SA ee ge gam Volume 01 \ Pages _ ize 8, -- & GS. Kartic, ma, [Ph.0] Anthropology karticsg@gmail.com Social and Cultural Anthropology6 to f& bath ys “YP oss — Be belch be Gladiator 2 ae [s bakh astern qladewen = BPS ye age Sad of Phiesto P ol cone Glowiens setseated Draping heed choxtedTable of Contents fichuw , Ardhncgaeloqy § —— 1.1 MEANING, SCOPE & DEVELOPMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY. 4.2 RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER DISCIPLINES ANTHROPOLOGY & SOCIAL SCIENCES. ANTHROPOLOGY & BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES. ANTHROPOLOGY & MEDICAL SCIENCES... -~ Ce are scl ences, CATH 2clewscee 1. MAIN BRANCHES OF ANTHROPOLOGY... A) SOCIO-CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY... 3B) BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY. CJ ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY. D) LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY ApeiGr AMTYRO | —"NADE! 1.8 PRINCIPLES OF PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY. (8) CHRONOLOGY: RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATING METHODS.. (8) CULTURAL EVOLUTION... 1. PALBOLITHIC CULTURE 2. THE MESOLITHIC CULTURE. cn 3. THE NEOLITHIC CULTURE =. ON Wacker Ahuan ain. G,A 4, CHALCOLITHIC CULTURE. oe-ee- mmr me so 5. COPPER- BRONZE AG 6 IRONAGE nn 2.1 NATURE OF CULTURE AND spCIETY. NaRUREOPENLauRE ose NATURE OF CIVILIZATION PTHNOCENTRISM a CULTURAL RELATIVISM en CULTURAL RELATIVISM VS ETHNOCENTRISM.. ee nen 82 Qe Lae NATURE OF SOCIETY, ~ nnn sn B30, SOCIETY, CULTURE AND MAN, . — ss 88 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS... SOCIAL GROUPS san SOCIAL STRATIFICATION 2.3 MARRIAGE. . DEFINITION OF MARRIAGE - {TS UNIVERSALITY... LAWS OF MARRIAGE... nn ns ‘TYPES AND FORMS OF MARRIAGE ... os scene 127 FUNCTIONS OF MARRIAGE MARRIAGE PAYMENTS — - nn 129 CONE Ronen peice Re Waa 2.4 FAMILY.. sintninnnsnn DEFINITION AND UNIVERSALITY : TICGROUPS FAMILY, HOUSEHOLD AND DOM TYPES OF FAMILIES... « IMPACT OF URBANIZATION, INDUSTRIALIZATION, E FAMILY. - UNIVERSALITY OF FAMILY ~ A CRITIQUE. ~ Functions 4, FosCONSANGUINITY AND AFFINITY. PRINCIPLES AND TYPES OF DESCENT. FORMS OF DESCENT GROUPS... KINSHIP TERMINOLOGY DESCENT, FILIATION AND COMPLEMENTARY FILIATIO! ALLIANCE AND DESCENT .... ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION .wsnssnn MEANING, SCOPE AND RELEVANCE OF | ECONOMIC ANTHROPOLOGY PERSPECTIVES IN ECONOMIC ANTHROPOLOGY . FORMALISM; SUBSTANTIVISM AND CULTURALISM UNDERSTANDING SMALL SCALE ECONOMIES ‘THE FORMS AND MEDIA OF EXCHANGE, PRINCIPLES GOVERNING PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION IN COMMUNITIES SUBSISTING ON DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ECONOMY... FOOD-GATHERING ECONOMY onoucvnsem - nnn 186 HUNTING-FISHING ECONOMY... ~ — 188 PASTORAL ECONOMY... oo sens 189 HORTICULTURAL ECONOMY oon ooeoene ~ 191 AGRICULTURAL, ECONOMY. 7 - nnn 192 GLOBALIZATION AND INDIGENOUS ECONOMIC SYSTEMS. . sane 19S 4, POLITICAL ORGANIZATION AND SOCIAL CONTRO} ‘TYPES OF POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS. POWER, AUTHORITY & LEGITIMACY..... SOCIAL CONTROL, LAW AND JUSTI IN SIMPLE SOCIETIES ssnws nmin FoRMSOF RECON Tha i EASA TSOGETIS- ARI CRA NO SHR Dierusonst RSONALITY 6.5. Kantc kartiesg@ gmail.com) 4NEO-EVOLUTIONISM CULTURAL MATERIALISM .. SYMBOLIC AND INTERPRETIVE THEORIES. ~ COGNITIVE ANTHROPOLOGY AND NEW ETHNOGRAPHY... /POST MODERNISM... °@y7. CULTURE, LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION .-o NATURE OF LANGUAGE. in CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE... ‘ ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. VERBAL AND NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION... ~ SOCIAL CONTEXT OF LANGUAGE USE... 8, RESEARCH METHODS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. A FIELDWORK TRADITION IN ANTHROBLOG\ 8, DISTINCTION BETWEEN TECHNIQUE, METHOD AND METHODOLOGY ©.TOOLS OF DATACOLLECTION. - D, ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND PRESENTATION OF DATA... : Zee - aun | GOoriqueress gf Aeltrw — GA-Neeloein Hhex ne © Applied tnthao, Acten Artin — 1” CSanpingtnegue — Later® G.S. Kartic(kartiesg@gmail.com) 5Preface GS. Kartic, a Gold Medalist in Anthropology from University of Hyderabad in the year 1992 is currently authoring his Ph.D thesis on* Primary Health Care Delivery Amongst ‘Tribal Societies in India: The Impact of Organizational, Cultural and System-specific Factors’, He has conducted extensive research amongst the multi-tribal societies inthe Agency areas of Vishakhapatnam District of Andhra Pradesh. Though. his academic research isin the realm of Medical Anthropology, Kertic has been, deploying the methodologies of Visual Anthropology in his profession as a Corporate and Social Media Consultant over one and a half decades. He has scripted, directed and produced more than 2000 corporate and social media products and films for many multinational, government and non-governmental organizations, through company Grey Scale Media Solutions Pvt. Ltd, He is also an advisor in the realm of capacity building, civie ‘engogement and training for urban local bodies and civie governments. His forte in this domain is in the emerging concept of “place branding’. He also provides strategic consulting in the field of communications for various organizations dealing with differently-abled and mentally challenged children. Kartic has been involved in training the aspirants of Civil Services Examination for over 16 years. Many students of his have made it into the coveted services at various levels across the country, Many amongst them are toppers in their respective years and more Gress, on an average, more than 15 students of his make it to the services every year. This three-volume series isthe 8% edition of the original work written in the year 1993. ‘Owing to the dynamic nature of the discipline of anthropotogy and consistent changes Introduced in the syllabus by the UPSC every 3-5 years, these volumes continuously evolve. The subject matter of these books is written strictly keeping the scope of the syllabus for UPSC Civil Services Examination and is based on the changes introduced in the Anthropology Syllabus in the year 2008. Owing to the dearth of books written exclusively for the Civil Services Examination, these three volumes constitute complete study material for the purpose of this examination, Relevant handouts on emerging areas of interest and new developments in the subject domain will be given to the students from time to time, asa part of lecture notes. ‘The three volumes sre organized into Social Anthropology (Velunw 1), Phys Anthropology (Volume 2) and indian Anthropology (Volume 3), for ease of study. Indexing of the topics is, however, done according to the syllabus released by UPSC through its gazette.Pre Cambie = 7 Sqr MmYye Phanerso 2015 < Sur mye \ ~ Cenozoi © . Mets 264 Paleoaci & « eoee) (asec ee) (Sere ~s) ve : Ar _ Text orey Blin ene Wlécune Htere Obgeens Mist — Quarters (22-6 mya) Phertocone (dene ree Holla! yer | Seccates V Aristotle Aleconbr‘Anthropology Paper 01 - Volume 01 Anthropclogy is the study of the origin, development, and nature of the human species. The word ‘Anthropology" is a combined form derived from the Greek'ferms “anthropos” (human being) and “logos” (study) and can be translated as “the study of humanity". Anthropology is not just the study of human beings. It is the study of human be ctive ways of life labeled “culture”. The study of anthroy nches to provid an explanation ofthe dévelopme ings living in societies and following dist jlogy weaves together the findings of its various branches to Anthropology is considered as the most comprehensive of all the sciences dealing with man. An inherent © cutiosity of man about himself was the prime factor influencing the emergence of a discipline that systematically studies mankind, For as long as humans have been on earth, they have wondered about who they are, where they came from and. why they act the way they do. Much of the human history, according to anthropologist Haviland, has resulted from the efforts of people to answer these basic questions. Because of the limits of knowledge and technology, throughout most of their history, people ‘were unable to accumulate an extensive and reliable body of data concerning their own behavior and background, Hence, they have relied on bodies of myth and folklore to answer these questions. Anthropology, over the last 200 years, is the naturalistic approach to answering these questions people ask about themselve | 1.1 MEANING, SCOPE & DEVELOPMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY i i 1 | i | Anthropology defines itself as a discipline of infinite