Addiction Research and Theory, June 2011; 19(3): 260–265
Copyright ß 2011 Informa UK Ltd.
ISSN: 1606-6359 print/1476-7392 online
DOI: 10.3109/16066359.2010.512108
The association of ability and trait emotional intelligence with
alcohol problems
Nicola S. Schutte, John M. Malouff, & Donald W. Hine
School of Psychology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia
(Received 29 April 2010; revised 15 July 2010; accepted 16 July 2010)
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Ability and trait emotional intelligence may be
complimentary dimensions of adaptive emotional
functioning. Some previous research links both low
ability and low trait emotional intelligence with
more alcohol problems. A dimensional model of
adaptive emotional functioning proposes that higher
levels of ability emotional intelligence may predis-
pose individuals to display emotionally intelligent
characteristics more often, resulting in higher trait
For personal use only.
emotional intelligence, and more adaptive function-
ing. This model suggests that trait emotional intel-
ligence might mediate between ability emotional
intelligence and alcohol outcomes. This study
investigated (1) whether ability and trait emotional
intelligence are related to heavy episodic drinking
(binge drinking) and to alcohol-related problems and
(2) whether trait emotional intelligence mediates
between ability emotional intelligence and alcohol
outcomes. One hundred Australian participants
completed measures of ability and trait emotional
intelligence, heavy episodic drinking, and experience
of alcohol-related problems. Both lower ability and
lower trait emotional intelligence were associated
with more heavy episodic drinking and more
alcohol-related problems. Trait emotional intelli-
gence mediated significantly between ability emo-
tional intelligence and both alcohol problems and
heavy episodic drinking. These findings provide
information regarding the relationship between
ability and trait aspects of emotional intelligence
and suggest that emotional intelligence holds
promise in facilitating the understanding of problem
drinking.
Keywords: Emotional intelligence, alcohol
Correspondence: Nicola S. Schutte, School of Psychology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia.
Tel: 61 2 67733779. Fax: 61 2 6773 3779. E-mail: nschutte@une.edu.au
260
INTRODUCTION
The study of emotional intelligence has focused on
operationalizing the nature of adaptive emotional
functioning and identifying outcomes that are associ-
ated with adaptive emotional functioning. Salovey and
Grewal (2005) described emotional intelligence as
resulting from interactions between an individual’s
emotions and cognitions that lead to adaptive func-
tioning. Models of emotional intelligence generally
include perception, understanding and managing emo-
tions in the self and others as components of emotional
intelligence (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004), and
hold that the integration of these characteristics com-
prises a stable individual-difference characteristic.
Some conceptualizations add characteristics, such as
social competencies, that may build on emotional
competencies; Mayer, Roberts, and Barsade (2008)
termed such conceptualizations ‘‘mixed models.’’
Mayer et al. (2004) argued that emotional intelli-
gence is best conceived of as an ability, similar in
nature, to cognitive intelligence. The ability conceptu-
alization implies that emotional intelligence consists
of latent functions that may or may not manifest
themselves in daily life. Other theorists and researchers
(Neubauer & Freudenthaler, 2005; Petrides &
Furnham, 2003) pointed out that emotional intelligence
can also be defined and measured as typical (or trait)
functioning. Assessment of trait emotional intelligence
generally focuses on self-reported behavioral disposi-
tions and self-perceived competencies. Assessment of
ability emotional intelligence focuses on measurement
via maximum-performance tests similar in nature to
cognitive intelligence tests. Trait and ability measures
tend to share moderate variance (Brackett & Mayer,
2003; Mayer et al., 2008).
 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND ALCOHOL
Even though some literature presents ability and trait
conceptualizations of emotional intelligence as mutu-
ally exclusive alternatives (Mayer et al., 2004, 2008),
they may be complementary dimensions of adaptive
emotional functioning (Schutte, Malouff, & Bhullar,
2009). The dimensional model of adaptive emotional
functioning proposed by Schutte and Malouff (2008)
holds that ability emotional intelligence may support
the development of trait emotional intelligence. Theory
and research on self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986, 1997)
suggest that individuals who have the ability, or
mastery, to show a behavior successfully are more
likely to engage in that behavior. Thus, higher levels of
ability emotional intelligence may predispose individ-
uals to display more often emotionally intelligent
characteristics. More often displaying emotionally
intelligent characteristics will tend to result in higher
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trait emotional intelligence. Research with children by
Qualter, Barlow, and Stylianou (in press) suggests that
as mastery of emotional intelligence ability increases
with age, children become more self-efficacious regard-
ing their emotional functioning, as reflected by higher
trait emotional intelligence scores.
