Cable Resource Guide – Testing

Testing Copper and Fiber Cable to Meet New Challenges ..............................1

Testing Copper Cabling .....................................................................................2
Verify, qualify, certify ......................................................................................2
Looking at tools, looking at the cable.............................................................2
Verification tools ............................................................................................2
Qualification tools ..........................................................................................3
Certification tools ...........................................................................................3
Testing the permanent link vs the channel ..................................................4
Patch cords....................................................................................................5
Troubleshooting ..............................................................................................6
Picking the right tool for the job ..................................................................10
Power over Ethernet .....................................................................................11
Documentation ..............................................................................................12
Minimum reporting requirements .................................................................13
Managing test data ......................................................................................14
Fiber Optic Cable Testing ................................................................................15
Introduction ...................................................................................................15
Verification by inspection and cleaning ......................................................15
Single mode and multimode fiber links.......................................................17
Modes and mandrels ...................................................................................18
Basic or Tier 1 Fiber Certification ................................................................20
Extended or Tier 2 Fiber CertificationFiber Certification ...........................21

Testing Copper and Fiber Cable to Meet New Challenges

Over the last several years, networks have evolved from simple intraoffice
communications platforms into a mission-critical infrastructure supporting every
aspect of an enterprise’s operations. In many respects the networks keeps
today's businesses alive. And the networks rely on copper and fiber cabling,
properly installed and tested, to perform this essential role.
Copper twisted-pair cabling has dominated network installations up to now and
will continue to dominate horizontal cabling to the desktop in the future. The
installation and techniques for copper are well established, and the system costs
associated with the transmission over twisted-pair copper are generally more
economical than the cost of the network interfaces that communicate over fiber

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optic cable. Technological advances and the resulting adoption of new
standards have increased copper's ability to transmit data at rates up to 10
Gigabit per second (Gbps).
While copper has dominated the market up to now, fiber is establishing a larger
market share in structured cabling system applications such as data centers,
campus and Fiber-to-the-Home. In addition, fiber will continue to be common in
riser cabling systems. So an increasing percentage of network installation
contracts have come to include fiber as well as copper. According to the report
“Structured Cabling Systems” by FTM Consulting (FTM Consulting Inc., June
2007) fiber optic cabling revenues will exceed twisted-pair cabling revenues for
the first time in 2008.

Testing Copper Cabling

Verify, qualify, certify

Looking at tools, looking at the cable

Copper testing tools can be classified into one of three broad hierarchical groups
– verification, qualification and certification. There is also a fourth category
of tester but it is not actually a tool. Visual inspection for each cable run after the
cable has been pulled in and prior to termination lets you check for factors such
as damage to cable and incorrect bending radii. Visual inspection of all cable
runs and immediate repair of obvious errors will eliminate needless
troubleshooting later.

Verification tools
Verification tools are often used by network technicians and contractors as a first
line of defense for cable troubleshooting. Verification test tools allow you to see if
each wire pair in the cable is properly connected.
Verification test tools perform basic continuity functions (for example, a wiremap
test, toning). These verification test tools sometimes include additional features
such as a Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR) for determining length to the end of
a cable or to a trouble spot (open connection or break) or short circuit. They may
also detect if a switch is connected to the cable under test or check coaxial
connections.
Verification tools are ubiquitous, simple-to-use low-cost tools that should be the
first test for new cabling installations.

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Figure 1. Verification tools are simple, low-cost devices that check the basic
connectivity of the installed links.

Qualification tools
Qualification tools are more sophisticated tools that network technicians use to
troubleshoot and qualify cabling bandwidth. Qualification test tools give you the
information you need to decide if existing cabling will support your technology
requirements like 100BASE-TX, VoIP, Gigabit Ethernet, etc.
For example, let’s assume you have two cables of unknown capability. Both
cable A and cable B pass the verification wiremap test. However, a qualification
test may show that cable A is only capable of supporting 10BASE-T, while cable
B is able to support 1 Gbps Ethernet. Qualification tools are much more powerful
than Verification tools, and are designed to give even the most novice technician
vision to see the data rates that an existing cabling link can support and quickly
isolate cabling problems from network problems. This means network techs can
close trouble tickets faster and reduce on-call time. However, qualification tools
do not perform certification required by cable manufacturers.
A unique feature of many qualification test tools is the ability to diagnose
common cabling problems that may limit the cabling bandwidth. An example of
information provided by the qualification tester is the distance to an impedance
mismatch where two cables are joined. Now the user knows what performance
the cable can support, the reason the performance is limited, and what needs to
be done to fix the problem.