curios) t human beings, Anthropologists seek ‘answers to an enormous variety of questions about humans. They are interested in discovering when, where and why humans appeared on the earth, how and why they have changed since then, how and why t ‘modern human populations vary in certain physical features, Anthropologists are also interested in how and why societies in the past and present have varied in their customary idleas and practices. ‘The definition and the meaning of Anthropology was not always the same Since the time it was | envisioned for the first time, Anthropology had a slow growth owing to factors like highly restricted geographical wanderings of the people and Tack of understanding the non-European cultures by mar earlier travelers. The definitions of various scholars gi is evolution ofthe meaning and scope of this discipline, — Definition of Anthropology Astle is referred to as the father of anthropology. He is considered as the first anthropologist who ‘oined, defined and explained the ferm “anthropology”. He defines anthropology as the gossip that lves around man and the anthropotogist as the gossiper who talks about himself Anthropology was beginning to be nourished in the philosophical faculties in the universities of Germany. (D detween the 14th and 17¢h centuries, During this period, anthropology was defn systematic udyof ana ‘ag aphysicaland'moral being. The physical aspect of man includes the biological conditions Reduce Se Five —9 Looted weak J Decrersed prower’ © ny sige Tank | Gojubetion Govakice = Fapenele A Meabs sails Voowtedge 9, biclogyt | - 4 j - y felhonship of Ailhopelogy ond Mechecne. + Aalhyopotagy and — mediieine —metintoun | | steunding inkielalions Medical Seines cnkibutid - | de the daselopmest 4 bielonitad auth opolony . Both pe] Yam came fo have close relochns kn under — | Starduig the dole connect tuner grotchh “i «| gouo-ecename Statin ant cultural feces. | | scnilonies + math the dioiplines study rrecicol | | Systema of human population - Path lilvie the | | ooeaneh auaulhs 4 urna, _gendlis and bath boaters | , Cedloun concep, malheds fiom thet al Sashes fo doal | | wath he medical ospec 6| human populatian | | pifjeunees | I frtivopelogy baa —_univesaal tape ao it oleals enth) | health, dudeare , medicine pachiotomte, hirtonic , | | contemporas, plioulive, _ peooadl and adwancech socielit | phere wo medicine hoo Limiléd 5@ an it stadia | health. clireare, medicere of Calan poraiey gotliss anly| Aritnopology un holialié suene, mudiere i @ 1 pout ~sucnce + Anthio palo content tndluden numerous branches boned on jl rel: under fanduy of human bology | Mecsine t bard on scantifs wdewstanding le |bic’ ( camrect by super natead besiy ) ao emdtimaliatic ( cared by anges, cwataly ) ‘or aduralilic ( «gall heel, wid) I bd Mediate — studies | digeare caurdlicn 1 lum | 4 erelionalidié and noduralealac Caurer » he roots ei clean she betiseen “een ard mechitne 2 dig ao avila pole Gell. Sine beliefs » abllicde 4d. a @ shonglg | fluence i interpeela J 2 symptom and techniques 4 a dualinent . fy wD Necem fo . analipe whe” hedilional eplena meclicine « | Hence close — eooalein velaliavhi | Meclicuie j and anthuepelo oH £newitable - | “> the place 9 mecliecne gp any ma | dctecmuned Soutal and economic” suclan “tho Value dhe! ~ so bo to heallh and i | din cane . Though moden curltiute dows eat cleal aq shosg Upon seafific medicine — ws opposed to fk Mediceie =, one ecannal Pied vAal sou'o - | outta fow fey a lage paul sey . He meaning q desea and health. i” | | ren, ee dlereare — eourodilian in oe an | | |be i Anthropol and falh Stienten Anthopology. maintarns close Links iil earth suinces sich ao geleny, peng, geography (hivadby bola) folb entamines sho a man and hin eultine Bol deal sith sho nalute 4 mélerials jsith sshuch heumany made phapial obs. oo ° oath je sol Samples = le know ey it i" he 1a 7 “ Goth to Reomohuel “the human adtoil; by pachiatoace — envincumenta Gab thy to auundluuct “the envinenmerd od) the puchirhoued populitcn . Spotqhe conditions crib bition : Arithuey and ath Sticnws aro yolated in he seme that adthtopel could not el) have duelped lil, eat series had achieved a. cule deguc maui, Thur no Hue idea of the oe She ala could have beat develbpeel wall gaoke had pronded a chiandlogy oy “tina Sayime —sotth uch fo manne. ib tuchacilogénal arthiopelogy veo “he shail grap Tene ods 4 gaefay © Aabliohig he velatiix\ | | wd diff weal cultines Mune wl e pit Sm the galegc ag he abe deat al’ wy cullival aman lie po ° ) ppabt or Sal sola thal 4 tina pes Oe cher and, he palace lgah onomues he pee ” tpifeo _9| omtmals found. wilh _wltitad demain and delemine te geotogeedl Hina daperil - : f (ab endo upon the gedegit ar paleertolegch to etablish “be age of speckmen q pel puchia tome people « The geologist and palaccnologst place all fouel vamasin 4 mar : difiitel, in ime ard —tolve “he problent due evoludias 2 humon - tochooolog asthe, bh masta Close finko tot mio walagy a orde. te kno ~he naliue fe] gin tons. tool found act a patlicnlar gibt JS rede up The dlincovery J “Peking Han sonellegs + from fincling a. pece 4 quaify wo the locales 000 mils fram the nearest! knosn quath clapesily Sotial-oultinal aittvopelony depends ae fuunan humor georptaph ep chen ck beglno to conoid fan main springs of rumen adlivilg - Jn thy conlink | aritepelayy —clemands 00 muuch knowledge hurd ao q gogapy «Pydosbork Jpoppevoimy” ama “ Ap.nor = onpre Pempr- ons ponerims = Aepdonguy patos ye! queda era) = Abyodonwuy po doooymnp prof > omumrprregyra = jbo, unped orrourne pea = Yoyoeb voqoprded oumy a + Frerodhos LP yp oo ofinds a earpprndod fe conpomynuos 7H vd non TTY on juouneriave my ugpop = mpipo yo 22/9 7. i. of Pup poy Frtaporphy » hicebool se cp Has\q,Ba-waed 6 sagmnamy 7 PORE Pe NPI een mop GS) Raarspemyes YY. G | fire raen%s argivel bp Bene 3: pyerara hing spl en ¥ poogo FTI oP HIG | _shavttt) G yom 79H long E . © srayyindy 8b (etbewr) saoe 3d PREY? | et ayer = a) prepay ror @ now oy © qrovganlpe mongay “of NPN oO aha vow nd ow b mmps Pamarane (C ung wr pap Fe Pes me Ve naspebgson, Q 3, poodle & psypw @ seen a vbr qrMa mwmpEe fw sau “Taxopeneq poxh a wy vO hypo wp TPH} ANP MPL PF wsmeoMN ' ve \ , Cound epa'vos ) femurs vay va peotbp sr ouyay oy Q,{ { i t i Anthropology Paper 01 - Volume 02 ANTHROPOLOGY & MEDICAL SCIENCES A review of literature reveals that anthropologists have made significant contributions in the field of medicine. In 1942, Ackerknecht, a medical historian, contributed a series of scientific papers on tive medicine’. These papers provided useful guidelines to anthropologists for conducting, research on “indigenous” systems of medicine. This was followed by a series of researches and papers by anthropologists ike Henery and Margaret Mead in 1947. ‘These papers had one thing in common - the J™ fact, way back in 1924, wil sR Rivers and in 1932 Clements had contributed to anthropology in medicine, Clements tied to trace the worldwi on of five basic concepts of disease, namely, sorcery, breach of taboo, oBject intrusion, spirit Intrusion and soul loss, A umber of other valuable studies appeared in the thirties and forties including FieI@°s study op the "Religion and Medicine of the Ga People” in 1937, Herbert Spencer’s study of “Disease, Religion and society of the Fizi Island "in I T641 and Horley’s 's study of “Mono of Liberia’ However, as said earlier, it was Ackerknecht in 1942 who for the first time brought out that "Primitive medicine is not a queér collectioré of errors and Superstitions, nor is tobe explained by simply stating that in the medical field, primitives used spells, prayers, blood - letting, human fat etc. What counts is not the forms_but the place medicine occupies in the Ife of a Wibe or people, the spirit which pervades its practice, the way it merges with other waits rom different fields of experience *. Even today, his cross cultural analysis of the practice of medicine in different cultures is of considerable value to the anthropologists working inthe field of medicine. Anthropolo case studies relating t0 peoples’ reaction to health programs. stiidfes that introducing western techniques in public health, necessitates doping theta ofthe docer and other health persorinel to fit other existing cultural expectations. This idea definitely necessitates a clos’ working relationship between anthropology and medicine. Even in western medicine itis important to understand that the primary frame of reference is the social structure. Hence it was suggested that successful establishment of effective medicine would largely depend on the extent to which scientific medical St of western cultural accretions and adapt itself to the social Ife of the rural settin Jter roots of the relationship between anthropology and medicine are probably as deep as anthropology ingel -From the holistic point of view, right from the beginning iself, anthropology seems to have combined in one discipline the approaches of several sciences, including biological sciences, the sociat sciences and:the humanities. ‘Since the beliefs, attitudes and values of a community strongly influence people's interpretations of the symptoms and the techniques for their tr analyze the efficacy of te traditional systems of medicine for whieh close Working relatiiship between medicine and anthropology is Inevitable. The place of medicine in any society is determined by the current social and economic structure, the value that society places on health and disease, the tasks that are assigned to different categories of practitioners and the technology of medicine available to them. The moderiy culture certainly lays a great deal of stress upon scientific medicine as opposed to folk indigenous medicine.