Higher levels of emotional intelligence, both mea-
sured as an ability and a trait, have been found to be
associated with various positive outcomes, ranging
For personal use only.
from greater subjective and psychological well-being
(Austin, Saklofske, & Egan, 2005; Brackett & Mayer,
2003; Extremera & Fernández-Berrocal, 2005; Kirk,
Schutte, & Hine, 2008; Wing, Schutte, & Byrne, 2006)
to more persistence at a challenging task (Schutte,
Schuettpelz, & Malouff, 2001).
The World Health Organization has identified
excessive alcohol use as a global problem, with serious
health and social consequences (World Health
Organization, 2009). A motivation for alcohol use
may be desire to regulate affect (Cooper et al., 2008).
This type of alcohol-related motivation can include the
desire to up-regulate positive affect and down-regulate
negative affect (Kuntsche, Knibbe, Gmel, & Engels,
2005). Deficits in emotional functioning have been
implicated in the development of alcohol-related
problems (Thorberg, Young, Sullivan, & Lyvers,
2009). Difficulty in down-regulating negative emotion
is especially likely to be associated with alcohol-
related problems (Kassel, Jackson, & Unrod, 2000).
One might expect that those with lower emotional
intelligence, who have poorer understanding and
management of emotion and thus have fewer internal
resources for affect regulation, would show more
alcohol use and more alcohol problems. A number of
studies have examined the relationship between emo-
tional intelligence and alcohol use or alcohol-related
problems. The results of some studies examining the
relationship between emotional intelligence and alco-
hol outcomes indicate that lower emotional intelligence
may be related to more alcohol use or alcohol
problems. Three out of four studies examining the
relationship between emotional intelligence
261
conceptualized and assessed as an ability found
significant relationships between lower emotional
intelligence and poorer alcohol outcomes (Brackett &
Mayer, 2003; Brackett, Mayer, & Warner, 2004;
Rossen & Kranzler, 2009; Trinidad & Johnson,
2002). Three of six associations between lower trait
emotional intelligence and poorer alcohol outcomes
were significant (Austin et al., 2005; Bracket & Mayer,
2003; Ghee & Johnson, 2008; Riley & Schutte, 2003;
Saklofske, Austin, Rohr, & Andrews, 2007).
Studies examining the relationship between emo-
tional intelligence and alcohol have most commonly
recruited university students as participants (Brackett
& Mayer, 2003; Brackett et al., 2004; Ghee & Johnson,
2008; Rossen & Kranzler, 2009). The studies assessing
emotional intelligence as an ability have generally used
the MSCEIT (Mayer et al., 2004) and have included
studies by Brackett et al. (2004), Brackett and Mayer
(2003) and Rossen and Kranzler (2009), while the
studies assessing emotional intelligence as a trait
have generally used the Assessing Emotions Scale
(Schutte et al., 2009) and have included studies
by Brackett and Mayer (2003), Austin et al. (2005)
and Riley and Schutte (2003).
Aims of this study
The main purpose of this study was to examine the
association of ability and trait emotional intelligence
with alcohol-related outcomes. Based on the relation-
ship between ability and trait emotional intelligence
proposed by the dimensional model of adaptive
emotional functioning (Schutte & Malouff, 2008) and
the results of previous studies, we hypothesized the
following:
(1) Both ability and trait dimensions of emotional
intelligence would be associated with alcohol
outcomes.
(2) Trait emotional intelligence would mediate
between ability emotional intelligence and alcohol
outcomes.
Some studies (Riley & Schutte, 2003; Rossen &
Kranzler, 2009) have assessed alcohol outcomes in
terms of alcohol-related problems; other studies (Austin
et al., 2005; Brackett & Mayer, 2003) have assessed
amount of alcohol use. This study assessed both
alcohol-related problems and excessive alcohol use,
operationalized as heavy episodic drinking, or consum-
ing a large number of alcoholic drinks at one time.
ME TH O D
Participants
One hundred undergraduate university students, drawn
from both traditional aged and mature aged returning
students cohorts, enrolled at a regional Australian
university, volunteered to participate. Sixty-nine of the
participants were women, 30 were men, and informa-
tion regarding the gender of one participant
 262 N.S. SCHUTTE ET AL.
was missing. The average age of the participants was
30.56 (standard deviation (SD) ¼ 10.29).
Procedure
Participants completed an ability measure of emotional
intelligence via computer terminals in a monitored
university laboratory. Then, they completed pencil-
and-paper self-report measures of trait emotional
intelligence, alcohol use, and alcohol problems in the
same laboratory setting. Responses were anonymous.
Measures
Ability emotional intelligence
The computerized MSCEIT is a performance measure
of emotional intelligence and assesses the components
of Mayer et al.’s (2004) four-factor ability model.
