Sample Theory With Ques. - Nuclear Chemistry (JAM CY Unit-5)

CSIR-UGC(NET)
Chemical Sciences
SAMPLE
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Chemical Sciences-CH (Sample Theory)
1. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
“The branch of chemistry in which we deals with study of nuclear reaction is called nuclear
chemistry.”
Terminology, Concept and Formulae of Nuclear Chemistry
1. Nuclides : The atom with specific atomic and mass no. is called nuclide.
In the nuclear reactions, different isotope of same elements are considered an nuclides with
different nuclear properties.
2. Nucleons : The fundamental particles of nucleus are proton and neutrons referred to collectively
as nucleons.
3. Types of Particles : The various particles can be classified into fermions and bosons.
Nuclear Particles
Fermions Bosons
obey pauli principle don't obey pauli principle

have antisymmetric wave function have symmetric wave function
have half integer spin values have integer spin values
Leptons Hadrons
eg. Electron eg. neutrons and protons
Smaller particles which bigger particles which
can't interact by strong can have stronger
nuclear interactions nuclear interaction
Quark Anti Quarks
Various Terms Used for Atoms of Elements

Isotopes
1. Atoms of same element having same at. no. but different mass no. are known as isotopes.
16 17 18
e.g., 8 O, 8 O, 18 O.
2. Isotopes of an element leave different no. of neutrons.
3. Isotopes of an element are placed at same position in periodic table.
4. Isotopes have different physical nature (due to different atomic mass) but same chemical
nature (due to same at. no.).
5. Nuclides and its decay products formed after 1 and 2-particles are called isotopes
(named by Soddy).
m
z A 

 mz 24B 
 m4  m 4
z 1 C  z A
6. Isotopes differ in radioactive nature and chemical reactivity.
(i) Heavier isotopes may be radioactive.
(ii) Lighter isotopes are more reactive.
Therefore, 13H is radioactive 11H is more reactive.
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(% of one isotope  its mass)  (% of isotope  its mass)

7. Average atomic weight =
100
= (% × m)
Isobars
40 40 40
1. Atoms of different elements having same mass no. are isobars e.g., 18 Ar, 19 K, 20 Ca.
2. Isobars have same no. of nucleons.
3. Isobars have different physical and chemical nature.
4. Nuclide and its decay product formed after -emission are called isobars. Tritium, a 
emitter forms isobar 32He
3
1  32He 
H  0
e
1
Isotones
1. Atoms having same no. neutrons, e.g., 12 H and 32 He .
2. Mass no. – atomic no = constant (i.e., no of neutrons).
Isoelectronics
1. Atom and ions having same no. of electrons are called as isoelectronics.
2. e.g., N3–, O2–, F–, Ne, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+.
3. The size of isoelectronic ions decreases with increase in atomic no.
Isodiaphers
1. Atoms having the same difference of neutron and proton or same isotopic number.
2. Nuclide and its decay product formed after -emission are called isodiaphers.
m m4
3. e.g., Z A 

 Z2 B
p = Z p = Z – 2
n = m – Z n = m – Z – 2
n – p = m – 2Z n – p = m – 2Z
[Isotopic no. = n – p = m – 2Z]
Isostere
1. Molecules having same no. of atoms and same no. of electrons.
2. e.g., CO2 and N2O.
Nuclear Isomers
1. Nuclides having identical atomic no. and mass no. but differing in radioactive decay are
known as nuclear isomers.
2. Nuclear isomers differ in their energy state and spins.
60 60m 69 69m 80 80m
3. e.g., Co and Co, Zn and Zn, Br and Br or like UA and UZ.
The symbol m with mass no. represents the metastable state of parent element.
60m 60
Co 
 Co   rays
4. Nuclear isomers, thus have different rate of decay, decay constant, half-life, average life
and binding energy.
Isotopic Number
Isotopic no. = no. of neutron – no. of protons
(N – P)

= (A – Z) – Z = A – 2Z
A = mass no.
Z = Atomic no.
Ex. Naturally occuring carbon consists of two isotopes (C12 and C13) what are the percentage
abundances of these two isotopes in a sample of carbon whose atomic weight is 12.01112.
(Assume the nucleidic masses of C12 and C13 are 12.0000 and 13.00334 amu respectively).
Sol. Let the % of isotope with at. wt. 12 = x
At wt 13.00334 = 100 – x
At wt of natural carbon = 12.01112
12x  (100  x)(13.00334)
12.01112 
100
1201.112 = 12x + 1300.334 – 13.00334x
1.00334 x = 99.222
or x = 98.89
% of C12 = 98.89
% of C13 = 1.11%
Radius of Nucleus
Radius of nucleus is in the order 10–15 m.
Radius of nucleus = R = RºA1/3
where Rº = 1.2 × 10–13 cm = 1.2 × 10–15 m = 1.2 fermi
A = mass number
Density of The Nucleus
mass of the nucleus
Density 
volume of the nucleus
mass of the nucleus

 gcm3
4
(nucleus radius)3
3
the density of the nucleus is same for all the nucleus on is of the order of 1014 gcm–3.
Ex. Assuming the nucleus has spherical shape, calculate the density of Pu239.
Sol. R = 1.4 × A1/3 Fermi
= 1.4 × (239)1/3 × 10–13 cm
= 8.6 × 10–13 cm
Volume of nucleus
4 4
 R3   3.14  (8.6  10 13 cm)3
3 3
= 2.75 × 10–36 cm3
Mass of the nucleus
239 gm mol1

6.023  1023 mol1
= 39.70 × 10–23 gm
39.70  1023 gm
D  1.44  1014 gm cm –3
2.75  1036 gm3

