Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

CHAPTER
02
Sexual Reproduction
in Flowering plant
anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

PREFERTILISATION: STRUCTURES & EVENTS
- Several hormonal and structural STRUCTUREOF A FLOWER
changes result in differentiation and
development of the floralprimordium.
- Inflorescences bear the floral buds
and then the flowers.
It is the male reproductive part

of the flower.
It consists of a whorl of stamens.
Their number and length are variable
in different species.
A stamen has 2 parts:
Long and slender stalk. Its proximal end is attached to the
thalamus or the petal of theflower.
Terminal and typically bilobed. Each lobe has 2 thecae
Often a longitudinal groove runs lengthwise separating the theca.
Transverse section of anther:
Epidermis
Endothecium
Connective
Epidermis Middle layers
Endothecium
Microspore
Middle layers Sporogenous mother cells
tissue
Tapetum
Tapetum
- The anther is a tetragonal structure consisting of four

located at the corners.
- Each lobe consists of two microsporangia.
- The microsporangia develop to pollen sacs. They extend longitudinally all
through the length of an anther and are packed with

Structure of a microsporangium:
- A typical microsporangium is near circular in outline.
- It is surrounded by four wall layers– the
- The outer 3 layers give protection and help indehiscence of anther to release
the pollen.
- The (innermost layer) nourishes the developing pollen grains.
- Cells of thetapetum contain dense cytoplasmand generally have more than
one nucleus
- When the anther is young, a group of compactly arranged
homogenous cells (sporogenous tissue) occupies the
centre of eachmicrosporangium.
Microsporogenesis:
- As the anther develops, each cell of sporogenous tissue undergo meiotic
divisions to form microspore tetrads (microspores are arranged in a cluster
of four cells). Each one is a
- The formation of microspores from a pollenmother cell through
meiosisis calledmicrosporogenesis.
- As the anthers mature and dehydrate, the microspores dissociate from
each other and develop into pollengrains.
- Each microsporangium contains thousands of They are released
with the dehiscence of anther
Pollen grain (male gametophyte)

Generally spherical. µm in diameter. Cytoplasm is surrounded by a
plasma membrane. A pollen grain has a exine andintine.
The hard outer layer. Made up of sporopollenin (highly resistant organic
material). It can withstand high temperature and strong acids and alkali.
Enzymes cannot degrade sporopollenin.
Exine has apertures called germ pores where sporopollenin is absent.

Pollen grains are preserved as fossils due to the presence of sporopollenin.
Exine exhibits patterns and designs.
The inner wall. It is a thin and continuous layer made up of cellulose
and pectin.
A matured pollen grain contains 2 cells:
It is bigger, has
abundant food Vegetative cell
reserve and a Generative cell

large irregular ly Vacuoles
Asymmetric
shaped nucleus. Nucleus
spindle
It is small
and floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell. It is
spindle shaped with dense cytoplasm and anucleus.
- In over of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at the
In others, the generative cell divides
mitotically to give rise to the two male gametes before
pollen grains are shed
- The shed pollen grains have to land on the stigma before

they lose viability. The viability period of pollen grains is
variable. It depends on temperature and humidity.
- Viability of pollen grains of some cereals

is Some members of Leguminoseae, Rosaceae
& Solanaceae have viability formonths
Economic importance of pollen grains:

• These are rich in nutrients. Pollen tablets are used as food
supplements. Pollen tablets & syrups increase performance
of athletes and race horses.
• Pollen grains can be stored for years in liquid nitrogen (-19600C). They are
used as pollen banks, similar to seed banks, in crop breeding programmes.
• Pollen grains of some plants (e.g. Parthenium or carrot
grass) are allergic for some people. It leads to chronic respiratory disorders
– asthma, bronchitis, etc.

Gynoecium (Pistil)
- It represents the female reproductive part of the flower.
- It may consist of a single pistil or more than one pistil
- the pistils may be fused together or free
A. Hibiscus pistil.
B. Multicarpellary, syncarpous pistil
of Papaver.
C. Multicarpellary, apocarpous gynoecium
of Michelia�
- Each pistil has three parts:
It is a landing platform for

pollen grains.
It is an elongated slender part beneath
thestigma.
It is the basal bulged part of the pistil. Inside the ovary is the ovarian
cavity in which the placenta is located. Arising from the placenta
are the The number of ovules in an ovary may be
one (wheat, paddy, mango etc.) to many (papaya, water melon, orchidsetc.)
Megasporangium (Ovule)
- It is a small structure attached to the placenta by means of a stalk
The junction where the body of ovule and funicle fuse is called
- Each ovule has one or two protective envelopes called integuments.
encircle the ovule except at the tip where a small opening
is present.
- Opposite the micropylar end is the chalaza (basal part).
- Enclosed within the integuments, there is a mass of cells called nucellus. Its
cells contain reserve food materials.
- Located nucellus in the is the embryo sac
(female gametophyte).
An ovule generally has a
single embryo sac
formed from a
megaspore throughmeiosis.

Megasporogenesis;
It is the formation of megaspores from the
- Ovules generally differentiate a single megasporemother

cell in the micropylar region of the nucellus. It is a large cell
containing dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus.
- The MMC undergoes meiotic division. It results in the
production of
- In a majority of flowering plants, one of the megasporesis

while the other three degenerate.
- The develops into the female gametophyte.
This method of embryo sac formation froma single
istermed development.
- The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides

mitotically to form two nuclei. They move to the opposite
poles, forming embryo sac.
- The nuclei again divide two timesforming
stages of the embryo sac.

- These divisions are strictly free nuclear, i.e. nuclear divisions are not
followed immediately by cellwallformation.
- After the 8-nucleate stage, cell walls are laid down leading to the
organization of the typical
- 6 of the 8 nuclei are surrounded by cellwalls and organized.
into cells. Remaining 2 nuclei (polar nuclei) are situated below the egg
apparatus in the large
Distribution of the cells within the embryo sac:

A typical mature embryo sac is and
• 3 cells are grouped at the end and form
It consists of and one
• Synergids have special cellular thickenings at the tip
called apparatus. It helps to guide the pollen tubes into
the synergid.
•3 cells at the end are called the antipodals.
• The large central cell has two
Pollination
It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a pistil.
-Some external agents help the plants for pollination.
In this, pollen grains transfer from the anther

to stigma of the sameflower. In flowers with exposed anthers & stigma,
complete autogamy is rare. Autogamy in such flowers requires
synchrony in pollen release and stigma receptivity. Also, anthers & stigma
should lie close to each other. PlantslikeViola (common pansy), Oxalis &
Commelina produce 2 types of flowers:
They are similar to flowers of other species with
exposed anthers and stigma.
They do not open at all. Anthers & stigma lie close to
each other. They are autogamous. When anthers dehisce in the flower pollen
grains buds, come with for in contact stigma pollination.
Cleistogamous flowers produce assured seed-set even in the absence
of pollinators.

In this, pollen grains transfer from the anther to the stigma of
another flower of the same plant. It is functionally cross-pollination involving
a pollinating agent. But it is genetically similar to autogamy since the pollen
grains come from the same plant.
In this, pollen grainstransfer from anther to the stigma of a
different plant. It brings genetically different pollen grainsto the stigma.
Agents of Pollinatio
1. Abiotic agents (wind & water)
More common abiotic agent.

- Wind pollinated flowers often have a single ovule in each ovary and numerous
flowers packedinto an inflorescence.
Corncob – the tassels are the stigma and style which
wave in the wind to trap pollen grains. Wind-pollination is
quite common in grasses.
• The flowers produce enormous amount ofpollen.

•The pollen grains are light and non-sticky so that they can be transported
in wind currents.
•They often possess well-exposed stamens (for easy dispersion of pollens into
windcurrents).
• Large, feathery stigma to trap air-borne pollen grains.
- It is quite rare. It is limited to about 30 genera, mostly monocotyledons.

E.g. Vallisneria & Hydrilla (fresh water), Zostera (marine sea-grasses) etc..
- As against this, water is a regular mode of transport for the male gametes
among the lower plants. It is believed, particularly for some bryophytes &
pteridophytes, that their distribution is limited because of the need for water
for the transport of male gametes and fertilisation.
- In Vallisneria, the female flower reaches the surface of water by the long stalk
and the male flowers or pollen grains are released on to the surface of water.
They are carried by water currents and reach the female flowers.
- In sea grasses, female flowers remain submerged in water. Pollen grains are
long and ribbon like. They are carried inside the water and reach the stigma.
- The pollen grains of most of the water-pollinated species have a mucilaginous
covering to protect fromwetting.
- Not all aquatic plants use hydrophily. In most of aquatic plants (water hyacinth,
water lily etc.), the flowers emerge above the level of water for entomophily or
anemophily.
- Wind and water pollinated flowers are not very colourful and do not produce
nectar.

- Majority of flowering plants use animals as pollinating agents. E.g. Bees,
butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps, ants, moths, birds (sunbirds & humming birds)
bats, primates (lemurs), arboreal (tree-dwelling) rodents, reptiles (gecko lizard
& garden lizard) etc.
- Pollination by insects (Entomophily), particularly bees is
more common.
- Often flowers of animal pollinated plants are specifically
adapted for a particular species of animal.
• Large, colourful, fragrant and rich in nectar. Nectar & pollen grains are the floral
rewards for pollination.
• When the flowers are small, they form inflorescence to make them visible.
• The flowers pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odours to attract these
animals.
• The pollen grains are generally sticky. - When the animal comes in contact
with the anthers and the stigma, its body gets pollen grains. When it comes in
contact with the stigma, itresults inpollination.
- Some plants provide safe places as floralrewardto lay eggs.
Amorphophallus (It has the tallest flower of 6 feet). A moth species and the
plant Yucca cannot complete their life cycles without each other. The moth
deposits its eggs in the locule of ovary. The flower gets pollinated by moth.
The larvae come out of the eggs as seeds start developing.
- Many insects consume pollen or nectar without bringing about pollination.
They are called
Hermaphrodite flowers can undergo self-pollination.

Continued self-pollination results in inbreeding depression.
To avoid self-pollination and encourage cross-pollination,
there are some devices in plants:
Here, the pollen is released before the stigma
becomes receptive or stigma becomes receptive before the release of pollen.
It prevents autogamy.
This also prevents autogamy.

tis a genetic mechanism to prevent self-pollen
(from the same flower or other flowers of the same plant) from
fertilization by inhibiting pollen germination or pollen tube growth in
the pistil.

If male & female flowers are
present on the same plant (i.e.,monoecious, e.g. castor & maize), it
prevents autogamy but not geitonogamy. In dioecious plants
(e.g. papaya), male and female flowers are present on different plants
This prevents both autogamy and geitonogamy.
Pollenpistil Interaction:
- It is a process in which pistil recognizes compatible or
incompatible pollen through
the chemical components
produced by them.
- If the pollen is
(right type), the pistil accepts it
and promotes post-pollination
events. Pollen grain germinates
on the stigma to produce a
pollen tube through one of the
germ pores. The contents of
pollen grain move into the
pollen tube. Pollen tube grows
throughthetissues ofstigmaandstyleandreachestheovary.
- If the pollen is the pistil rejects pollen by

preventing pollen germination on the stigma or the pollen tube
growth in the style.
- In some plants, pollen grains are shed at
(a vegetative cell & a generative cell). In such plants, the generative cell
divides and forms the two male gametes during the growth of pollen
tube in the stigma.
- In plants which shed pollen in the
pollen tubes carry 2 male gametes from the beginning.
- Pollen tube reaches the then enters the
through micropyle and then enters one of the synergids
through the filiform apparatus. The filiform apparatus
present at the micropylar part of the synergids guides the
entry of pollen tube.

- A plant breeder can manipulate pollen-pistil interaction, even in incompatible
pollinations, to get desired hybrids.
- It is a crop improvement programme in which desired pollen grains are used

for pollination.
- This is achieved by following techniques:
• Emasculation: Removal of anthers from the bisexual flower bud of female
parent before the anther dehisces.
• Bagging: Here, emasculated flowers are covered with a suitable bag (made up
of butter paper) to prevent contamination of its stigma with unwanted pollen.
When the stigma attains receptivity, mature pollen grains collected from
anthers of the male parent are dusted on the stigma. Then the flowers are
rebagged and allowed to develop the fruits.
- For unisexual flowers, there is no need for emasculation. Female flower buds
are bagged before the flowers open. When the stigma becomes receptive,
pollination is carried out using the desired pollen and the flower rebagged.
DOUBLE FERTILISATION
- After entering one of the synergids, the pollen tube releases the 2 male
gametes into the cytoplasm of the synergid. One male gamete moves
towards the egg cell and fuses with its nucleus Thisforms the
(a diploid cell).
- The othermale gamete moves towardsthetwopolar nuclei located in the
central cell and fuses with them to produce a triploid primary endosperm
nucleus Asit involves fusion of it is called triple fusion.
- Since 2 types of fusions (syngamy & triple fusion) take
place in an embryo sac, it is called double fertilisation.
- The central cell after triple fusionbecomes the primary

endosperm cell (PEC) and develops into the
endosperm while the zygote developsinto an embryo.
POST FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES & EVENTS

Endosperm & embryo
development, maturation of ovule(s)into seed(s)&
ovary into fruit.

Endosperm development
- The primary endosperm cell divides repeatedly and forms a
- Endosperm cells are filledwith reserve food materials.

They are used for of the developing embryo.
- In common endosperm development, the PEN undergoes successive nuclear
divisions to give rise to free nuclei. This stage is called
The number of free nuclei varies greatly.
- The endosperm becomes cellular due to the cell wall formation. The tender
is a endosperm (made up of thousands of nuclei)
and the surrounding isthe
Embryo development
Embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac where the zygote
is situated.
- Most zygotes divide only after the formation of certain amount of endosperm.
This is an adaptation to provide nutrition to the developing embryo.
- Though the seeds differ greatly, the embryogeny(early
developments) is similar in monocots & dicots.
- Thezygote givesrise tothe and subsequently to the
- It has an embryonal axis and 2 cotyledons.

- The portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledons is the epicotyl,
which terminates with the plumule (stem tip).
- The cylindrical portion below the level of is hypocotyl that
terminates with the radicle (root tip). The root tip is covered with a root cap.
- They possess only one cotyledon.

