Module I.

KNOWING THE SELF

This module discusses the different representations and conceptualizations of the self
from various perspectives. It examines the factors and influences that shape one’s self. It shall
also challenge you to evaluate your sense of self using these various perspectives as you
represent yourself in many areas of your life experiences.

Unit 1: PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

This unit discusses and examines the philosophical perspectives of the self by early to
modern philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, St. Augustine, Descartes, Locke, Hume, Kant,
Freud, Ryle, Churchland and Merleau-Ponty.

ENGAGE
WHO AM I?

EXPLORE

You have probably heard of different sayings and quotes. Try to interpret what the
following philosophical sayings mean:
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 “It is not enough to have a good mind; the main thing is to use it well.”
“But only he who, himself enlightened, is not afraid of shadows.”
“Know Thyself.”
“Personal Identity depends on Consciousness not on Substance”.

To understand these sayings, and more importantly yourself better, let us discuss the
different philosophical perspectives.

EXPLAIN
*What is Philosophy?
*How is Philosophy relevant in understanding the self?
In this unit, we will look at and understand three groups of philosophical perspectives,
namely: Ancient and Medieval, Modern, and Contemporary.

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHIES

Ancient and Medieval Philosophies view and understand the self as a

perfection of the soul via self-examination and self-control. These philosophies
include the perspectives of Socrates, Plato, and St. Augustine.
Ancient Greek philosophers believed that the soul is the essence of man. The
soul or “psyche” was also regarded as the self. The famous statement, “Know
Thyself” presents a requirement in terms of knowing oneself, and that is to know the
limits of oneself, such that knowing one’s strengths should be balanced with also
knowing one’s weaknesses. To know oneself is to do so in self-moderation, with
prudence and good judgment.

SOCRATES

“The unexamined life is not worth living.”

To know and understand oneself, one should live

an “examined” life. Living an examined life means:
• having self-knowledge
• being dignified with values and integrity
• having and applying wisdom
• recognizing ignorance

To live an examined life also maintains that one should recognize and
acknowledge that there are things one does not know; that there are things about
the self and about life that still needs to be discovered; that life is a never-ending
search for answers. To this, Socrates stated: “To know, is to know that you know
nothing. That is the meaning of true knowledge.”
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 PLATO

“Human behavior flows from three main sources:

desire, emotion, and knowledge.”

According to Plato, the examination of the self is a

unique experience; it differs from person to person, as
one gets to discover things about him/herself. This
experience then leads to better understanding of the
psyche.

Plato proposed three elements of the psyche: the appetitive, the spirited, and
the mind. These three elements either work together or go against each other,
resulting in a person’s behavior.

The appetitive consists of one’s pleasures, desires, physical satisfactions, and

comforts. It basically holds all those relevant to sustaining a comfortable
environment. An example of this is wanting to sleep in despite having classes, or
enjoying ice cream on a hot, sunny day.

The spirited is the motivated element, which fights back to ensure that the
appetitive is controlled. For instance, telling oneself that education should be
prioritized, it is not good to be lazy, and one should wake up and get ready for
school.

The mind is the most superior element of the psyche, which controls how the
self is expressed. To do this, it controls the appetitive and spirited elements, thus
striking a balance between the two and resulting in more realistic behavior. To
illustrate, perhaps acknowledging that one is still tired and sleepy, but also realizing
the fact that one needs to attend classes, thus, he/she goes to class and then
makes it a point to take a nap afterwards.

Understanding how these three elements work then leads to understanding of

the self, as one sees how behavior results, and determines how to balance the calls
of each element.

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 ST. AUGUSTINE

“This is the very perfection of man; to find out his

own imperfections.”

St. Augustine considered himself a sinner. He

acknowledged that he had committed bad deeds,
and resolved to change and be a better person. For St.
Augustine, the self develops through self-presentation
and self-realization. One must present him/herself, accepting who he/she is -
strengths, weaknesses, and discerning what changes to make to be a better
individual.

St. Augustine’s perspective centers on religious conviction and belief as he

believed that to be a better person, one should turn to his/her religious beliefs as this
would serve as a guide towards better understanding of oneself. In doing so, the
end goal - happiness in and through God - would be achieved.

MODERN PHILOSOPHIES

Modern philosophical perspectives view the self as a dialectic synthesis

between Rationalism and Empiricism, that is, having different points of view but
coming to a resolution. Rationalism deals with thinking and innate ideas, and
regards reason as the main source of knowledge. Empiricism, on the other hand,
has to do with sense experience where knowledge is based on how one observes
and perceives his/her experiences.

To understand the self then implies the use of both reason and experience,
as such, there is a dialectic synthesis.

RENE DESCARTES

“I think, therefore I am.”

Rene Descartes is a pioneer or Rationalism. To

understand the self, the rational method should be carried
out, where the self exists as one makes use of rational thought,
or to put it simply, when one thinks. Descartes’ concept of
Methodic Doubt states that everything must be subjected to doubt or that
everything should be questioned. It is a way of searching for certainty by
systematically and tentatively doubting everything. When one applies Methodic
Doubt, he/she uses rational thinking, thus, the self exists. For instance, one may
question why he is not good in singing. Instead of simply accepting this as a fact,

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 he reasons out why he is not good at such, and in doing so, enables his “self” to
exist.

Human rationality, according to Descartes, is the primary condition for the

existence of the self. Human beings need to reason in order to:
• evaluate thoughts
• evaluate actions
• establish firm foundations or bases
• protect oneself
• build knowledge

Descartes says, “It is not enough to have a good mind; the main thing is to
use it well.”

JOHN LOCKE

“No man’s knowledge here can go beyond his

experience.”