Nuclear Forces
Since the radius of nucleus ( 10–15 m) is very small, two proton present in the nucleus should
repel each other with an electrostatic force of about 6 tonnes. However, a larger number of protons are
present in the nucleus despite of this strong electrostatic force of repulsion.
It is because of the presence of nuclear forces. Nuclear forces are much stronger about 1021 time
than the electrostatic forces.
“The forces which hold the nuclear particles together are called nuclear forces.”
Nuclear forces have the following characteristics :
 These are powerful short range forces.
 These forces are different from those of electrostatic and gravitational force of attraction.
 These forces are not governed by inverse square law.
 These forces are exchange forces associated with the interconversion of neutron and
proton and vice versa via -meson.
 Nuclear forces involve the strong attraction in between proton-neutron, proton-proton,
neutron-neutron via -mesons.
Note : During the interconversion in between the nucleons, the atomic number as well as mass
number of the nuclide remains the same.
 -Meson are of the types :
Positive meson(+); Negative meson(–); Neutral meson(0).
Yukawa gave the following postulate in connection with the forces between neutrons and between
proton and neutron.
(i) The force which hold the neutrons together are available when there is exchange of
neutral meson between them, for example :
Neutron 1  Neutron’ 1 + 0
Neutron 2 + 0  Neutron’ 2
(ii) The force which hold the neutrons and protons together are available when there is
exchange of charged meson.
(a) Proton  Neutron + +
Neutron + +  Proton
(b) Neutron  Proton + –
Proton + –  Neutron
On the basis of above interconversion we can say that a meson oscillates in between the
neighbouring nucleon with a velocity close to that of light.
Nuclear Stability
The stability of nucleus may be described in terms of any one of the following :
1. Mass defect and nuclear binding energy.
2. Neutron proton ratio and stability of nucleus (N/P ratio).
3. Magic Number (Nuclear Shell Model).
1. Binding Energy and Nuclear Stability
The binding energy per nucleon is a measure of the stability of the nucleus. The greater is the
binding energy per nucleon, the more stable is the nucleus.
Average binding energy first increase with increases in mass number and reaches a maximum
around mass number 56 (iron)(i.e., The nucleus of iron is thermodynamically most stable). Then up to
mass number 100, average binding energy remains constant and then starts decreasing.

Fig.
2. Neutron Proton Ratio (N/P Ratio)
 Stability of the nucleus is found to be related with neutron to proton (n/p) ratio.
 Most of the stable nuclei have n/p ratio in the range 1 to 1.6.
 For lighter nuclei with atomic number (Z) up to 20, n/p ratio is close to 1 for stable nuclei.
 For heavier nuclei (Z > 20), n/p ratio is greater than 1. The value of n/p ratio increases
progressively with increase in atomic number.
140 Stability Belt
120 -Emission
Number of Neutrons (n)
100 -Emission n/p = 1
80
60
40
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Number of Proton (p)
Note : The heavier elements contain more neutrons than protons with increasing atomic number
more and more protons are packed into a tiny nucleus. This leads to sharp increase in repulsive forces.
A large and larger excess of neutron are required to diminish the effect of these repulsive forces.
Therefore the n/p ratio increases with increase in atomic number until the ratio is approximately 1.6 at
the end of curve.
It indicate that there is an upper limit to the number of proton that can be packed into a nucleus,
209
no mater how may neutrons are present. The largest stable nuclei is 83Bi , Nuclei having atomic
number greater than 83 are unstable.

 In a graph of number of neutrons versus number of protons, the zone of stable nuclei
is called zone of stability. Nuclides in this zone have n/p ratio from 1 to 1.6.
 The nuclides which lies above or below the zone of stability are unstable and are radioactive.
 These unstable nuclides emit -rays, -particles, positron etc. to attain stability.
A. Emission of -particles decreases the n/p ratio :
14 14 0
6 C 
 7N e (  particle)
1
B. Emission of -particles increases the n/p ratio :

238 234
92 U 
 90 Th  42 e
(n / p  1.5869) (n / p  1.60)
C. Positron Emission : Positrons are produced during the transformation into neutron
within the nucleus.
13 13 0
7 N 
 6 C e
1
(n / p  0.86) (n / p  1.17)
D. K e– capture/orbital e– capture :
 Electron capture is more likely for nuclei of atoms with atomic number of more than 70.
 In this process excess energy is emitted in the form of a neutrino.
 In this process the nucleus of an atom captures an e– from its K-shell. This is followed
by dropping of another e– from a higher energy level to the K-shell to replace the captured
e–.
195 0 Electron 195
79 Au  1 e 
Capture
 78 Pt  00 V
3. Magic Number (Nuclear Shell Model)

 Certain number of neutrons or protons, impart a greater nuclear stability, these are known
as magic number.
 These magic number are 2, 8, 20, 50, 58, 82, 126, 184.
 Nuclei which contain magic number of proton as well as magic number of neutrons are
4 16 40 208
the most stable. Example 2He, 8 O, 20 Ca, 82Pb etc.
Key Points
 60% of the stable nuclides have both even number of protons and even number of
neutrons.
 Almost all the remaining stable nuclides have either even number of protons or even
number of neutrons.
 The nuclides with odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons are unstable.
2 6 10 14 180
Exception 1H, 3 Li, 5 B, 7 N, 73 Ta all are stable.
able.
 All nuclides with Z > 83 are unstable.
Radioactivity
Henry Becquerel (1891) observed the spontaneous emission of invisible, penetrating rays from
potassium uranyl sulphate K2UO2(SO4)2, which influenced photographic plate in dark and were able to
produce luminosity in substances like Zns.
Later on, Marie Curie and her husband Pierre Curie named this phenomenon of spontaneous
emission of penetrating rays radioactivity. They also pointed out that radioactivity is a characteristic

property of an unstable or excited nucleus, i.e., a nuclear property and is independent of all the external
conditions say P,T, nature of other atoms associated with unstable atom but depends upon the amount
of unstable atom.
Marie Curie and her husband Pierre Curie also discovered a new radioactive element radium
from pitchblende (an ore of U, i.e., U3O8), about three million times more radioactive than uranium. They
also discovered polonium (Po). Now-a-days about 42 radioactive elements are known.
Rutherford identified two types of these penetrating rays and named them alpha () and beta
() particles. Later on P.Villard identified and named, the third category as gamma (g) rays.
Table : Properties of ,  particles and -rays, Becquerel radiation
S. No. Properties Alpha Beta Gamma