Certification tools
Certification test tools answer the question, “Does this cable comply with cabling
standards? (e.g. TIA-568-B Category 6 or ISO 11801 2nd Edition Class E)”.
These tools are used by commercial datacom installers/contractors and
enterprise facility managers, and are required by cabling manufacturers to
ensure that a newly installed cabling system fully meets cabling standards and
the cabling manufacturer’s warranty. Enterprises often require Certification
testing before signing-off on an installation.
Certification is the most rigorous of all cable testing. A Certification tester makes
many types of measurements across predefined frequency ranges and compares
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the detailed results to standards set by the Telecommunications Industry
Association (TIA) {ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B.1} or International Standards
Organization (ISO) (ISO/IEC 11801 Ed.2). The results from these
measurements determine if a link is compliant with a category or Class of cable
(for example, TIA category 5e, category 6, or ISO Class D). Certification tools
are the only tools that provide “Pass” or “Fail” information on the cabling, in
accordance with TIA or ISO standards.
Additionally, Certification testers commonly support optical fiber test options,
provide advanced graphical diagnostics and offer feature rich reporting
capabilities.

Figure 2. Certification tools take very precise measurements on parameters

spelled out in TIA and ISO standards. Documented results from a high-accuracy
certification tool is the only means of meeting the requirements of manufacturers’
warranties.

Testing the permanent link vs the channel

When a new cabling system is installed, the installation crew is typically not
responsible for the patch cord or equipment cords. This crew pulls the cables,
labels, terminates them, and certifies the performance of the “Permanent Link”..
The Permanent Link (PL) as the name implies is that portion of the installed
cabling that becomes a permanent infrastructure in the building. The cable itself
is routed though hidden pathways within walls, under floors and in ceilings or in
cable trays and conduit. Upon completion of the installation, each permanent link
is certified from the termination in a telecom room patch panel to the telecom
outlet or jack in the work area or office at the other end.

Figure 3. The Permanent Link is part of the permanent installation, from wall
plug to patch panel. It does not include patch cords.
The Permanent Link is a subset of the linkage between network devices. It does
not represent the complete end-to-end connection between network devices. To
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certify the complete end-to-end link involves testing the channel. The channel
includes the patch cords on both ends of the link.

Figure 4. The Channel is the complete end-to-end link, include the patch cords.
Most modern certification test tools offer the choice to certify the Permanent Link
or the Channel. Testing the channel approach would be OK (a) if you can
guarantee that the patch cords used for the channel certification are going to
remain in place for the life of the cabling system – a very unlikely scenario – or
(b) you make the commitment to recertify each channel whenever patch cords
are replaced or exchanged.
For this reason the permanent link test is used most often. It offers two
significant advantages:
1. The PL certification fits with the typical installation process as described
above. The installation crew seldom if ever deals with patch cords. And with any
greenfield installation it is impractical to even consider leaving patch cords
attached to each outlet.
2. Proper testing of the PL delivers true results of the permanent link
performance and guarantees that a passing PL will yield a passing channel when
known good patch cords are attached to create the channel. This is true for
category 3 cabling and for all other levels of performance including augmented
category 6 (Cat 6A) cabling.

Patch cords
Connections and the cable terminations cause the largest amount of variability in
transmission performance of installed cabling as captured by test parameters like
Near-End Crosstalk (NEXT), Far-End Crosstalk (FEXT) and Return Loss (RL).
Besides the workmanship of the cable termination, the mated connection of plug
and jack contribute to this variability. If a permanent link passes its certification
test, the next most likely points of failure are the patch cords. By using know
good (tested) patch cords users have the assurance that the channel – the entire
end-to-end link – will be compliant.
The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) developed and published
standards that define patch cord test limits and procedures. TIA/EIA-568-B.2-1,
Annex J spells out the limits for the two most important test parameters for Cat 6
patch cords, near-end cross talk (NEXT) and return loss (RL). An up-to-date
certification tool like the Fluke Networks DTX Series, designed to test patch
cords, compares the performance of these test parameters to the acceptable
limits.

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The certification tester interface adapter plays a crucial role in the proper
execution of patch cord tests. When testing patch cords, the ‘unknown’ elements
are the plugs in the patch cord-under-test as well as the way the wire pairs are
terminated in that plug – in other words the workmanship of construction. For a
patch cord test to be meaningful, the performance of the jacks in the patch cord
test adapters must be well known and must have been screened to operate in
the narrow region in the middle for each performance parameter over the
frequency range defined in the applicable standard. These adapters must contain
anything but random production jacks.
Do not simply plug a patch cord into a certification tool with channel adapters and
run a channel test. Results of such a test constitute a verification test (wiremap)
but do not provide meaningful data for the critical NEXT and RL test parameters.
A more detailed treatise on the advantages of permanent link testing as well as
on the new cabling standard for 10GBASE-T or Cat 6A can be found by
downloading a white paper form the Fluke Networks website. Click the following
URL: http://www.flukenetworks.com/fnet/en-us/promotions/datacom/TIA-568-B.2-
10.htm