—However, one cannot Torget that socio-cultural forces play a large part in determining the meaning of illness, the function ofliness and ways of counteracting ines, Note: More on this in subsequent chapters Conclusions: Anthropology is distinguished from other disciplines concerned with an understanding of humanity by the scope of its interests, by its attention to all types of societies and by its attempt to understand humanity in all types of societies from every corner of the earth and all periods of time. Anthropology is also different in the way it approaches specific problems it dects with, The basis of this distinctive approach is to be fotind in every corner of the earth with culture as the foundation of human society. As part of ts deep concern with culture and society, anthropology uses holism as its trademark ‘The most important reason for anthropology’s insistence on holism or comparing the ways of life of societies in different parts of the world and different periods of time is that such comparison helps to GS. Kartic{kartiesg@gmail.com) as xvanthropology Paper 01 - Vohime 01 iituminate the culture of every society and to establish the basis for finding what is universal to all humanity, what is general to groups of societies and what is distinctive of particular societies. Note: Anthropology onid Barth Sciences & Life Sciences are discussed.iy detail in relevant chapters elsewhere inthe textbook a WS 1,3 MAIN BRANCHES Seas Peels Rote — hy thee nad A) SOCIO-CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY <_ 7 GR L According to Charles Winick, Social anthropology point of view of the systematic comparative study of social forms and institutio Socal anthropology isa comparative study of human societies, Ideally it includes alls f tivilized and hist — - 5 "the study Of social behavior, especially from the stitutions”. According to others, fecause human beings always possess culture and always live in Socfeties,there is a broad sense in which all of anthropology can be considered as socio-cultural anthropology. Within anthropology those concerned primarily with the ways of life ot people living in recent or existing cultures and societies generally refer to themselves as Socio-cultural anthropologists. When a distinction is made between cultural and social anthropology, cultural anthropologists are generally regarded as those who emphas cultural traditions and their content, wherees social anthropologists are regarded as those wi emiphaiize behavior and social interaction, Because human Social interaction always takes place wi reference to cultural traditions, society is generally regarded as an aspect of culture, and social anthropologists are often regarded as a variety of cultural anthropologists. a Socie-Cultural anthropologists are interested in the description and compatison of all human cultures and they search and describe diverse cultures. Because the predatory expansion of urban and industrialized cultures has threatened the existence of many of the world's small and technologically uncomplicated peoples, much of the research effort in socio-cultural anthropology has involved a kind of desperate, last minute attempt to describe the life-ways of hroken anct-vamshing peoples. ~ smphasis has sometimes led to the description of Socio-cultural anthropology as the study cultures, the goals of Soci anthropology have always be to describe the entire range of human behavior and to develop explanations of the similarities and differs Fes, ——— — ayn tendency to emphasize particular aspects of culture has given rise to a variety of sub fields within Socio-cultaral anthropology. Ecological ib ‘emphasize relationships between cultures and | their environments. Cultural fistorians examine the beliefs that people hold about their past history | and test them against existing historical documents in order to reconstruct the course of development of their culture, Economic anthropologists consider the manner in which goods are produced, the systems of trade or exchange by means of which they are distributed, and the ways in which they are consumed. Social anthropologists consider the kinds of groupings and subdivisions that exist among the members ofa culture and the Kinds of relationships and interactions that take place between them, Psychological anthropologists consider the relationships between the individuals and their cultures. Other specialists siudy religion, culture change, conflict, medicine, education, law, art play, music, and literature. Socio-cultural anthropology thus concerns itself with human cultures and societies. Being a branch of the wider subject of anthropology, itis generally dealt in connection with its other branches: Physical anthropology, archaeology and sometimes Tmgu oo Ethnology, Ethnography & Social Anthropology: It is important to make a distinction between ethnology and social anthropology. This is because the term "social anthropology” was not always used to designate this branch of anthropology previously. The: d mitrarily, the term “ethnology” w: used to designate this branch of anthropology in the United States {Jos tate tatesg@zmaieom) ve Panna cece tote fish hyel — etdeay D> andes A Soa C Tate eerie Head) anid = . — Sa nabologyeé engpishics — Yel gcel =—Fatitial - i act — Konomit ies, rimitive. 40)Aleloage reprodien payee 20% aye ae = mmm yee carymaos gonaflp ovendnaenp ay.é hydosbouys B gpm ap. emvediaay pre mun we Phoroutgy , andeboopy op ur, Peed voprajred vp Doma noes +2 mano 0B yunciay eaprosp vo Song ee Pleaige po | rydotbouyps ae a a ee cay veuny ha R vourvod lids pe condrop 0 proj ¢ Aoploryyo gop -2005 oe + aygradacin «ph peti 0 sey Faro poem Bb Fons 2, co prykp *Bloplenyvo yom» 2 paye enpuoig phi pT sane) ug * eayhun @ponlfep pre + yuunenva roy. 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How Study o| wilinel preriali én the. calout of athropoloy Neoalotogy; A means sciane f ras ie Cymolagicall cof) hh avithepologeal portance, Jt in whe brane shady {prt tthdooy sie “he sdontifie study of animal behavrour hee and combines that knoraledtge wil theases about (We development af languages. greup Life ancl capastly fr cultiual dlavelopmet - i there Hue brancheo phar calhtepoley conlubuk fo Hee unduatanding | Shuman woludas hueman cabline and pehoundin -| | y Pt-Ldaohboan — sod Yhed! Physical austheoppolegy |" phaser @ clawreal fold © New . ( Bfee bald wae 7) (afte scold soar) . ial vical veal ontmopology.: 3 har a sumed seope| scope - | eum ib obpecbuaca , repearch 8 . | a} died $0 urdewtand duman ewoledbiar “ore human | venialians wall plateo al all ines» bat in ogee yao only éo thease » bel bo praclue,itneves condepts Ue damelid) tumor bf Coneph —heeatere “the ~themes | aw Linilid in nitmber. and dopendenee._ a_ other dirapluies ora Auld. 