1 Nature Fast moving He Fast moving High energy
nuclei electrons radiations
2 Notation 4 0 0
2 He or a –1 e or b g or 0 g
3 Charge 2 unit (+ve) 1 unit (–ve) No charge
4 Typical source Ra–226 C–14 To –99 m
5 Velocity 1/10 of light 33% to 90% of light Same as light waves
6 Nature of path Straight line Crooked Waves
7 Relative penetrating 1 or 100 or 10,000 or
power (0.01 mm of Al foil) (0.1 cm of Al foil) (8 cm lead or 25 cm
steel)
8 Travel distance in air 2–4 cm 200–300 cm 500 m
9 Tissue depth 0.05 mm 4–5 mm 50 cm or more
10 Shielding Paper, clothing Heavy clothing, lab Lead, thick concrete
coats, gloves
11 Mass g/particle 6.65 × 10–24 9.11 × 10–28 0
12 Relative ionising 10,000 100 1
power
13 Electrical or magnetic Deflected towards Deflected towards No deflected
field's influence –ve pole +ve pole
Note :
1. Radium is most radioactive element.
3
2. Lightest radioisotope is 1H.
3. Lead blocks are used to prevent damage from radioactive emissions.
4. -particles are defected more towards magnetic or electric field than -particles because
of their lower mass.
5. Radioactivity is a nuclear property.
6. -particles cause more damage to tissues than -particles as the penetrating power of
 being less and thus they provide all their energy at one spot damaging tissues.
7. An -emitter is more hazardous to an organism internally than externally, whereas -
emitter is equally hazardous internally and externally.
8. -rays are identical to X-rays but their wave length is much smaller than X-rays.
The differences in radioactive change and chemical change are reported in table.

Table : Radioactive Change and Chemical Change
S. No. Radioactive Change Chemical Change

1 A nuclear phenomenon. Extranuclear phenomenon.
2 New nucleus/elements are formed. New compounds are formed.
3 Emission of a , b and g-rays occurs. No such emission.
4 Independent of external factors such as May be dependent.
P, T.
5 An irreversible change. May be reversible.
6 I order kinetics. May be any order.
7 Energy change : Energy change :
(a) order of 106 to 108 kcal (a) order of 102 to 103 kcal
(b) expressed in MeV/atom (b) kcal/mole
(c) in form of kinetic energy (c) any form of energy
(d) due to mass decay (d) due to change in energy of product
and reactants
Group Displacement Law
The changes that occur when an -particle or a -particle is emitted from a radioactive element
have been stated by Fajan, Russel and Soddy in 1913 in the form of a law which is known as Group
Displacement Law. This law states as follows :
When an -particle is emitted from a radioactive element (i.e., parent element), the new element
(i.e., daughter element) formed has atomic number two units less and mass number four units less than
the parent element. The element is consequently displaced two places (i.e., two groups) to the left of
the Periodic Table. Similarly, when a -particle is emitted, the new element has atomic number one unit
more but its mass number remains the same as that of the parent element. Consequently the new
element is displaced one place (i.e., one group) to the right of the Periodic Table.
Examples to Illustrate the Law
215
84 Po which is in group VIA of the Periodic Table, on losing an -particle is transformed into
211 211
radioactive lead, 82 Pb which belongs to group IVA. Thus, we see that the daughter element viz. 82 Pb
is displaced two places to the left of the Periodic Table.
VIA IVA
215 211
84 Po 

 82 Pb
211 211
Radioactive 82 Pb emits a -particle to give radioactive 83 Bi which belongs to group VA, i.e., one
211
place to the right of the parent element viz., 82 Pb .
IVA VA
211 211
82 Pb 

 83 Bi
211 211
Radioactive bismuth, Bi loses a -particle resulting in the formation of
83 84 Po which belongs
211
to group VIA, i.e., one place to right of the parent element, Bi .
83
VA VIA
211 211
83 Bi 

84 Po

The transformations shows above can be summarised as follows :
IVA VA VIA
211 – 215
82 Pb 84Po
– 211 – 211

83 Bi 84Po
215 211 211 211 211

In the above example 84 Po and Po are isotopes while
84 82 Pb, Bi and
83 Po are isobars.
84
Thus, we conclude that a -particle emission gives isobar while the combined emission of one - and
two -particles results in the formation of an isotope.
238 206
Ex. Calculate the number of - and -particles emitted when 92 U changes into 82 Pb .
238 206
Sol. Let the element formed between 92 U and 82 Pb be X. The mass number X should be the same
as that of Pb because there is no loss in the mass number of the daughter element formed as
a result of -emission. Now let the number of - and -particles emitted be x and y respectively.
The disintegration sequence will be as follows;
238  X 206  y 206
92 U   X   Pb
82
Thus, 238 – 4x = 206

 x = 32/4 = 8
The atomic number of
X = 92 – 2 × 8 = 92 – 16 = 76
Consequently,
y = 82 – 76 = 6
Thus, the number of various particles emitted is
-particles = 8
-particles = 6.
Laws of Radioactive Disintegration
Radioactive disintegration is found to obey the following two laws :
1. Atoms of all radioactive elements are undergoing spontaneous disintegration i.e., are
constantly breaking to form fresh radioactive products with the emission of , -and 
rays.
2. The rate of breaking is not affected by external factors like temperature, pressure, chemical
combination, etc., but depends entirely on the law of chance, i.e., the number of atoms
breaking per second at any instant is proportional to the number present. In other words,
the quantity of a radioactive element which disintegrates in units time is directly proportional
to the amount of the radioactive element present.
Suppose an element A disintegrates into another element B. Let the number of atoms of A in
the beginning (i.e., at t = 0) be N0. Now, as the time passes, the element A undergoes continuous
disintegration into B and hence, the number of atoms of A goes on decreasing. Let the number of atoms
of A left undisintegrated in time t be N. Thus,
A B
At t = 0 N0
At t = t N