Troubleshooting
Knowing that a test failed is only the first step. The link must be fixed so it will
perform as intended. The reasons for failing certification tests fall into two
distinct categories: connection problems and transmission performance
problems. There are many tools that can provide information regarding the
connection problems such as an open, a break, a short, etc. The user should
select a tester that can properly locate a break or a short in the cabling as well as
identify problems caused by improper pairing of the wires. In addition,
certification testers should include advanced troubleshooting diagnostics that
identify and locate transmission defects. With this diagnostic information, the
installer can dramatically improve troubleshooting productivity and help to restore
service quickly.
A troubleshooting tool that provides expert diagnostics can eliminate wasteful
"trail-and-error" solutions. For example, one important aspect of high-
performance cabling installations is that the original twist of the wire pairs must
be maintained nearly perfectly into the connecting hardware devices (8-pin
modular jacks and plugs and punch-down blocks). Both NEXT and Return Loss
are affected – be it in different ways – by the way in which the wire twist is
maintained at the termination into the connecting hardware.
This fact is probably general knowledge and leads to the common practice of re-
terminating the connections either one at a time or all at once, which frequently
eliminates NEXT and Return Loss problems. But this trial and error approach to
repairing a failing link can cost a significant amount of time and money – and it
never guarantees a fix. Obviously, technicians will always need to retest after re-
terminating the link to make sure that it passes and the source of the failures has
been removed. However, there is a more efficient way than the “shotgun”
method described above.
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The most useful troubleshooting tools can provide information specific to
connection problems like opens, breaks, and shorts. In addition, certification
testers should include advanced troubleshooting diagnostics that identify and
locate transmission defects. With this diagnostic information, you can
dramatically improve troubleshooting productivity and help restore service
quickly. In the example above (shown in figure 4), the troubleshooting tool has
identified a wire twist problem 46 feet from the end of the test instrument.

Figure 5. This Fluke Networks DTX Series screen shot shows the most likely
cause of the failure. A twist problem at the connector is causing a NEXT failure
46 feet from the test instrument among all wire-par combinations.
Certification testers that deploy sophisticated Digital Signal Processing
technology can identify the location of subtle but complex problems that affect
NEXT and Return Loss. The tester analyzes the performance of the crosstalk
parameter NEXT over the length of the cable and identifies the location in feet or
meters from the end at which a cabling or installation defect has caused a failing
measurement. You can also drill down one level to inspect a representation of
the NEXT performance along the link. With additional training, you can review the
“raw” data and uncover more details about the premise cable link, which can
reduce the time needed to make the correction.
The installer can achieve real time and money savings utilizing that capability of
the tester. The test tool identifies and pinpoints the source of the NEXT or Return
Loss failure and provides graphical diagnostics to the technician. After inspecting
the link at the indicated location, the technician can pass judgment and
implement corrective action. A re-termination might still be the answer but only
one re-termination may be called for if the tester diagnostics only sees one
problem. In addition to helping save time, testers can also save money. In the
case the tester ‘accuses’ the cable itself but does not see anything wrong with
the connections, re-terminating and even replacing the connector would not

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produce a passing test result. Instead, a segment of cable or a full link would
need to be replaced.

Figure 6. This link has failed four of the Cat 6 performance tests. Advanced
diagnostics in a certification tool can translate a failed test into corrective action.

Figure 7. Advanced diagnostics in a certification tool can translate a failed test

into corrective action. In this example, the NEXT measurement has failed.

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Figure 8. The detail screen for NEXT test results shows all values across all
frequencies. Values below the threshold line have failed.

Figure 9. By selecting “Next Pair” the user can see specifics one pair at a time,
instead of having to look at all four wire-pair combinations.

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Figure 10. The diagnostics screen of a certification tester graphically displays
problem areas (highlighted in red) and allows for inspection of specific parts of
the network cabling – rather than the common “shotgun” approach, which is both
slow and costly.