- In the grass family, the cotyledon is called

- It is situated lateral to the embryonal axis. At its lower end, the embryonal
axis has the radicle and root cap enclosed in coleorrhiza
(an undifferentiated sheath).
- Portion of embryonal axis above the level of attachment of scutellum is the
epicotyl. It has a shoot apex and a few leaf primordia enclosed in
(a hollow foliarstructure).
Seed from Ovule

- Seed is the fertilized ovule formed inside fruits. It is the final product of
sexual reproduction.
- It consists of & an embryoaxis.
- The cotyledons are simple, generally thick and swollen due to storage
food (as in legumes).
- Mature seeds are 2 types:
have no residual endosperm as it is completely
consumed during embryo development (e.g., pea, groundnut, beans).
retain a part of endosperm as it is not completely used
up during embryo development
(e.g., wheat, maize, barley, castor, coconut, sunflower).
- Occasionally, in some seeds(black pepper, beet etc.) remnants of nucellus are
also persistent. It is called
- Integuments of ovules harden as tough protective seed coats. It has a small
pore (micropyle) through which O2& water enter into the seed during
germination.
- As the seed matures, its water content is reduced and seeds become dry
(10-15 % moisture by mass). The general metabolic activity of the embryo
slows down. The embryo may enter a state of inactivity
If favourable conditions are available (adequate moisture, oxygen and
suitable temperature), theygerminate.

Fruit from Ovary
- The ovary develops into a fruit. Transformation of ovules into seeds and
ovary into fruit proceeds simultaneously.
- The wall of ovary develops into (wall of fruit).
- The fruits may be (e.g. guava, orange, mango, etc.)

or dry (e.g. groundnut, mustardetc.).
- Fruits are 2 types:
• True fruits: In most plants, the fruit develops only from the ovary and
other floral parts degenerate and fall off. They called truefruits.
• False fruits: In this, the thalamus also contributes to fruit formation.
apple,strawberry, cashewetc.
In some species fruits develop without fertilisation. Such

fruits are called parthenocarpic fruits. E.g. Banana.
- Parthenocarpy can be induced through the application of
growth hormones. Such fruits areseedless.
• Since pollination and fertilisation are independent of water,

seed formation is moredependable.

• Seeds have better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new
habitats and help the species to colonize in other areas.
• They have foodreserves. So young seedlings are nourished
until they are capable ofphotosynthesis.
• The hard seed coat protects the youngembryo.
• Being products of sexual reproduction, they generate new
genetic combinations leading tovariations.
• Dehydration and dormancy of mature seeds are crucial for
storage of seeds. It can be used as food throughout the year
and also to raise crop in the next season.
- In a few species the seeds lose viability within a few

months. Seeds of many species live for several years.
- Some seeds can remain alive for hundreds of years. The
oldest is that of a lupine (Lupinus arcticus) excavated from
Arctic Tundra. The seed germinated and flowered after an
estimated record of 10,000 years of dormancy.
- 2000 years old viable seed is of the date palm (Phoenix dacty
lifera) discovered during the archeological excavation at King
Herod’s palace near the Dead Sea.
APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY

is the production of seeds Occurrence of more than one
withoutfertilisation. embryo in a seed is called
Some species of Asteraceae and
grasses.
- It is a form of asexual reproduction - If the seeds collected from
that mimics sexual reproduction. hybrids are sown, the plants
- in the progeny willsegregate
In some species, the diploid egg cell is and lose hybrid characters.
formed without reduction division and - Production of hybrid seeds is
costly. Hence the cost of
developsinto the embryo without
hybrid seeds is also expensive
fertilisation. for the farmers.
In many species (e.g. manyCitrus & - If the hybrids are made into
Mango varieties)some of the nucellar apomicts, there is no segregation
cells surrounding the embryo sac of characters in the hybrid
divide, protrude into the embryo sac progeny. Then the farmers can
keep on using the hybrid seeds to
and develop into the embryos. In such
raise new crop year after year.
species each ovule contains many embryos

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS MEGASPOROGENESIS
Megaspore
MICROSPOROGENEIS Mother cell
Filament Stigma (2n)
Microspore Mother Style

Meiosis
Cell or Pollen
Anther
Mother Cell (2n) Ovary
Mesiosis I pistil multicart- Anatropous Megaspores
Pollen Grain Wall POLLEN GRAIN Mature Pollen Grain (n)
ellary pistil, ovule
Transverse Exine Intine Vegetative cell Generative cell
Microspore Dyad Hard outer layer Inner layer
section POLLINATION
ONE
Meiosis II Megaspore
PRE FERTILISATION
Autogany (self – Pollination) Geitonogamy (Cross – Pollination) Xenogamy (Cross – Pollination)

suruiues
PRE FERTILISATION
Eg:- Sunflower Eg:- Corn Eg:- Onion others,
degenerate
AGENT OF POLLINATION
Micropore Tetrad
(n) Mitosis
Mitosis Abiotic Biotic
Tube cell
2 – celled stage Wind (Anemophily) Water (Hydrophily) Insects (Entomophily) Birds (Ornithophily)
of Pollen grain Eg. Corn Cob Eg. Vallisneria Eg. Amorphophallus eg. Hibiscus
Mitosis of Generative Floral Reward Pollen/Nectar Robbers

Generative Cell cell flower present treats to the animals Many insects eat pollen or nectar without
sperm cell in order to keep them coming back The pollinating flowers, and are called
3 – Celled stage usual floral rewards are nectar and pollen/ nectar robbers. 8 Nucleated
Pollen grain. embryo sac
of Pollen grain
mature Pollen grains OUTBREEDING ARTIFICIAL HYBRIDIZATION
Mature Antipodals
Polar nuclei
Dehisced Arranging the Self – Emasculation Bagging (2n)
Ovule
Avoiding Unisexual Flower
Anther synchronization anther and stigma incompatibility production synergids
in opposite places Removal of anthers Preventing pollen
before dehisce using Contamination by Covering
Eggcell(n)
Pollen forceps flower using butter paper.
grain
DOUBLE - FERTILISATION POST- FERTILISATION
Nucleus of
Pollen – Pistil 1 gamete
egg cell
Produce
Zygote
Develop
Embryo
POST FERTILISATION EVENTS
fuse with into
Interaction (syngamy)
FERTILISATION
Endosperm Embryo Ovule (s) Ovary into

Release 2 Male gametes Development Development into Seed fruits
Pollen tube
(cytoplasm of
• Endosperm cells are (Ovules inside the
synergid) • Dicotyledonous embryo
fruit called seeds)
• True fruits
filled with nutritional (2 Cotyledon) Eg Watermelon
reserves Mature Seeds
• PEN undergoes successive
division resulting in
• Monocotyledonous
free nuclei, called
embryo (1 Cotyledon) Non – Albuminous Albumi-
free nuclear endosperm.
Seeds nous Seeds • False fruits
Two polar Produce Triploid Primary Becomes Primary eg, Bean Eg. Corn Eg Apple
1 gamete
Nuclei at Endosperm Endosperm Cell Seeds seeds
fuse with
Central Cell Nucleus (PEN)
develops
• The production of Polyembryony is the
into
seeds without fertilization is presence of many
APOMIXIS POLYEMBRYONY
known apomixis embryos in a single seed.
Endosperm Eg. Asterace. Eg. Citrus: Orange
1 ACTIVE SITE EDUTECH-9844532971
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

All flowering plants show sexual reproduction and flowers are the site of sexual
reproduction.
FLOWER-
A Fascinating Organ of Angiosperms
 Flowers are objects of aesthetic, ornamental, social, religious and cultural value.
To a biologist, a flower is a modified condensed shoot to perform sexual
reproduction in angiosperms.
 A typical angiospermic flower consists of four whorls of floral appendages
attached on the receptacle - Calyx, Corolla, Androecium and Gynoecium.
PRE-FERTILIZATION: Structures and Events

 Much before the actual flower is seen on a plant, the decision that the plant is
going to flower has taken place. A number of hormonal and structural
transformations occur prior to initiation of flowering.
 Shoot apical meristem is transformed into reproductive meristem.
 Reproductive meristem grows to form inflorescence axis over which floral
primordia develop.
 The primordia grow into floral buds and then flowers. In the flower, the
androecium and gynoecium differentiate and develop.
Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollen grain

(a) Stamen or Microsporophyll (Male sex organ)- It consists of two parts:
(i) Anther
It is broader knob-like fertile part.
A typical angiospermic anther has two lobes and such anther is called dithecous.
Dithecous anther is a four sided (tetragonal) structure consisting of four
microsporangia located at the corners, two in each lobe.

(ii) Filament
It is sterile, long and slender stalk.
The proximal end of the filament is attached to the thalamus, petal or tepal.
Figure: (a) A typical stamen, (b) Three-dimensional cut section of an anther
Concept Builder
(i) Floriculture is the science of cultivation, breeding, marketing and arrangement of flowers.
(ii) In members of Malvaceae, anther consists of one lobe and two microsporangia. Such anthers are
monothecous and bisporangiate.
(iii) In Arceuthobium, the smallest dicot parasite, anther consists of one microsporangium, i.e.,
monothecous and monosporangiate
(b) Structure (T.S.) of Anther
 A young anther consists of homogenous mass of meristematic cells called primary
sporogenous cells surrounded by anther wall. Primary sporogenous cells form
microspore mother cells (2n) inside the microsporangium.
 Anther Wall Layers: Anther wall consists of following layers:
(1) Epidermis: Outermost single layered and protective in function. The epidermis of
Arceuthobium develops some fibrous thickenings and is called exothecium.
(2) Endothecium: Cells of this layer have -cellulosic fibrous bands arising from
inner tangential wall which help in dehiscence of anther due to their hygroscopic
nature. Fibrous bands are absent in hydrophytes, e.g., Hydrocharitaceae.
(3) Middle layer: Cells of this layer are ephemeral and are 1-3 layered. It
degenerates at maturity.
(4) Tapetum: This is the innermost layer of anther wall which surrounds the
sporogenous tissue. Tapetal cells nourishes the developing pollen grains. Cells of
the tapetum possess dense cytoplasm and generally have more than one nucleus.
They are polyploid. The tapetal cells show increase in their DNA content.
Concept Builder
 Increase in DNA content of tapetum may be 'achieved by the following ways:
(i) Endomitosis: It involves DNA replication and splitting of chromosomes through endoprophase,
endometaphase, endoanaphase and endotelophase.
(ii) Formation of restitution nuclei: It involves normal mitosis upto anaphase but the chromosomes at two poles
get surrounded by a common nuclear membrane so as to form a restitution nucleus.
(iii) Polyteny: If DNA replication is not accompanied by splitting of chromosomes, polytenic chromosomes are
formed.
 The tapetum is of two types:

(a) Secretory or glandular tapetum: These cells secrete sporopollenin, pollenkitt and
compatibility proteins. These cells provide Ubisch bodies which help in the
ornamentation of exine, as they have a chemical called sporopollenin which is deposited
on them.
(b) Amoeboid or plasmodial or invasive tapetum: Cells undergo breakdown and their entire
protoplasts move in the centre to nourish microspores.
(c) Microsporogenesis
The process of formation of microspores from a pollen mother cell (PMC) or microspore mother
cell (MMC) through meiosis is called microsporogenesis. As each cell of the sporogenous tissue
is capable of giving rise to a microspore tetrad, therefore each one is a potential pollen mother
cell.
 Cytokinesis, after the meiotic divisions in PMCs, is of two types:
(i) Successive: In this type, cytokinesis occurs after each meiotic division, thus isobilateral
tetrad of microspores is formed, e.g., monocots. Successive type of cytokinesis is
advanced type.
Figure A-D. Various stages during successive type of division

during microsporogenesis, (A-B) Dividing mother cell, (C) Dividing dyad, (D) Tetrad
(ii) Simultaneous: It occurs after complete meiotic (I and II) division, thus
tetrahedral tetrad of microspores is formed, e.g., dicots.
Figure A-F : Various stages during simultaneous type of division during microsporogenesis
 The microspores, as they are formed, are arranged in a cluster of four cells,
called microspore tetrad. Usually, the arrangement of microspores in a tetrad is
tetrahedral or isobilateral.
 However, T-shaped, linear and decussate tetrads are also found. In
Aristolochia elagans, all the five types of tetrads are present.
Figure : Types of microspore tetrads

 As the anthers mature and dehydrate, the microspores dissociate from each
other and develop into pollen grains. These are released with the dehiscence of
anther.
Concept Builder
(i) R. Camerarius described sexual reproduction for the first time in plants.
(ii) 'In family Asclepiadaceae (Calotropis) and Orchidaceae, all the microspores in a sporangium
adhere together in a single mass known as pollinium.
(iii) In Calotropis, the pollinia of adjacent anthers of different stamens are attached by thread like
caudicles (retinaculi) to a sticky disc called corpusculum. The whole structure is called translator.
(iv) After their formation, the microspores are separated from tetrad, but in Elodea, Drosera, Typha,
the microspores do not separate from each other, thus developing into compound pollen grains.
(v) In family Cyperaceae, out of 4 microspores formed, 3 degenerate, so ultimately one MMC (2n)
produces only one microspore or pollen grain.
(vi) Sometimes more than four microspores are produced from one microspore mother cell. It is
called polyspory, e.g., Cuscuta reflexa.
Conceptual Questions
Give one word for the followings :
(i) Name the layer of anther in which -cellulosic fibrous band is present.
(ii) Name the common type of microspores tetrad in monocots.
(iii) Which type of cytokinesis is required to produce tetrahedral type of microspores tetrad?
(iv) Name the plant in which all the five types of microspore tetrads are present.
(v) Mention the example of polyspory.
Ans. (i) Endothecium, (ii) Isobilateral, (iii) Simultaneous, (iv) Aristolochia elagans,
(v) Cuscuta reflexa
(d) Pollen Grain

These are generally spherical measuring about 25-50 µm in diameter. The cell wall of
pollen grain is called sporoderm which consists of two layers. The hard outer layer
called the exine and inner thin layer is called the intine.
(i) Intine: It is made of cellulose and pectin.

(ii) Exine: The exine is made up of
sporopollenin is a fatty substance and one
of the most resistant organic materials
known. It is not affected by high
temperature, strong acids or alkali. No
enzyme is known to degrade it. Because
of the presence of sporopollenin, pollen
grains of the past plants are well
preserved as fossils. Exine is made of two layers:
(a) Ektexine: It is highly sculptured and is differentiated into outer tectum, middle
baculum and innermost foot layer. Tectum provides a characteristic sculpturing
or designs over the surface of pollen grain. The design helps the experts to
identify the pollen grain as to its class, family, genus or species.
(b) Endexine: It is not sculptured.