If dN atom of A disintegrates in a small time dt, then the rate of disintegration (i.e., rate of
dN
decrease) of A into B which is also called activity is equal to – which is proportional to N, i.e.,
dt
dN
 N
dt
dN
or  N ...(1)
dt
Here,  is a constant of proportionality which has been called by Rutherford and Soddy as
radioactive (or decay or disintegration) constant.
Since, the intensity and the number of atoms of A decrease with time, the rate of disintegration
has been indicated by negative sign.
The differential equation (i) can be put in the form
dN
= – dtt
N
Integrating we have
dN
     dt + constant of integration, C
N
loge N = –t + C ...(2)
Now, when t = 0, N = N0
 loge N0 = C
Substituting the value of loge N0 in Eq. (2), we get
N
loge = –t
N0
N
or = e–t
N0
 N = N0e–t ...(3)
This decay equation may be used to find the number of the atoms of the original kind present
at any time t.
If M0 is the original mass of the material and M its present mass, then
M = M0 e–t
16
14
Activity /103C min
12
10
1/2
log (Activity /10 C min)
8 20
6 8
3
1/4
4 4
1/8
2 2
1/16
1/22
0 0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 15 30 45 60
Time/h Time/h
(a) (b)
24
Fig. Decay of Na of half-life period 15.03 h. (a) activity vs time (b) log activity vs time

Radioactive constant ()

(a) Eq.(1) given above may be put as
dN / dt

N
Hence, radioactive constant may be defined as the ratio of the amount of the substance
which disintegrates in a unit time to the amount of the substance present.
(b) Suppose, we put t = 1/ in Eq. (3) above. Then the number of the original atoms present
after this time is
N = N0e–×1/ = N0e–1
N0 N0
= 
e 2.718
N = 0.368 N0  0.37 N0
Hence, radioactive constant may also be defined as the reciprocal of the time during
which the number of atoms of a radioactive substance falls to 37 per cent of its original
value.
Half-Life Period (t1/2 or T)
Suppose after time T (or t1/2), half of the atoms of the radioactive element has disintegrated, i.e.,
when t = T, N = N0/2
N0
 N0 e T
2
1
or  e  T
2
or 2 = e+T
or T = loge 2
loge 2
or T =

0.6931
Hence, t1/2 or T = ...(4)

As is evident from Eq. (4), half-life period (T or t1/2) of a radioactive substance is the time required
to disintegrate one-half of the original amount of the substance. In other words, the half-life period of
a radioactive substance is the time in which half of the radioactive substance will disintegrate.
In general, it may be said that at the end of time T, only 50% of the radioactive atoms remain
unchanged, at the end of 2T, only 25%, after 3T, only 12.5%, after 4T, only 6.25% and at the end of
10T, only 0.1% radioactive atom remain unchanged. Hence, the life time of a radioactive element,
though theoretically infinite, is finite for all practical purposes.
As already seen, N represents the rate at which particles are emitted by N radioactive atoms.
0.693N
 Rate of emission of particles or activity = N = .
T
If T is expressed in second, then the above equation gives the emission rate in terms of the
number of particles expelled per second from N atoms of the given nuclide.
Evidently, half-life period of a given substance is independent of the amount of the substance
present initially. It depends only on the disintegration constant () of the element.

Half-life period of a radioactive substance is a measure of the radioactivity of the element, since
shorter the half-life period of a radioactive element, larger the number of its atoms that are disintegrating
in unit time.
Average Life Period (l)
This is also called mean life period or life expectancy and is defined as follows
Average life period of a radioactive element is the reciprocal of the disintegration constant ().
Thus,
1
l = ...(a)

We have already seen that
0.693
t1/2 =

1 t
or  1/ 2 ...(b)
 0.693
Hence, from Eq. (a) and (b), we get
t1/ 2
l = = 1.44 × t1/2
0.693
Thus, average life period (l) = 1.44 × half-life period (t1/2)
Radioactive Equilibrium
It is generally observed that the parent and daughter atoms coexist and these two atoms attain
equilibrium such that the daughter nuclei disintegrate at the same rate as they are formed form the
parent. e.g.
A B C
 dN   dN 
or  dt   
 parent  dt daughter
 (N)parent = (N)daughter at equilibrium
Now if we are dealing with a long series of disintegrations in a family, nuclear equilibrium is set
up, so long as each member remains present and 1 << 2 so that N1 remains substantially constant.
Therefore, we have :
1N1 = 2N2 = 3N3 = ... = nn for n numbers or in general we can write,
xNx = yNy ...(1)
Nx Ny
 ...(2)
t1/ 2x t1/ 2y
238 226
Ex. Calculate the ratio of 92
U(t1/2 = 4.49 × 109 yrs) to 88
Ra(t1/2 = 1.622 × 103 yrs) atoms in natural
uranium.
Sol. From equation (2), we get
and Rate of decay of B = 2N2
At radioactive equilibrium,
1N1 = 2N2

N1  2 1/ 1 Average life of A Z A
or    
N2 1 1/  2 Average life of B ZB
Thus, the number of atoms of A and B are in the ratio of their average life periods.
N1  2 0.693 /(t1/ 2 )2
 
N2 1 0.693 /(t1/ 2 )1
N1 (t1/ 2 )1

N2 (t1/ 2 )2
When A of parent element is less than B of daughter element, but both are not very small then
a transient equilibrium is reached, when
NB A

NA B   A
in fact it is steady state.

