Indian Institute of Welding - ANB

Refresher Course – Fab 03

Non-Destructive Testing
Visual, LPT, MPT, Eddy Current, UT, RT and Acoustic Emission Testing
(Process & Practice)
Introduction: Non Destructive Testing is one field of SCIENCE used to detect
abnormality in the object without destructing the object. The purpose is to detect the
presence of discontinuity in the individual object or in the assembly and to qualify the
discontinuity in terms of size, shape and characteristic. This, further supplemented
by Destructive Testing if necessary, decides the acceptance of discontinuity/
rejection of discontinuity (defect) ensuring that the functional characteristics are not
compromised.
Different NDT Methods:
 Visual Testing (VT)
 Liquid Penetrant Testing (LPT)
 Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)
 Eddy Current Testing
 Radiography Testing (RT)
 Netron Radiography.
 Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
 Leak Testing
 Thermal Infrared Testing.
 Acoustic Emission Testing.
 Others….
NDT Methods for Welded Joints can be classified into following categories:.
 Visual Testing (Some Specifications describes Visual Testing separately than
surface NDT Method).
 Surface Non Destructive Testing methods (LPT, MPT and Eddy Current
testing)
 Volumetric Non Destructive Testing Methods (RT & UT)
Surface NDT Methods for Welded Joints: These are the methods used to detect
discontinuity in the object either on the surface or sub surface region (2 to 3 mm from
surface). Commonly used Surface NDT methods for welded joints are:
 Liquid Penetrant Test
 Magnetic Particle Test
 Eddy Current Test
Volumetric NDT Methods for Welded Joints: These are the methods used to
detect discontinuity in the object away from examination surface (more than 3 mm
depending on type of NDT Method). Commonly used Volumetric NDT methods for
welded joints are:
 Ultrasonic Testing.
 Radiography Testing.
VISUAL EXAMINATION

In Visual Examination object is to be illuminated with light. Surface imperfections are

examined either by human eyes or by instrument aid.
Types of Visual Examination:
 Direct Visual Examination: Performed directly by human eyes with or w/o
instrument aid
 Remote Visual Examination: Image created by instruments / instrument aids
and these image will be observed for visual examination.
Personnel Requirements for Visual Examination: Properly trained persons are
required. Some specifications require qualification of persons who are performing
visual examination. They must be able to read Jaeger fonts and size Letter “J1” form
minimum 30.5 cm distance and also be able to differentiate contrast among colors
and differentiate shades of grays of colors used in applicable NDT methods.

Fig. 1: Direct Visual Examination

Remote Visual Examination:
 Borescope: Basic visual instrument is mounted on a metal tube, normally
provided with an illumination source and interfaced with video and 35mm
camera system for observation and photography.
 Fiberscope: Flexible endoscope with lens system at the distant end and
mounted on an optical fibre bundle. It transmits the image to an objective lens
at the viewing end.
  Videoscope: Small flexible microscopes that uses a video sensor to adjust
magnification. Video image easily lends itself to digitizing.
Stages of Visual Examination:
Prior to set up of welding:
 Bevel angle.
 Surface Preparation.
 Root Face.
 Cleanliness of the surface to be welded
Before welding after set up of welding
 Root gap.
 Mismatch of surface of the members to be welded.
 Alignment of members to be welded
During welding:
 Proper weld penetration at root region.
 Proper fusion between weld metal and parent metal.
 Proper fusion between successive passes.
 Uniform deposition of passes.
 Crater formation and removal.
 Removal of slag before deposition of successive pass / layer of weld joint.
 Removal of spatter before deposition of successive pass / layer of weld joint.
After welding:
 Removal of slag material as well as spatter material from deposited weld
metal.
 Visual examination of welded surface for any cracks, pinholes or other surface
openings.
 Verification of reinforcement size for acceptance.
 Verification of fillet weld profile, fillet weld leg length and fillet weld throat
dimension for acceptance
Visual Examination Specifications:
 ASME
o ASME Section V, Article 9.
o Applicable clauses of ASME Section VIII Division I & 2 for Visual
Examination of welded joints.
o Applicable Clauses of ASME Section IX for Visual Examination of
welded joints for Welding Procedure Qualification as well as for Welder
Qualification.
 ISO
o ISO 5817 for Visual Examination of Welded Joints.
o ISO I15614-1 – Specification and Qualification of Welding Procedures
for Metallic Materials – Welding Procedure Tests – applicable parts.
o ISO 9606-1 for Qualification Testing for Welders – Fusion Welding –
Material Steel.
SURFACE NDT