John Locke was an advocate of Empiricism. His

concept of “tabula rasa” explains how the self starts out as
an empty space. This empty space is then filled with the
experiences one has each and every day, where such
experiences are necessary for sense data - what one sees,
hears, smells, tastes, and touches. These sense data are then
perceived or given meaning, and so the empty space is filled with
knowledge of the self.

Locke highlighted the capability of man to learn from experience, and

process different perceptions skillfully to form more complex ideas. From this stems
one’s knowledge and understanding of the self. In short, experience comes before
knowledge. For example, to know how one would behave when a course has been
failed, one should first experience failing a course. From here, one can observe
him/herself in terms of his/her behaviors so there would then be knowledge and
understanding of how the self-reacts towards failure.

DAVID HUME

“There is no self.”

Perhaps the most different perspective in terms of the

existence of the self would be that of David Hume. He
proposed the idea that the self does not exist. This is because

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 the idea of the self is merely derived from impressions. These impressions may be
subjective, temporary, and prejudicial. They do not persist.

For example, upon asking a person, “Who are you?” the person can say, “I
am David, a Psychology student, 65 kilograms in weight, and a good singer. This
information, however, can change. One’s physical characteristics, educational
pursuits, and even basic information like one’s name and address can change. The
self, then, cannot exist if information about it is temporary. Even everyday decisions
can change.

IMMANUEL KANT

“If man makes himself a worm, he must not complain when he is

trodden on.”

Immanuel Kant synthesized the rationalist and empiricist

views. He proposed that the self is always transcendental. The
self is outside the body and outside the qualities of the body.
Ideas are perceived by the self, and they connect the self and
the world. Accordingly, rationality unifies and makes sense of
the perceptions we have in our experiences.

Rationality enables sensible ideas about ourselves and our world. Thus, the saying
above explains that in a way, how we see ourselves is also how others would see
us.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHIES

The Contemporary philosophical perspectives present a wide variety of theories

that could be used in understanding the self. Much of these is more relatable and
relevant in today’s world.

SIGMUND FREUD

Sigmund Freud contended that the self is the “I” that

constitutes both mental and physical actions, with the “I”
being a product of multiple interacting processes. When we
say, for instance, “I am a Louisian”, it is one’s self being
expressed. The statement involving one’s thoughts, feelings,
and actions.

Freud introduced two models to enable the understanding of the

self:

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 Topographical Model

There are things about the self that one knows and is aware of, and at the same
time, there are those that one does not know and is unaware of. For instance, you
know that you are enrolled in this subject, but you do not know if you will pass the
subject.

This model explains how the “I“ is both conscious and unconscious. Freud’s
Iceberg Theory illustrates this.

At the conscious level, one is aware of thoughts, feelings, and perceptions. These
are easily identified and known by the person. The subconscious level consists of
those that one is able to easily remember and bring into awareness, such as usual
memories and stored knowledge. The unconscious level, on the other hand, houses
those that one has either repressed or forgotten. It consists of those which are
unacceptable, undesirable, or painful. Freud stated that to come to a complete
understanding and awareness of the self, the contents of the unconscious should
be made conscious, where recognition and acceptance of all experiences are
present.

What are those things that you are aware of? What are those things that you
have tried to forget? How do these contribute to who you are and how you
understand yourself?

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 Structural Model

Freud’s structural model looks into the structures of personality or the self, as
Freud proposed. The three structures are the id, ego, and superego.

The ID is the primitive or instinctive component, which consists of one’s primal

urges and wants. In children, the id is most dominant, as the other structures have
not yet been developed. The EGO is the reality principle, and balances the id and
superego. The SUPEREGO synthesizes the values and morals of society, and includes
one’s conscience.

In summary, Freud’s perspective explains that to understand the self, one

needs to be aware of both the conscious and the unconscious, and integrate the
id, ego, and superego.

GILBERT RYLE

“I act, therefore I am.”

Gilbert Ryle stated that the self may be understood based on

the external manifestations - actions, language, expressions – of
a person. Here, physical actions or behaviors are dispositions of
the self.

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 To illustrate: You are known to be a very responsible student because it is seen in
the way you act, wherein you are observed to be always on time, listen intently to
your Professor, and get good scores.

MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY

“I live in my body.”

Maurice Merleau-Ponty developed a phenomenological

view of the self/ A phenomenological rhythm explains the
perception of the self, and this involves three dimensions. The
first is the empiricist view, followed by the idealist-intellectual
alternative, and lastly, the synthesis of both views. Merleau
proposed that perception is a causal process, meaning,
one’s perceptions are caused by the intricate experiences of
the self, and intellectually processed while making a
distinction between truthful and illusory perceptions.

Merleau-Ponty’s concept of “lived body” refers to an entity that can never be

objectified or known in a completely objective sort of way. The “I” is a single
integrated entity; a blending of mental, physical, and emotional - structured around
a core identity: the self.

PAUL and PATRICIA CHURCHLAND

“Brains are not magical; they are causal machines.”

The Churchlands brought neuroscience into the fore of

understanding the self. Their concept of “Eliminative
Materialism” explains how mental concepts are mistaken
and do not adequately allow people to know about what is
going on with themselves.

As such, these should be abandoned, and focus should be on brain

processes instead. Thus, to understand the self, one should go for Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI) or Computed Tomography (CT) Scans, to have a
view of the brain’s present condition.

References:
Chafee, J. (2013) Who are you? Consciousness, Identity and the Self. In the Philosopher's
Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson. 106 — 169.
Villafuerte, S. Quillope, A. Tunac, R. Borja, E. Understanding the Self, NIEME Publishing House
Inc., Quezon City 2018

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