(iii) Pollen grain exine has prominent apertures called germ pores where sporopollenin is
absent. Pollen grains can be monocolpate (having one germ pore called germinal furrow,
e.g., monocots), bicolpate (2 germ pores) and tricolpate (3 germ pores, e.g., dicots).
(iv) The pollen kitt is a sticky layer found on the outer side of exine of mature pollen grains of
many insects pollinated species, it is made of carotenoids and lipids. Pollenkitt material is
contributed by the tapetal cells. Pollen kitt acts as an insect attractant and can help
against UV.
(v) Pollen grains of many species (especially anemophilous plants) cause severe allergies and
bronchial affections in some people. Weed Parthenium hysterophorus (carrot grass)
came to India as a contaminant with improved wheat. The weed has become a major
cause of pollen allergy. Hay fever is an allergic reaction due to the presence of pollen in
the air. Plants commonly causing hay fever are Amaranthus, Chenopodium and Parthenium.
(vi) Pollen grains are rich in nutrients. They are taken as tablets and syrups to improve
health. Pollen consumption has been claimed to enhance the performance of athletes and
race horses.
(vii) The period for which pollen grains retain the ability to germinate is called Pollen
Viability. It is highly variable and to some extent depends upon the environmental
factors like temperature, humidity.
In cereals, like rice, wheat etc, pollen viability is minimum upto 30 minutes, while in
Rosaceae, Leguminosae and Solanaceae it is upto several months.
(viii) Pollen grains can be cryopreserved in liquid nitrogen (-196°C) and used as pollen banks.
(e) Development of Male Gametophyte

 The microspore is the first cell of male gametophyte. The germination of microspore
starts in situ (in the mother place). Microspore may be best defined as partially
developed male gametophyte.
 Microspores divide mitotically into
large tube cell & small generative
cell Pollination takes place at 2
celled stages in 60% of angiosperms
(in some cases at 3-celled stage).
The further development of these
male gametophyte takes place on
the stigma.
 Pollen grain expands by absorbing
the liquid from the moist surface of
stigma. Stigma provides, boron,
sugar, amino acids etc. The intine
comes out in the form of pollen
tube, from germ pores.
 The pollen grains are either
monosiphonous (with one pollen
tube) or polysiphonous (with more
than one pollen tubes), e.g.,
members of Cucurbitaceae and
Malvaceae.
 The generative nucleus divides
mitotically to form two male gametes called sperm. The male gametes are non-
motile and amoeboid. They are slightly unequal in size, such a pollen will be called
three celled pollen or mature male gametophyte.
 The function of pollen tube is to carry aflagellated sperm. Tube nucleus enters
first in the pollen tube and is a vestigial structure and soon disintegrates. Growth
of the pollen tube is chemotropic apicle and entire cytoplasm of pollen grain is
confined to tip of the pollen tube.
Concept Builder
(i) The pollen tube was first observed by G.B. Amici (1824) in Portulaca.
(ii) Longest pollen tube occurs in Zea mays.
(iii) B-Ca-inositol sugar complex act as chemotropic agent for pollen tube growth.
The Pistil, Ovule and Embryo sac

(a) Pistil (Female Sex Organ)
 The gynoecium may consist of a single pistil (monocarpellary) or may have more
than one pistil (multicarpellary).
 If there are more than one, the Pistils may be fused together (Syncarpous) or
may be free (apocarpous).
 There are three parts of each pistil -the stigma, style and ovary. The stigma is
upper broader region which is specialised for receiving pollen grains.
 The style is long stalk-like structure and ovary is basal swollen ovule containing
region.
Figure : (a) Pistil of Hibiscus, (b) A syncarpous multicarpellary gynoecium of Papaver,

(c) A multicarpellary, apocarpous gynoecium of Michelia
(b) Ovule (Integumented Megasporangium)

(i) Ovary has an ovarian cavity with one or more chambers (lobules). The placenta is
located inside the ovarian cavity. One or many ovules are present inside the
ovary.
Plants with one ovule in an ovary: (i) Wheat, (ii) Paddy, (iii) Mango
Plants with many ovules in an ovary: (i) Papaya, (ii) Water melon, (iii) Orchids
(ii) The ovule is a small structure attached to the placenta by means of a stalk called
funicle. The point of attachment of the funicle with the main body of the ovule
is called hilum. Thus, hilum represents the junction between ovule and funicle.
Sometimes funicle gets fused with the body of the ovule along one side and
forms a ridge known as raphe. The basal region of the ovule is known as Chalaza.
(iii) Main body of an ovule is called nucellus (megasporangium) which consists of a
mass of parenchymatous tissue. Cells of nucellus have abundant reserve food
materials. Depending upon the development of nucellus, ovules are of two types:
(i) Crassinucellate ovule (ii) Tenulnucellate ovule
The nucellus is well developed. The nucellus is poorly developed.
e.g., Polypetale e.g., Gamopetalae
Figure: Structure of a typical ovule (anatropous ovule)

containing developed embryo sac (female gametophyte)
(iv) The nucellus is invested all around by one or two layered protective covering
called integuments, except apex where a small passage is formed known as
micropyle. On the basis of number of integuments, ovules are of following types:
(a) Unitegmic: Ovules with one integument, e.g., members of gamopetalae and
gymnosperms.
(b) Bitegmic: Ovules with two integuments, e.g., members of polypetalae and
monocots.
(c) Ategmic: Ovules are without integument, e.g., Santalum, Loranthus (Parasites)
and Liriosoma.
(v) On the basis of the relative position of micropyle, body of the ovule and funicle,
i.e., the degree of curvature, there are six types of ovules:
(a) Orthotropous: The micropyle, chalaza and funicle are in a straight line. This
is the most primitive type of ovule, e.g., Piper, Polygonum, Cycas.
(b) Anatropous: The ovule turns 180º angle. Thus it is inverted ovule. Micropyle
lies close to hilum or at side of hilum, e.g., found in 82% of angiosperm families.
(c) Hemianatropous: Ovule turns at 90º angle upon the funicle or body of ovule is
at right angle to the funicle, e.g., Ranunculus.
(d) Campylotropous: Ovule is curved more or less at right angle to funicle.
Micropylar end is bend down slightly, e.g., in members of Leguminosae, Cruciferae.
(e) Amphitropous: Ovule as well as embryo sac is curved like horse shoe, e.g.,
Lemna, Poppy, Alisma.
(f) Circinotropous: The ovule turns at more than 360º angle, so funicle becomes
coiled around the ovule, e.g., Opuntia (Cactaceae), Plumbaginaceae.
Concept Builder
(i) Third integument in the form of aril develops from base of ovule or funicle in many plants, e.g., Litchi,
Asphodelus and Inga dulce. In litchi and Inga dulce, aril is fleshy and edible.
(ii) In some ovules, e.g., Zostera, a group of thickened cells is found in the chalazal region just below the embryo
sac, called hypostase. When a similar group of specialized cells is found in the nucellar region just above the
embryo sac, it is called epistase.
(iii) In castor (Ricinus), proliferation of the outer integumentary cells at micropylar region is called caruncle or
strophiole. It performs two functions :
a. It acts as water absorbing pad.
b. It is made up of sugary substance that attract and helps in the seed dispersal by ants (myrmecochory).
(iv) The placental or funicular outgrowth present at, the micropylar end is called obturator. It directs the
passage of pollen tube towards the ovule.
State true or false :
(i) Growth of pollen tube in mango is apical and chemotactic.
(ii) Many ovules are present in an ovary of papaya.
(iii) Anatropous type of ovule is most common in flowering plants.
(iv) Nucellus is parenchymatous and haploid tissue of ovule.
(v) Epistase is a group of specialized cells found in the nucellar region just above the embryo sac in
some plants.
Ans. (i) False, (ii) True, (iii) True, (iv) False, (v) True
(c) Megasporogenesis
(i) Any of the cells of nucellus hypodermis towards the micropylar end gets
differentiated from the other cells. This cell is called archesporial cell. In
crassinucellate ovules, it undergoes periclinal division to form an outer primary
parietal cell and inner primary sporogenous cell. The later behaves as megaspore
mother cell (MMC). The archesporial cell directly behaves as megaspore mother
cell in tenuinucellate ovules.
(ii) The megaspore mother cell is large sized containing dense cytoplasm and a
prominent nucleus. Some carbohydrate storing bodies appear between cell wall
and plasma membrane of megaspore mother cell in Lilium, called paramular
bodies.
(iii) MMC (2n) undergoes meiosis & forms a linear tetrad of 4 haploid megaspores.
The process of formation of megaspores from MMC is called megasporogenesis.
Figure: Parts of the ovule showing a large MMC, a dyad and a tetrad of megaspores
(d) Female Gametophyte or Embryo sac

(i) P. Maheshwari classified the embryo sac on the basis of number of megaspore
nuclei participating in embryo sac formation into following types :
 Monosporic embryo sac : Only one megaspore nucleus forms embryo sac, e.g.,
Polygonum, Oenothera.
 Bisporic embryo sac: Two megaspore nuclei take part in development of embryo
sac, e.g., Allium, Endymion.
 Tetrasporic embryo sac: All the four megaspore nuclei take part in development
of embryo sac, e.g., Adoxa, Plumbago, Drusa, Fritillaria, Paenaea, Plumbagella,
Peperomia.
(ii) Development of Monosporic Embryo sac (Polygonum type)
(A) In majority of angiosperms, one of the megaspore is functional while the other
three degenrate. Only the functional megaspore (n) develops into the female
gametophyte. This process of embryo sac formation from a single megaspore is
termed monosporic development.
(B) Polygonum type of embryo sac is found in 80% flowering plants. This development
has been studied in (Polygonum by Strasburger). The nucleus of chalazal
functional megaspore (4th from micropyle) divides by three mitotic divisions to
form 8 nuclei, four towards each pole. One nucleus from each pole moves to the
middle and they form polar nuclei. These mitotic divisions are strictly free
nuclear, i.e., nuclear divisions are not followed immediately by cell wall formation.
Figure: Development of female gametophyte (Polygonum type)

 At this stage, following changes occur:
(a) Three of the nuclei (n) get organised as cells at micropylar end forming egg
apparatus. One is the egg cell (n) and two are synergids (n).
(b) Three nuclei get organised as antipodal cells (n) at chalazal end
(c) Two nuclei in the centre are called polar nuclei (n)
This constitutes a 7-celled and 8-nucleated embryo sac.
Organization of Embryo Sac

(a) Synergids or helper cells or co-operative cells: These cells generally possess a
micropylar nucleus and a chalazal vacuole. The electron microscopic studies have
revealed that the synergids lack a cell wall on their chalazal side at maturity.
They are characterised by the presence of a 'filiform apparatus at the'
micropylar tip. It is in the form of finger like projections, each projection
comprising a core of microfibrils enclosed in a sheath. Usually one synergid starts
to degenerate just with pollination. The synergids perhaps secrete some
chemotropic substance and thus, direct the pollen tube growth inside embryo sac.
(b) Egg: The egg shows cytoplasmic polarity opposite to synergid and its wall is
thicker at the micropylar end. Usually the egg has a micropylar vacuole and a
chalazal nucleus. Plasmodesmata connection is present in between egg and
synergids.
(c) Antipodals or vegetative cells: These are vegetative cells of embryo sac. In
most of the plants there are three antipodal cells.
(d) Central Cell: It is the largest cell of the embryo sac. It initially contains two
polar nuclei which fuse just before, fertilization to form a secondary nucleus or
definitive nucleus (2n).
Concept Builder
(i) Synergids are absent in Plumbago and Plumbagella. Number of synergid is one in Peperomia.
(ii) In Zea mays 20 antipodal cells are present, in Sasa paniculata they are 300 in number. This is perhaps the
highest number recorded for any plant. These are absent in Oenothera type.
Fill in the blanks :
(i) The megaspore mother cell undergoes ___________ and forms a linear tetrad of megaspores.
(ii) ___________ embryo sac is most common in angiospermic plants.
(iii) Mature female gametophyte in angiosperms is ___________ celled and ___________ nucleated.
(iv) ___________ are the vegetative cells of the embryo sac.
(v) Filiform apparatus is present in ___________ of embryo sac.
POLLINATION
In flowering plants, male and female gametes are produced in the pollen grain and
embryo sac respectively. These gametes are non-motile; therefore, they have to be
brought together for fertilization. Pollination is the mechanism to achieve this
objective. The transfer of pollen grains to the stigma is called pollination. Depending
upon the source of pollen, pollination is of three types:
a. Autogamy (self-pollination)
b. Geitonogamy(self pollination)
c. Xenogamy(cross polination)
(1) Autogamy:
If the pollen grains are transferred from anther to the stigma of the same
flower, the process is called self pollination or autogamy.
Chasmogamous
Cleistogamous
 Contrivances for autogamy
(i) Bisexuality - Flower should be bisexual, e.g., Catharanthus
(ii) Homogamy - Male and female reproductive parts in a bisexual flower mature at
the same time, e.g., Mirabilis.
(iii) Cleistogamy - Sometimes bisexual flowers remain closed and never open, such
flowers are known as cleistogamous. In such flowers, the anthers and stigma lie
close to each other. When the anthers dehisce, the pollen grains come in contact
with stigma and pollination takes place. Thus, cleistogamous flowers are invariably
autogamous as there is no chance of cross-pollen landing on the stigma. So one of
the advantage of cleistogamy is, it ensures seed-set even in the absence of
pollinators, e.g., Arachis hypogea (Groundnut). Some plants like Viola (common
pansy), Oxalis and Commelina produce chasmogamous flowers (open flowers) as
well as cleistogamous flowers.
(iv) Bud pollination -When self pollination occurs in the bud stage before the opening
of flowers, e.g., Pisum, Wheat, Rice.
(2) Geitonogamy:
Pollination taking place between the two flowers of the same plant (genetically
self pollination but ecologically or functionally cross pollination), e.g., Maize.
(3) Xenogamy:
When the pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma of the
flower of a different plant, it is called as xenogamy. (It is cross pollination, both
genetically and ecologically).
Outbreeding Devices (Contrivances for cross pollination)