Liquid Penetrant Test: The purpose of LPT is to detect open to surface

discontinuity on the examination surface.
Types of Liquid Penetrant Examination:
 TYPE – I: Fluorescent Liquid Penetrant Examination.(Performed under
ultraviolet light)
 TYPE – II: Visible Liquid Penetrant Examination. (Performed under natural or
artificial white light)
Methods of LPT:
 Method A: Water washable LPT
 Method B: Lipophilic post emulsifier LPT
 Method C: Solvent removable LPT
 Method D: Hydrophilic post emulsifier LPT
Generally for LPT of new fabrication welded joints, Visible Solvent Removable
Technique is used.
Steps involved in Visible Solvent Removable LPT:
1. Verification of light level.
2. Surface preparation.
3. Drying after surface preparation.
4. Verification of temperature of penetrant and examination surface.
5. Application of penetrant.
6. Penetrant dwell time.
7. Removal of excess penetrant from examination surface as per applicable
Method of Liquid Penetrant Examination.
8. Drying after removal of excess penetrant.
9. Developer application.
10. Developing Time.
11. Interpretation and evaluation.
12. Report Writing.
13. Post Cleaning.
 Fig. 2: Schematic of LPT
Indications of LPT:
 False Indications: - Due to improper process steps. e.g. Penetrant on hand,
rubbing of cloth wetted with penetrant on developer surface etc.
 Non Relevant Indications: -
o Indications having dimension less than specified size of applicable
Code / Specifications
o Indications occurred due to part geometry e.g. Press-fit, keyed,
Splined, Riveted joint etc.
 Relevant Indications: -
o Linear Indications: Length of the indication is greater than three times
its width.
o Rounded Indications: Length of the indication is less than or equal to
three times its width.

Fig. 3: Relevant (True) Indications

Specifications of LPT:
 1. ASME Section V, Article 6.
2. ASME Section VIII Division I, Mandatory Appendix 8.
3. ISO 3452-1.
4. ISO 5817
Magnetic Particle Test: Detects
surface and sub surface discontinuities
in the ferromagnetic material by
establishment of magnetic field in the
job and application of ferromagnetic
medium at the examination surface. It is
suitable only for Iron and Steel (except
Austenitic Steel), Cobalt and Nickel
(Ferromagnetic). It can not handle
Paramagnetic or Diamagnetic Material.
Magnetic Domain: Atoms in magnetic
materials group into microscopic
magnetic regions, called magnetic
domain. Atoms in each domain have
magnetic polarity parallel to crystal axix.
When not magnetized, domains are
oriented randomly to cancel out ach
other resulting in zero net
magnetization. When magnetized,
these domains tend to align in the
direction of applied magnetic field, thus
exhibiting a net magnetism.
Fig. 4: Magnetic domain and alignment
Magnetic Particle Test:

Fig. 5: Flux leakage in Magnetic Particle Test

 Fig. 6: Direction of Established Magnetic Field in MPT
Magnetism can be established in MPT by introduction of external electric/ magnetic
field in ferromagnetic job:
 Electromagnetic coil technique.
 Electromagnetic yoke technique.
 Central conductor technique.
Longitudinal Magnetism is established either by Electromagnetic coil technique or
Electromagnetic yoke technique. Circular Magnetism can be established by:
 Head shot technique.
 Central conductor technique.
 Prod technique.

Fig. 7: Modes of Magnetization

Type of current in MPT is AC for detection of Surface discontinuities and DC for
surface and sub-surface discontinuities. This can be either HWDC or FWDC.