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Su fo aur weprald belo omialid appreaeh jo ne phyorel onthe lit & tought dervebe fo call ib “biolosit oat 4Antnropology Paper 01 -Volume 01 and other countries. Social anthropologists consider that their subject embraces all human cultures and. societies, including their own, they have, for the most part given their attention to those of primitive between the two subjects. peoples. Ethnologists are dealing with the same peoples and there is consequently a considerable overlap se vole i It is important to appreciate that though ethnology and social anthropology make their studies very largely among the same range of peoples, they make them with very different purposes. Consequently, though in the past no clear distinction was made between ethnology and social anthropology, they are today regarded as separate disciplines. The task of ethnology is ta classify peoples on the basis of their. racial and cultural characteristics and then to explain thelr distribution at the present time, oF in past, by the movement and mixture of peoples and the diffusion of cultures. ——— ~ The classification of peoples and cultures is an essential prerequisite to the comparisons which social ~ anopatg mae between primitive societies, because itis highly convenient, and even necessary, to start By comparing UW0se of the same general cultural type. When however ethnologists attempt to reconstruct the history of primitive peoples, for whose past historical records are lacking, they are Zompelled to rely on inferences from circumstantial evidence to reach their conclusions, which, in the naiure Of The ease, can never be more than probable reconstructions. Sometimes a number of different and even contrary hypotheses fit the facts equally well. Ethnology is thus not history in the ordinary sense, for history tells events that may have happened, but that events which did happen, and not that the {events have merely taken place but how and when they happened and often why they happened, For this reason, and because ethnology can in any case tellus little about the past social lie of primitive peoples, 7 its_speculations have limited significance for social_anthropologisis. PreSistoric archaeology is best régardded as a branch of ethnology. It aitempts to reconstruct the history of peoples and cultures from ‘ah mains found by excavation in geological deposits. It also relies on circumstantial evidence and, lite ethnology, can tell social anthropologists little about the ideas and institutions, in which they would be interested, of the peoples whose bones and artifacts it discovers and classifies. Social anthropology has quite a different task to perform. It studies social behavior, generally in —~ institutionalized forms such as the family, kinship ns, polital organizations, legal procedures, religious cults, and relations between such institutions and it studies them elther in contemporaneous societies or in historicalsocieties for which there is adequate information of the Kind to make such. / studies Feasible So, whereas some Custoin of people, when plotted on a distribution map, is of interest for The ethnologist as evidence of an ethnic movement, of a cultural drift or of past contact between peoples, itis of interest to the social anthropologist as a part of the whole social life of the people at the present time. The mere probability that they may have borrowed it fram some other people is not very Significant for him since he cannot know for certain that they did borrow it and even ifthey did he does not know when and why they borrowed. Thus while the ethnologist and the social anthropologist may“ make use of the same ethnographic data, they a Emphasis on Primitive Societies: It is obvious by now that Social anthropologists study the primitive societies. Two questions arise in this context. What are the "Primitive societies" and why social anthropologists study them? The word "Primitive" in the sense in which it has become established in anthropological literature does not mean that the societies it qualifies are either earlier in time or inferior to other kinds of societies, As Far as we know, primitive societies have just as long a history as our owh, while they are less developed than our society in some respects they are often. more developed in others. This being so, the word was perhaps an unfortunate choice, DutWhssnow been too widely accepted as a technical term tobe avoided. It suffices to say at this stage that when anthropologists use it they do so in ference to those societies that are sina in scale with regards to numbers, territory, and range of social contacts, and which have, by comparison Wit the madern societies, a simple technology and economy and little specialization of social function, Some anthropologists would 2dd further criteria, particularly ice of tera thes ead hence of any systemat _art, science or theology. Anthropologists are criticized for giving so much of thetr time to the study of the primitive societies. tis suggested that inquiry into problems of our own society might be more useful. This may be so, but for GS. Kartic {karticsg@gmail.com) v° ‘Auithropotogy Paper 01 - Volume 02 various reasons primitive societies have long held the attention of those interested in the study of the social institutions. The primitive societies have attracted the notice of philosophers in the eighteenth century chiefly because they furnished examples.of what was Supposed to be man living ina state of nature before the institution of civil government. They engaged the attention of social anthropologists ‘because it was believed that they provided important clues in the search for the origins of institutions. Later anthropologists were interested in them because it was held that they displayed institutions in their simplest forms, aid that it is a sound method to project from examinations of the more simple to ‘examinations of thie more complex, in which what has been learnt froma study of the more simple would be an aid, The last reason for interest in primitive societies gained in weight as the so-called Functional anthropology of today developed, for the more it is regarded as the task of social anthropology to study social institutions as interdependent parts of social systems the more itis seen to be an advantage to be able to study those societies which are structurally so simple and culturally so homogeneous, that they can be directly observed as wholes, before attempting to study complex societies where this is not possible, Moreover, it isa matter of experience that itis easier to make observations among peoples with cultures unlike our own, the “otherness” in their way of life at once engaging attention, and that itis more likely that interpretations will be objective. Another reason for studying’ primitive societies at the present time is that they are rapidly being transformed and must be studied soon or never. These variishing social systems have unique structural variations, @ study of which aids us very considerably in understanding the nature of hurman society, ina comparative study of institutions the number of societies studied is less significant than their fariation. Quite apart from that consideration, the study of primitive societies has intrinsic value = they provide descriptions of the way of life, the values, and the beliefs of peoples living without what we have come to regard as the minimum requirements of comfort and civilization, Though social anthropologists give chief attention to primitive societies, it must be made clear that a number of important studies of more advanced Societies have already been made especially by the American social anthropologists. Theoretically at any rate, SocTal anthropology is the study of all human imitive societies. This is the case even though in practice and at the present societies and not merely time its attention is mostly given to the institutions of the simpler societies, for itis evident that there can be no separate discipline which restricts itself entirely to these societies. Though a social anthropologist ‘may be carrying out research among primitive people, what he is studying among them are language, law, religion, political institutions, economics, and so forth and he is therefore concerned with the same general problems as the student of these subjects in the great civilized societies of the world. It must be ‘emphasized here that in interpreting his observations on primitive societies the anthropologist is always, comparing them with his own. Social anthropology can therefore be regarded as a branch of sociological studies, that branch which Chiefly devotes itself to primitive societies. When people speak of sociology, they generally have in mind studies of particular problems in ci ieties. If we give this sense to the word, then the difference between social anthropology and ference of field, but there are also other important differences between them, The social anthropologist studies primitive societies directly, living among them for months and years, whereas sociological rex sually from documents_and largely statistical. The social anthropologist studies societies as wholes. He studies their economies, their legal and political institutions, their famnily anid Kinship organizations, their religions, their technologies, and their arts ete as parts of general social systems. The sociologist’s work on the other hand, is usually very specialized, keing a study of isolated problems, crime, insanity, Tabor unrest and incentives in industry: Sociology 15 very largely 1 philosophy at one end and social planning at the other. It seeks not only to discover-how the institutions work but also to decide how they ougtto-work-and to alter them, while social anthropology ‘has mostly kept apart from such considerations. Sociology is considered asa general body of theory about the human societies and it is the relation of this general body of theory to primitive social life, which constitutes the subject matter of social anthropology. : GS. Kartc kartiesg@gmail.com) 38 .