Majority of flowering plants produce hermaphrodite flowers and pollen grains are likely
to come in contact with the stigma of the same flower. Continued self-pollination
results in inbreeding depression, therefore angiosperms have developed following
devices to, discourage self pollination and to encourage cross-pollination.
(i) Dichogamy: In bisexual flowers, the two sexes mature at different timings.
When anthers mature first it is called protandry, e.g., Sunflower, Cotton, Salvia.
When gynoecium matures first it is called as protogyny, e.g., Ficus, Aristolochia,
Magnolia.
(ii) Incompatibility: It is the inability of certain gametes, even from genetically
similar plant species, to fuse with each other. This is also called intra-specific
incompatibility, self-sterility or self-incompatibility.
Concept Builder
Incompatibility may involve morphological or physiological mechanisms, therefore there are two
types of this device:
(a) Morphological self-incompatibility: It occurs in flowers having heterostyly. Flowers are
dimorphic or trimorphic with regard to the length of style. Thus facilitate cross pollination.
e.g., Primula (Primrose), Jasminum, Lythrum
dimorphic heterostyly
(b) Physiological self-incompatibility:
It is controlled by multiple alleles of S-gene. There are two types of physiological self-
incompatibility:
(i) If incompatibility is due to the genotype of the sporophytic/stigmatic tissues, is termed
sporophytic incompatibility (SSI), e.g., Brassicaceae, Asteraceae. (ii) The incompatibility due to
the genotype of the pollen is termed gametophytic incompatibility (GSI), e.g., Solanaceae,
Liliaceae, Poaceae. This may be due to prevention of pollen germination, deorientation of pollen
tube, or even failure of nuclear fusion. A plant carries two such alleles e.g., S1S2, S2S3, S1S3, S2S4,
S3S5. A pollen carries only one allele. If it happens to be one of the two alleles of pistil, the
rejection may occur on stigma surface (SSI) or in the style (GSI).
(iii) Unisexuality or dicliny: It is the formation of unisexual flowers. Thus, cross
pollination becomes obligatory.
It can be seen in monoecious
plants where both male and
female flowers are produced on
same plant, e.g., maize, castor as
well as dioecious plants where
male and female flowers are
produced on different plants,
e.g., Vallisneria, Papaya.
Monoecious condition prevents
autogamy but not geitonogamy
while dioecious condition
prevents both autogamy and
geitonogamy.
(iv) Herkogamy: It is the presence of natural and physical barrier between

androecium and gynoecium, e.g., in Calotropis, gynoecium is fused with pollinium
(anthers) and form gynostegium.
(v) Prepotency: Pollen grain of one flower germinates more rapidly over stigma of
another flower as compared to its own flower, e.g., Apple, Grape.
Agencies for cross pollination:

Pollinating agency may be biotic (animals) or abiotic (wind and water). Majority of plants
use biotic agents for pollination.
A. Abiotic agents
(a) Anemophily: (Pollination by wind).
It is common amongst abiotic pollinations. It is a non-directional and wasteful process.
The female flowers have large, feathery or brush like stigmas to catch the pollen
grains. Anemophilous flowers are small and inconspicuous with long and versatile
stamens. Pollen grain are dry, powdery, light and non-sticky. The flowers often have a
single ovule in each ovary and numerous flowers packed into an inflorescence.
Anemophily is quite common in grasses.
e.g., Maize, wheat, sugarcane, bamboo, Pinus (winged pollen), Papaya.
(b) Hydrophily: (Pollination by water).
It is quite rare in angiosperms and is limited to about 30 genera, mostly
monocotyledons. All aquatic plants are not hydrophilous. In a majority of aquatic plants
like water hyacinth and water lily, the flowers emerge above the level of water and are
pollinated by insects or wind.
Hydrophyte Type of pollination
1. Alisma Entomophily
2. Lotus Entomophily
3. Potamogeton Anemophily
4. Myriophyllum Anemophily
 Hydrophily is of two types:
(1) Epihydrophily: Pollination at the surface of water
Example: Vallisneria (Tape grass, Ribbon weed)
Vallisneria is a dioecious rooted submerged aquatic plant in
which male flowers are small and light weight. Female flowers
have very long coiled pedicels which uncoil when they become
mature. Male flowers float at the surface of water. As soon as
the male flowers touch the female flowers, anther lobes burst,
stigma receives the pollen grains and pedicels coil again.
(2) Hypohydrophily: Pollination inside the water.

Examples: Zostera (sea grass), Ceratophyllum
Zostera is a marine water plant. Female flowers remain submerged in water and the
pollen grains are long, ribbon like and they are carried passively inside the water, some
of them reach the stigma and achieve pollination.
(i) Pollen grains are protected from wetting by a mucilaginous covering in most of
the hydrophilous species.
(ii) Anemophilous as well as hydrophilous flowers are not very colourful and do not
produce nectar.
(iii) Pollen grains coming in contact with the stigma is a chance factor in both wind
and water pollinating plants. To compensate for these uncertainities and
associated loss of pollen grains, the flowers produce enormous amount of pollen
when compared to the number of ovules available for pollination.
B. Biotic Agents
(a) Entomophily: (Pollination by insects)
(1) 80% pollination occurs by insects (chief pollinators) and honey bee is main pollinator
among insects. All the flowers pollinated by bees are brightly coloured, have a sweet
smell and produce nectar.
Entomophilous flowers produce a small amount of pollen which have a spinous and may have a
sticky exine due to presence of pollenkitt. Stigmas of such flowers are long, rough and sticky.
If the entomophilous flowers are small, a number of flowers are clustered into an inflorescence
to make them conspicuous. Moth pollinated plants are white flowered and fragrant. The flowers
pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odours to attract these animals.
(2) When petals are not conspicuous, other parts may become coloured or showy to attract
the insects, e.g., bracts in Bougainvillea, leaves in Euphorbia pulcherrima (Poinsettia), one
sepal in Mussaenda acts like advertisement flag, anthers are coloured in Mimosa.
(3) To sustain insect visits, the flowers have to provide rewards to the insects. Nectar and
pollen grains are the usual floral rewards. In plants like Papaver, Rosa, Clematis, etc.,
edible pollen grains are produced. Some of the pollen grains stick to the back of insects
while feeding on the edible pollen grains. Some species provide safe place to insect for
laying eggs, e.g., Amorphophallus (the flower is 6 feet in height), Yucca.
(4) Some special cases of entomophily are as follows:
(i) Yucca: The flowers at Yucca and pollinating moth, i.e., Pronuba yuccasella / Tegaticula
show a very close relationship. The insect punctures the ovary for egg laying. The insect
creeps on the style and deposits pollen ball in between the stigmatic lobes, hence
bringing about pollination. The larvae of the moth come out of the eggs as the seeds
start developing.
(ii) Salvia or Sage plant: It shows lever mechanism or turn pipe

mechanism. Anthers are distractile; lower lobe is sterile and upper lobe is fertile. The
flower is bilabiate and protandrous. The insect sits on the lower lobe of the corolla; the
upper fertile lobe of anther touches the body of insect. It ruptures and pollen grains are
shed on the back of the insect. When this insect visits the other flowers, pollination is
affected.
(iii) Ficus sp: Trap Door mechanism in Ficus carica. The receptacle forms a cup having a
cavity. The cavity has a pore called ostlole near which male flowers are present. Female
flowers are present at the bottom and gall (sterile) flowers are present between these
types. The pollinating insect is Blastophaga or gall insect. The insect lays eggs in the
bottom, the larvae feed on the ovules of gall flowers. When the young insects crawl out
of the inflorescence, their bodies are laden with pollen grains. They enter new
hypanthodium and affects the pollination.
(iv) Calotropis: It shows translator or clip mechanism. Pollen grains are present in pollinia.
The pollinia are attached to a rough and sticky disc called corpusculum. When the insect
visits the flower, pollinia get entangled in the legs of the insect. When this insect visits
other flowers, pollinia are transferred.
(v) Centaurea: It belongs to Compositae family and exhibits piston

mechanism. It has syngenesious and epipetalous androecium. The
anther lobes dehisce introsely. When filaments contract on being
touched by the insect, the stigma pushes the pollen grains out of
the anther tube which stick to the body of the insect. When the
insect visits some other flower, pollination is affected.
(vi) Aristolochia: The upwardly directed protogynous flowers have downwardly directed stiff
hairs in the middle of the corolla tube. These form the trap. This is called pit fall
mechanism or fly trap mechanism.
Aristolochia showing pit fall mechanism

(vii) Orchid: Pollination occurs by wasp (Pseudocopulation mechanism), e.g. , Ophrys (orchid)
and Colpa (wasp). The flower of Ophrys resemble in shape, colour and odour to female of
wasp Colpa aurea, thus showing mimicry. It is a case of co-evolution also.
(5) Many insects may consume pollens or the nectar without bringing about pollination. Such
floral visitors are referred to as pollen/nectar robbers.
Pollen robbers create a hole at the base of corolla tube and draw nectar from a flower
whose design is not suitable for them. Other insects often take advantage of the same.
(b) Ornithophily: (Pollination by birds).

Flowers are brightly coloured but odourless and
produce plenty of nectar and large quantity of pollens,
e.g., Bombax (red silk cotton), Callistemon (bottle
brush), Sterlitzia, Erythrina (coral tree) etc. Honey
bird, humming bird and sun bird are common pollinators.
(c) Cheiropterophily: (Pollination by bats).

Bats pollinate the flowers of tropical regions, e.g., Anthocephallus (Kadamb), Kigelia
(Sausage tree), Adansonia (Baobab tree).
(d) Malacophily: (Pollination by snails), e.g., Arum; Lilies, Arisaema, Lemna.
(e) Ophiophily: (Pollination by snakes), e.g., Santalum, Michelia.

(f) Some larger animals have been reported as pollinators in some species, e.g.,
Lemur (Primate) in Ravenela plant, Lizard in Flax
POLLEN-PISTIL INTERACTION
 Pollination does not guarantee the transfer of the right type of pollen. Often,
pollen of the wrong type, either from other species or from the same plant (if it
is self-incompatible), also land on the stigma.
 The pistil has the ability to recognize the pollen, whether it is of the right type
(compatible) or the wrong type (incompatible). The ability of the pistil to
recognize the pollen followed by its acceptance or rejection is the result of a
continuous dialogue between pollen and the pistil.
 This dialogue is mediated by chemical components of the pollen interacting with
those of the pistil. If the reaction is favorable, the pollen grain germinates on
the stigma to produce pollen-tube through one of the germ pores.
 Plants in which the pollen grain are shed at 2-celled stage, the generative cell
divides and forms the 2 male gametes during the growth of pollen tube in the
stigma. If pollen grains are shed at 3-celled stage, pollen tubes carry the 2-male
gametes from the beginning.
(1) Entry of the pollen tube into an ovule
(A) Pollen tube, after reaching the ovary, enters the ovule through the micropyle. It
is called as porogamy as seen in most of the flowering plants.
(B) In some plants, e.g., Casuarina, the pollen tube enters an ovule through chalaza
and it is called as chalazogamy.
(a) Pollen grains germinating on the stigma; (b) Pollen tubes growing through the
style; (c) L.S. of pistil showing path of pollen tube growth
(C) Some times the pollen tube enters into an ovule through integuments or funicle. It is
called as mesogamy. e.g,. Cucurbita.
(2) Entry of the pollen tube into the embryo sac:

Irrespective of the place of entry of pollen tube into the ovule, the tube invariably
enters the embryo sac at micropylar end, i.e., degenerating synergid cell. Entry of pollen
tube in the embryo sac is under chemotropic guidance (synergids have filiform apparatus
and secrete some chemicals).
(a) enlarged view of an egg apparatus showing entry of pollen tube into a synergid;
(b) Discharge of malegametes into a synergid & the movement of the sperms, one into the egg and the other
into the central cell
(3) All these events from pollen deposition on the stigma until pollen tubes enter the
ovule are together referred to as pollen-pistil interaction. This interaction is a
dynamic process.
(4) Pollen germination can be studied by dusting pollen (e.g., pea, chick pea,
Grotalaria, balsam, Vinca) on a glass slide containing a drop of 10% sugar solution
with boric acid, Ca, Mg and K salts. After 15-30 minutes, pollen tubes will' be
observed to come out of the pollen grains. So, this germination of pollen grain in
laboratory is called hanging drop method.
(5) Artificial hybridization: It is one of the major approaches of crop improvement
in which crosses are made between different varieties, species and genera in
order to combine their desirable characters in a single superior variety.
Emasculation Artificial pollination Bagging
Emasculation and bagging are two precautionary measures in this hybridization.

Emasculation is the removal of anthers from the floral buds of female parent bearing
bisexual flowers. Bagging is the covering of both emasculated as well as non-
emasculated flowers with butter paper or polythene to prevent contamination of its
stigma with unwanted pollen. When the stigma of bagged flower attains receptivity,
mature pollen grains collected from anthers of the male parent are dusted on the
stigma and the flowers are rebagged, and the fruits allowed to develop.
DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
Pollen tube enters the degenerating synergid and bursts, thereby releasing two male
gametes. One male gamete fuses with the egg to form diploid zygote. This fusion is
called syngamy or generative fertilization.
The other male gamete fuses with secondary nucleus (2n, i.e., fused polar nuclei of both
polar nuclei) to form primary endosperm nucleus (3n). This fusion is also called triple
fusion because three nuclei takes part in this fusion. It is also known as vegetative
fertilization or pseudofertilization or trophomixis.
Since two types of fusions, i.e., syngamy and triple fusion take place in an embryo sac
the phenomenon is termed double fertilisation. This event occurs in flowering plants
only. Five nuclei are involved in double fertilization.
Concept Builder
(i) The syngamy was discovered by Strasburger.
(ii) Triple fusion and double fertilization was discovered by S.G. Nawaschin and Guignard in Lilium and
Fritillaria.
(iii) Entry of more than one pollen tubes in an ovule leading to the occurrence of supernumerary male nuclei
(polyspermy).
(iv) When two pollen tubes enter an ovule and release their contents, it is possible that the egg may be
fertilized by male gamete from one tube and triple fusion may involve participation of male gamete from
another tube. This phenomenon is called as heterofertilization, e.g., Zea mays.
(v) When the entry of male gamete is not accompanied by fusion,the phenomenon is called as semigamy.
(vi) X-bodies are darkly stained DNA containing bodies found in synergid receiving pollen tube.
(vii) The percentage of pollen germination and tube growth is better in larger populations. This is referred to as
"population effect" or "crowding effect".
POST-FERTILIZATION: Structures and Events

 Development of endosperm and embryo, maturation of ovules into seeds and ovary
into fruit are collectively termed as post-fertilization events.
A. Endosperm
 This is a product of triple fusion and develops from central cell of embryo sac. It
is generally a triploid tissue. The cells of this tissue are filled with reserve food
materials and are used for the nutrition of the developing embryo.
 It is absent in families such as Orchidaceae, Podostemaceae and Trapaceae.
Plant Nature of Endosperm

