S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil.
, 1
UNIT – 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY
AND CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
1. What do you understand by the term mole.
(BBQ 27:- Pg 6)
 One mole is the amount of substance of a
system, which contains as many elementary
particles as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-
12 isotope.
 The elementary particles can be molecules,
atoms, ions, electrons or any other specified
particles.
2. What is Avogadro number? (Pg.7)
 The total number of entities present in one
mole of any substance is equal to 6.022 x 1023.
This number is called Avogadro number and
it does not have any unit.
3. State Avogaro’s hypothesis. (Pg.7) 10. What are redox reactions? Give an
 Equal volume of all gases under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure
contain equal number of molecules.
4. Define equivalent mass/Gram equivalent
mass.(BBQ 28:- Pg8)
 Gram equivalent mass of an element,
compound or ion is the mass that
combines or displaces 1.008 g hydrogen or 8 g
oxygen or 35.5 g chlorine.
5. What do you mean by basicity of an acid? 11. What are oxidising agents and reducing
Give examples. (Pg.9)
 Basicity of an acid is the number of moles of
ionisable H+ ions present in 1 mole of the acid
 Examples:- Basicity of HCl & HNO3 = 1,
Basicity of H2SO4 = 2, Basicity of H3PO4 = 3.
6. What do you mean by acidity of the base?
Give examples. (Pg.9)
 Acidity of the base is the number of moles of
-
ionisable OH ion present in 1 mole of the
base.
 Examples:- Acidity of NaOH, KOH = 1, Acidity
of Ca(OH)2 = 2, Acidity of Al(OH)3 = 3.
7. What is Stoichiometry? (Pg.13, 14)
 Stoichiometry gives the numerical relationship
between chemical quantities in a balanced
chemical equation.
 Stoichiometry is the quantitative relationship
between reactants and products in
a balanced chemical equation in moles.
8. What are Limiting reagents and Excess
reagents? (Pg.17)
 When a reaction is carried out using non-
stoichiometric quantities of the reactants, the
product yield will be determined by the
reactant that is completely consumed. It limits
the further reaction from taking place and is
called as the limiting reagent.
 The other reagents which are in excess are
called the excess reagents.
9. What do you understand by the term
oxidation number? (BBQ 29:- Pg.20)
 It is defined as the imaginary charge left on
the atom when all other atoms of the
compound have been removed in their usual
oxidation states that are assigned according
to set of rules.
example. (Pg.19)
 All oxidation reactions are accompanied by
reduction reactions and vice versa. Such
reactions are called redox reactions.
 Example:-
+2 0 (Reduction)
CuO + C  Cu + CO
0 +2 (Oxidation)
 In the above example, Copper is reduced and
Carbon is oxidised.
agents? Give an example. (Pg.22)
 Oxidising agents:- The agents which
facilitate oxidation by gaining electrons and
get reduced are called Oxidising agents (or)
Oxidants.
 Reducing agents:- The agents which
facilitate reduction by releasing electrons and
get oxidised are called Reducing agents (or)
Reductants.
 Example:-
+2 0 (Reduction)
CuO + C  Cu + CO
0 +2 (Oxidation)
 Oxidising agent – CuO (O.N. of Cu is
reduced from +2 to 0 by gaining 2 electrons)
 Reducing agent – C (Oxidation number of C
changes from 0 to +2 by releasing 2 electrons)

12. What are Combination reactions?
Give an example. (Pg.22)
 Redox reactions in which two substances
combine to form a single compound are called
combination reaction.
13. What are Decomposition reactions?
Give an example. (Pg.22)
 Redox reactions in which a compound breaks
down into two or more components are called
decomposition reactions. These reactions are
opposite to combination reactions.
 In these reactions, the oxidation number of the
different elements in the same substance is
changed.
17. Distinguish between oxidation and
14. What are Displacement reactions? Give an
example. (Pg.23)
 Redox reactions in which an ion (or an atom)
in a compound is replaced by an ion (or atom)
of another element are called displacement
reactions.