Picking the right tool for the job

As explained above, each test tool is designed for a different purpose. If you are
a network technician and have undocumented cabling and need to see if it will
support your 100BASE-TX network, a qualification tool is the tool for you.
Likewise if you have an existing network and are doing small adds, moves, and
changes, or are setting up a temporary network and just need to qualify it for a
specific network technology, a qualification tool could be the way to go. If you
want to equip a larger number of technicians with a powerful tool for
troubleshooting the most common cabling and network problems, then the value
of qualification tools is hard to beat.
On the other hand, if you are a commercial installer who needs to prove to the
building owner that all cabling has been installed correctly, you must certify it. To
receive the support and financial security of a manufacturer’s warranty,
certification to TIA or ISO standards is your only option. If you have a mixture of
fiber and copper cabling, and often need to test both, certification tools do that
best.
If you are in a troubleshooting environment, and need to show unequivocally that
the link under test is failing category 5e or 6 performance requirements according
to TIA or ISO standards, your only choice is a certification tool.
The dollars at risk are huge. The final cost-per-link of commercial installation
usually averages about $100. For a large 1,000 link installation, this represents a
$100,000 project. If the job is a high-bandwidth, category 6 installation, the
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higher quality cables and terminations typically command a 20% premium. So
an installer has to weigh the options of who should bear the financial risk. Using
a certification tool that meets TIA and ISO standards is a requirement for
establishing a warranty recognized by the cable manufacturer. Anything else
makes the installer liable for the performance of that $120,000 installation. A
prudent installer will want the manufacturer standing behind him.
For the typical contractors mentioned in above examples the choice is simple,
they must invest in a certification tool. But what choice does it leave to the
contractor who has only a small percentage of projects in the commercial area,
the requires a full-fledged certification tool? The advice to him would be to invest
in a qualification tool at 10-20% of the cost of a certification tool and to rent a
certification tool for those occasional projects where full certification records are
needed. This will allow him to receive a warranty from the manufacturer, and
support those projects in which the statement of work requires a full certification
of compliance with a cabling standard.

Power over Ethernet

Power over Ethernet (PoE) is an innovative technology that is increasingly being
used to power IP telephones, wireless LAN access points, network cameras, and
other network appliances. Installation of some types of PoE equipment will
require recertification of the existing cabling plant. The existence of PoE
equipment on the network may require changes in test procedures to ensure
accurate testing of the data network.
There are two basic types of power sourcing equipment (PSE), end-span and
mid-span. There are significant differences between these two types of PSEs in
their effect on cable test and certification. End-span systems use an Ethernet
switch with an embedded power supply to deliver power and data. When an end-
span PSE is used, cable testing does not demand any special steps or
precautions.
Mid-span PSEs sit between legacy switches or routers and the powered devices.
When the cable is tested there is no powered device on the line so the PSE is in
the discovery mode, looking for devices that need power. The PSE sends DC
voltages as part of the discovery process, which will have no effect on data
transmission tests such as return loss, insertion loss, and near-end crosstalk. But
these discovery signals can interfere with the DC measurements that are used by
most cabling testers during the certification process to measure the resistance of
the link and generate a wire map.
For that reason, DC power should be turned off for any line that is being tested.
The simplest way to do this is to simply remove power from the PSE device.
However, for a mid-span PSE this will have the often unwanted effect of
removing power from all links, not just the one being tested. Many PSEs are
equipped with a software configuration utility that allows power for individual
ports to be turned on and off. This allows the PSE to perform uninterrupted
during normal testing. With power shut off to the port being tested, the data
transmission properties of PoE enabled links can be tested in the same way as
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conventional links with the exception that the cable tester must use AC voltages
to perform wiremap tests. The Mid-span PSE blocks all DC signals from flowing
to the router or switch side. The DTX Series testers running software version 2.4
or later support the AC Wiremap test.
A very simple device consisting of a resistor, LED, and RJ-45 plug can be used
to provide a quick go/no go PoE test. These devices are plugged into the network
jack and appear as a resistance to the PSE. The PSE then sends 48V power
which lights up the LED. A plug-in module to the DTX Series – The DTC-NSM or
networks Service Module – provides a more comprehensive solution that offers
more extensive PoE testing as part of the same suite of tests that are currently
used to certify the link. Modules of this type provide the ability to completely
evaluate PSE performance without adding a significant amount of time to the
certification process. Another advantage of integrating the PoE test into the link
certification is that the results of the PoE test can be documented and archived
as part of the certification testing process.
The IEEE (institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) approved an
enhanced Power over Ethernet version that doubles the power to 30 watts and
adds new management capabilities. (work group 802.3at). Greater power will
increase the popularity of PoE by supporting new types of devices, such as
higher speed wireless access points. Midspan PoE supplies will be a common
way to roll out 802.3at because they will be the most economical means to
upgrade existing networks to the higher power standard.

Documentation
Certification is incomplete – maybe even invalid – if properly executed test
results are not documented. Documented test results provide legitimacy to the
warranty program, and can be verified at any time. If documentation does not
exist, the warranty very likely is not granted.
The better certification testers provide several options to capture, store and
upload these results. Data available in a protected database is much more useful
than data that has been printed. Often the contractor delivers a huge three-ring
binder in which each page contains the test results information of a tested link.
Thumbing through those binders can be painstakingly time consuming. A test
database program allows the user to view the graphical test results of any
parameter of any link in the database with a few mouse-clicks.