Cereals (e.g., Rice, Wheat) Starchy
Cereals (e.g., Maize) Proteinaceous (Aleurone layer)
Castor, Coconut Oily
Ivory palm Cellulosic
Date palm Hemicellulosic
 The stony endosperm is present in betel nut (Areca nut) and date palm (Phoenix
dactylifera).
Diploid endosperm is found in Oenothera.
Types of endosperms:
(i) Nuclear Endosperm: It is the most common type of endosperm in angiosperm

plants. During the development of this endosperm, at first PEN undergoes
successive nuclear divisions without wall formation (free nuclear division). In
this manner, large number of free nuclei are produced. Finally, wall formation
begins and it makes the endosperm a multicellular tissue, e.g., Cotton, Maize,
Capsella, Coconut (milk).
(ii) Cellular Endosperm: Primary endosperm nucleus divides many times and each
division is followed by wall formation, e.g., Petunia, Utricularia, Coconut (copra).
(iii) Helobial Endosperm: It is an intermediate between nuclear and cellular type,

e.g., members of order helobiales (Monocot).
Concept Builder
(i) The seeds with double endosperm is found in coconut (Cocos nucifera), (a) liquid
endosperm, (b) cellular endosperm.
(ii) Xenia : The effect of foreign pollen on endosperm character is called xenia. This
term was given by Focke. This was first observed in maize endosperm colour.
(iii) Metaxenia : Discovered by Swingle. The effect of foreign pollen on somatic
tissue lying outside the endosperm is known as metaxenia, e.g., in date palm size
of fruits and maturity time depends upon foreign pollen. .
(iv) Ruminate Endosperm : Endosperm with irregular surface, also known as chewed
endosperm, e.g., Passiflora, Annona, Myristica.
(v) Mosaic Endosperm : Endosperm with sugary and starchy parts forming different
colour patches of yellow and white, e.g., Maize.
State true or false :
(i) In most of the angiosperms, pollen tube enters the ovule through chalaza.
(ii) Endosperm is a feature of all living angiospermic plants.
(iii) Endosperm is diploid in Oenothera plant.
(iv) The coconut water from tender coconut is free nuclear endosperm.
(v) The effect of foreign pollen on endosperm character is called metaxenia
Ans. (i) False, (ii) False, (iii) True, (iv) True, (v) False
B. Embryo
 The development of an embryo from a zygote is called embryogeny. Embryo
develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac where the zygote is situated.
Most zygotes divide only after certain amount of endosperm is formed.
 This is an adaptation to provide assured nutrition to the developing embryo. It
means endosperm development precedes embryo development.
 Early stages of embryogeny are similar in both monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
(a) Development of Embryo in Dicots
 The normal type of dicot embryo development has been studied in Shepherd's
purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris) which belongs to family Cruciferae.
 This is called as Crucifer or Onagrad type of embryo development. The
development of embryo is endoscopic. Zygote (oospore) divides into two unequal
cells, larger suspensor cell towards micropyle and a smaller embryonal cell
(terminal cell) towards antipodal region.
 The suspensor cell undergoes transverse divisions forming 6-10 celled long
suspensor. The first cell of the suspensor (towards micropyle) is large and called
haustorium or vesicular cell.
 The last cell of suspensor (towards embryo cell) is known as hypophysis. It forms
radicle tip.
 Embryonal cell divides twice vertically and once transversely to produce a two-
tiered eight-celled embryo. The epibasal tier forms two cotyledons and a plumule
while the hypobasal tier produces only hypocotyl and most of the radicle.
 For this the octant embryo undergoes periclinal divisions producing protoderm,
procambium and ground meristem. It is initially globular but with the growth of
cotyledons it becomes heart-shaped and then assumes the typical shape,
e.g., Capsella bursa-pastoris.
Stages in the development of dicot embryo (A to I)

 A typical dicot embryo consists of an embryonal axis

and two cotyledons. The portion of embryonal axis
above the level of cotyledons is the epicotyl, which
terminates with the plumule (stem tip).
 The cylindrical portion below the level of cotyledons
is hypocotyl that terminates, at its lower end in the
radicle. In orchids, Orobanche and Utricularia, the
embryo does not show distinction of plumule,
cotyledons and radicle.
(b) Development of Embryo in Monocot
 The normal type of monocot embryo development
has been studied in Luzula forsteri and is called Segittaria type. Suspensor is
single celled in monocots.
 The zygote of oospore divides transversely
producing a vesicular suspensor cell towards
micropylar end and embryo cell towards the
chalazal end.
 The embryo cell divides transversely again into a
terminal and a middle cell. The terminal cell divides
vertically and transversely into globular embryo.
 It forms a massive cotyledon and a plumule.
 Growth of cotyledon pushes the plumule to one side.
Remains of second cotyledon occur in some grasses.
It is called epiblast. The single cotyledon of
monocots is called scutellum. It is shield shaped and lateral in position but
appears terminal.
 The middle cell gives rise to hypocotyl and radicle. Radicle is enclosed in an
undifferentiated sheath called coleorhiza. Epicotyl has a shoot apex and a few
leaf primordia enclosed in a hollow foliar structure, the coleoptile.
C. Seed
 It is often described as fertilised ovule. A seed typically consists of seed
coat(s), cotyledon(s) and an embryonal axis. Mature seeds are of two types:
(a) Non endospermic or exalbuminous seeds:
 In seeds like gram, pea, groundnut etc. the endosperm is completely consumed by
developing embryo, thus the seeds are called non-endospermic or exalbuminous.
(b) Endospermic or albuminous seed:
 In monocots and castor bean (dicots) embryo does not consume all endosperm. So,
it persists in the mature seed. Such seeds are called endospermic or albuminous
seeds. In these seeds, food is stored in endoseprm, e.g., wheat, maize, barley,
sunflower, coconut.
 Mostly nucellus is consumed after fertilisation due to absorption of food by the
endosperm and embryo, but in some seeds remnants of nucellus are of persistant
nature.
 This residual, persistent nucellus is called perisperm. Such seeds are called
perispermic seeds, e.g., Black pepper (Piper nigrum), beet.
 Integuments of ovules harden as tough protective seed coats. The outer seed coat called
testa develops from outer integument and inner seed coat called tegmen is derived from
inner integument.
 The micropyle remains as a small pore in the seed coat. Micropyle facilitates entry of
oxygen and water into the seed during germination.
 As the seed matures, its water content is reduced and seeds become relatively dry (10-
15% moisture by mass).
 The embryo may enter a state of inactivity called dormancy or if favourable conditions
like adequate moisture, oxygen and suitable temperature are available, they germinate.
 The transformation of ovules into seeds and ovary into fruit proceeds simultaneously.
The ovary wall develops into the fruit wall, called pericarp.
 The fruit may be fleshy (guava, orange, mango) or dry (groundnut, mustard). In some
cases thalamus and other floral parts show proliferation alongwith development of ovary
wall.
 Such fruits are called false fruits, e.g., Apple, Strawberry, Cashew nut. Most fruits
develop from the ovary and are called true fruits.
• In some plant species, fruits develop without fertilisation. Such fruits are
seedless and are called parthenocarpic fruits, e.g., Banana. Parthenocarpy can be
induced through the application of growth hormones like Auxins.
• The first stimulus for fruit development comes from pollination while second
stimulus is received from developing seeds and the third stimulus is provided by
the availability of nutrients.
Advantage of seeds to Angiosperms

• Seeds have better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new habitats and help the
species to colonize in other areas. As they have sufficient food reserves, young seedling
are nourished until they are capable of photosynthesizing on their own.
• The hard seed-coat provide protection to young embryo. Being product of sexual
reproduction, they generate new genetic combinations leading to variations.
• Seed forms basis of our agriculture. Dehydration and dormancy of mature seeds are
crucial for storage of seeds which can be used as a food throughout the year and also to
raise crops in next season. Seed viability varies from species to species. '
• Oldest viable seeds of lupine, Lupinus arcticus were excavated from Arctic Tundra. The
seed germinated and flowered after an estimated record of 10,000 years of dormancy.
• A recent record of 2000 years old viable seed is of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera),
discovered during the archeological excavation at King Herod's Palace near Dead Sea.
• The ability of a seed to retain the power of germination is called viability. It can be
tested by using 0.1 % solution of triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC).

• Orchid fruits contain thousands of tiny seeds. Similar in the case in fruits of Ficus and
parasitic species such as Orobanche and Striga.
Difference between dicots & monocots
APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY

 Apomixis is the formation of new individuals directly through asexual
reproduction without involving the formation and fusion of gametes.
It is of two types :
(i) Agamospermy and
(ii) Vegetative Propagation
(i) Agamospermy is a mode of apomixis in which seeds are formed but are asexual in nature
as the embryo develops directly without gametic fusion.
There are several types of agamospermy :
(i) Adventitive Embryony (Sporophytic budding): Embryo arises from diploid sporophytic
cells such as nucellus or integuments (other than egg), e.g., Citrus, Opuntia, Mango.
(ii) Recurrent Agamospermy: In this method, a diploid embryo sac is formed from
megaspore mother cell which has a diploid egg or oosphere. The diploid egg grows
parthenogenetically into diploid embryo, e.g., Apple, Pear, Allium. Diploid embryo sac can
develop directly from either the diploid megaspore mother cell (diplospory) or diploid
nuclear cell (apospory).
(iii) Non-recurrent Agamospermy: Embryo develops parthenogenetically from haploid egg,
e.g., Banana.
(iv) Apogamy: It is formation of sporophyte or embryo directly from cells of gametophyte.
In higher plants, only diploid apogamy is successful. In lower plants, haploid apogamy is
equally successful.
 Polyembryony is the phenomenon of having more than one embryo in a seed, discovered
in Citrus by Leeuwenhock. There may be more than one egg cell in an embryo sac or more
than one embryo sac in an ovule.
 All the egg cells may get fertilised. Synergids and antipodal cells may also form embryos
(mixed polyembryony). Occurrence of polyembryony due to fertilisation of more than one
egg is called simple polyembryony.
 Formation of extra embryos through sporophytic budding is called adventitive
polyembryony.
 Polyembryony is quite common in onion, groundnut, mango, lemon and orange. In some of
these cases stimulus of pollination may be required. Citrus seed has 2-40 embryos, one
normal and the rest adventitive mostly nucellar.
(ii) Vegetative Propagation
Apomixis: Vegetative Propagation Vegetative Propagation on Leaf of Bryophyllum
Natural Vegetative Propagation in Sweet Potato

Importance of Apomixis:
 Hybrid varieties of several of our food and vegetable crops are being extensively
cultivated because they provide higher and better yield. However, there is one
major drawback.
 Hybrid seeds have to be produced every year because seeds collected from
hybrid plants, if sown subsequently, do not maintain hybrid characters due to
segregation of traits.
 Production of hybrid seeds every year is costly thus increasing the cost of crop
production. This can be avoided if apomixis is introduced in hybrid seeds.
Concept Builder
(i) The study of seed is called spermology.
(ii) Chalazosperm is perisperm like tissue in chalazal region. It is a substitute for endosperm e.g.
Cynastrum.
(iii) Seed viability in Oxalis -few days
(iv) Apomixis is common in some species of Asteraceae and grasses.
SUMMARY
1. The site of sexual reproduction in angiosperms are flowers.
2. Androecium consisting of stamens (male reproductive structure) and gynoecium
consisting of pistils (female reproductive structure).
3. Typical anther is bilobed, dithecous and tetrasporangiate.
4. Epidermis, endothecium, middle layers and tapetum make anther wall and
sporogenous tissue lying in the centre of microsporangium undergo meiosis to
form microspore tetrad, which individually mature as pollen grains representing
male gametophytic generation.
5. Pollen grains have two-layered wall, outer exine made of sporopollenin having
germ pores and inner intine which is pectocellulosic.
6. Pollen grains may be two-celled (with vegetative and generative cell) or three-
celled (vegetative cell + 2 male gametes) at the time of shedding.
7. Pistil has stigma, style and ovary. Ovary contains ovules. Ovules have a stalk
called funicle, protective integument(s) and an opening called micropyle. Central
tissue is nucellus in which archesporium differentiates, into megaspore mother
cell which divides meiotically to form megaspores. Functional megaspore forms
the 7-celled and 8-nucleated embryo sac (the female gametophyte) having egg
apparatus, antipodals and polar nuclei.
8. Pollinating agents are either abiotic (wind/water) or biotic (animals).
9. Pollen-pistil interaction and compatible pollination result in pollen tube formation
and growth of tube through style and entry into ovules, finally discharge of two
male gametes in one of the synergids. Syngamy and triple fusion result in diploid
zygote and triploid primary endosperm nucleus respectively.
10. Zygote develops into embryo and primary endosperm cell forms endosperm.
Endosperm formation proccedes embryo development.
11. The developing embryo passes through stages like proembryo, globular and
heart-shaped stage and matures. Dicot embryo has two cotyledons and an
embryonal axis with epicotyl and hypocotyl. Monocots have single cotyledon.
12. After fertilisation, ovary develops into fruit and ovules develop into seeds.
13. In some angiosperms, like grasses, seed formation without fertilisation called
apomixis is found, which is advantageous in horticulture and agriculture.
14. Polyembryony is seen in some angiosperms.
EXERCISE – 1
Section – A
Q.1 A stamen is regarded as a
(1) Microsporophyll (2) Megasporophyll
(3) Microsporangium (4) Megasporangium
Q.2 A typical anther is generally
(1) Bisporangiate (2) Tetrasporangiate
(3) Monosporangiate (4) Multisporangiate
Q.3 Development of anther in angiosperms is
(1) Leptosporangiate (2) Eusporangiate (3) Gradate (4) Simple
Q.4 The tapetal cells of anther shows
(1) Haploidy (2) Diploidy (3) Triploidy (4) Polyploidy
Q.5 Pro-ubisch bodies appear in cytoplasm of
(1) Endothecium (2) Middle layers (3) Tapetum (4) Epidermis
Q.6 Fibrous bands present in endothecium of anther wall is made up of
(1) Sporopollenin (2) -Cellulose (3) Pectin (4) Lignin
Q.7 Glandular type of tapetum secretes
(1) Sporopollenin (2) Pollen kitt
(3) Compatibility proteins (4) All of these
Q.8 The exine of pollen grains (microspores) is composed of
(1) Pollen kitt (2) -cellulose (3) Sporopollenin (4) Lignin
Q.9 The number of germ pores in dicots and monocots pollen grains are respectively
(1) 1, 3 (3) 3, 1 (2) 2, 3 (4) 3, 2
Q.10 The two cells at which pollen grains are discharged are
(1) Larger generative cell and smaller vegetative cell
(2) Larger vegetative cell and smaller body cell
(3) Smaller vegetative cell and larger body cell
(4) Smaller generative cell and larger vegetative cell
Q.11 Minerals required for germination of pollen grains on stigma are
(1) Ca, B (2) Mn, Ca (3) N, S (4) Fe, Ca
Q.12 Pollen tube is produced by
(1) Exine (2) Intine
(3) Both exine and intine (4) Generative cell
Q.13 Number of male gametes in one pollen tube is
(1) 1(2) 2 (3) 4 (4) 6
Q.14 The chemical complex which control the chemotropic movement of pollen tube in style is
(1) K+, salts, amino acids (2) Organic acids, K+
(3) Ca, B, inositol sugar complex (4) Phenols and lignins
Q.15 Even after killing the generative cell with a laser beam the pollen grain of a flowering
plant germinates and produces normal pollen tube because
(1) Laser beam stimulates pollen germination and pollen tube growth
(2) The vegetative cell has not been damaged
(3) The contents of killed generative cell permit germination and pollen tube growth
(4) The laser beam does not damage the region from which pollen tube emerges
Q.16 Chasmogamy is pollination in

