5𝑣. Thus, they are dependent. This means the span is all vectors of the form
3
𝑐𝑣 where 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅. (This forms a line in 𝑅 )

c. Since 𝑣 and 𝑢 are dependent and 𝑣 and 𝑤 are independent, we may conclude that 𝑢 and
𝑤 are independent. We note there exists no 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑐𝑥 = 𝑢 as no number times 0
equals 5. The same logic applies to 𝑤. Thus, all of the vectors are independent. This means
3
the span is 𝑅 .

𝑛
34. Consider (1, 0, 0... 0) ∈ 𝑅 . There are two cases
1: This maps to 0. This would mean that the kernel is not just 0 𝑛.
𝑅
2: This maps to some nonzero real number 𝑥. We then note from operation preservation
that (𝑛, 0, 0... 0) maps to 𝑛 * 𝑥. We note that any real number 𝑦 is mapped to by
𝑦 𝑛
( 𝑥 , 0, 0... 0) which is a member of 𝑅 , as 𝑥 ≠ 0. Thus, every element in the codomain is
mapped to by some element (𝑛, 0, 0... 0) of the domain. This means, the element (0, 1, 0... 0)
must map to an element already mapped to. This means 𝐿 is not injective. We know from
the text that this then implies the kernel has cardinality greater than one.
Thus, no matter what the kernel can not be the singleton set containing 0 𝑛.
𝑅
𝑛
Since every vector space homomorphism from 𝑅 to 𝑅 (for 𝑛 ≥ 2, since 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, this is the
same as 𝑛 > 1) must be not injective, no homomorphism can be bijective. Thus there can
exist no isomorphism. Since there does not exist an isomorphism between the vector
spaces, they are not isomorphic.
35.
We wish to show that 𝑖 → 𝑖𝑖. We will do this by proving the logically equivalent
contrapositive ¬𝑖𝑖 → ¬𝑖.
Suppose 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 = 0. We wish to show that 𝐿 is not surjective. Consider (0, 5) of the
codomain. Thus we have that 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 = 0 and 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 5. We have then that
𝑎𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏𝑐𝑦 = 0 and 𝑎𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎𝑑𝑦 = 5𝑎. 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 = 0 implies 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐. Thus we may use
elimination to show that 𝑎𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎𝑑𝑦 − 𝑎𝑏𝑥 − 𝑏𝑐𝑦 = 5𝑎. We can see that the left side
equals 0. Thus, 𝑎 = 0. This means 𝑏𝑐 = 0. This is true only if 𝑏 or 𝑐 is zero. Suppose 𝑐 is
zero. Then we have that 𝐿 can map only to points of the form (0, 𝑘). Thus, 𝐿 would not be
surjective.
Now suppose 𝑏 is zero. Then we have that 𝑐𝑦 = 0 and 𝑑𝑦 = 5. We note from 𝑑𝑦 = 5 that
𝑦 ≠ 0. Thus, 𝑐 = 0. Therefore, 𝐿 can map only to points of the form (0, 𝑘). Thus, 𝐿 would
not be surjective.
This means 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 = 0 implies 𝐿 is not surjective. This then means 𝐿 is not bijective, and
thus can not be an isomorphism. We have shown ¬𝑖𝑖 → ¬𝑖. Thus, 𝑖 → 𝑖𝑖.
We now wish to show that 𝑖𝑖 → 𝑖. Suppose 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0. We note
𝐿(𝑐1(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑐2(𝑢, 𝑣)) = 𝐿(𝑐1𝑥 + 𝑐2𝑢, 𝑐1𝑦 + 𝑐2𝑣)
= (𝑎𝑐1𝑥 + 𝑎𝑐2𝑢 + 𝑐1𝑐𝑦 + 𝑐2𝑐𝑣, 𝑏𝑐1𝑥 + 𝑏𝑐2𝑢 + 𝑑𝑐1𝑦 + 𝑑𝑐2𝑣)
= (𝑎𝑐1𝑥 + 𝑐1𝑐𝑦, 𝑏𝑐1𝑥 + 𝑑𝑐1𝑦) + (𝑎𝑐2𝑢 + 𝑐2𝑐𝑣, 𝑏𝑐2𝑢 + 𝑑𝑐2𝑣)
= 𝑐1(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦, 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦) + 𝑐2(𝑎𝑢 + 𝑐𝑣, 𝑏𝑢 + 𝑑𝑣) = 𝑐1𝐿(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑐2𝐿(𝑢, 𝑣)
Thus, 𝐿 is a homomorphism.
Now to show injectivity, suppose 𝐿(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐿(𝑢, 𝑣). Then 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 = 𝑎𝑢 + 𝑐𝑣 and
𝑏𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑏𝑢 + 𝑑𝑣. This gives 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑢) = 𝑐(𝑣 − 𝑦) and 𝑏(𝑥 − 𝑢) = 𝑑(𝑣 − 𝑦). We can
then get 𝑎𝑏(𝑥 − 𝑢) = 𝑏𝑐(𝑣 − 𝑦) and 𝑎𝑏(𝑥 − 𝑢) = 𝑎𝑑(𝑣 − 𝑦). This gives
𝑎𝑑(𝑣 − 𝑦) = 𝑏𝑐(𝑣 − 𝑦). Thus, (𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐)(𝑣 − 𝑦) = 0. Since 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0, 𝑣 − 𝑦 = 0.
Thus, 𝑣 = 𝑦. Similarly, we find that 𝑎𝑑(𝑥 − 𝑢) = 𝑐𝑑(𝑣 − 𝑦) = 𝑏𝑐(𝑥 − 𝑢). Thus
(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐)(𝑥 − 𝑢) = 0. Thus, 𝑥 = 𝑢. Since 𝑥 = 𝑢 and 𝑦 = 𝑣, (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑢, 𝑣). Thus 𝐿 is
injective.
To show surjectivity, consider some (𝑢, 𝑣) in the codomain. We have 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 = 𝑢 and
𝑏𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣. This gives 𝑎𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑢 and 𝑏𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐𝑣. We then get
𝑑𝑢−𝑐𝑣
(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐)𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 − 𝑐𝑣 Since 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0, we have 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐
. Similarly, we find that
𝑎𝑣−𝑏𝑢
(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐)𝑦 = 𝑎𝑣 − 𝑏𝑢 thus 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐
. Since for every element of the codomain, there
exists an element in the domain that maps to it, 𝐿 is surjective.
Since 𝐿 is a bijective homomorphism, it is an isomorphism. Thus, 𝑖𝑖 → 𝑖.
We may now conclude 𝑖 ↔ 𝑖𝑖.
36.
𝑘 2
We note 𝑅 is defined as the external direct product of 𝑘 𝑅'𝑠. Meaning, 𝑅 = 𝑅 ⊕ 𝑅, and
3 𝑚1 𝑛
𝑅 = 𝑅 ⊕ 𝑅 ⊕ 𝑅, etc. Thus, 𝑅 is the external direct product of 𝑚1 𝑅'𝑠. Similarly, 𝑅 1 is
𝑚1 𝑛
the external direct product of 𝑛1 𝑅'𝑠. Thus 𝑅 ⊕ 𝑅 1 is the external direct product of
𝑚1+𝑛1 𝑚2 𝑛
𝑚1 + 𝑛1 𝑅'𝑠. This means it is isomorphic to 𝑅 . Doing a similar process for 𝑅 ⊕ 𝑅 2,
𝑚2+𝑛2 𝑚1+𝑛1 𝑚2+𝑛2
we find that this is isomorphic to 𝑅 . Since 𝑚1 + 𝑛1 = 𝑚2 + 𝑛2, 𝑅 =𝑅 . Thus,
𝑚1 𝑛 𝑚2 𝑛
𝑅 ⊕ 𝑅 1 is isomorphic to 𝑅 ⊕ 𝑅 2.