Fig. 8: Detection Medium (visible or fluorescent)

Standards & Specifications for MPT:
 ASME Section V, Article 7.
 ASME Sec. VIII Division I, Mandatory Appendix 6.
 ISO 17638.
 ISO 5817
Standards used for verification of direction and adequacy of established
magnetic field:
 Pie Gauge.
 SHIMS
 KETOS RINGS.
Indications of MPT: False Indications may appear due to improper magnetic
particle examination processing steps. Non Relevant Indications are:
 Indications having dimension less then specified size of applicable Code/
Specifications
 Indications occurred due to part geometry are e.g. Press-fit, keyed, Splined,
Riveted joint etc.
Relevant Indications:
 Linear Indications: Length of the indication is greater than three times its
width.
 Rounded Indications: Length of the indication is less than or equal to three
times its width
Eddy Current Test

Fig. 9: Eddy Current Testing

Fig. 10: Principle of Eddy Current Test

 Fig. 11: Display-impedance Diagram of Eddy Current Test

VOLUMETRIC NDT
Ultrasonic Test: Ultrasonic examination involves application of ultrasonic waves into
the material through a transducer with the help of a couplant. The waves travel in
straight line and get reflected if a change in travelling is experienced (discontinuities,
edges and boundaries). These reflected sound waves will be picked up by the
transducer and the equipment will give signal (echo) on screen. Defects
perpendicular to path of wave give strongest echo.

Fig. 12: Principle of Ultrasonic Testing

Types of Ultrasonic Waves
 Longitudinal Waves: Generally used for ultrasonic examination of plates,
forgings as well as casting components.
 Transverse Waves: Generally used for ultrasonic examination of welded
joints as well as pipes etc.
 Surface Waves
 Lamb waves
Longitudinal Waves: When
longitudinal ultrasonic waves
pass through a material, the
atoms vibrate parallel to
direction of propagation of
waves.
Transverse Waves: When
transverse ultrasonic waves
pass through a material, the
atoms vibrate perpendicular to
direction of propagation of
waves.

Fig. 13: Types of Ultrasonic Waves

Fig. 14: Other types of Ultrasonic Waves

Piezoelectric Effect: Conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy or
Vice-versa is piezoelectric effect. PZT (Lead zirconate titanate), Barium
titanate Lithium niobate, quartz etc. exhibit this property.

Fig. 15: Principle of Piezoelectric Effect

Ultrasonic Testing Techniques:
 Pulse Echo Technique: Used for regular ultrasonic examination
 Resonance Technique: Used for thickness measurement of thin sheets.
 Through Transmission Technique:
Schematic of UT Technique: Clock
circuit is provided to synchronize
functions of all circuits. It Initiates and
triggers pulser circuit to send pulse to
probe. Probe crystal converts this pulse
to ultrasonic wave pulse. The wave
pulse travels in the job material and
reflects back from discontinuity or job
boundary. Reflected waves picked up
by probe and convert into electrical
pulse. The pulse is then amplified and
displayed as echo signal on Cathode
Ray Tube (CRT).

Fig. 16: Schematic of UT Technique

Couplant in UT: Couplant is used to remove air gap between probe face and job
surface. Oil, grease, water or any other media, which can maintain path continuity
between probe and job can serve as couplant. Characteristics of couplant are:
 Should not be corrosive
 Must have higher flash point
 Must be non toxic in nature
 Must not be very viscous or very fluid.
 Cheap and economical.
Probes of UT:
Normal Probe:
 Generates Longitudinal ultrasonic waves
 Waves travel in straight line perpendicular to examination surface
 Used for UT of forgings, castings, round bars and rolled plates.
T-R Probe:
 Also generates longitudinal ultrasonic waves
 Used for thin material or for detection of near surface discontinuities in thick
object.
Angle Probe:
 Generates Shear waves by angle probe
 Travel at given angle (marked on probe) to examination surface
 Used for UT of welded joints and for pipes