(1) Bud condition (2) Closed flowers (3) Open flowers (4) Unrelated flowers
Q.17 Which of the following is/are ornithophilous?
(1) Erythrina (2) Bombax (3) Grevillea (4) All of these
Q.18 Maturation of gynoecium before anthers of the same flower is called
(1) Protogyny (2) Protandry (3) Heterogamy (4) Dichogamy
Q.19 When pollen grains of a flower fall on the stigma of another flower of the same plant
this condition is called
(1) Genetically self pollination
(2) Genetically self pollination and ecologically cross pollination
(3) Ecologically cross pollination
(4) Genetically cross pollination and ecologically self pollination
Q.20 In geitonogamy, pollen grains are transferred to
(1) Genetically different flower
(2) Genetically similar flower
(3) Stigma of another flower of a different plant
(4) Stigma of the same flower
Q.21 Which is not a contrivance for self pollination?
(1) Homogamy (2) Bud pollination (3) Cleistogamy (4) Dichogamy
Q.22 Which is generally not a characteristic of anemophilous flower?
(1) Unisexual nature (2) Abundant pollen grains
(3) Bright coloured (4) Reduction in no. of sepals, petals and ovules
Q.23 A characteristic of entomophilous pollen grains is presence of
(1) Powdery nature (2) Sticky pollen kitt material
(3) Carotenoids (4) Ubisch bodies
Q.24 Dioecious condition and epihydrophily is found in
(1) Vallisneria (2) Salvia (3) Zostera (4) Coconut
Q.25 Bats are pollinator of
(1) Butea (2) Adansonia (3) Sunflower (4) Callistemon
Q.26 Pollen tube in Portulaca was first observed by
(1) P. Maheswari (2) A. Camerarius (3) G. B. Amici (4) Nawaschin
Q.27 When some natural barriers exist between the stamens and pistil to check self
pollination, it is known as
(1) Heterostyly (3) Dichogamy (2) Herkogamy (4) Dicliny
Q.28 When the pollen tube enters the embryo sac, one of the following is always destroyed
(1) Antipodal (2) Egg (3) Synergid (4) Polar nucleus
Q.29 Germination of pollen grain on the stigma is called
(1) Autogamy (2) In-situ germination
(3) In-vivo germination (4) In-vitro germination
Q.30 Ovules are also called
(1) Megasporophyll (2) Integumented megasporangia
(3) Seeds (4) Nucellus
Q.31 Types of ovules in angiosperms are
(1) 6 (2) 5 (3) 4 (4) 3
Q.32 Tetrad of megaspores produced from megaspore mother cell is mostly
(1) Isobilateral (2) Linear (3) Tetrahedral (4) Decussate
Q.33 When the body of the ovule, embryo sac and micropyle lie at right angles to the
funiculus, the ovule is called
(1) Amphitropous (2) Anatropous (3) Campylotropous (4) Hemianatropous
Q.34 When the hilum, chalaza and micropyle of ovule lie in the same long axis, it is known as
(1) Amphitropous (2) Anatropous (3) Orthotropous (4) Campylotropous
Q.35 How many megaspore mother cells are required to produce 100 eggs during
megasporogenesis?
(1) 1(2) 100 (3) 50 (4) 25
Q.36 Ategmic ovule is found in
(1) Loranthus (2) Tagetes (3) Santalum (4) Both (1) & (3)
Q.37 Polygonum type of embryo sac is
(1) 7-celled, 8-nucleated structure (2) 8-celled, 8-nucleated structure
(3) 6-celled, 8-nucleated structure (4) 6-celled, 6-nucleated structure
Q.38 The fusion of second male gamete with secondary nucleus is called
(1) Double fertilization (2) Triple fusion
(3) Syngamy (4) Triple fertilization
Q.39 Egg apparatus is situated at ______ end and is composed of _____ cells
(1) Micropylar, 2 (2) Chalazal, 3 (3) Micropylar, 3 (4) Chalazal, 2
Q.40 Phenomenon of double fertilization was discovered by
(1) Strasberger (2) P. Maheshwari (3) Amici (4) Nawaschin
Q.41 In female gametophyte, which cell is mother cell of endosperm?
(1) Synergid (2) Antipodal (3) Central cell (4) Egg
Q.42 Ploidy level of endosperm in angiosperm is generally "
(1) n (2) 2n (3) 3n (4) 6n
Q.43 Most common type of endosperm is
(1) Nuclear (2) Cellular (3) Helobial (4) Any of these
Q.44 Coconut milk is a
(1) Solid endosperm (2) Liquid endosperm
(3) Helobial type of endosperm (4) Degenerated products of cellular
endosperm
Q.45 Ruminate endosperm is commonly found in the seeds of members of family
(1) Euphorbiaceae (2) Cruciferae (3) Annonaceae (4) Compositae
Q.46 Perisperm is
(1) Degenerate secondary nucleus (2) Remnant of nucellus
(3) Peripheral part of endosperm (4) Degenerate synergids
Q.47 Suspensor in a dicot embryogeny is
(1) 6-10 Celled (2) One celled (3) 10 - 20 celled (4) Absent
Q.48 Epiblast is
(1) Reduced cotyledon in grass embryo (2) Embryo of grass
(3) Covering of radicle (4) Covering of plumule
Q.49 Which is not true regarding gametophytic self incompatibility?
(1) Controlled by multiple alleles
(2) It is due to genotype of pollen
(3) Growth of pollen tube is prevented in style
(4) Sporopollenin are involved
Q.50 Production of apomict embryo from cells of nucellus or integument is called
(1) Parthenocarpy (2) Sporophytic budding

(3) Adventive polyembryony (4) Both (2) & (3)
Q.51 What will be the ploidy of endosperm and zygote if the cross is made between 6n plant
and 4n plant?
(1) 5n,8n (2) 8n,5n (3) 10n, 7n (4) 6n,4n
Q.52 Development of sporophyte without gametic fusion is known as
(1) Apomixis (2) Apospory (3) Apogamy (4) Agamospermy
Q.53 Find odd one (w.r.t. viability of pollen grains)
(1) Rosaceae (2) Poaceae (3) Leguminoseae (4) Solanaceae
Q.54 Term sporoderm and spermoderm are used to represent respectively
(1) Spore wall and sperm wall (2) Anther wall and seed coat
(3) Spore wall and seed coat (4) Integument of ovule and sperm wall
Q.55 In some angiosperms and gymnosperm the multiple embryos are produced in the following
way/ways?
(1) By fertilization of synergids or antipodal cells by sperms
(2) By cleavage of the single zygote
(3) One or more cells of the nucellus or integument develops into embryo
(4) All of these
Q.56 Pollen tube exhibits -
(1) Basal growth (2) Apical growth (3) Both the above (4) Intercalary growth
Q.57 Movement of pollen tube is -
(1) Tactic (2) Tropic (3) Nastic (4) Autonomous
Q.58 Pollen tube is composed of -
(1) Pactin (2) Cutin (3) Sporopollenin (4) Pecto-cellulose
Q.59 Longest pollen tube is found in -
(1) Wheat (2) Maize (3) Barley (4) Rice
Q.60 Tegmen of the seed develops from -
(1) Perisperm (2) Funiculcum (3) Inner integument (4) Outer inergument
Q.61 Stigma of Anemophilous flower is -
(1) Rough (2) Smooth (3) Sticky (4) None of above
Q.62 Endosperm is not formed in the members of -
(1) Compositae (2) Orchidaceae (3) Cucurbitaceae (4) Malvaceae
Q.63 In Casuarina, pollen tube enters through -
(1) Intergument (2) Chalaza (3) Micropyle (4) Funiculum
Q.64 'Callase' enzyme which dissolve callose of tetrad of microspores to separate 4
microspores is provided by -
(1) Pollen grains (2) Middle layer (3) Tapetum (4) Endothecium
Q.65 The common type of embryo sac development is -
(1) Oenothera type (2) Polygonum type (3) Allium type (4) Adoxa type
Q.66 Example of Epihydrophily is -
(1) Zostera (2) Vallisneria (3) Ceratophyllum (4) Nymphea
Q.67 Pollination in Yucca plant takes place by -
(1) Honey bee (2) Butter fly (3) Pronuba (4) Bird
Q.68 The primary Endosperm nucleus in Polygonum type of Embryosac is -
(1) Haploid (2) Diploid (3) Triploid (4) Tetraploid
Q.69 Protandry is the situation when -
(1) Anther matures later than the stigma of flower

(2) Anther matures earlier than the stigma of flower
(3) Anther and stigma mature at the same time
(4) All of the above
Q.70 The anterior end of pollen tube burst by the process of _____ in embryosac -
(1) Imbibition (2) Exo-osmosis (3) Enzymatic action (4) Endo-osomosis
Section – B
Q.1 Which of the following nuclei participate in double fertilization -
(1) The egg (2) The secondary nucleus
(3) The two male nuclei (4) All of the above
Q.2 Perisperm is -
(1) Degenerate secondary nucleus (2) Remnant of nucellus
(3) Peripheral part of endosperm (4) Degenerate synergids
Q.3 The Parenchyma tussue which forms the bulk of ovule where the sporogenous tissue is
produced is -
(1) Megaspore mother cell (2) Nucellus
(3) Ovule (4) Embryo sac
Q.4 After fertilization the outer integument of ovule change into -
(1) Testa (2) Tegmen (3) Fruit (4) Seed
Q.5 In Capsella the pollen tube enters through the micropyle, therefore fertilization is -
(1) Porogamous (2) Chalazogamous (3) Mesogamous (4) Basigamous
Q.6 The pollen tube was discovered by -
(1) Schleiden (2) Amici (3) Hofmeister (4) Trueb
Q.7 Double fertilization means -
(1) Fusion of male gametes and ovum
(2) Fusion of two polar bodies
(3) A male gamete fused with egg and second male gamete fused secondary nucleus
(4) All the above
Q.8 Pollen tube enters into embryo sac of Angiosperm through the
(1) Egg cell (2) Any one of the synergids
(3) Any one of the antipodal cells (4) None of these
Q.9 Fertilization & double fertilization occurs in -
(1) Ovary (2) Ovule (3) Embryo sac (4) Nucellus
Q.10 The fusion product of polar nuclei and male gamet is -
(1) Nucellus (2) Primary endosperm nucleus
(3) Zygote (4) Secondary nucleus
Q.11 When a diploid plant is crossed with a tetraploid plant, the endosperm will be -
(1) Diploid (2) Triploid (3) Tetraploid (4) Pentaploid
Q.12 In pollination ''Trap door mechanism'' is found in -
(1) Salvia (2) Aristolochia (3) Ficus (4) Yucca
Q.13 Male gametes of the Capsella fused with -
(1) Egg (2) Secondary nucleus (3) Both of the above
(4) None of above
Q.14 The term xenia denotes the effect of pollen on the -

