ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

 Measurement - is the comparison of an unknown physical quantity with a known fixed

physical quantity.
 Measurement is the process of obtaining the magnitude of a quantity relative to an agreed
standard.

Basic Requirements of Measurement

 The two basic requirements of measurement are ; -
1. The standard used for comparison purposes; - must be accurately defined and should be
commonly accepted.
2. The apparatus used and the method adopted; - must be provable.

Methods of Measurement
 The different methods of measurement are shown below; -

 The two main methods (categories) for performing dimensional measurements are; -
1. Direct measurement
2. Indirect measurement.

1. Direct Measurement Method/Absolute Measurements

 In the direct method of measurement; - the unknown quantity is directly compared against
the standard of measurement.
 The unknown quantity; - is measured directly.
 The result is expressed as a numerical number.
 Measuring instruments are used to measure the dimensions of the target directly.
 Direct measurements are also known as; -
 Absolute Measurements
 Direct comparison method

Examples of Direct Measuring Instruments;

 Direct measuring instruments include; -
 Vernier calipers,
 Micrometers, etc.

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 Types of Direct Comparison Methods
 There are two types of direct methods of measurement; -
i. Deflection methods and
ii. Comparison methods.

i. Deflection Methods
 The value of the unknown quantity is measured by the help of a measuring instrument.
 The measuring instrument has a calibrated scale.
 The scale indicates the quantity under measurement directly.
 For example; -
 Measurement of current by an ammeter.

ii. Comparison Methods.

 The value of the unknown quantity is determined by direct comparison with a standard of
the given quantity.
 For example; -
 Measurement of emf by comparison with the emf of a standard cell.

Types of Comparison Methods

 Comparison methods are classified into two as; -
i. Null methods,
ii. Differential methods

i. Null Methods of Measurement

 This is a method of measurement in which an unknown quantity is with a known quantity
of the same kind and found equal by zero response of the detector.
 For example; -
 Measurement of weight by a balance,
 Measurement of resistance, capacitance, and inductance by bridge circuits.

ii. Differential Method of Measurement

 This is a method of measurement where the difference between known physical quantity
and unknown physical quantity that is being measured is established.
 It involves measuring the difference between the given quantity and a known physical
quantity.
 The known quantity is most frequently reproduced by a measure.
 It involves the comparison with a standard of the measure being checked.

 The differential method of measurement is used for: -

 Checking measuring devices; - comparison with a standard of the measure being
checked
 Testing materials and articles by means of comparison with a standard sample.

 The differential method is called; -

i. Relative Method of measurement; - when applied to linear measurements.
ii. Zero Method of measurement; - if the difference between the known quantity and the
quantity being measured is set to zero.
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 To achieve this result; - the known quantity must be adjustable.

2. Indirect Measurement Method/Comparative Measurements

 Indirect measurements; - the dimensions are measured through comparison of physical
quantities.
 A comparison is performed using an object with standard dimensions.
 The comparison is done with a standard through the use of a calibrated system.
 These are also known as comparative measurements.
 These measurement are used in those cases where the desired parameter to be measured is
difficult to be measured directly.
 Where the parameter to be measured has got some relation with some other related
parameters which can be easily measured.
 For instance,
 The elimination of bacteria from some fluid is directly dependent upon its temperature.
 Thus, the bacteria elimination can be measured indirectly by measuring the temperature
of the fluid.

Significance of Measurement: -
 Measurement helps in; -
i. Comparing unknown quantities with the known quantities.
ii. Making quantitative statements about how big, how long, how fast things are.
iii. Ensuring that the final product are free of errors.

 Examples of measurements include: - measurements of resistance, current, voltage,

temperature, etc.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS/MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

 An instrument; - is a device in which is used to determine the magnitude (or value) of the
quantity to be measured.
 A measurement system; - is defined as the system (Group of physical components) which is
used for making measurements.
 The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and energy etc.

Elements of the Measurement Systems

 There are three main functional elements of the measurement systems are: -
1. Primary sensing element: - these are basically transducers.
2. Variable conversion element or Signal conditioning elements: - these are generally
filters and amplifiers circuit.
3. Data presentation element or Outputs elements: - these are basically display devices,
like LED or LCD display.

Functions of Measurement Systems:

 Measurement systems may be classified into three important categories based on their
functions they perform.
1. Indicating Function - indicating measurement system
2. Recording Function - recording measurement system

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 3. Controlling Function - controlling measurement system

1. Indicating Function (Indicating Measurement System); -

 Information is obtained as a deflection of pointer of a measuring instrument.
 Measurement value is indicated by deflection of the pointer.
2. Recording Function (Recording Measurement System); -
 This type of instruments records the magnitude of the quantity to be measured continuously
over a specified period of time.
3. Controlling Function (Controlling Measurement System); -
 Information is used by the instrument or the system to control the original measured input of
unknown quantity.