Fig. 17: Probes of UT

Types of Displays in UT:
 A-Scan Display: Shows depth of discontinuity/ reflection/ thickness on X-Axis
and amount of reflected ultrasonic energy on Y-Axis.
 B-Scan Display: Shows cross section type image of component under
scanning.
 C-Scan Display: Shows plan view type of image of discontinuities over the
area scanned.
 Fig. 18: Types of Displays in UT

Fig. 19: Appearance of indications in A-Scan Presentation

Straight Beam UT Calibration:
 Back wall Echo
Technique: For
calibration of castings,
forgings, round bars,
rolled plates etc. with
parallel opposite
surfaces
 DGS Technique:
Drawing applicable
DGS Curve by
adjustment of back wall
echo and dB. Used in
UT of castings and
forgings when specified. Fig. 20: Straight Beam calibrations
 Flat Bottom Hole Technique: Involves adjustment of response of ultrasonic
waves from shortest distance to largest distance of flat bottom holes from the
scanning surface and plotting these response as graph.
Angular Beam UT Calibration:
 Side Drilled Hole
Technique: Involves
adjustment of response of
ultrasonic waves from
shortest distance to largest
distance from side drilled
holes from the scanning
surface and plotting these
response as graph.
 DGS Technique: Involves
adjustment of response
from holes available from
IIW V1 Block/ IIW V2
Block or other specified
reflector and adjusting dB
and consideration of
applicable DGS Curve Fig. 21: Angle Beam calibrations

Fig. 22: Scattering of

UT waves
Steps for UT of Welded Joints:
 Refer the weld profile.

 Select the probe angle =
90 – half bevel angle i.e.
q = 90 - a
 Find out exact beam exit point and beam angle with either V-1 or V-2 blocks.
 First mark distance equal to 2xTxTanq + 25 mm on both sides of the welded
joint. This shall be scanning distance on both sides.
 Calibrate range equal to 2xTxSecq + 25 mm.
 Plot Distance Amplitude Correction Curve.
 Plot recording curve.
 Perform scanning.
 Record the indications as per recording criteria.
 Evaluate as per acceptance criteria.

Fig. 23-28: UT of Welded Joints

Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing: It is an advanced UT Techniques where an
array of small crystals in single probe will transmit and receive ultrasonic waves. This
will help in generation of ultrasonic waves of range of angles (sectorial scan).
Compared to single angle in conventional ultrasonic testing this technique increases
the probability of detection as it can effectively cover variation in orientation of
discontinuities.

Fig. 29: Time of Flight Diffraction Ultrasonic Testing Technique (TOFD)