(1) Somatic tissue (2) Root (3) Flowers (4) Endosperm
Q.15 The function of suspensor is -
(1) To provide water
(2) To provide oxygen
(3) To push the embryo towards endoperm to provide more food
(4) To suck food
Q.16 What are x-bodies in ovules -
(1) Two polar nuclei
(2) Disintegrating tube nucleus & synergids nucleus
(3) Filiform apparatus (4) Two male nuclei
Q.17 Scutellum is a
(1) Endosperm of gymnosperm (2) Sheild shaped cotyledon of monocot
(3) Protective covering of radicle (4) Protective covering of plumule
Q.18 Coleoptile is -
(1) Coat of plumule (2) Coat of Radicle (3) Plumule (4) None of these
Q.19 Water of coconut is –
(1) Endosperm (2) Nucellus (3) Endocarp (4) Mesocarp
Q.20 Suspensor is one celled in -
(1) Capsella (2) Triticum (3) Raphanus (4) Brassica
Q.21 Mosaic endosperm is characteristic of -
(1) Wheat (2) Plumbago (3) Maize (4) Coconut
Q.22 Tigellum is known as -
(1) Testa (2) Tegmen
(3) Both of the above (4) Main axis of the
embryo
Q.23 Chasmogamous and cleistogamous type of flower are found in -
(1) Primrose (2) Ficus religiosa (3) Commelina (4) Calotropis
Q.24 Apex of radicle is formed with help of -
(1) Epibasal cells (2) Hypobasal cells (3) Cotyledon (4) Hypophysis
Q.25 Embryo is formed in dicotyledon plants -
(1) Lateral (2) At the apex (3) In middle (4) 2 & 3 both
Q.26 The last cell of suspensor is called -
(1) Hypophysis (2) Suspended cell (3) Terminal cell (4) Haustorial cell
Q.27 Haploid, diploid and triploid conditions respectively can be traced in -
(1) Egg. Nucellus, Endosperm (2) Antipodal, Egg, Endosperm
(3) Endosperm, Nucellus, Synergids (4) Antipodal, Synergids & Integuments
Q.28 Formation of fruit without fertilization known as -
(1) Parthenogenesis (2) Polyembryony (3) Polygamy (4) Parthenocarpy
Q.29 If the leaf of Capsella has 46 number of chromosomes then how many chromosomes
number will be there in endosperm -
(1) 46 (2) 23 (3) 69 (4) 138
Q.30 If the nucellus cell of an Angiosperm contains 24 chromosomes the number of
chromosomes present in pollen grain, endosperm & embryo will be -
(1) 24, 36, 24 (2) 12, 36, 24 (3) 12, 24, 360 (4) 24, 12, 12
Q.31 How many meiotic division are required to produce 40 seeds in the Capsella plant -
(1) 50 (2) 40 (3) 80 (4) 20
Q.32 In Angiosperm, if haploid number of chromosome is 12 then what will be the no of
chromosomes in integuments and synergids -
(1) 12, 12 (2) 24, 12 (3) 24, 24 (4) 12, 24
Q.33 In Angiosperm, if number of chromosomes in endosperm is 30, what will be the no. of
chromosomes in nucellus -
(1) 15 (2) 30 (3) 20 (4) 40
Q.34 How many meiotic divisions are essential formation of 100 seeds in Cyperaceae family -
(1) 100 (2) 125 (3) 150 (4) 200
Q.35 How many meiotic divisions are necessary for formation of 100 functional megaspores -
(1) 25 (2) 50 (3) 100 (4) 200
Q.36 In albuminous seed, the food is stored in -
(1) Testa (2) Plumule (3) Cotyledon (4) Endosperm
Q.37 In non endospermic seed or ex-albuminous seed -
(1) The endosperm may be completely used up by developing embryo
(2) No endosperm form
(3) Endosperm is starchy
(4) Endosperm is oily
Q.38 Helobial endosperm is restricted usually to -
(1) Gymnosperm (2) Dicotyledons (3) Monocotyledons (4) Both 2 & 3
Q.39 ''Ruminate endosperm'' is commonly found in seed of -
(1) Euphorbiaceae (2) Cruciferae
(3) Palmae or Arecaceae (4) Compositae
Q.40 Which of the following is not essential for the germination of most of seeds -
(1) Light (2) Temperature (3) O2 (4) H2O
Q.41 Which statement is false -
(1) Pollens are received by stigma
(2) Pollen tube discovered by Amici
(3) Pollen kitt is absent on pollen grains of Capsella
(4) Tigellum is the main axis of embryo
Q.42 Mark the incorrect statement
(1) Fibrous bands are absent in the endothecium of hydrophytes
(2) Epidermis of anther in Arceuthobium develops some fibrous thickenings
(3) Cells of tapetum and endothecium show increase in DNA contents by endomitosis and
polyteny
(4) More than four microspores are produced from one microspore mother cell in
Cuscuta reflexa
Q.43 Which of the following statement is applicable for all flowering plants?
(1) Monosiphonous pollen grains
(2) Non·motile and morphologically dissimilar gametes
(3) Presence of pollinium (4) Division of generative cell after pollination
Q.44 In castor, proliferation of the outer integumentary cells at micropylar region
(1) Lacks hygroscopic ability (2) Attract ants and helps in myrmecophily
(3) Is called epistase (4) Stores sugary
substances
Q.45 Lemna, Alisma and Poppy plants have
(1) Amphitropous ovules (2) Hemianatropous ovule
(3) Campylotropous ovules (4) Horse shoe shaped embryo-sac only
Q.46 Match the column I with column II
Column I Column II
(Plant) (Feature)
a. Plumbagelfa (i) Diploid endospemn
b. Orchids (ii) No endospemn
c. Oenothera (iii) Ategmic ovule
d. Loranthus (iv) Tetrasporic embryo sac
(1) a(iv), b(ii), c(i), d(iii) (2) a(iii), b(i), c(ii), d(iv)
(3) a(iv), b(ii), c(iii), d(i) (4) a(iii), b(ii), c(iv), d(i)
Q.47 Flowers of Coral tree, Baobab tree, Sausage tree, Bottle brush and Red silk cotton
(1) Are brightly coloured and large sized
(2) Are dull coloured with strong fruity odour
(3) Produce nectar and pollinated by biotic agents
(4) Are colourless, odourless and nectarless
Q.48 If the chromosome number in the root cell of Zea mays is 20. then what would be the
chromosome number in the cell of radicle (a). hypocotyl (b). epiblast (c). aleurone layer
(d) and scutellum (e) respectively?
(1) a = 20; b = 30; c = 20; d = 30; e = 20 (2) a = 20; b = 20; c = 20; d = 30; e = 20
(3) a = 20; b = 30; c = 30; d = 30; e = 20 (4) a = 30; b = 20; c = 20; d = 20; e = 30
Q.49 In sporophytic self incompatibility, both types of pollen grains of a plant S1S4 will be
incompatible over the stigma of plants like
(1) S1S4, S2S3, S2S4, S1S5, S1S2 (2) S2S5, S3S4, S1S4, S1S2
(3) S1S2, S2S4, S1S6, S1S3, S1S4 (4) S1S4, S2S4, S3S4, S2S6
Q.50 In gram, pea and groundnut plants
(1) Endosperm is not formed in life cycle
(2) Embryo development precedes endosperm development
(3) Mature seeds lack endosperm
(4) Non-albuminous seeds are formed due to absence of triple fusion
Q.51 Select the correct statement from the following :
(1) X-bodies are darkly stained DNA containing bodies found in all cells of egg apparatus
(2) Obturator directs the growth of pollen tube towards micropyle of seed
(3) There are many embryos of different sizes and shapes in the seeds of orange
(4) Embryo arises parthenogenetically from the diploid egg in adventive embryony
Answer Key
Section – A
Q.1 1 Q.2 2 Q.3 2 Q.4 4 Q.5 3 Q.6 2 Q.7 4
Q.8 3 Q.9 2 Q.10 4 Q.11 1 Q.12 2 Q.13 2 Q.14 3
Q.15 2 Q.16 3 Q.17 4 Q.18 1 Q.19 2 Q.20 2 Q.21 4
Q.22 3 Q.23 2 Q.24 1 Q.25 2 Q.26 3 Q.27 3 Q.28 3
Q.29 3 Q.30 2 Q.31 1 Q.32 2 Q.33 4 Q.34 3 Q.35 2
Q.36 4 Q.37 1 Q.38 2 Q.39 3 Q.40 4 Q.41 3 Q.42 3

Q.43 1 Q.44 2 Q.45 3 Q.46 2 Q.47 1 Q.48 1 Q.49 4
Q.50 4 Q.51 2 Q.52 3 Q.53 2 Q.54 3 Q.55 4 Q.56 2
Q.57 2 Q.58 4 Q.59 2 Q.60 3 Q.61 3 Q.62 2 Q.63 2
Q.64 3 Q.65 2 Q.66 2 Q.67 3 Q.68 3 Q.69 2 Q.70 4
Section – B
Q.1 4 Q.2 2 Q.3 2 Q.4 1 Q.5 1 Q.6 2 Q.7 3
Q.8 2 Q.9 3 Q.10 2 Q.11 3 Q.12 3 Q.13 3 Q.14 4
Q.15 3 Q.16 2 Q.17 2 Q.18 1 Q.19 1 Q.20 2 Q.21 3
Q.22 4 Q.23 3 Q.24 4 Q.25 4 Q.26 4 Q.27 1 Q.28 4
Q.29 3 Q.30 2 Q.31 1 Q.32 2 Q.33 3 Q.34 4 Q.35 3
Q.36 4 Q.37 1 Q.38 3 Q.39 3 Q.40 1 Q.41 3 Q.42 3
Q.43 2 Q.44 4 Q.45 1 Q.46 1 Q.47 3 Q.48 2 Q.49 3
Q.50 3 Q.51 3
EXERCISE – 2
Previous Years Questions
Q.1 Eight nucleated embryo sac is - [AIPMT 2000]

(1) Only monosporic (2) Only bisporic
(3) Only tetrasporic (4) Any of the above
Q.2 Endosperm is formed during the double fertilization by - [AIPMT 2000]
(1) Two polar nuclei & one male gamete (2) One polar nuclei & One male gamete
(3) Ovum and male gamete (4) Two polar nuclei & two male gametes
Q.3 By which action a seed coat becomes permeable to water - [AIPMT 2000]
(1) Scarification (2) Stratification (3) Vernalization (4) All of the above
Q.4 Anemophily type of pollination is found in – [AIPMT 2001]
(1) Salvia (2) Bottle brush (3) Vallisneria (4) Coconut
Q.5 What is the eyes of potato - [AIPMT 2001]
(1) Auxillary bud (2) Accessary bud (3) Adventitious root (4) Apical bud
Q.6 Which one breaks the dormancy of Potato tuber – [AIPMT 2001]
(1) Gibberellin (2) IAA (3) ABA (4) Zeatin
Q.7 In grass what happens in microspore mother cell for the formation of mature pollen
grains –
[AIPMT 2001]
(1) One meiotic and two mitotic divisions (2) One meiotic and one mitotic division
(3) One meiotic division (4) One mitotic division
Q.8 Adventive embryony in Citrus is due to – [AIPMT 2001]
(1) Nucellus (2) Integuments (3) Zygotic embryo (4) Fertilized egg
Q.9 In Angiosperms pollen tube liberate their male gametes into the - [A
(1) Central cell (2) Antipodal cells (3) Egg cell (4) Synergids
Q.10 What is the direction of micropyle in anatropous ovule - [AIPMT 2002]
(1) Upward (2) Downward (3) Right (4) Left
Q.11 Which type of association is found in between entomophilous flower and pollinating agent
–
[AIPMT 2002]
(1) Mutualism (2) Commonsalism (3) Co-operation (4) Co-evolution
Q.12 In Angioperms all the four microspores of tetrad are covered by layer which is formed
by–
[AIPMT 2002]
(1) Pectocellulose (2) Callose (3) Cellulose (4) Sporopollenin
Q.13 Seed dormancy is due to the presence of – [A
(1) Ethylene (2) Abscisic acid (3) I.A.A (4) Starch
Q.14 In a flowering plant, archesporium gives rise to– [AIPMT 2003]
(1) Only the wall of the sporangium (2) Both wall and the sporogenous cells
(3) Wall and the tapetum (4) Only tapetum and sporogenous cells
Q.15 The aleurone layer in Maize grain is specially rich in - [AIPMT 2003]
(1) Proteins (2) Starch (3) Lipids (4) Auxins
Q.16 Anthesis is a phenomenon which refer to [AIPMT 2004]
(1) Formation of pollen (2) Development of anther
(3) Opening of flower bud (4) Reception of pollen by stigma
Q.17 An ovule which becomes curved so the nucellus and embryo sac lie at right angles to the
funicle is - [AIPMT 2004]
(1) Campylotropous (2) Anatropous (3) Orthotropous (4) Hemitropous
Q.18 When a diploid female plant is crossed with a tetraploid male, the ploidy of endosperm
cells in the resulting seed is - [AIPMT
(1) Pentaploidy (2) Diploidy (3) Triploidy (4) Tetraploidy
Q.19 Pollen grains are able to withstand extremes of temperature and dessication because
their exine is composed of - [AIIMS
(1) Cutin (2) Suberin (3) Sporopollenin (4) Callose
Q.20 The pollen tube usually enters the embryo sac– [AIIMS 2004]
(1) Through one of the synergids (2) By directly penetrating the egg
(3) Between one synergid and central cell (4) By knocking off the antipodal cells
Q.21 In which one pair both the plants can be vegetatively propagated by leaf pieces –
[AIIMS 2005]
(1) Bryophyllum and Kalanchoe (2) Chrysanthemum and Agave
(3) Agave and Kalanchoe (4) Asparagus and Bryophyllum
Q.22 In a type of apomixis known as adventive embryony, embryos develop directly from the
[AIPMT 2005]
(1) nucellus or integuments (2) Synergids or antipodals in an embryo sac
(3) accessory embryo sac in the ovule (4) zygote
Q.23 Through which cell of the embryo sac, does the pollen tube enter the embryo sac [AIPMT 2005]
(1) Egg cell (2) Central cell
(3) Persistant synergid (4) Degenerated synergid
Q.24 Which one of the following represents an ovule, where the embryo sac becomes horse-
shoe shaped and the funiculus and micropyle are close to each other - [A
(1) Circinotropous (2) Anatropous (3) Amphitropous (4) Atropous
Q.25 What would be the number of chromosomes in the cells of the aleurone layer in a plant
species with 8 chromosomes in its synergids ? [A
(1) 16 (2) 24 (3) 32 (4) 8
Q.26 Treatment of seed at low temperature under moist conditions to break its dormancy is
called– [AIPMT 2006]
(1) Scarification (2) Vernalization (3) Chelation (4) Stratification
Q.27 The arrangement of the nuclei in a normal embryo sac in the dicot plants is - [AIPMT 2006]
(1) 2 + 4 + 2 (2) 3 + 2 + 3 (3) 2 + 3 + 3 (4) 3 + 3 + 2
Q.28 In a Cereal grain the single cotylendon of embryo is represented by - [AIPMT 2006]
(1) Coleorrhize (2) Scutellum (3) Prophyll (4) Coleoptile
Q.29 Long filamentous threads protruding at the end of a young cob of maize are - [AIPMT 2006]
(1) Hairs (2) Anthers (3) Styles (4) Ovaries
Q.30 In which of the following fruit is the edible part the aril ? [AIPMT 2006]
(1) Litchi (2) Custard apple (3) Pomegranate (4) Orange
Q.31 Embryo sac represents - [RPMT 2006]
(1) Macrogamete (2) Macrospore (3) Macrosprophyll (4) Macrogametophyte
Q.32 Double fertilization involves - [AIIMS 2005]
(1) Fertilization of the egg by two male gametes
(2) Fertilization of two eggs in the same embryosac by two sperms brought by one pollen tube
(3) Fertilization of the egg and the central cell by two sperms brought by different pollen tubes
(4) Fertilization of the egg and the central cell by two sperms brought by the same pollen tube
Q.33 A scion is grafted to a stock. The quality of fruits produced will be determined by the
genotype of - [
(1) Stock (2) Scion
(3) Both stock and scion (4) Neither stock not scion
Q.34 Male gametes in angiosperms are formed by the division of - [AIPMT 2007]
(1) Microspore mother cell (2) Microspore
(3) Generative cell (4) Vegetative cell
Q.35 Which one of the following is surrounded by a callose wall? [AIPMT 2007]
(1) Pollen grain (2) Microspore mother cell
(3) Male gamete (4) Egg
Q.36 Unisexuality of flowers prevents – [AIPMT 2008]
(1) Geitonogamy, but not xenogamy (2) Autogamy and geitonogamy
(3) Autogamy, but not getionogamy (4) Both geitonogamy and xenogamy
Q.37 Endosperm is consumed by developing embryo in the seed of - [AIPMT 2008]
(1) Pea (2) Maize (3) Coconut (4) Castor
Q.38 Which one of the following is resistant to enzyme action? [AIPMT 2008]
(1) Pollen exine (2) Leaf cuticle (3) Cork (4) Wood fibre
Q.39 What does the filiform apparatus do at the entrance into ovule? [AIPMT
(1) It brings about opening of the pollen tube
(2) It guides pollen tube from a synergid to egg
(3) It helps in the entry of pollen tube into a synergid
(4) It prevents entry of more than one pollen tube into the embryo sac
Q.40 Which one of the following pairs of plant structures has haploid number of
chromosomes? [AIPMT 2008]
(1) Nucellus and antipodal cells
(2) Egg nucleus and secondary nucleus
(3) Megaspore mother cell and antipodal cells
(4) Egg cell and antipodal cells
Q.41 An example of a seed with endosperm, perisperm and caruncle is - [AIPMT 2009]
(1) Castor (2) Cotton (3) Coffee (4) Lily