“Structure comprises the study of culture and civilization, _/losely linked with the theoretical developments in the fields of medi Anthropology Paper 01 - Volume 02 In this conten itis ap to quote the definition of sacio-culteral anthropology by Prof. Keesing. According to him, “Social anthropology emphasizes a generalizing approach to human behavior, characteristics of the social or behavioral sciences with the focus on particular problems relating to culture society and personality”. Social anthropology studies primitive society and embodies the study of social structure, customs, traditions, norms etc. In addition to this it also studies those Processes of human behavior that is responsible for various social events and incidents. Social anthropology is also concerned with the study of the social structure of the past. But such a study is incomplete without a comparison with the social structure of the present Since the study of social ncomplete without the study of human behavior, sodal anthropology according to Raymond ‘aims at a comparative analysis of how people behave in social institutions". The study of social tion. “The study of social behavior and the social institutions forms the important part of social anthropolo ‘The study of social anthropology is based on systematic observation comprising the understanding of customs, traditions, religious and political institutions of the human societies. ‘The scope of study of socio-cultural anthropology comprises a detailed study of the various aspects of ancient society and this comprehensiveness of approach in the study of human societies is another important characteristic of socio-cultural anthropology, Iti also concerned with the study of the origin and development of human social organizations. Socio-cultural anthropology abolishes the concept bf” ethnocentrism by pursuing a comparative study of variou ~ mS culeures. Institute, the aims of social anthropology are; : 1. The study of primitive culture in its present form. Y . 2 Thestly future comactandtespeatepaceses >) 3. Reconstruction of social history. 4. Search for universally valid social laws. ‘The nature of socio-cultural anthropology is to examine every aspect of a single culture, every aspect of a single society. by 5 “k B) BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY + notes! (es . Physical anthropology is considered tobe the oldest branch of anthropology. Its scope considers man first as a biological organism and secondarily as asoctal animal. The development of physical anthropology is. fe and genetics, Among the developments in biological sciences that have made enormous contributions to the development of the scope ofthis discipline, the theory of organic evolution and the principles of genetics are significant: May biologists are responsible Tor the development of this subjen. Comte De Buffon, Paul Broca, john Frederick Bluemenbach, Samuel George Morton, Charles Darwin”and Alfred Russell Wallace are asthe Tounders of this distipline Physical anthropology is also cal \ropology. It is considered as the anthropological contemporary of Biological sciences that deal with human beings Because it studies human beings living in diverse cultures and examines the role of culture in the evolution of the species, physical anthropology is properly set apart from those disciplines Urat Tegerd human Bones and bodies in strictly biological terns. Sin biological anthr nd in the sophis Although the use of specialized methodoligies derived from a variety of biological sciences has created many highly technical sub fields within biological anthropology. the discipline remains primarily concerned with human evolution within the context of culture or the emergence of culture. G.5. Kartic (kartiesg@gmail.com) 19 : “gis ans DL ts the liste chucky A human biology Actos Amebspace: Hey Arties Sense, % Comparrve , historical @ Laduhenoay study . . FES conteened with the bicle gical Kundalina of havmn life eirtionk ebhone7 Anthropology Paper 01 - Volume 02 ‘There are three main branches of physical anthropology. Teyare ‘ "2 (ks chiwodse J 1LPaleontology Science of od Ube Cenbinchpbinete ecienee 4 newbie (Uuing pinliy) 2.Neontlogy 4 2 smal behoutoe B.Ethology —seienbifte stedty dy oninel bel. Paleontology: The etymological meaning of the word “Paleontology” means the translated in the context of anthropology, ith the evolution of man. Tr examines the a iv veals the foundations of human biological and cultural evolution. It ‘makes use ofthe theoretical developments and the methodologies involved in other sciences like botany, zoology, chemistry ete. Reontology: The etymological definition of "Neontology" means the science of modern or new life,"In Anthropological parlance, Neontology is the branch of physical anthropology that studies the living brimates. While dealing with the living primates, & examines the comparative anatomy, physiology and Benetics of living primates, human variation and differentiation in terms_of population genetics, rmiolecular genetics, body shapes, adaptation to different environments and racial classification and other related aspect Ethology: Ethology is the monkeys and apes and combi group life and capacity for cultur tifie study of animal behavior such as that of free ranging to confined s that knowledge with theories about the development of languages, al development. All these three branches of physical anthropology contribute to the understanding of the human evolution, human variation and human culture and behavior. Biological anthropologists compare the scattered fossil evidence of human evétution, attempt to reconstruct the environments within which hhuman beings evalved and try to develop explanations of the patterns of development they find. In studying the populations of living human beings, the biological anthropologist is primarily interested in observing the processes of evolution that are taking place within human populations at the present time. ‘They are also interested in the examination of the biological similarities and differences between the various populations because this knowledge may shed light on historical relationships between the slfferent population groups or the impact of a particular environment upon the ongoing eyolution of the species. Im addition to these general questions about the relationships of human beings to other primates or about past and present human evolution, the physical anthropologist is deeply concerned with the question of the extent to which biological factors exert influence upon the nature, behavior, and potentialities of human individuals and populations. Although these questions are sometimes approached by means of attempts to draw a distinction between human traits that result from heredity and environment, the task cof explaining the complex interplay between biological and cultural factors is one ofthe challenges facing allof the sub disciplines of anthropology. Sone of ne important areas of research in physi antropolgy ithe human popula n biology. This sub-discipine studies the adaptations to differing environments and The hereditary choracterevics af ving populations ranging in size from regional stocks and races to local Inbreeding groups Such oe religious castes. The physical anthropologist in contrast to the other biologists, who studi ma mataty concerned with huian variation, seal ferences, growth patlerns and physical and physiological ifferences between human groups, current and past, and the geographical distribution af the hurnan physical charaeteristics, a — ~ Physical anthropology is now in period of rapi¢ change. This branch of anthropology has close relationships with other fields of biology, especially genetics, anatomy, physiology, taxonomy, or classification. The field fas also close connections with cultural authropology, since man among all GS. Kartic (karticsg@ gmail.com) 20Anthropology Paper 01 - Volume 01 animals is preeminently a creature with a culture and can hardly be studied unless this fact is reckoned. Such factors like mating and inbreeding patterns, food resources and food habits, intentional modifications and mutilations of the body, and the history of migrations and pioneering