Units of Radioactivity
In radioactivity, it is the number of atoms which disintegrate in unit time is of real importance
rather than the total amount of the radioactive substance expressed by mass or in number of atoms,
i.e., the activity of a radioactive substance is the rate of decay or number of disintegrations per second.
The unit of radioactivity called Curie(Ci) is defined as that quantity of any radioactive substance
which has decay rate of 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second.
This unit is a large one and hence smaller units like millicurie (mCi) and microcurie(Ci) are
used.
1 millicurie = 3.7 × 107 disintegrations per sec
1 microcurie = 3.7 × 104 disintegrations per sec
There is another unit Rutherford (Rd) which is also used these days. It is defined as the amount
of a radioactive substance which undergoes 106 disintegrations per second. Smaller units like milli-
Rutherford and micro-Rutherford are also used.
1 milli-Rutherford = 103 disintegrations per sec(dps)
1 micro-Rutherford = 1 disintegration per sec
The SI units of radioactivity is proposed as Becquerel which refers to one dps.
1 curie = 3.7 × 104 Rutherford = 3.7 × 1010 Becquerel
1 curie = 37 GBq
Here, F stands for 109, i.e., giga
Gray (Gy) = 1 kg tissue receiving 1 J of energy
Sievert (Sv) = gray × quality number of radiation
Quality number of 1-particle = 20
Quality number of 1-particle = 1
Specific activity of a radionuclide is its activity per kilogram (or dm3) of the radioactive material.
(In some case, specific activity is taken as the activity per gram.)
Radiation counter : There are two main radiation counters in practice.
1. Geiger Muller counter : It is used to count charged particles, e.g.,  and -particles, emitted
by a radioactive nucleus. This counter is simply a metal tube filled with a gas like argon.

In order to count and detect neutrons, boron trifluoride (BF3) is added along with gas in the G.M.
10
counter. Neutron strikes 5 B nuclei to produce -particle, which is then detected and counted in Geiger
counter.
10
5 B 10 n 73 Li  24 He
2. Scintillation counter : -radiations are detected by Scintillation counter. A phosphor is used
in this counter which produces flash of light when it is struck by electromagnetic radiation like -rays,
for detection of -rays. Sodium iodide (Nal) and thallium iodide (Tll) is used as phosphor. Rutherford first
of all used zinc sulphide (ZnS) as phosphor in detection of -particles.
Ex. The half life period of radium is 1600 years. Calculate the disintegration constant of radium.
Mention its unit.
0.693
Sol. Disintegration constant  = t1/ 2
Since, t1/2 = 1600 years
0.693
So,  =
1600
or  = 4.33 × 10–4 year–1
238 238
Ex. The disintegration constant of U is 1.54 × 10–10 year–1. Calculate the half life period of U.
0.693
Sol. Half life period, t1/2 =

Since,  = 1.54 × 10–10 year–1
0.693
So, t1/2 = = 4.5 × 109 years
1.54  10 10
Ex. The half life period of radon is 3.8 days. After how many days will only one-twentieth of radon
sample be left over ?
0.693 0.693
Sol. We know that,  = 
3.8 = 0.182 day
–1
t1/ 2
N0
Let the initial amount of radon be N0 and the amount left after t days be N which is equal to .
20
Applying the equation,
2.303 N
t log10 0
 N
2.303 N0 2.303
 log10  log10 20
0.182 N0 / 20 0.182
= 16.54 days
Radioactive Series
Atoms of heavy elements like uranium, thorium polonium and radium etc., are constantly breaking
up into fresh radioactive atoms with the emission of -, -and -rays from their nuclei. In the process,
the original (or parent) atoms disappears and gives rise to new (daughter) atoms. These new atoms are
also, in general, radioactive and hence spontaneously break up in their turn, thereby leading to a long

chain of different radioactive elements in the form of a series until an inactive element (usually lead) is
reached. The series of elements thus obtained by the successive disintegration of the new atoms is
known as radioactive disintegration series and the spontaneous breaking up the nucleus is known
as radioactive disintegration.
All the naturally occurring radioactive elements belong to one of the following three series :
1. Uranium series [(4n + 2) series],
2. Thorium series [4n series],
3. Actinium series [(4n + 3) series].
These series have been named after the name of the element at or near the head of the
respective series. All these three series which are also called natural radioactive series end with a
stable isotope of lead.
Some elements of each series emit -particles whereas some other elements emit -particles.
Although no one atom can go both ways, some atoms go either of the two ways and cause branches
in the series. No matter which way the parent goes, the daughter goes otherway so that even though
the series branch, they always come together again.
1. Uranium Series [(4n + 2) series]
This series is also called (4n + 2) series because the mass number of the elements of this series
are given by this expression in which n is an integer whose value decreases by unity when we go from
one radioactive element to the next one below it. The mass numbers of the members of this series give
a remainder of 2 when divided by 4. In this series 238
92 U is the parent element and through the successive
206
disintegrations it is finally transformed into a stable isotopes of lead, 82 Pb (See Fig.).
U
238 – Th
234 – Pa
234 – U
234 – Th
230
92 90 91 92 90
214
82 Pb –
226 222 218
– 214
–
88 Ra – 86 Rn –
84 Po 83 Bi
– –
218
At
85
–
84Po214 – 84 Po
210
–
 –
210 – 210
Bi Pb
206
82 Pb 83 82
210
Tl – 206
81
– Tl
81 –
Fig. Uranium or (4n + 2) series for naturally occuring elements.

2. Thorium Series (4n series)
This series is also known as 4n series because mass numbers of the members of this series
232
are divisible by 4. This series starts with 90 Th . As shown in Fig. by a successive transmutation or
208
disintegration it ends up in a stable isotope of lead, 82 Pb .

Th
232 – Ra
228 – Ac
228 – Th
228 – Ra
224 – Rn
220
90 88 89 90 88 86
–
216 208
85 At – 81 Tl –
216
– 212
– 208
84Po 83 Bi 82 Pb
– 212
– 212
82 Pb – 84 Po –
Fig. Thorium or 4n series for naturally occuring elements.