Requirements of a Measuring Instrument

 The essential requirements of a measuring instrument are; -
1. Its introduction into the circuit; -
 Where measurements are to be made,
 It does not alter the circuit conditions;
2. The power consumed by the instrument for their operation is small.

Types of Measuring Instruments

 Electrical indicating instrument is divided into two types; -
1. Analog instruments
2. Digital Instruments.

1. Analog Instruments
 Analog instruments - its output is the deflection of pointer.
 The deflection of the pointer is proportional to its input.
 Analogue signals - the signals of an analog unit vary in a continuous fashion.
 Analogue signal can take on infinite number of values in a given range.
 Examples of analogue meters; -
 Ammeters, voltmeters, fuel gauges, wrist watch, speedometer, etc.

2. Digital Instruments.
 Digital Instruments; - the output is in decimal form.
 Digital Signals; -are signals varying in discrete steps.
 Digital signals take on a finite number of different values in a given range.
 The corresponding instruments are of digital type.
 Example of a digital instrument; - A digital multimeter.

Advantages of Digital Instruments (Meters) Over Analog Instruments

(Meters)
 Digital instruments have some advantages over analog meters; -
1. They have high accuracy
2. They have high speed of operation.
3. It eliminates the human operational errors - reduce reading and interpolation errors.
4. Digital instruments can store the result for future purposes.

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 5. Parallax errors are eliminated.
6. The zero adjustment is not required.
7. Digital multimeter displays have no moving parts. This makes them free from wear
and shock failures.
8. They are smaller in size – hence portable

Disadvantages of Digital Multimeters (DMM)

1. The LCD display depends on a battery or external power source.
 When the battery is low, the display will be dim, making it difficult to read.
2. In case of fluctuations or transients, it can record an error.
3. Warming of the meter during its use can change its properties leading to errors in measured
value.
4. There is a voltage limitation. If it is increased beyond the limit, the meter will be damaged.
5. The digital nature makes it unsuitable for adjusting tuning circuits or peaking tunable
responses.
6. They are expensive due to high manufacturing cost.

Characteristics of Instruments
 Some of the static characteristics of instruments includes; -
1. Accuracy
2. Precision
3. Resolution

1. Accuracy; -
 Accuracy - is the closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the true value of
the variable under measurement.
 It is the maximum amount by which the result differs from the true value.

 Accuracy of the measurement depends upon the following factors: -

i. Accuracy of the instrument itself;
ii. Accuracy of the observer;
iii. Variation of the signal to be measured

2. Precision; -
• Precision - is a measure of the degree to which successive measurements differ from one
another.
• It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements.
• Precision is indicated from the number of significant figures in which measurement is
expressed.

• Significant figures actually convey the information regarding; -

 The magnitude of a quantity and
 The measurement precision of a quantity.
• More significant figures imply greater precision of the measurement.

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3. Resolution (Discrimination of Instrument)
 The resolution of the Instrument - is the smallest change in the input signal (quantity under
measurement) which can be detected by the instrument.
 Resolution – is the smallest difference in value that can be detected by the instrument.

 Resolution is sometimes referred as sensitivity.

 Sensitivity gives the relation between; -
 The input signal to an instrument and
 The output.
 Sensitivity - is defined as the ratio of output signal or response of the instrument to a
change of input signal or the quantity under measurement.

Example 1
A 20 cm long measuring stick has 50 evenly spaced lines marked along
its length. What is the resolution of the measuring stick in millimeters?

Solution
 Full-scale reading = 20 cm
 No. of divisions on scale = 50 divisions
 Therefore;

Resolution = 4 mm

Example 2
A moving coil ammeter has a uniform scale with 50 divisions and gives a
full-scale reading of 5 A. The instrument can read up to 4th of a scale
division with a fair degree of certainty. Determine the resolution of the
instrument in mA.

Solution
 Full-scale reading = 5 A
 No. of divisions on scale = 50 divisions
 Therefore;

 Resolution = ¼ th of a scale division

= 100/4

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 = 25 mA

Example 3
A 0-100 V voltmeter has 200 scale divisions which can be read to ½
division. Determine the resolution of the meter in volt.