 They are further classified into (i) metal
displacement reactions (ii) non-metal
displacement reactions.
 Metal displacement reaction
 Non-metal displacement reaction
15. What are Disproportionation reaction
(or) Auto redox reactions? Give an
example. (Pg.23)
 In some redox reactions, the same
compound can undergo both oxidation
S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 2
and reduction. In such reactions, the
oxidation state of one and the same element is
both increased and decreased. These
reactions are called disproportionation
reactions.
16. What are Competitive electron transfer
reaction? Give an example.
 Competition for electrons occurs between
various metals is called competitive electron
transfer reaction.
 Among the three metals, namely, zinc, copper
and silver, the electron releasing tendency is
in the following order.
Zinc > Copper > Silver
reduction. (BBQ 30:- Pg.20)
(i) Classical concept
 Oxidation:- Addition of oxygen (or) Removal
of hydrogen. 4Fe +3O2  2Fe2O3
 Reduction:- Addition of hydrogen (or)
Removal of oxygen. S + H2  H2S
(ii) Electronic concept
 Oxidation:- The reaction involving loss of
electron is termed Oxidation
Fe2+  Fe3+ + e- (Loss of electron – Oxidation)
 Reduction:- The reaction involving gain of
electron is termed Reduction.
Cu2+ + 2e-  Cu (Gain of electron – Reduction)
(iii) In terms of Oxidation number
 A reaction in which oxidation number of the
element increases is called Oxidation.
 A reaction in which oxidation number of the
element decreases is called Reduction.
18. Calculate the equivalent mass of H2SO4.
 Molar mass of H2SO4 = (2x1) + (1x32) + (4x16)
= 98 gmol-1
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝟗𝟖
Eq.mass =
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅
=
𝟐
= 49 geq-1

UNIT – 2 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF
ATOM
1. State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
 „It is impossible to accurately determine the
position and the momentum of a microscopic
particle simultaneously‟.
∆x. ∆p ≥ 𝒉 𝟒𝝅
 ∆x and ∆p are uncertainities in determining
the position and momentum respectively.
2. Define an orbital. what are the n and l
values for 3px and 𝟒𝒅𝒙𝟐− 𝒚𝟐 electron?
 An orbital is a three dimensional space in
which the probability of finding the electron is
maximum.
3. State (n+l) rule.
 It states that , the lower the value of (n+l) for
an orbital, the lower is its energy.
 It two orbitals have the same value of (n+l), the
orbital with lower value of n will have the lower
energy.
4. State and explain pauli's exclusion
principle.
 "No two electrons in an atom can have the
same set of values of all four quantum
numbers."
 It means that, each electron must have unique
values for the four quantum numbers (n, l, m
and s).
 For the lone electron present in hydrogen
atom, the four quantum numbers are:
n = 1; l = 0; m = 0 and s = + 1/2
 For the two electrons present in helium,
Electron n l m s
1st electron 1 0 0 +½
2nd electron 1 0 0 -½
5. Describe the Aufbau principle
 „In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals
are filled in the order of their increasing
energies.
 (Aufbau means „building up‟)
 Electrons first occupy the lowest energy
orbital available to them. Once the lower
energy orbitals are completely filled, then the
electrons enter the next higher energy
orbitals.
S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 3
Example:- 17Cl - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
6. State Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.
 It states that electron pairing in the degenerate
orbitals does not take place until all the
available orbitals contain one electron each.
 Example:- 6C - 1s2 2s2 𝟐𝒑𝟏𝒙 𝟐𝒑𝟏𝒚 𝟐𝒑𝟎𝒛
In order to minimise the electron-electron
repulsion, the sixth electron enters the
unocuupied 2py orbital as per Hund‟s rule.
7. What is exchange energy?
 If two or more electrons with the same spin
are present in degenerate orbitals, there is a
possibility for exchanging their positions.
During exchange process the energy is
released and the released energy is called
exchange energy.