3. Actinium Series [(4n + 3) series]
This series is also known as (4n + 3) series because the mass numbers of the members of this
series give a remainder of 3 when divided by 4. Actinium was one time thought to the starting element
of the series, but now it is known that the true starting element is 235
92 U which by successive transformations
207
ends up in a stable isotope of lead, 82 Pb. The whole chain of elements is shown in Fig.
90 Th227 –
– –
– –
92 U235 90 Th231 Pa231
91 89 Ac227 88 Ra223
–
87Fr223 –
–
84 Po211 –
–
– – –
Rn219
86 Po215
84 82 Pb211 83 Bi211 82 Pb207
–
81 Tl207 –
Fig. Actinium or (4n + 3) series of naturally occurring elements.

Similarities between radioactive series
There are many points of similarity between three radioactive series :
(i) In all series, a product is formed which disintegrates in a branching process by emitting
either - or -particle. The two substances thus produced are then transformed in such
a way as to give a common product.
(ii) In all series, there is an element of atomic number 86 which has the properties of an inert
gas and is called emanation.
(iii) The stable end-product in all the three series having an atomic number of 82, is an
isotope of lead i.e., Pb206, Pb207 and Pb208.
Neptunium Series [(4n + 1) series]
In addition to the three series described above, there is a fourth series which has been obtained
237
from an artificially-produced radioactive material. The first stable element in this series is 93 Np after
209
which it has been named and the stable end product is the ordinary bismuth 83 Bi rather than an isotope
of lead as in the uranium, actinium and thorium series (See Fig.). This series is also known as (4n +
1) series. All the members of this series are either unknown or extremely rare in nature.
It is quite obvious from the study of these series that all the members of a particular series are
characterised by having (4n + q) nucleus, where q is one of the integers 0, 1, 2, 3 characteristic of a
given series and n may be any integer. Evidently, (4n + q) gives the mass number A of the members
of the series. Thus

237 – 237 – 233 – 233 – 229 – 225

92 U 93 Np 91 Pa 92 U 90 Th U
88
–
84 Po213 –
–
225 – 221 – 217 – 213 209 – 209
Ac
89 87 Fr 85 At 83 Bi 82 Pb 83 Bi
–
209
81 Tl –
Fig. Neptunium or (4n + 1) series obtained from an artificially produced radioactive material.
For thorium series A = (4n + 0), q = 0
For neptunium series A = (4n + 1), q = 1
For uranium series A = (4n + 2), q = 2
For actinium series A = (4n + 3), q = 3
Nuclear Reactions or Nuclear Transmutation or Disintegration :
Bethe’s Notation A nuclear reaction is a transformation of a target atomic nucleus by bombarding
it with projectiles like light nuclei, free nucleons, photons of adequate energy. The following type of
equation is generally used to represent a nuclear reaction.
A1 A3
Z1 X  ZA22 a 
 Z3 Y  ZA44 b
In this equation ‘X’ denotes the target nucleus, ‘a’ denotes projectile which initiates the reaction,
‘b’ represents the particle ejected or the ejected and ‘Y’ denotes recoil (product nucleus). Normally ‘Z’s
are omitted in the equation unless the emphasis of nuclear charge conservation is required. Similarly,
the values A2 and A4 are omitted unless a and b are uniquely indistinguishable. Bethe introduced a
convenient notation to represent the nuclear reaction. As per this notation the above reaction can be
represented as
A1 A3
X(a,b) Y
The target nuclide is written first and the product last, with projectile and ejectile particles inside
the parentheses separated by a comma.
24 22
(i) Mg (d, ) Na
35 35
(ii) Cl (n, p) S
23 24
(iii) Na (n, ) Na
63 24
(iv) Cu (p, p 3n 9) Na
In the last example, all the emitted particles are shown to the right of the comma.
Types of Nuclear Reactions
Based on the projectile and ejectile, the nuclear reactions can be classified as elastic scattering,
inelastic scattering, photonuclear reactions and radiative capture. There are so many other types also
like (n, p), (n, ), (, n), (d, p), (d, n), (, t), etc.
I. Classification based on Overall Energy Transmutation
(i) Capture reaction
In these reactions, the bombarding particle is captured or absorbed by the target nucleus with
the emission of -rays. For example :
85
37 Rb  10n 
 86
37 Rb  
12
6 C  11H 
 13
7 N 
238
92 U  10n 
 239
92 U 

(ii) Particle-particle reactions

In these reactions the bombarding particle is absorbed by the target nucleus to form the compound
nucleus which breaks down to give the final product. For example :
24
11 Na + 22 He 26
13 Al + 2 10 n
27
13
Al + 10 n 28
13 Al +
28
13 Al
26
12 Mg + 21 H 27 1
12 Mg + 1 H
27 24 4
12 Mg + 11 H 11 Na + 2 He
Compound
nucleus
(iii) Fission reactions
These are the reactions in which a heavier nucleus breaks down into two or more lighter nuclei
235
of almost equal size and a large amount of energy is also liberated. For example 92 U breaks down
144 90
into 56 Ba and 36 Kr nuclei by slow neutrons.
235
92 U  10n (slow) 
 144
56 Ba  90 1
36Kr  2 0 n  Energy
(iv) Fusion reactions

These are the reactions in which two lighter nuclei are combined or fused together to give a
stable and heavier nucleus, and a large amount of energy is liberated. For example, the fusion or
combination of deuterium (12 H) and tritium (13 H) gives a stable nucleus of helium ( 24 He) and energy
equal to 17.6 MeV is also liberated.
2
1 H  13H 
 24He  10n  17.6 MeV
(v) Spallation reactions
These reactions were discovered by Seaborg and Perimen in 1947. In these reactions the high-
speed bombarding particle is absorbed to form a normal nucleus and a large number of light particles.
63
For example the bombardment of 29 Cu nucleus by high-speed -particle having energy 400 MeV gives
37
17 Cl nucleus and 14 protons and 16 neutrons.
63
29 Cu  42He 
 37
17 Cl  14 11H  16 10n
II. Classification Based on the Nature of the Bombarding Particle
This classification gives the following types of nucleus reactions :
(i) Nuclear reactions induced by alpha particles ( 24 He)

These reactions may be of following types :
(a) (, p) reactions These reactions are common with the elements of low atomic number.
Examples are
14
7 N  24He 
 17
8 O  11H
(b) (, n) reactions By using more energetic -particles these reactions may be obtained.
Example is
9
4 Be  24He 
 12
6 C  10n
(c) (, ) reactions Following is a typical example of this type of reaction.