settlements, since they are aspects of culture, are within the scope of cultural anthropology; yet, since they affect the human physical form and racial history, they are also important for physical anthropology. On the other hand, the concern of physical anthropology with the history of human populations often yields results useful to other anthropologists who are interested in cultural history. Classical & New Physical Anthropology: Initially physical anthropology was considered as a technique for taking carefully defined measurements, compute indices and other statistics. Irrespective of the objectives of the study, the methods of observation, measurement, and comparison were essentially same. Thus the prevailing approach was static with emphasis on taxonomy. The development of the theory was not Known at that time and so was genetics. Thus for many years classical physical anthropology was considered nothing but anthroponetrics with the belief that with accurate metr values all the problems could be solved. - — It was later realized that measurements and indices may certainly determine the degree of development and the extent of variability of a certain trait, but they do not reveal if on the basis of some traits all could be put in a single biological category. It was further realized that to understand the problems of evolution, race and constitution, background knowledge of a number of characteristies viz, cranial forms, pigmentation, somatic structure, growth process etc,-seem to be essential. Therefore a reorientation of the methodology became necessary. Thus physical anthropology entered the analytical phase. The general approach gradually underwent a change T-was-ar this point that new physical anthropology started Washburn attempted to bring about certain differences between the classical _and_new physical “anthropology. The field of the final aim of both remained the same. Comprehension and interpretation of hurnan_evohitio contintied to be The main objectives. However, the difference i approach became obvious. In the past there was etyphasis on CaSsiTIcation and no attempt was made to interpret the phenomenon. It was realized that working on mere external variations was not sufficient One” tiust examine as to what do the observed differences mean_and how are they related to other featurés, For example in order 0 understand the variation in size of the brow ridges. a series of ‘measurements were taken on the nose. Now itis realized that other features [ike the size and the shape of the skull and the face, in fact influence the brow ridges. ~ formation ofa particular character or aces. New, physical anthropology 1 n. However, even in the methadology of new physical anthropology, classification jep. This is followed by the problem and it's processing with the belief that without interpretation, data are meaningless. —— The traditional descriptions trait, At best Bey explain UieiF ex concept of adapta ‘Becomes the first proper ;not explain the reasons behind t in classical physical anthropology, theory was not considered important though points for theoretical discussions did exist. The emphasts was on UE ToMection of data and the description of facts. In recent ‘years there has been a realization that facts alone cannot solve Tundamental questions. The chief task of the anthropologist is to 1inderstagd the nature and kind of adaptation and the operation of the selection because evolution 15 Considered to be the history of the genetic systems where changes are due to rion and selection besides o rors, Evolution is also the sequence of effective behavior and therefore To understand it, living subjects must also be studied. While dealing with fossil Hominid remains, it must always be kept in mind that they were once “Tdapted to Their time_and therefore must bé studied in the context oftheir environment. ‘The traditional physical anthropology, for example, to describe the bone characteristics, lays more emphasis on the elaboration of measurements whereas new physical anthropology enriches the knowledge of the paséxplaining the bones in terms of their functional Significance in the life process. tis important To ‘ote that understanding the process of the mechanism responsible for a spe GSS. Kartic (karticsg@gmail.com) aAnthropology Paper 01 - Volume 02 important and should be given due attention than to make a simple statement about its presence or absence. It necessitates the development of appropriate quantitative and descriptive methods. Another important implication is that now there is much more concrete interrelationship among different subdivisions of anthropology. Further, for a better understanding of process of evolution, this new orientation in physical anthropology needs to be complemented with the appreciation of history and mechanism of culture. This is because, today it is known that humian migration, and adaptation, marriage customs, population density, diseases etc. are increasingly influenced by the way of life. ‘Thus, in view of its growth and new orientation, physical anthropology continues to be a study of human evolution and biological variation. It is concerned with the sources of variation and the direction of change among individuals and groups, past and present. Genetic differences and environmental modifications provide the sources of variations. Physical anthropology thus may be viewed as an approach to human biology in its widest context with emphasis on humanity as whole. Since consideration of a cultural context is always basic to a proper appreciation and understanding of the problems of human evolution, physical anthropology is also concernéd with the interaction of socio- cultural and other environmental factors. Scope of Physical Anthropology: Physical anthropology, right from its inception, has been concerned with the study of man's physical characters, their origin, evolution, and present state of development. Man in all his varieties, is the result ofthe effects of past as well as the present causes. How he came into being as a physical organism, how he developed his particular culture and the nature of conditions responsible for these should always be studied in relation to the environment. Both physical and cultural factors have played a role in the evolution of man and his differentiation, and both néed to be included in the term environment. Defined In this perspective, physical anthropology is the comparative science of ‘man asa physical organism in relation to his total environment - social, eultural-and physical ‘The appreciation and evaluation of human variability and dealing with the factors tat account for their current distribution have been thé basic concerns of physical anthropology from the very beginning. Anthroponretrics, the basic technique of physical anthropology, has greatly contributed to this aspect. mit years, with the introduction of genetics, a new area of investigation has opened Naturally there has been a spread of investigations using genetic methods in evaluating the detailed causes of individual variation and diversification of the varieties of man. Such studies are currently catried out under.a special branch that helps to draw a reasonably reliable history of te ortginrandl evolution oF tie Numan Species aid its varieties and attempts to understand the catises for human variation, ‘The study’ of apes carried upon in physical anthropology called as Primatology, since man primarily belongs to the animal kingdom with a clear relationship with the apes and the monkeys. Primatology is fundamental to the study of human biology including anatomy, physiology, and ethology. These sciences throw invaluable light on the evolution of man, particularly the pre-human history. Equally important is the study of the extinct primates who are ancestors to the man today. Such contributions constitute another branch in physical anthropology called Primate Paleontology. These studies naturally require tions and changes ant Weir effects on the ecology of knowledge on the pre-historic climatic con primates, Such studies are done by Geo-ecology. Physical anthropologists study all these related phenomena while tracing the origitoftman and his evolution in his current varieties under Paleoanthropology, It needs to be pointed out at this stage that a proper evaluation of the remains of fossil _men in evolutionary perspective cannot be done without recourse to comparative anatomy including embryology or developmental anatomy and physiology of growth. - — ‘The study of existing varieties of man has been one of the basic concerns of physical anthropology. Such studies on one hand refer to the extent of human variation and on the other hand allow attempting