8. Derive de-Broglie equation.
 Planck‟s quantum hypothesis
E = h𝜸 ---------- (1)
 Einstein‟s mass-energy relationship
E = mc2 ---------- (2)
h𝜸 = mc2 [From (1) & (2)]
𝒄
h 𝝀 = mc2
𝝀 = 𝒉 𝒎𝒄 = 𝒗 = 𝒉 𝒑
9. What are the limitations of Bohr’s atom
model?
1. It is applicable only to species having one
electron such as hydrogen, Li2+ etc... and not
applicable to multi electron atoms.
2. It was unable to explain Zeeman effect and
Stark effect.
3. It was unable to explain why the electron is
restricted to revolve around the nucleus in a
fixed orbit in which the angular momentum of
the electron is equal to 𝒏𝒉 𝟐𝝅 .

10. What are the limitations of Rutherford’s
atom model?
1. It fails to explain the stability of the atoms.
2. This model does not explain the distribution of
electrons around the nucleus and their
energies.
11. Give the electronic configuration of Mn2+
and Cr3+.
 25Mn – 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5
Mn2+ - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5
 24Cr - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5
Cr3+ - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3
12. Write the Actual and expected
configuration of chromium and copper.
 Expected configuration of chromium
2 2 6 2 6 4 2 because they have high tendency to accept
24Cr - 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
 Actual configuration of chromium
24Cr - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
 Expected configuration of copper
2 2 6 2 6 9
24Cr - 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
2
 Actual configuration of copper
24Cr - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
 Fully filled orbitals and half filled orbitals have
been found to have extra stability due to
symmetrical distribution and exchange
energy.
13. Which ion has the stable electronic
configuration? Ni2+ or Fe3+.
 Ni2+ - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8
 Fe3+ - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5
 Fe3+ is more stable than Ni2+ due to half filled
electronic configuration. Half filled orbitals
have greater stability than other partially filled
configurations due to symmetry and exchange
energy.
UNIT 3 - PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF
ELEMENTS
1. Define modern periodic law. (Pg.73)
 “The physical and chemical properties of the
elements are periodic functions of their atomic
numbers.”
S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 4
2. What are isoelectronic ions? Give
examples.
 Isoelectronic ions are ions that have same
number of electrons.
 Exampls:- Na+ & F-, K+ & Cl-, Mg2+ & O2-
3. What is effective nuclear charge? (Pg.80)
 The net nuclear charge experienced by
valence electrons in the outermost shell is
called the effective nuclear charge.
Zeff = Z – S
Where Z is the atomic number and 'S' is the
screening constant which can be calculated
using Slater's rules.
4. Why halogens act as oxidising agents?
 Halogens act as strong oxidising agents
electron. i.e., they have high electron affinity
values.
 Due to low bond dissociation enthalpy and
high electronegativity.
5. Mention any two anomalous properties of
second period elements. (Pg.89)
1. Lithium and beryllium form more covalent
compounds, unlike the alkali and alkali earth
metals which predominantly form ionic
compounds.
2. The elements of the second period have only
four orbitals (2s & 2p) in the valence shell and
have a maximum co-valence of 4, whereas the
other members of the subsequent periods
have more orbitals in their valence shell and
shows higher valences.
Example:- Boron forms 𝑩𝑭− 𝟒 and aluminium
forms 𝑨𝒍𝑭𝟑−𝟔 .
6. Explain the diagonal relationship. (Pg.90)
 On moving diagonally across the periodic
table, the second and third period elements
show certain similarities.
 Even though the similarity is not same as we
see in a group, it is quite pronounced in the
following pair of elements.
 The similarity in properties existing between
the diagonally placed elements is called
„diagonal relationship‟.

7. What is screening effect? / Shielding
effect? (Pg.80)
 The inner shell electrons act as a shield
between the nucleus and the valence
electrons. This effect is called shielding effect.
8. Briefly give the basis for pauling's scale of
electronegativity. (Pg.87)
 Pauling, assigned arbitrary value of
electronegativities for hydrogen and fluorine
as 2.1 and 4.0 respectively.