7
3 Li  42He 
 115B  00 

(ii) Nuclear reactions induced by protons (11H)

These reactions are of the following types :
(a) (p, ) reactions Examples are
7
3 Li  11H 
 24He  24He (p, 2 )
19
9 F  11H 
 16
8 O  24He
(b) (p, n) reactions If proton has sufficient energy, probability of (p, n) type reactions becomes
high. Some examples are :
65
29 Cu  11H 
 65
30 Zn  10n
23
11 Na  11H 
 23
12Mg  10n
(c) (p, ) reaction With proton as the projectile, radioactive capture processes of (p, ) type
have observed for a number of lighter elements. Example are
7
3 Li  11H 
 84Be  
27
13 Al  11H 
 28
14 Si  
50
24 Cr  11H 
 51
25 Mn  
(d) (p, D) reactions These reactions are more common with heavier elements and protons
are of fairly high energy.
9
4 Be  11H 
 84Be  12H or D
7
3 Li  11H 
 63Li  12H or D
(iii) Nuclear reactions induced by deutrons (12 H or D)

Some of the nuclear reactions induced by deuterons are given below :
(a) (D, ) reactions
6
3 Li  12H 
 24He  24He
16
8 O  12H  14
7 N  24He
(b) (D, p) reactions

31
15 P  12H 
 32
15 P  11H
23
11 Na  12H 
 24
11 Na  11H
(c) (D, n) reactions
12
6 C  12H 
 13
7 N  10n
130
52 Te  12H 
 131
53 I  10n
(d) (D, T) reactions

7
3 Li  12H 
 63Li  13 T (or 13H)
109
47 Ag  12H 
 108
47 Ag  13 T
31
15 P  12H 
 30
15 P  13 T

(iv) Nuclear reactions induced by neutrons (10 n)

In these reaction the neutrons are captured resulting in the emission of any of the following : (a)
-rays (b) -particle (c) proton (d) neutron. Thus, these reactions may be of the following types :
(a) (n, ) reactions Example is given below
238
92 U  10n 
 239
92 U 
(b) (n, ) reactions Example is
6
3 Li  10n 
 13H  24He
(c) (n, p) reactions In these reactions the final product is a new element whose atomic
number is one unit less than the target nucleus and atomic weight is the same. Example
is
64
30 Zn  10n 
 64
30 Zn  11H  01e
Thus we find that the final product is the same as the target nucleus and hence the
overall effect is that the bombarding neutron splits up into a proton and an electron.
(d) (n, 2n) reaction When the kinetic energy of the bombarding neutron is about 10 MeV,
it is able to eject two neutrons from nucleus. For higher energies, more than two neutrons
may be ejected. Example is
39
19 K  10n 
 38
19 K  2 10n
In such case the product nucleus invariably decays with the emission of a positron. For
example :
38 38 0
19 K 
 18 Ar  1 e
Positron
(v) Nuclear reactions induced by tritons (13 H or 13 T)

The nuclear reactions induced by tritons are of the following types :
(a) (T, p) reactions
59
27 Co  13H 
 61
27 Co  11H
(b) (T, d) reactions
6
3 Li  13H 
 73Li  12H
(c) (T, n) reactions
32
16 S  13H 
 34
17 Cl  10n
(d) (T, ) reactions
7
3 Li  13H 
 62He  42He
(vi) Nuclear reactions induced by photons or -rays ( 00  )

The nuclear reactions induced by photons are called photo disintegration. The type of nuclear
reaction induced by photons depends on the energy of the incident photon. Various types of reactions
produced by photons are given below :
(a) (, n) reactions
2
1 H  00  
 11H  10n

(b) (, p) reactions

25
12 Mg  00  
 24
11 Na  11H
(c) (, 2p, n) reactions
27
13 Al  00  
 24
11 Na  2 11H  10n
Nuclear Reactions vs Chemical Reactions
Nuclear reactions differ from chemical reactions in the following respects :
(i) In chemical reactions rearrangement of outermost electrons of the atom takes place while
the nuclei remain unaffected. Thus, no change occurs in the atomic species taking part
in the chemical reaction. In other words, no new atomic species are formed in chemical
reaction. On the other hand, in nuclear reactions, change in the number of nucleons
present in the nucleus takes place and consequently there is formation of new atomic
species. Thus, nuclear reactions bring about the atomic transmutation or transformation.
(ii) The amount of energy released in nuclear reactions is million times greater than that
produced in chemical reactions. This is because of the fact that, in nuclear reaction,
unlike in a chemical reaction, a small but measurable loss in mass takes place. This lose
in mass is converted into energy, called nuclear reaction energy, in accordance with
Einstein’s mass-energy relationship, E = mc2 where, m = loss in mass, E = energy and
c = velocity of light.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Mass defect of 1 g gives energy equal to

(A) 9 × 1013 J (B) 5.625 × 1032 eV
(C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these
238
2. 92 U IIIB  undergoes follows emissions.
238 d d B
92 U   A   B  C
Which is /are correct statements ?