Cronbach’s alpha for the MSCEIT is 0.91 (Mayer et al.,
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2004) and Brackett and Mayer (2003) found a 3-week
test–retest reliability of 0.86. The MSCEIT has
evidence of concurrent and divergent validity
(Brackett & Mayer, 2003; Mayer et al., 2004). As
well as providing a total score, the MSCEIT provides
subscale scores for perceiving, using, understanding,
managing, experiencing, and reasoning with emotions.
Trait emotional intelligence
For personal use only.
The Assessing Emotions Scale (also called the Schutte
Emotional Intelligence Scale or (SEIS; Schutte et al.,
1998, 2009) is a trait measure of emotional intelligence
based on Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) original model
of emotional intelligence. The scale consists of 33
items and measures emotional intelligence as a uni-
factorial construct, as supported by results of factor
analyses (Schutte et al., 2009). The measure has
exhibited good internal consistency in numerous pub-
lished studies, with an average Cronbach’s alpha of
0.87 across 28 samples of participants (Schutte et al.,
2009). The measure has evidence of convergent and
divergent validity from the results of a variety of
studies (Schutte et al., 2009).
Alcohol-related problems
The Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire
(YAACQ; Read, Kahler, Strong, & Colder, 2006) is a
48-item scale that measures drinking-related problems
in the following domains: social, impaired-control, self-
perception, risk behavior, academic/occupational, phys-
ical dependence, and blackouts. Typical items include
I have passed out from drinking and While drinking
I have said or done embarrassing things. Many of the
items ask about symptoms of alcohol abuse and
dependence as defined in Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV).
Internal consistency for the total scale ranged from 0.96
to 0.98 in a recent set of studies (Read, Merrill, Kahler,
& Strong, 2007). Validation studies have found that
scale scores correlate significantly with other measures
of alcohol-related problems (Devos-Comby & Lange,
2008; Read et al., 2006, 2007).
Heavy episodic drinking
Heavy episodic drinking is a particularly harmful type
of alcohol use (Lown, Greenfield, & Rogers, 2007;
Oesterle et al., 2004). A 3-item index (Turrisi, 1999)
measured this type of excessive use. These items asked
participants to report the following, ‘‘During the past
30 days (about 1 month), how many times have you
gotten drunk, or very high, from alcohol?’’, ‘‘In the last
two weeks, how many times did you have 5 or more
drinks if you are male or 4 or more drinks if you are
female in a row on a single occasion (e.g., in the same
evening)?’’, and ‘‘What is the most number of drinks
that you have consumed on any given night in the past
three months?’’ For the last two items drinks were
defined as referring to a 12-ounce bottle or can of beer,
or 5-ounce glass of wine, or a drink containing one shot
of liquor or spirits. The responses on these items were
converted to z-scores. Turrisi, Mastroleo, Mallett,
Larimer, and Kilmer (2007) reported internal consis-
tency of 0.71 for the standardized items for their
sample. In the present sample the index had internal
consistency, as assessed by Cronbach’s alpha, of 0.87.
RESULTS
Descriptive statistics
Table I shows the means and SDs of the main
variables. Women (M ¼ 102.03, SD ¼ 11.49) scored
significantly higher than men (M ¼ 90.92, SD ¼ 14.97)
on the MSCEIT, t(96) ¼ 4.01, p ¼ 0.0001). Men
(M ¼ 0.99, SD ¼ 2.22) reported significantly more
heavy episodic drinking than women (0.49, 2.67),
t(89) ¼ 1.96, p ¼ 0.01. Women and men did not
significantly differ on reported alcohol problems
(with means of 10.98, SD ¼ 10.03, and 13.28,
SD ¼ 10.88, respectively) or trait emotional intelli-
gence (with means of 130.33, SD ¼ 17.02, and 128.57,
SD ¼ 12.16, respectively). As Table II shows, older
participants had significantly higher ability emotional
intelligence, lower rates of alcohol problems and less
heavy episodic drinking.
Hypothesis testing
Pearson’s r correlations showed that both lower ability
emotional intelligence and lower trait emotional intel-
ligence were significantly associated with more alcohol
problems and more episodic drinking (Table II).
Table I. Means, SDs, and ranges.
Variable Mean SD Range
Ability emotional intelligence 98.78 13.61 58–127
double space
Trait emotional intelligence 129.94 15.67 69–159
Alcohol problems 11.69 10.24 0–40
Heavy episodic drinking 0 2.61 2–14
(standardized)
 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND ALCOHOL
Table II. Correlations between emotional intelligence and
alcohol outcomes.
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 with more alcohol use (Brackett et al., 2004; Trinidad
1. Ability emotional – 0.33** 0.30** 0.21* 0.26*
intelligence
2. Trait emotional – 0.27** 0.26* 0.04
intelligence
3. Alcohol problems – 0.63** 0.25*
4. Heavy episodic – 0.30**
drinking
5. Age – seem to have value in further understanding problem
Notes: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01.