Q.42 What does Angiosperm mean - [RPMT 2007]
(1) Naked seed (2) Covered seed (3) Leaf fall (4) Seed bub
Q.43 How many times flowering takes place in biennial plants - [RPMT 2007]
(1) Once (2) Twice (3) Many (4) None
Q.44 Endosperm of Angiosperm is - [RPMT 2007]
(1) 2n (2) 3n (3) n (4) 2n + 1
Q.45 Apomictic embryos in citrus arise from : [Pre AIPMT 2010]
(1) Synergids (2) Maternal sporophytic tissue in ovule
(3) Antipodal cells (4) Diploid egg
Q.46 Keel is characteristic of the flowers of: [Pre AIPMT 2010]
(1) Gulmohur (2) Cassia (3) Calotropis (4) Bean
Q.47 Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower of the same
plant is called : [Pre AIPMT 2010]
(1) Xenogamy (2) Geitonogamy (3) Karyogamy (4) Autogamy
Q.48 Even in absence of pollinating agents seed-setting is assured in : [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Zostera (2) Salvia (3) Fig (4) Commellina
Q.49 An organic substance that can withstand environmental extremes and cannot be
degraded by any enzyme is : [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Sporopollenin (2) Lignin (3) Cellulose (4) Cuticle
Q.50 Which part would be most suitable for raising virus-free plants for micropropagation?
[AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Vascular tissue (2) Meristem (3) Node (4) Bark
Q.51 Both, autogamy and geitonogamy are prevented in : [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Cucumber (2) Castor (3) Maize (4) Papaya
Q.52 What is the function of germ pore? [AIPMT Mains 2012]
(1) Emergence of radicle
(2) Absorption of water for seed germination
(3) Initiation of pollen tube
(4) Release of male gametes
Q.53 Which one of the following statements is wrong? [AIPMT Mains 2012]
(1) When pollen is shed at two-celled stage, double fertilization does not take place.
(2) Vegetative cell is larger than generative cell.
(3) Pollen grains in some plants remain viable for months.
(4) Intine is made up of cellulose and pectin.
Q.54 Plants with ovaries having only one or a few ovules, are generally pollinated by [AIPMT Mains 2012]
(1) Bees (2) Butterflies (3) Birds (4) Wind
Q.55 Perisperm differs from endosperm in : [AIPMT 2013]
(1) having no reserve food
(2) being a diploid tissue
(3) its formation by fusion of secondary nucleus with several sperms
(4) being a haploid tissue
Q.56 Megasporangium is equivalent to : [AIPMT 2013]
(1) Fruit (2) Nucellus (3) Ovule (4) Embryo sac
Q.57 Advantage of cleistogamy is : [AIPMT 2013]
(1) More vigorous offspring (2) No dependence on pollinators
(3) Vivipary (4) Higher genetic variability

Q.58 Product of sexual reproduction generally generates: [AIPMT 2013]
(1) Prolonged dormancy (2) New genetic combination leading to
variation
(3) Large biomass (4) Longer viability of seeds
Q.59 Which one of the following statements is correct? [AIPMT 2013]
(1) Sporogenous tissue is haploid
(2) Endothecium produces the microspores
(3) Tapetum nourishes the developing pollen
(4) Hard outer layer of pollen is called intine
Q.60 Male gametophyte with least number of cells is present in: [AIPMT 2014]
(1) Lilium (2) Pinus (3) Pteris (4) Funaria
Q.61 Non-albuminous seed is produced in : [AIPMT 2014]
(1) Wheat (2) Pea (3) Maize (4) Castor
Q.62 Select the Taxon mentioned that represents both marine and fresh water species [AIPMT 2014]
(1) Cephalochordata (2) Cnidaria (3) Echinoderms (4) Ctenophora
Q.63 Which of the following is responsible for peat formation? [AIPMT 2014]
(1) Funaria (2) Sphagnum (3) Marchantia (4) Riccia
Q.64 Function of filiform apparatus is to [AIPMT 2014]
(1) Produce nectar (2) Guide the entry of pollen tube
(3) Recognize the suitable pollen at stigma (4) Stimulate division of
generative cell
Q.65 Pollen tablets are available in the market for [AIPMT 2014]
(1) Supplementing food (2) Ex situ conservation
(3) In vitro fertilization (4) Breeding programmes
Q.66 Geitonogamy involves: [AIPMT 2014]
(1) fertilization of a flower by the pollen from a flower of another plant in the same
population.
(2) fertilization of a flower by the pollen from a flower of another plant belonging to a
distant population.
(3) fertilization of a flower by the pollen from another flower of the same plant.
(4) fertilization of a flower by the pollen from the same flower.
Q.67 Which of the following are the important floral rewards to the animal pollinators?
[AIPMT 2015]
(1) Nectar and pollen grains (2) Floral fragrance and calcium crystals
(3) Protein pellicle and stigmatic exudates (4) Colour and large size of flower
Answer Key
Q.1 4 Q.2 1 Q.3 1 Q.4 4 Q.5 1 Q.6 1 Q.7 2

Q.8 1 Q.9 4 Q.10 2 Q.11 4 Q.12 2 Q.13 2 Q.14 2
Q.15 1 Q.16 3 Q.17 4 Q.18 4 Q.19 3 Q.20 1 Q.21 1
Q.22 1 Q.23 4 Q.24 3 Q.25 2 Q.26 4 Q.27 2 Q.28 2
Q.29 3 Q.30 1 Q.31 4 Q.32 4 Q.33 2 Q.34 3 Q.35 2
Q.36 3 Q.37 1 Q.38 1 Q.39 3 Q.40 4 Q.41 1 Q.42 2
Q.43 1 Q.44 2 Q.45 2 Q.46 4 Q.47 2 Q.48 4 Q.49 1
Q.50 2 Q.51 4 Q.52 3 Q.53 1 Q.54 4 Q.55 2 Q.56 3
Q.57 2 Q.58 2 Q.59 3 Q.60 1 Q.61 2 Q.62 2 Q.63 2
Q.64 2 Q.65 1 Q.66 3 Q.67 1
EXERCISE – 3
AIIMS Special Questions
INSTRUCTIONS- In the following questions, a statement of Assertion (A) is followed by a statement at
Reason (R).
(1) If both A & R are true and the R is the correct explanation of the A, then mark (1).
(2) If both A & R are true but the R is not the correct explanation of the A, then mark (2).
(3) 11 A is true statement but R is false, then mark (3).
(4) It both A and R are false statements, then mark (4).
Q.1 A:- All the pollen grains of a microsporangium are held together and form pollinium.
R :- Pollinium is very suitable for anemophily.
Q.2 A:- The endosperm represents the triploid condition.
R :- It is formed due to fusion of triploid nuclei.
Q.3 A:- Allele of pollen happens to be one of the two alleles of pistil, the pollen fails to form pollen
tube.
R :- The incompatibility is due to the genotype of the pollen producing plant.
Q.4 A:- The pollen grains of dicots are tricolpate.
R :- It has 3 distinct lens shaped apertures.
Q.5 A:- Main body of an ovule is called nucellus.
R :- The nucellus is well developed in polypetalae.
Q.6 A:- Some of the Angiospermic plants are propagated only by vegetative propagation.
R:- They have lost the capacity of seed formation.
Q.7 A :- Clone is formed by amphimixis.
R :- In amphimixis, new plants are formed without fertilization and meiosis.
Q.8 A :- In apomixis, plants are formed in new genetic sequence.
R:- In apomixis two of genetical similar type of organisms fuse together.
Q.9 A :- Diplospory is also known as diploid parthenogenesis.
R:- In this, embryo is formed from the diploid egg cell without fertilization.
Q.10 A:- The plants in which amoeboid type of tapetum is found, middle layer of anther immediately
degenerates.
R:- Entire food of middle layer is absorbed by tapetum.
Q.11 A :- Grafting is possible only in dicot plants.
R:- In these plants vascular cambium is absent.
Q.12 A :- When formation of embryo takes place inside the ovule nucellus or integuments then it is
called ‘‘adventive embryony’’
R:- In adventive embryo, formation of embryo occurs at place other than the mother place.
Q.13 A :- seedless fruits are formed in parthenocarpy.
R:- In this process fruits are formed without fertilization.
Q.14 A :- The plants in which glandular tapetum is found, formation of exine of pollen grains takes
place in these plants.
R:- Ubisch bodies formed only in glandular tapetum which participate in the formation of exine.
Q.15 A :- Occurence of two male gametes is the constant feature of male gametophyte of angiosperms.
R:- Only in-vitro development takes place of male gametophyte of angiosperms.
Q.16 A :- In Legume plants, naturally self pollination takes place.
R:- Both the types of reproductive organs are present inside the keel and it always remains
closed.
Q.17 A :- Xenia is the effect of pollen grains on the structure of endosperm.
R:- Xenia effect is produced in the seed of Maize due to heterofertilization.
Q.18 A :- Night flowering plants are entomophillous.

R:- Flowers of these plants are odour less.
Q.19 A :- Pollination in Ophrys plant take place by pseudo copulation
R:- Mimicry is found in flowers of this plant
Q.20 A :- Symbiosis is found in between Pronuba moth and Yucca plant.
R:- Life cycle of both completely depended on each other.
Q.21 A :- Pollen grains are preserved for a long time in fossil form.
R:- Sporopollenin is the chief component of exine of pollen grains
Q.22 A :- Double fertilization is the universal feature of all plants.
R:- In this fusion of only male gamtes and secondary nucleus take place
Q.23 A :- Cross-pollination is usually takes place in unisexual plants.
R:- Cleistogamy promotes cross-pollination
Q.24 A :- Synergids of embryo sac also help in fertilization in Angiosperms.
R:- Obturators of synergids attract the pollen tube.
Q.25 A :- Sexual reproduction takes place with the participation of two different type of gametes.
R:- Sexual reproduction is also known as apomixis.
Q.26 A :- Periplasmodium is formed by glandular tapetum.
R:- Periplasmodium participate in the formation of exine of pollen grains.
Q.27 A :- Nuclear type of endosperm is found in Coconut.
R:- Endosperm of Coconut is formed by free nuclear divisions of primary endosperm nucleus.
Q.28 A :- In Angiosperm, endosperm is generally triploid
R:- In Oenothera plant always diploid endosperm is formed.
Q.29 A :- After development of embryo, an ovule modifies into seed.
R:- Seeds are also formed during the normal sexual reproduction without fertilization.
Q.30 A :- Seeds of monocotyledon plants are called endospermic seeds.
R :- Generally in seeds of monocotyledons plants food is stored in cotyledons.
Q.31 A :- Seed and fruit formation are the advanced feature of Angiosperms.
R:- Triple fusion is considered as universal feature of Angiosperms.
Q.32 A :- Viability of seed is checked by TTC.
R:- Highest viability of seed is found in Mangroove vegetation.
Q.33 A :- Development of anther in Angiosperms take place by more than one archesporials.
R:- This type of development of anther is called leptosporangiate.
Q.34 A :- Gemetophytic phase starts with the formation of pollen grain.
R:- Study of structure of pollen grains is called palynology.
Q.35 A :- In agamospermy, genetic variations are produced in progeny.
R:- In this process, new progeny is formed by gametic fusion.
Q.36 A :- Anemophily includes wastage of pollen grains.
R:- Anemophillus flowers are neither attractive nor fragrant.
Q.37 A :- Pollen tube shows apical growth.
R:- Growth of pollen tube is controlled by generative nucleus.
Q.38 A :- Polygonum type of embryo sac is the most common in Angiosperms.
R:- Polygonum type of embryo sac is monosporic type.
Answer Key
Q.1 3 Q.2 3 Q.3 1 Q.4 1 Q.5 2 Q.6 1 Q.7 4

Q.8 4 Q.9 1 Q.10 1 Q.11 3 Q.12 2 Q.13 1 Q.14 1
Q.15 3 Q.16 1 Q.17 1 Q.18 3 Q.19 1 Q.20 1 Q.21 1
Q.22 4 Q.23 3 Q.24 3 Q.25 3 Q.26 4 Q.27 1 Q.28 2
Q.29 3 Q.30 3 Q.31 2 Q.32 3 Q.33 3 Q.34 2 Q.35 4
Q.36 2 Q.37 3 Q.38 2

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

It is the male reproductive part

Transverse section of anther:

- The anther is a tetragonal structure consisting of four

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

Pollen grain (male gametophyte)

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

A matured pollen grain contains 2 cells:

reserve and a Generative cell

- The shed pollen grains have to land on the stigma before

- Viability of pollen grains of some cereals

Economic importance of pollen grains:

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

- the pistils may be fused together or free

It is a landing platform for

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

- Ovules generally differentiate a single megasporemother

- In a majority of flowering plants, one of the megasporesis

- The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

Distribution of the cells within the embryo sac:

In this, pollen grains transfer from the anther

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

More common abiotic agent.

• The flowers produce enormous amount ofpollen.

- It is quite rare. It is limited to about 30 genera, mostly monocotyledons.

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

Hermaphrodite flowers can undergo self-pollination.

This also prevents autogamy.

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

- If the pollen is the pistil rejects pollen by

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

- It is a crop improvement programme in which desired pollen grains are used

- The central cell after triple fusionbecomes the primary

POST FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES & EVENTS

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

- Endosperm cells are filledwith reserve food materials.

- It has an embryonal axis and 2 cotyledons.

- They possess only one cotyledon.

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

Seed from Ovule

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

- The fruits may be (e.g. guava, orange, mango, etc.)

In some species fruits develop without fertilisation. Such

• Since pollination and fertilisation are independent of water,

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

- In a few species the seeds lose viability within a few

APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

Microspore Mother Style

Autogany (self – Pollination) Geitonogamy (Cross – Pollination) Xenogamy (Cross – Pollination)

Mitosis of Generative Floral Reward Pollen/Nectar Robbers

Endosperm Embryo Ovule (s) Ovary into

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

PRE-FERTILIZATION: Structures and Events

Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollen grain

microsporangia located at the corners, two in each lobe.

Figure: (a) A typical stamen, (b) Three-dimensional cut section of an anther

 The tapetum is of two types:

Figure A-D. Various stages during successive type of division

Figure : Types of microspore tetrads

(d) Pollen Grain

POST FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES & EVENTS