37.
a. Define 𝑥0 to be equal to 𝑥𝑛. Then we note that 𝐿(𝑥𝑖) = 𝑥(𝑖−1) 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛. We can recursively see
𝑘 𝑛 𝑛
that 𝐿 (𝑥𝑖) = 𝑥(𝑖−𝑘) 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛. Thus, 𝐿 (𝑥𝑖) = 𝑥(𝑖−𝑛) 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛 = 𝑥𝑖. This shows 𝐿 = 𝐼𝑑 𝑛.
𝑅

𝑛
b. Consider 𝑣 = (1, 1, 1...... 1) ∈ 𝑅 we note that 𝐿(𝑣) = 𝑣 as all entries are the same. If all
entries are the same then doing permutations on them will give the same vector.

𝑛−1
𝑗
c. This is not true. Consider the same vector from part b. We note ∑ 𝐿 (𝑣) = (𝑛, 𝑛, 𝑛... 𝑛).
𝑗=0
This does not equal 0 𝑛.
𝑅

38.
a. We wish to find all (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) such that 𝐿(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (0, 0). Thus 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 and
𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 We then find that 𝑥 + 𝑧 = 0. Then using substitution, we find that
3
𝑦 = 0. Thus, the kernel is all elements in 𝑅 of the form (𝑥, 0,-𝑥) for 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅.

3
b. To find 𝐿(𝑅 ), we wish to find all (𝑎, 𝑏) such that for some (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), 𝐿(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑎, 𝑏).
Thus, we have 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑏. We find that -2𝑦 = 𝑏 − 𝑎. Thus,
𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎
𝑦= 2
. We then find that 𝑥 + 𝑧 = 2 by substitution. We then simply let 𝑥= 2
and
𝑏
𝑧= 2
. We note that for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, these values are defined, and real. Thus, any element
3 2
of the codomain can be mapped to. Thus, 𝐿(𝑅 ) = 𝑅 .