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Figure 11. LinkWare is the data base management program that supports many
copper and fiber certification and test tools offered by the Fluke Networks.
LinkWare provides an easy means of generating and managing documentation.
The user can specify the level of detail collected and presented in both paper and
electronic formats.
Industry standards prescribe the documentation requirements. They allow
several options, from minimal documentation requirements to capturing and
storing every measurement. A table of minimum reporting requirements is shown
below. Saving every data point in the test results record for a link requires
approximately 18,500 measurement values for a Cat 5e link and 30,000 for a
single Cat 6 link. Many certification testers on the market offer a removable
memory card to allow the user to store these large amounts of data.
If you are in a position to write the specifications for a cabling installation project,
you should describe the test documentation you expect to receive. If you are a
contractor and the statement of work for the job does not detail the test results
requirements, you should request clarification before the testing phase
commences or choose the maximum (store every measurement). The Fluke
Networks website contains “Statement of Work” specifications specific for several
industry standards. Check the URL: http://www.flukenetworks.com/fnet/en-
us/solutions/datacomcabling/Cable+Testing+Basics.htm, and then select the
appropriate standard under the heading “Statement of Work Specifications” on
the right hand side of the page.

Minimum reporting requirements

Wire Map. Verify continuity and pairing of the wiring in the link. Identify wiring
errors such as shorts between any two or more conductors, an open circuit or
break in the cable, reversed wire pairs, split pairs, and transposed pairs.
Propagation Delay. Measures the time required for an electrical signal to travel
the length of the link. Identify the wire pair with the worst case propagation delay
(longest time). The report shall include the propagation delay value measured as
well as the test limit value (maximum allowable value).
Delay Skew. Measures the difference between the propagation delay of the four
wire-pairs. Identify the wire pair with the shortest propagation delay and include
the delay skew value calculated (difference with shortest propagation delay) for
the other three wire pairs, as well as the test limit value.
Length. The field tester shall be capable of measuring length of all pairs of a
permanent link or channel based on the propagation delay measurement and the
average value for NVP. (NVP is a measure of the speed of the electrical signal
over the cable.) The physical length of the link shall be calculated using the pair
with the shortest electrical delay. This length figure shall be reported and shall be
used for making the Pass/Fail decision. The Pass/Fail criteria are based on the
maximum length allowed for the permanent link configuration (90 meters or 295
ft) or the channel (100 meters or 328 ft) plus 10% allowing for the variation and
uncertainty margin in the value of NVP.
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Insertion Loss (Attenuation). Identify the worst wire pair (1 of 4 possible). The
test results for the worst wire pair must show the highest attenuation value
measured (worst case), the frequency at which this worst case value occurs, and
the test limit value at this frequency.
Return Loss. Identify the wire pair that exhibits the worst case margin and the
wire pair that exhibits the worst value for Return Loss. These wire pairs must be
identified for the tests performed from each end of the link-under-test. Each
reported case shall include the frequency at which it occurs, as well as the test
limit value at this frequency.
NEXT Loss (pair-to-pair). Identify the wire pair combination that exhibits the
worst case NEXT margin and the wire pair combination that exhibits the worst
value of NEXT (worst case). NEXT is to be measured from each end of the link-
under-test. These wire pair combinations must be identified for the tests
performed from each end. Each reported case shall include the frequency at
which it occurs, as well as the test limit value at this frequency.
Power Sum NEXT Loss. Identify the wire pair that exhibits the worst case
margin and the wire pair that exhibits the worst value for PSNEXT. These wire
pairs must be identified for the tests performed from each end. Each reported
case shall include the frequency at which it occurs, as well as the test limit value
at this frequency.
ELFEXT (pair-to-pair). Identify the wire pair combination that exhibits the worst
case margin and the wire pair combination that exhibits the worst value for
ELFEXT. These wire pairs must be identified for the tests performed from each
end. Each reported case shall include the frequency at which it occurs, as well as
the test limit value at this frequency.
Power Sum ELFEXT. Identify the wire pair that exhibits the worst case margin
and the wire pair that exhibits the worst value for PSELFEXT. These wire pairs
must be identified for the tests performed from each end. Each reported case
shall include the frequency at which it occurs, as well as the test limit value at this
frequency.

Managing test data

In approximately fifteen years since the first portable cable certification tester was
introduced, the industry has gone from virtually no test records, to an
overabundance of records that can be difficult to manage. For an average job,
there can be more than 419,000 data fields. After completion of a project, end
users are faced with binders full of printouts, or an enormous amount of data
saved to a CD. With so much data, it can be difficult to see trends or spot
anomalies. The electronic storage of the test results data by a database program
like LinkWare provides many easy-to-use inspections tools. LinkWare is free and
can be installed on any Windows based PC.
In addition to these built-in methods to rank link performance or inspect any test
parameter for any link in the database, it is sometimes very valuable to

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consolidate information of the cabling system. A statistical analysis report
generator like LinkWare Stats, can answer many questions like:
• Are your NEXT margins consistent or do you do better with specific
components?
• Did all installers do an equally competent job?
• Were the appropriate link adapters and personality modules used for
each test?
• Were the right autotests selected every time?
• You’re promised 3 dB margin over the Category 5e limit. Did you
always get it?
Fluke Networks LinkWare Stat program performs a statistical analysis of the test
results records you specify. It offers a simple and powerful way to analyze and
manage your test data. These programs can summarize the performance of a
10,000-link network on a single sheet of paper. It can provide several views of
the data that quickly point out performance parameters and configuration
discrepancies across an entire installation.