(A) A will be I B group.
(B) A will be III A group
(C) B will be III A (alkaline earth metal) group.
(D) C will be of III A (boron family) group
214
3. After the emission of a -particle followed by  - particle for 83 Bi , the number of neutrons in
the
atom is
(A) 127 (B) 128
(C) 129 (D) 130
238
4. 92 U (III B) emits two a-particles, new element will be placed in
(A) II A (B) II B
(C) VII A (D) VII B
5. What is the average binding energy per nucleon, of helium nucleus, if its true mass defect is
0.030377 md ?
(A) 22·65 × 10–13 J (B) 11·32 × 10–13 J
(C) 28.28 × 10–13 J (D) 28·281 eV
6. Which one is more biochemical important ?

22  1  24  1 
(A) Na    22·8hr 
11 (B) 11Na    28·7 hr 
 2   2 
(C) Both are equally important (D) None of the above
7. An accident occurs in a laboratory in which a large amount of radioactive material with a known
t1
of 20 days becomes embedded in floor. Tests show that the level of radiation is 32 times the
2
permissible limit. The number of days after which the laboratory can be safely occupied will be
(A) 20 days (B) 50 days
(C) 60 days (D) 100 days
8. The effective neutron capture radius of a nucleus having a cross - section by 1.0 barn is
(A) 5·6 × 10–13 cm (B) 5.6 × 10–13 m
(C) 5.6 × 10–12 cm (D) 5.6 × 10–11 m
9. The ratio of the nuclear radii of the d-particle and the proton is
(A) 1·26 (B) 1·41
(C) 1·82 (D) 1·59
235 139
10. If an atom of 92 U , after the absorption of slow neutrons, undergoes fission to produce Xe
94
and Sr, what other particles are produced and how many ?
(A) Two neutrons (B) Two positrons
(C) Three electrons (D) Three neutrons
ANSWER KEYS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A B B A B B D A D D

SOLUTIONS
1. (A) Mass defect is converted into energy as

E = mc2
= 1 g × (3 × 1010)2 (cm s–1)2
= 9 × 1020 g cm2 s–2
= 9 × 1020 × 10–3 × 10–4 g m2 s–2
= 9 × 1013 J (1eV = 1.9 × 10–19 J)
9  1013
=  4·74  1032 eV
1·9  10 19
2. (B) 238 d 234 d 230   230

92 U  90 Th  88 Ra   89 AC
(III B) (A) (B) (C)

Th and AC are also actinoids and all actinoids are placed in III B (or 3) group of the
periodic table.
Bi214  Po214   Pb210

 
3. (B) 83

84 82
Number of neutrons in Pb = 210 – 82 = 128
4. (A) 238  234  230

92 U  90 Th  88 Ra
(III B) (II A)
(3 group) (group)
5. (B) Binding energy = 931 × mass defect
= 931 × 0.030377 MeV
= 28.281 MeV (= 45·31 × 10–13 J)
Since, the nucleus contains two proton and two neutrons,
Binding energy per nucleon
45·31 10 13
= J  11·327  10 31 J
4
24  1 
6. (B) 11 Na    28·7 hr  has shorter half-life, So it is biochemically more important (shorter
 2 
half- life ensures attainment of transient equilibrium faster).
7. (D) Since, the initial level of radiation is 32 times the permissible limit.
N 1
 ; t 1  20 days
NO 32 2
Disintegration constant,
0.693
 days
20

Suppose the laboratory becomes safe for use after t days
N
Then  et
NO
1  0.693 t 
 exp  
32  20 
0.693 t
 2.303 log 32  2.303  1.5051
20
2.303  1.5051 20
t  100 days
0.693
8. (A) 1 barn = 1· 0 × 10–24 cm2
We know that area of a circle , A = r2.
A
Hence, r 

 1·0  10 24 cm 2 / 3.14  5·6  10 13 cm

1
9. (D) 1
H1 is proton and 2
4
He is d-particle radius equation = R A 3
O
1
4
r  He   R  4 
2 O
3 1
1 1
 4 3  1·587
r  He  R 1
1 3
O
10. (D) The fission reaction is

235
92 U  10n 
 139
54 Xe  94 1
38 Sr  3 0n
Thus, three neutrons are emitted.

Sample Theory With Ques. - Nuclear Chemistry (JAM CY Unit-5)

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Sample Theory With Ques. - Nuclear Chemistry (JAM CY Unit-5)

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CSIR-UGC(NET)

obey pauli principle don't obey pauli principle

Quark Anti Quarks

Various Terms Used for Atoms of Elements

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(% of one isotope  its mass)  (% of isotope  its mass)

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mass of the nucleus

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100 -Emission n/p = 1

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B. Emission of -particles increases the n/p ratio :

3. Magic Number (Nuclear Shell Model)

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S. No. Properties Alpha Beta Gamma

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Table : Radioactive Change and Chemical Change

S. No. Radioactive Change Chemical Change

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The transformations shows above can be summarised as follows :

– 211 – 211

215 211 211 211 211

Thus, 238 – 4x = 206

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Radioactive constant ()

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in fact it is steady state.

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Since, t1/2 = 1600 years

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Fig. Uranium or (4n + 2) series for naturally occuring elements.

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Fig. Thorium or 4n series for naturally occuring elements.

Fig. Actinium or (4n + 3) series of naturally occurring elements.

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237 – 237 – 233 – 233 – 229 – 225

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(ii) Particle-particle reactions

(iv) Fusion reactions

(i) Nuclear reactions induced by alpha particles ( 24 He)

(c) (, ) reactions Following is a typical example of this type of reaction.

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(ii) Nuclear reactions induced by protons (11H)

(iii) Nuclear reactions induced by deutrons (12 H or D)

(b) (D, p) reactions

(d) (D, T) reactions

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(iv) Nuclear reactions induced by neutrons (10 n)

(v) Nuclear reactions induced by tritons (13 H or 13 T)

(vi) Nuclear reactions induced by photons or -rays ( 00  )

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(b) (, p) reactions

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1. Mass defect of 1 g gives energy equal to

Which is /are correct statements ?

6. Which one is more biochemical important ?

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1. (A) Mass defect is converted into energy as

2. (B) 238 d 234 d 230   230