at human taxonomy, which in the specific anthropological context is referred to as Raciology or the study of races. Since the term "race" has become polluted because of its political and cfiltural overtones, it has consequently led physical anthropology which has attempted to reexamine the meaning of this concept and other related terms in the light of modern knowledge and also restucly and analyze the varieties of GS. Kartic{kartiesg@gmailcom) SK 2 th ~ rr Tt ~ Shana exdubion Herma dieenly Bireoue suby © Pyimakelory CReaiadstubicn " — Cogedinl A” Co . \ lenny Cited sudo 4 A tpidencclyy Fhe maks behainns Disease ecautenceAnthropology Paper 01 - Volume 01 man in order to evaluate the real significance of such differences for a proper interpretation and clear understanding. Ever since the introduction of genetics and its adoption in physical anthropology, the field of human genetics has undergone further differentiation. On one hand there has been an interest in the study ofthe, patteriis oF mheritance of various Body traits and on the other, a proper assessment of the distribution of such traits and their gene frequencies have become necessary for evaluating the process of ongoing human differentiation. This particular interest is unique to physical anthropology as no other science studies normal human variations. At the same tine there are cultural varieties of man Sad customs and {Faditions that differ from population to population, sometimes resulting into different systems of mating. The systems of mating as practiced in human populations are significant as they regulate the flow of ‘genes in a certain group. For students of physical anthropology interested in the study of evolutionary ’ phenomenon itis therefore necessary to evaluate the inflow or outflow of genes that have evolutionary implications. All such studies are conducted in the field of Human Population Genetics. Recent additions to this field are Serology and Dermatoglyphics. Current lines of investigations in this field may be briefly summarized a5 gene frequencies and their determination, study of mating systems in human populations and the affinities of human population. ‘The study of physical anthropology has also contributed towards the improvement of the population - Eugenics. Furthermore, the value of physical anthropology in the analysis of growth and devélopment “hardly needs any explanation, In recent years physical anthropology has done great service to dentistry, ‘medicine, and industrial research. In fact, wherever human body or its parts need interpretations in rms id dynamics of variability and the implications of the age process in terms of physical growth and development, the role of physical anthropology is gainfully utilized In the field of forensic sciences physical anthropology has made significant contributions. In forensic science, individtal tharactertzation involving determination of age and sex is important, Physical anthropology helps in such assessments by utilizing its knowledge in the fields of osteology, asteometry, dermatoglyphics, seralogy and man} problems of forensic science. Besides, the s constitutional types in relation to specific diseases specialization recently christened Kinanthropometry. “i,, cid. he cultural forms of the past and to trace their ds_of sports, a C) ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY X saeaeslogalantropoiagy attempts to recon ota growth and development in time. n this, historians, cultural historians and archaeologists share the same objective, History, in the sense of written history, is based upon written documents describing aspects of life in former times. Unfortunately such written documents cover only the last 5,000 years and only those cultures that possessed writing, Very often, surviving written documents give an inadequate picture of former cultures, and it is necessary to supplement written history with archaeal In most cases the archaeologist must reconstruct the cultures of the past from material remains alone. ‘Tracing the clues provided by the smoke blackened walls of caves, unusual variations in the soil, or pieces of stone, the archaeologist locates the campsites, villages or towns of bygone cultures. Highly specialized techniques are used to remove carefully, layer by layer, the various traces left behind by unknown peoples. Skeletons of the ancient dead are found along with the ornaments they once wore and the tools they once carried. The archaeologist finds ancient house floors, bits of pottery and objects of stone and imperishable metals - only that which does not rot or wash awway. From bits of bone and pollen hidden in the +, the archaeological anthropologist, with the assistance of biologists and other natural scientists, 3 ct the nat ent and reach conclusions ’ the foods consumed by ancient peoples, Fram the charcoal felt hehind ancient fires, or from other organic materials, the archaeologist can obtain estimates of the time period during which people lived at the Site being excavated. By examining human bones found in the site, guesses can be made about the econstruct the natural enviro G5. Kartic {karticsg@gmail.com) 23v 4 ” anthropology Paper 02 - Vol number of people present, their age and sex and the causes of their deaths. Pottery figurines and other works of art may provide information about the appearances of the people, their dress, and sometimes their social life. Grains of wheat pressed into baked clay or surviving as the carbonized remnants of a burnt dinner may suggest the presence of agriculture. Archaeologists have discovered the tool-like objects used by earliest human beings and have traced the movement of humanity across the world. The archaeological record shows us the human occipation of new environments and the slow development within each of specialized techniques of adaptation and survival. As the archaeologist reconstructs the history of each of the regions of the world, evidence accumulates concerning patterns of change and stability in human affairs. Working with the socio- cultural anthropologists, the afcheologist considers the various factors that contribute TO The development of new inventions, to their difusion across cultural Boundaries, and to thelr impact upon the cultures into which they are introduced. Old And New: Archaeological Anthropology: Like physical anthropology, archaeological anthropology also has its old and new forms. The old or early modern archeological anthropology existed prior to 1960 _ ‘ind it defined itself as a study ofall extinct cultures of human species. However, it could only deal with a few extinct cultures, Above all, twas not interpretive. It gave only description and chronologies of the limited number of extinct cuitures it had studied. In the early 1960s, new_or contemporary srchaeotogica anthropology emerged: Tt emphasized cultural evolutionary perspective, eneraT systems \_~ approach and dependence on logico-deductive reasoning, Evolutionary perspective stressed on the great Efe of technology and economy in generating progress and consequent evolution of Zllure. Systeris\” Sppteach placed. great emphasis on interrelations of environment, ecology and local and regional populations. Logico-deductive reasoning utilized the present primitive cultures to understand the extinct ~ ancient cultures. — ‘The new or contemporary archaeological anthropology reconstructs the cultures in the past by excavating and studying the material remains of former human societies. It is the study of past societies nd cultures through the material remains that have been left behind by ancient humans. The material femains such as pottery, tools etc, are the reflections of what life was like at some period in the past. The descriptions of the present day primitive cultures are also utilized to know how extinct societies and cultares were similar to those Of the contemporary Primitive societies ~ an emerging approach Called ethno-archeology. - Archaeological anthfopology is divided into four branches: Pre-Historie Archaeological Anthropology: It is also known as Pre-historic cultural history and Synthetic archaeology. t reconstructs the origin, evolution, and diflusion of culture in the period between the Tirstappearanée of humans and the development of wr - Text-Aided Archaeological Anthropology: It is also called as Classical archeology. It deals with the reconstruction of ancient civilizations that have developed the art of writing Tt utilizes written accounts ‘and textual descriptions as source material and guide to open up more and more forgotten centers of ancient civilizations Text-Free Archaeological Anthropology: This archaeology. It is concerned with non-literate_pé materials will