Fiber Optic Cable Testing

Introduction
The use of fiber optic cabling is growing because it offers major advantages in
high-speed, longer-distance network applications. For example, original research
performed by The Tolly Group demonstrates that longer link lengths possible with
fiber optic cabling combined with the recent reductions in component cost have
reduced the cost of fiber LANs to 15% to 22% below copper in typical
applications. The key to these reductions is the move from the distributed
network design required by the 100-meter limit of twisted pair copper cable to a
centralized network design that provides dramatic reductions in the number and
size of telecommunications rooms. Another major factor is the recent reduction in
the cost of fiber networking components, for example, the price of fiber optic
connectors for the latest generation of fiber is now below Category 5e and
Category 6.

Verification by inspection and cleaning

By far, the number one reason fiber links fail is dirt. Dust in the air, dirt and grime
from other tools, even oil from the installers fingers can interfere with or
completely block transmission over a fiber optic cabling link. Keep in mind that
the core for a multimode fiber is only 62.5 µm (62.5 micrometers), about the
same diameter as a human hair. And the core for a single mode fiber even
smaller, only 8.3 µm, or approximately 1/10 the size of a human hair. A single
microscopic contaminant is all it takes to make a fiber link fail.

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You can keep fiber links clean and functional and still keep space in your toolbox,
with a compact bundle of dedicated fiber cleaning tools. New cleaning solvents,
with superior cleaning properties to isopropyl alcohol (IPA) are available in
containers the size of a ball-point pen. Fiber cleaning cards the size of a credit
card are the ideal surface for cleaning fiber end-faces (NEVER wipe a fiber end-
face on your shirt!). And a small vial of dedicated swabs for cleaning the inside
of a fiber port will replace the box of cotton swabs you might be using now, and
do a far better job. Cotton swabs tend to come apart, leaving fibers inside the
port.

Figure 12. Proper fiber cleaning tools, including solvents, cleaning pads and no-
lint swabs, can help eliminate the number 1 cause of fiber failure, dirt and
contamination.
Check the Fluke Networks website for the type of cleaning you should not be
without: http://www.flukenetworks.com/fnet/en-
us/products/Fiber+Cleaning+Kit/Overview.htm?currentcategorycode=DCCA&PID
=52555&categorycode=FITT
For inspection, a microscope is needed, and there are both optical and video
options. There is not much difference in size – both fit in the palm of your hand –
but the newer video microscopes are faster and safer. A video microscope can
be quickly inserted into a densely terminated patch panel, where the probe tip will
properly align with the fiber core. A video microscope also protects the user from
harmful laser emissions when inspecting an active link.

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Figure 13. A video microscope provides a fast method to inspect fiber end faces
and ports. Because the microscope does not contact the fiber end face, it is less
likely to damage the fiber than a handheld portable microscope. It also protects
the user from potentially harmful laser light.
The third essential task is measuring loss. For this you need a light source and
power meter commonly referred to as Light Source Power Meter (LSPM). Many
current LSPM combinations are palm-sized. An LSPM will determine if the loss
on the fiber link is within the loss budget, and will document the results. LSPM
are available for both multimode and singlemode fiber.

Figure 14. A light source and power meter (LSPM) are essential tools for basic
fiber testing. Many test kits contain an LSPM set, visual fault locator and a
handheld portable inspection microscope.
If you’re looking for the most versatility that will take up the smallest amount of
space, look for kits that combine cleaning materials, inspection tools and LSPM
groupings. Many kits currently available come with compact carrying cases,
making it easy to get your tools to the job.