Solution

Applications of Measurement Systems:

 The Measurement systems are used for different applications such as; -
1. Monitoring of processes and operations
2. Control of Processes and Operations and
3. Experimental Engineering analysis

Torques on the Moving System of Deflecting Instruments

 The moving system of the deflecting instrument is subjected to three torques (forces): -
1. Deflecting (or operating) torque; - Deflecting force
2. Controlling (or restoring) torque; - Controlling force
3. Damping torque; - Damping force

1. A Deflecting Torque (Operating Torque);

 The Deflecting Torque - causes the moving system of the instrument to move from its zero
position.
 The method of producing this torque depends upon the type of instrument.

2. A Controlling Torque (Restoring Torque);

 The controlling torque - exists to oppose the deflecting torque.
 Controlling torque returns the pointer to its zero position on removing the source producing
the deflecting torque.
 The magnitude of the controlling torque on the moving system depends on the influence of
deflecting torque.
 It increases with increase in deflection of moving system.
 Controlling torque is produced either by; -
i. Spring control or
ii. Gravity control.
i. Spring Control
 When the pointer is deflected - one spring unwinds itself while the other is twisted.
 This twist in the spring produces restoring (controlling) torque.

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  It should be noted that; -
 Restoring/controlling torque is proportional to the angle of deflection of the moving
systems.

 The control torque TC is given by; -

Where
Tc = Control Torque
Ks = spring constant of the control spring
Ɵ = Angle of deflection of the pointer
 At the steady state: -
Control Torque = Deflecting Torque

ii. Gravity Control

 In gravity controlled instruments - a small adjustable weight is attached to the spindle of the
moving system.
 The deflecting torque produced by the instrument acting against the action of gravity.
 This weight is called the control weight.
 Another adjustable weight is also attached is the moving system for zero adjustment and
balancing purpose.
 This weight is called Balance weight.

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3. Damping Torque.
 It should be noted that; -
 The moving system of the instrument tends to move under the action of the deflecting
torque.
 The control torque tries to bring the moving system to rest
 The moving system will come to a position of rest when the two torques are equal and
opposite.
 Due to the inertia of the moving system; - the pointer will not come to rest immediately.
 It will oscillate about its final rest position before coming to rest.
 It takes appreciable time to come to steady state.
 To overcome this oscillation - a damping torque is required.
 Damping is developed by using a damping device attached to the moving system.
 The damping torque is proportional to the speed of rotation of the moving system.

Conditions under Damping Torque

 The graph below shows the conditions of an instrument depending on the degree of damping
in the moving system.

 The three possible conditions: -

1. Under damped condition: - happens when the response is oscillatory.
2. Over damped condition: - happens when the response is dragging, and it takes time to
rise from zero to the final position.
3. Critically damped condition: - happens when the response settles down without any
oscillations.

 Among the three conditions of damping, the under-damped condition is the best in practice.

Production of Damping Torque

 There are four ways of producing damping torque; -
1. Air friction damping
2. Fluid friction damping
3. Eddy current damping
4. Electromagnetic damping

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 1. Air Friction Damping
 The air friction damping is created in an air chamber by moving the piston in and out.
 As the piston enters the chamber; - compression is caused inside the chamber.
 As the piston moves out of the chamber; - a force is experienced by it.
 Air friction damping is the best suitable method of damping torque where the electric field is
relatively weak.
 This is due to the absence of electric components in air damping friction which could deform
the electric field.

2. Fluid Friction Damping

 The fluid friction damping is created due to the oscillation of the disk in and out of the
liquid.
 The liquid that is generally used is oil.
 The working of the fluid friction damping is similar to that of the air friction damping.
 The only difference is that instead of air, fluid is used in the chamber.

Advantages of Fluid Friction Damping

i. The oil used in the fluid friction damping can also be used as an insulating fluid.
ii. Fluid friction is suitable for electrostatic type instruments - these instruments are suspended
rather than pivoted

Disadvantages of Fluid Friction Damping

 Since the liquid needs to be in an upright position, this method of damping torque can be
used vertically
 Keeping instruments clean might be difficult as the leakage of oil cannot be maintained.
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3. Eddy Current Damping
 In eddy current damping - eddy current and electric fields are used for creating an
electromagnetic torque that can oppose the motion.
 The damping torque produced in the eddy current damping is proportional to the strength of
the current and the magnetic field.

Advantage of Eddy Current Damping

 Eddy current damping is considered to be one of the most efficient methods of damping
torque.

Disadvantage of Eddy Current Damping

 It may distort the weak electrical fields.

4. Electromagnetic Damping
 Electromagnetic damping is done by passing the electric current through a magnetic coil
such that the torque generated is acting against the natural movement of the coil.
 The disadvantage of electromagnetic damping is similar to that of eddy current damping.
 This method of damping torque is commonly used in galvanometers.

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