be available to guide their excav digging. includes Old_world archaeology and new world le. For text free archaeology no texts or written “ions and what was really obtained through actual Salvage Archaeological Anthropology: It is an effort on the part of archaeological anthropologists to obtain as much information as possible from the sites threatened by destruction as a result of either natural causes or human activity. _ Sea pqr 26 ®- ia GS. Kartic (karticsg@gmail.com) 2/ Anthropology Paper 01 - Volfime 61 D) LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY (>) Linguistic anthropology isthe study of speech and language as a socio-cultural phenomenon across space x d Tinguistie anthropology snot linguistics Dur mgustcs tn the context of culture and society. quart she Linguistics deals with history, structure, variation and meaning of language apart from the social and (..duagoe isthe (@ cultural contents in which they occur. Linguistic antropology on the other band, deals withthe yp fdanceto alle evolution, structure, variation and meaning of language in the social and cultural contexts they Although language is a part of culture, and the linguist may be regarded as a kind of cultural anthropologist, the study of language requires highly specialized techniques for the recording description and comparison of languages. Linguists study and describe the languages spoken by tiny bbands of Indians in the rain forests of the Amazon; t order to reconstruct languages spoken in the past. They also record and analyze the numerous dialects spoken Ta the various parts of the world. Unlike the practical linguist or polyglot. who speaks and understands several languages and unlike the student of iterature and the phifologist who are p Through the » application of hgh technical methods, the linguist reconstructs the history of particular languages and uncovers ihe histofical felationsHigS that exist among languages. This is done, not simply as a means of reconstructing history, but as a means of aftiving at broad generalizations concerning the processes that lead to the origin and development of human languages. The systematic comparison of ® unrelated or apparently u unrelated languages _Teads to understanding of the univers: hhumianTonguages. properties of all dertet Go The linguistic anthropologist is also interested inthe Bing ot relationships between language and oe foyer © aspects of culture, including study of the ways in which the language spoken by a group of people is elated to their status and social position. Studies of the meaning and use of particular words and Y phrases serve a5-a means of understanding the ways in which people in diferent cultures visualize the Various objetts and settings that surround them. Spectal Hnguistic symbols used in religious ites and y \ceremoiies or on other important occasions provide insight the things that people in different Hee altures consider most important or significant. As cultures change or borrow new concepts from other cultures, the changes tend to be reflected in new words and phrases. Thus the nguistic anthropologist 1p can contribute to calfural anthropology’s understanding ofthe nature and direction of the processes by (7) © “sGhie language ie wansiitted from one generation ta another, which leads o the understanding ofthe eee SI Pieaee sat ate ners ba ens and wootions are perpeuace, ES E™ > The linguist tries to understand the role of language in human life and the part it has played in the 1 He re, emergence and development of humanity. g10" Fen Rox p interest in qatupuoske Like physical and archaeological anthropology, linguistic anthropology too shifted its focus « ) the last Tour-decades. Almost until early 1950s, linguistic anthropology was under ‘eading 0 of ied with Wl etic steered * He relationship of Ianguages and the significance of morphological differences among, languages. Since mid 1950's, the term was replaced by "linguistic anthropology". Contemporary linguistic anthropology is ey itr ne stay feel snd Jib of angage spa are sad» Enong te Bin Drea , Le Uideerly Historical Linguistics: Historical linguistics is also called as Comparative linguistics. Its concerned oie vith the study of the emergence of language. It is afSo concer @ study of divergence and VC Rou, Clasn S yon Slanguage. [examines the way in which the origin of language and the unian capacity of A cimandoe languages are interrelated. ft reveais the evolutionary development of language from local languages ace yy to classic languages and the world languages. Iv is als6 concerned struction of the i aiicestvat language Forms and deals with changes in language over time. biyk sstnbangoen 2 Ortinion 0A bctst- PTO different cultures. ‘The contemporary linguistic anthropology consists of five branches:‘Anthropology Paper 01 - Vetyme O1 ies. The chief area of concern for this branch of linguistic anthropology is the construction sages. In this context, it shows the rules governing the construction of language. This means how people combine sounds into words and as words into sentences ‘and sentences into speech. That means, it analyses systems of sound, grammar, snd’ the migaiing in particular languages. In other words, it deals with the Phonenile, syntactic and o morphemic structures. Phone tactic 2 . Socio-Linguistics: It is also called as Ethno-linguistics. It is the study of actual speech in various @ve social and situational contexts. It analyzes and shows the way people rig to categorize their 9: exper ‘order their social relations. It also studies the way speech varies depending upon the social and situational contexts. : @ee Ethnosemantics: Ethnosemantics studies how_people in a particular society perceive and classify material and social phenomena in the world around them. Ethnosemantics seeks to understand Ove culture from the point of view of people. It shows the systematic knowledge of the people about the iven by ir cultural items. People in different societies view (2) art, food tastes, kinship relations, plants and animal ‘Gasification, supernatural beings, diseases, so on by distinct criteria. The ethnosemantic viewpoint bowel is the viewpoint of the people and is different from others or outsiders’ viewpoint, pm _Psychotinguisties: It studies the processes underlying the acquisition and use of language. = ealogtl fe aE —— ranches SPR SIGEEST anthropology together construct the cultures of extinct humans. They Sseribe and explain the cultures of human species from the emergence of humanity in the prehistoric riod until the advent of human civilization at che dawn of historical, period. They show how human pecies, after its evolution, acquired culture and how that culture expanded, progressed, and evolved. .8 PRINCIPLES OF PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY A) CHRONOLOGY: RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATING METHODS SEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE \ major aspect of understanding the evolutionary past lies in determining the relationships between ‘arious extinct and living species. While some of the biological relationships can be inferred directly From he fossils themselves, in most instances knowing the temporal or time relatiofishi specimens Seither necessary or extremely helpful How can we determine the time and sequence of ancient events? ating the Past: Temporal relationships can be estimated by a number of dating methods. There are several procedures to determine dates, which provide an indication of the sequence in which two or more ents occurred. ?aleo-anthropology and pre-historic archeology make use of relative and chronometric dating methods. Y These dating methods are generally associated with Specific events, artifacts or fossils. A broader and more general type of dating involves geological time scale or geological time. This is essentially a time scale for entire history of thewearth, from its origin at an estimated 4.6 billion (4,600 million) years ago, up tothe present. Geological time is divided into specific epochs, periods and eras of varying lengths, ‘The Geological Time Scale: The geological time scale presently in use has developed slowly and steadily ~~ the early 1700s, incorporating more and more information as available knowTedge expanded. Teis based aH two essential and rather simple ideas. ‘The first, the law of superposition, holds that of two or fore of the earth's rock or strata, those which lie deeper are older or more ancient, having been deposited earlier and later covered by strata laid down more recently. The second basic principle is that Y strata containing the same kinds of fossils are of approximately the same age. GSS. Kartic {karticsg@gmail.com) 2%