Single mode and multimode fiber links

There are two different types of fiber optic links and the type used has an impact
on the testing process. Multimode fiber, allows numerous modes or light rays to
propagate simultaneously through the waveguide. Modes result from the fact that
light will only travel in the fiber core at discrete angles within the cone of
acceptance. Multimode fiber has bandwidth is limited due to modal dispersion.
Single-mode fiber allows for a higher capacity to transmit information because it
can retain the fidelity of each light pulse over longer distances, and it exhibits no
dispersion caused by multiple modes. Single-mode fiber also enjoys lower fiber
attenuation than multimode fiber due to the operation wavelengths. Thus, more
information can be transmitted per unit of time.
The cost of Multimode fiber is actually higher than the cost of Singlemode.
Multimode fiber maintains a higher share for applications in intra-building cabling
because the cost of the fiber optic transmitters and devices used with multimode
fiber optic links are significantly less expensive.
Cabling Resource Guide – APRIL 2008
With single mode fiber, the radius of the fiber core is between 5 and 10 microns,
close to the wavelength, so that only one single light angle or mode of light can
pass through the fiber. The fact that the light is limited to a single transmission
path means that an optical signal can travel for long distances with relatively low
losses. Multimode fiber, on the other hand, has a much larger internal radius.
This means that light propagates along multiple paths, each of which has a
slightly different length, and thus causes distortions that limit the distance over
which the integrity of the light can be maintained. The cost of Multimode fiber is
actually higher than the cost of Singlemode . Multimode fiber maintains a higher
share for applications in intra-building cabling because the cost of the fiber optic
transmitters and device used with multimode fiber optic links are significantly less
expensive.
Whether single mode or multimode fiber is used is important in loss testing
because the higher order modes, those that travel near the exterior of the fiber
core, are more susceptible to loss due to bending of the fiber, than lower order
modes, those traveling near the center of the fiber core. Because a laser
concentrates the light energy near the center of the fiber, only the lower order
modes are excited in a multimode fiber. However, an LED yields what is called is
called an overfilled launch because it completely fills the fiber and excites all
modes, both lower and higher order. This provides one more reason why testing
a multimode fiber with an LED light source is likely to yield unrealistically high
loss values.

Modes and mandrels

Because higher order modes tend to die off when passing through bends in the
fiber, measurement accuracy can be increased by removing these high order
modes intentionally before a loss measurement is made. This is done with a
plastic spool called a mandrel. A mandrel should be used whenever you test and
measure the loss of a multimode fiber optic link with an LSPM that uses an LED
as the light source. This is true for both 62.5 µm or 50 µm multimode fiber links.
Mandrels increase the degree of accuracy for loss measurements, a requirement
for current network applications and the Tier 1 or basic fiber certification
standards.

Figure 15. Low order modes tend to travel in a straight, or nearly straight, path
through multimode fiber. Higher order modes reflect off the edges of the core,
and generally die off through bends in the fiber.

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With the deployment of high data rate network technologies like 1 Gbps and 10
Gbps Ethernet, the maximum allowable loss for multimode fiber optic links is low.
For example, 10GBASE-SR, the 10 Gbps Ethernet technology using serial
communication with an 850 nm VCSEL light source, requires that total loss is
less than 2.6 dB for multimode fiber optic links. A measurement error of 0.3 dB
represents more than 10% of the total loss budget, making high accuracy tests
essential.
The Loss measurement captures the ratio between the light energy injected into
the fiber link and the light energy delivered at the end of the link into a receiver.
The measurement process starts by establishing the amount of energy launched
into the link, which involves “setting the reference.” The reference is set by
connecting one test reference cord from the light source (transmitter) to the
receiver or power meter as depicted in first drawing in figure 18-A. Afterwards the
link is tested and the light loss calculated.

Figure 16. Setting a reference without a mandrel passes high order modes into
the power meter. The high order modes will die off when traveling the length of
the fiber, resulting in a loss measurement which is too high. Using a mandrel
blocks these high order modes and sets a more accurate reference.
One problem with the test described here is created by the higher order modes
when the reference is set. These higher order modes typically die off after some
relatively short distance due to bends in the fiber. When you set the reference as
described above and depicted in figure 2-A, practically all of the higher modes
are included in the reference measurement. These higher order modes
represent light energy that does not travel the distance of the link and the link
loss will be overstated.

Cabling Resource Guide – APRIL 2008

Figure 17. A fiber mandrel is used to remove higher order modes when setting a
test reference.
The tight coiling of the test reference cord around the mandrel kills most if not all
of the higher order modes that would not survive the length of most links-under-
test (Figure 18-B). Therefore, the reference value does not include the light
energy represented by these higher order modes and we obtain loss
measurement results that are much more accurate. In many cases, this increase
in measurement accuracy represents the difference between a fiber link passing
or failing its Loss test. This is good news for those of you who have
procrastinated in using mandrels, because the measured loss will be slightly
reduced creating a Pass results or a Pass with a better margin. A bonus for doing
the right thing.