In addition, the ability and trait dimensions of
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emotional intelligence were significantly associated
with each other.
It was hypothesized that trait emotional intelligence
would mediate between ability emotional intelligence
and alcohol outcomes. To evaluate this mediation, path
analysis determined path coefficients for the hypothe-
sized model of trait emotional intelligence mediating
the relationship between ability emotional intelligence
and the alcohol measures. A product mediation test
For personal use only.
with the mediation effect not assumed to be normally
distributed, as described by MacKinnon, Lockwood,
Hoffman, West, and Sheets (2002), and the software
provided by MacKinnon, Fritz, Williams, and
Lockwood (2006; prodclin2.exe program), tested if
there was a significant mediation effect. The mediation
effect of trait emotional intelligence for alcohol
problems was the product of the path coefficient from
ability emotional intelligence to trait emotional intel-
ligence (0.416; SE ¼ 0.129) times the path coefficient
from trait emotional intelligence to alcohol problems
(0.132; SE ¼ 0.068). The resulting mediation effect
was 0.055, with 95% LCI 0.129 and UCI 0.001,
p < 0.05. The mediation effect of trait emotional
intelligence for heavy episodic drinking was the
product of the path coefficient from ability emotional
intelligence to trait emotional intelligence (0.416;
SE ¼ 0.129) times the path coefficient from trait
emotional intelligence to alcohol quantity (0.152,
SE ¼ 0.065). The resulting mediation effect was,
0.063, significant at p < 0.05, with 95% LCI 0.138
and UCI 0.009. Thus trait emotional intelligence was
a significant mediator for the relationship between
ability emotional intelligence and both alcohol prob-
lems and heavy episodic drinking.
DISCUSSION
The findings of this study supported the prediction that
both ability and trait emotional intelligence would be
associated with alcohol outcomes. Both lower ability
and lower trait emotional intelligence were associated
with more heavy episodic drinking (binge drinking)
263
and more alcohol-related problems. These results lend
support to previous research that found lower emo-
tional intelligence assessed as an ability is associated
& Johnson, 2002) and more alcohol-related problems
(Rossen & Kranzler, 2009). This findings also lend
support to previous research that found lower emo-
tional intelligence assessed as a trait is associated with
more alcohol use (Austin et al., 2005) and more
alcohol-related problems (Riley & Schutte, 2003).
Thus, both the ability and trait conceptualizations
drinking.
The results also supported the prediction that trait
emotional intelligence would mediate the relationship
between ability emotional intelligence and level of
both alcohol problems and heavy episodic drinking.
This is the first time a mediating relationship has been
identified for these dimensions of emotional intelli-
gence. The mediation findings of this study can be
interpreted in the context of the dimensional model of
adaptive emotional functioning (Schutte & Malouff,
2008), which holds that the ability and trait dimensions
of emotional intelligence are different constructs.
The dimensional model of emotional functioning
(Schutte & Malouff, 2008) further posits that ability
emotional intelligence in part provides a basis for
the development of trait emotional intelligence. The
reasoning underlying this aspect of the model is that
individuals who have an aptitude for a behavior are
more likely to feel high self-efficacy relating to the
behavior and thus typically engage in that behavior.
The results of the mediation analyses are consistent
with the notion that trait emotional intelligence may
flow from ability emotional intelligence, at least when
predicting alcohol outcomes. Thus, in the realm of
alcohol-related behavior higher emotional intelligence
ability may lead to more actual adaptive emotional
functioning, which in turn may prevent alcohol-related
problems.
The finding that women scored higher than men
on the ability measure of emotional intelligence is
consistent with previous research (Brackett et al.,
2004). The finding that older participants were more
likely to score high on the ability measure is consistent
with theory and research underlying the ability con-
ceptualization (Mayer et al., 2008).
It is not clear to what extent the findings can
generalize from the university sample and national
sample to other populations. Future studies might
replicate this study with other groups. Although the
present correlational findings cannot show causation,
the results suggest that it would be worthwhile to learn
more about the relationship between emotional intel-
ligence, whether measured as an ability or a trait, and
problem drinking. A next step in research focusing on
emotional intelligence and problem drinking might be
to investigate whether attempts to raise either ability
or trait emotional intelligence result in alleviation
 264 N.S. SCHUTTE ET AL.
of problem drinking or help prevent future prob-
lem drinking. As trait emotional intelligence seems to
mediate between ability emotional intelligence and
alcohol outcomes, interventions that target both dimen-
sions of emotional intelligence, perhaps by first
building abilities and then encouraging individuals to
convert these abilities into traits, might hold the
greatest promise for overall effectiveness in preventing
alcohol problems or helping individuals deal with
alcohol problems.
Declaration of interest: The authors report no conflicts of
interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content
and writing of the article.
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