Fig. 30: UT of Butt Weld in TOFD Technique

Radiographic Test: It involves application of radiation energy on the job material
which gets attenuated through the passage of job. The transmitted radiation is
recorded on film. Blackening of film will depend on amount of radiation falling on it.
As metals absorb more energy than air, a relatively more blackening on the plate will
indicate presence of a defect (Void, crack etc.) inside the material, which is allowing
more radiation to pass causing more blackening.
Defects lying parallel to path of radiation will produce maximum
contrast (opposite to UT).
Types of Radiations:
Alpha Radiation (α): Positively charged particulate matter (He ions), very low
penetrating power
Beta Radiation (β): Negatively charged particulate matter (Electron), low
penetrating power.
X ray Radiation: Electro-Magnetic radiation, moderate penetrating power
Gamma ray Radiation (‫)ע‬: Electro-Magnetic radiation, high penetrating power
Source of Radiations: α and β radiation is not used for any radiography purpose.
Conventional RT of welding by is done either by:
 X Ray – Produced by X Ray machine
 ‫ ע‬Ray - from radioactive isotopes like Cobalt 60, Selenium-75, Cesium-137,
Iridium-192 etc.
o Iridium-192 for RT of low thickness welded joints.
o Cobalt-60 RT of medium to high thickness welded joints.
The activity (strength) of radioactive material is expressed in terms of Curie. Unit of
radiation energy is ROENTGEN. The unit of radiation intensity is Roentgen per hour
(for safe distance calculation)
Radiation Exposure Techniques:
Single Wall Exposure Single Wall Image: As far as practicable radiography to be
performed by Single Wall Exposure Single Wall Image Technique.
Double Wall Exposure Single Wall Image: When Single wall exposure, single wall
image technique is not practicable, this technique should be used. Radiation will
pass from two walls and image of opposite side wall from radioactive source will be
obtained on radiograph.
Double Wall Exposure Double Wall Image: Generally used for Pipe OD 89 mm
and bellow. Radiation will pass from two walls and image of both walls will be
obtained on radiograph. Image may be superimposed image of both walls or of
elliptical shape depending on arrangement of source.
 Fig. 31: Radiation Exposure Techniques
Geometry Unsharpness in RT: Radiation source should be kept at minimum
distance from the job to be radiographed to obtain final image with proper sharpness.
It should be within specified tolerance as per specifications
SFD / FFD (Minimum) = SOD (D) + OFD ( d )
SOD (D) (Minimum) = FXD/Ug
Where,
SFD = Source/ Focal spot to film distance (SFD / FFD)
D = Distance from the source of radiation to weld or object
F = Maximum projected dimension of radiation source in the plane perpendicular to
the distance D from the weld or object being radiographed or effective focal spot in
case of an X-ray machine. (Value of ‘F’ can be obtained from Gamma Ray Source
Certificate or X-Ray manufacturer manual).
d = Distance from the source side of weld to the film.
Ug = Geometrical Unsharpness as per paragraph number 12.
D and d to be measured to the approximate center of area of interest
 Fig. 32: Geometry Unsharpness in RT
Image Quality Indicators: Image Quality Indicator (IQI) devices are used to judge
the quality of radiographs. Either hole type IQI or wire type IQI as specified in
applicable specification shall be used for judging the quality of radiographs.

Fig. 33: IQI (Image Quality Indicator)

Or Penetrameter

Radiography Films: It is made of polyester base material with emulsion of Silver

Bromide (AgBr) and Gelatin. Depending on Silver crystal size there will be three
types of films.
  If the crystals of Silver are large in size then the film is known as coarse grain
film. Requires less exposure time (high speed of radiography) and will give
poor quality of image as compared to fine grain films.
 If the crystals of Silver are small in size then the film is known as fine grain
film. Require more exposure time (low speed of radiography) and will give
better quality of image as compared to coarse grain films.
Factors to be considered in RT:

Lesser the thickness, darker the image and more will be density on the radiograph
i.e. degree of darkening of the film
Radiographic Film Interpretation: Radiography films need to be interpreted for
proper understanding of discontinuities/ defects. In general, any welding will contain
some or the other abnormalities. To judge whether they are acceptable or not, it is to
be matched against some reference Radiographs as specified in respective codes.
 Fig. 34-39: RT Film Interpretation
Specifications related to Conventional RT:
 ASME Section V, Article 2.
 ASME Section VIII Division I, Paragraph UW-51 for full radiography.
 ASME Section VIII Division I, Paragraph UW-52 for spot radiography.
 ASME Section IX for radiography of welder qualification radiographs.
 ISO 17636-2.
Advanced RT Techniques:
 Computed Radiography: Instead of radiography film, panels are used for
recording of image which is transferred to computer immediately
 Digital Radiography: Instead of radiography film, digital X-Ray sensors are
used for recording of image which is transferred to computer immediately
Advantages of Advanced Technology:
 Reduced film processing time & faster result
  Permanent record of image.
 Environment friendly - No film or processing chemical

Fig. 40: Advanced RT Techniques

Acoustic Emission Test:
 Passive NDT Technique and detects ‘Global’ phenomena
 Detects dynamic phenomena like crack growth, leakage, rubbing between
surfaces etc.
 Can locate a defect by the method of triangulation
 Quantification of size of defect is difficult

Fig. 41:Acoustic Emission Test

Weld Defects & Applicable NDT:

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