Basic or Tier 1 Fiber Certification

With fiber playing an increasing role in most projects, the subject of fiber
certification is becoming increasingly important to contractors. Certification
recommendations such as TIA’s TSB140 bulletin titled “Additional Guidelines for
Field-Testing Length, Loss and Polarity of Optical Fiber Cabling Systems”
provide guidelines on how to test fiber optic cabling systems in the field, offering
two tiers of fiber network certification. Basic or Tier 1 fiber certification is required
in all fiber optic cabling links. The Tier 1 tests are attenuation (insertion loss),
length and polarity. When conducting Tier 1 testing, each fiber link is measured
for attenuation and results are documented. This test ensures that the fiber link
exhibits less loss than the loss budget allows for the application.
A Light Source Power Meter (LSPM) has long been the primary method of testing
premises fiber optic cabling. The test is designed to determine the total amount
of light loss over the fiber link. Other terms used to refer to this technology are
Loss/Length and Optical Loss Test Set (OLTS). The test is performed with a
stable light source that produces a continuous wave at specific wavelengths. The
light source is connected to one end of the fiber. A power meter with a photo
detector is installed at the opposite end of the fiber link. The detector measures
optical power at the same wavelengths as the light source. These two devices
determine the total amount of light loss.

Cabling Resource Guide – APRIL 2008

Figure 18. Results provided by an OLTS show the length of the fiber and the
overall light loss, expressed in dB.
A key innovation in recent years is the availability of fiber loss/length modules
that can be attached to copper test sets to make them function as an OLTS. The
DTX Series certification test tools with such plug-in fiber optic test modules test
two fibers at a time in order to verify polarity, certify the actual length of the fiber
being tested and reduce the time required for certification. The copper tester
mainframe with fiber loss/length module is used at one end of the fiber optic link
and the remote at the other end. A reference power level is set using test
reference cords before separating the two instruments and connecting them to
each end of the fiber optic link-under-test. Then with the press of a single button,
both fibers are tested at two wavelengths to measure their length and loss and
determine a pass or fail status in less than 12 seconds. The polarity can be
quickly reversed when each fiber optic strand is to be measured in both
directions.. The Tier 1 certification provides an efficient and accurate method to
certify that the fiber optic channel (end-to-end connection) meets the loss budget
for a specific application such as 10 Gbps Ethernet.

Extended or Tier 2 Fiber Certification

Figure 19. An OTDR can certify, diagnose and document fiber links, providing a
complete picture of the fiber plant.
Tier 1 certification is an overall measurement of the loss of the link, but it does
not measure the performance of individual splices and connectors. Today, most
project specifications set requirements for splices and connectors and Tier 1
Cabling Resource Guide – APRIL 2008
certification alone cannot determine whether the workmanship is acceptable for
each connections connection or if the design specifications have been met with
Tier 1 . For this reason, many network designers are including a requirement that
Tier 2 fiber certification be performed by taking an optical time domain
reflectometry (OTDR) trace of each fiber link. An OTDR trace is a graphical
signature of a fiber's attenuation along its length. An OTDR transmits an optical
pulse through the installed optical fiber and measures the fraction of light that is
reflected during the time the pulse travel through the link. The OTDR displays the
backscattered and reflected optical signal as a function of length (distance). By
comparing the amount of light reflected back at different times, the OTDR can
determine fiber and connection losses and reflectivity. By analyzing the OTDR
plot of trace, users can measure the attenuation and transmission loss between
any two points along the cabling link.... Technicians can also measure insertion
loss and reflectance of any optical connection. The OTDR trace can also be used
to locate fiber breaks or faults.
OTDR traces provide performance details about the connectors, splices or
breaks along the fiber optic link.

Figure 20. This OTDR trace shows a fiber link approximately 200 meters long
with connectors at 100 and 150 meters.

Cabling Resource Guide – APRIL 2008

OTDR traces have several common characteristics. Most traces begin with an
initial input pulse that is a result of a reflection occurring at the connection to the
OTDR. Following this pulse, the ODTR trace is a gradual curve sloping
downward that may be interrupted by gradual shifts. The gradual decline results
from Rayleigh scattering as light travels along each fiber section. This decline is
interrupted by sharp shifts that represent a local deviation of the trace in the
upward or downward direction. These shifts or ”"events”" are usually caused by
connectors, splices or breaks. Finally the output pulse at the end of the OTDR
trace results from a reflection occurring at the output fiber-end face.

Figure 21. The newest OTDRs combine fiber and copper certification in one tool.
This saves time, money and helps users transfer their skill ion testing one
medium to another.
Insight can be gained into the performance of the link components and the
quality of the installation by examining non-uniformities in the trace. An OTDR
trace does not replace the need for insertion loss measurement, but it
complements the Tier 1 evaluation of the fiber link. Tier 2 testing makes it
possible to certify that the workmanship and quality of the installation meets the
design and warranty specifications for current and future applications. For
example, a common requirement is that the loss associated with a splice should
be no larger than 0.3 dB and the loss associated with a connector should be no
more than 0.75 dB. An OTDR trace helps characterize individual events that are
undetectable by a Tier 1 loss/length test. Complete Tier 1 and Tier 2 fiber
certification gives contractors the best assessment of the fiber installation and
provides network owners with proof of a quality installation.

Cabling Resource Guide – APRIL 2008