 Based on this the electronegativity values for
other elements can be calculated using the
following expression
(𝝌𝑨 - 𝝌𝑩 ) = 0.182 𝑬𝑨𝑩 − (𝑬𝑨𝑨 𝒙 𝑬𝑩𝑩 ) 𝟐
𝟏
 Where EAB, EAA and EBB are the bond
dissociation energies (K Cal) of AB, A2 and B2
molecules respectively.
9. Define Electronegativity, (Pg.87)
 It is defined as the relative tendency of an
element present in a covalently bonded
molecule, to attract the shared pair of
electrons towards itself.
10. Define Electron affinity. (Pg.86)
 It is defined as the amount of energy released 18. Why Ionisation potential of N is greater
when an electron is added to the valence shell
of an isolated neutral gaseous atom in its
ground state to form its anion.
 Unit:- KJ mol-1.
11. Define Ionisation energy. (Pg.84)
 It is defined as the minimum amount of energy
required to remove the most loosely bound
electron from the valence shell of the isolated
neutral gaseous atom in its ground state.
 Unit:- KJ mol (or) eV
-1
12. Define Ionic radius. (Pg.83)
 It is defined as the distance from the centre of
the nucleus of the ion up to which it exerts its
influence on the electron cloud of the ion.
13. Prove that Beryllium hydroxide is
amphoteric in nature? (Pg.91)
 Beryllium hydroxide reacts with both acid and
base as it is amphoteric in nature.
Be(OH)2 + 2HCl  BeCl2 + 2H2O
Beryllium chloride
Be(OH)2 + 2NaOH  Na2BeO2 + 2H2O
Sodium beryllate
S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 5
14. State Dobereiner Law of Triads. (Pg.69)
 In triads, the atomic weight of the middle
element nearly equal to the arithmetic mean of
the atomic weight of the remaining two
elements.
𝟕+𝟑𝟗
 Example:- Li, Na, K = 23
𝟐
15. State Newlands law of octaves. (Pg.70)
 On arranging the elements in the increasing
order of atomic weights, the properties of
every eighth element are similar to the
properties of the first element.
 Example:- Li Be B C N O F
Na
16. Statae Mendeleev periodic law. (Pg.70)
 The physical and chemical properties of the
elements are periodic functions of their atomic
weights.
17. Give the general electronic configuration of
lanthanides and actinides? (Pg.78)
 The general electronic configuration of
Lanthanides is 4f 1-14 5d0-1 6s2.
 The general electronic configuration of
Actinides is 5f 0-14 6d0-2 7s2.
than that of O? (Pg.85)
2 2 3 -1
7N – 1s 2s 2p (1402 KJ mol )
2 2 4 -1
8O - 1s 2s 2p (1314 KJ mol )
 Nitrogen has the half filled electronic
configuration and is more stable. It requires
higher energy to remove an electron from „2p‟
orbital of nitrogen. Whereas the removal of
one „2p‟ electron from oxygen leads to a stable
half filled configuration. This makes
comparatively easier to remove „2p‟ electron
from oxygen.
19. The electron affinity values of Be, Mg and
noble gases are zero and those of N
(0.02 eV) and P (0.80 eV) are very low.
Why?(Pg.86)
2 2 2 2 6 2
4Be – 1s 2s 12Mg – 1s 2s 2p 3s
2
Noble gases – ns np 6
 Be, Mg and noble gases have fully filled
electronic configurations and are stable. The
addition of extra electron is unfavourable and
requires energy. So the electron affinity is
zero.
2 2 3 2 2 6 2 3
7N - 1s 2s 2p 15P - 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
 In nitrogen and phosphorus the addition of
extra electron will disturb their stable
electronic configuration and they have very
low electron affinity values.
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 6

UNIT 6 - GASEOUS STATE  V1 & n1 are the volume and number of moles of
1. State Dalton’s law of partial pressures. a gas.
 V2 & n2 are a different set of values of volume
(Pg.167)
and number of moles of the same gas at same
 "The total pressure of a mixture of non- temperature and pressure.
reacting gases is the sum of partial pressures
of the gases present in the mixture"
7. State Gay-Lussac law. (Pg.164)
 The partial pressure of a component gas is the
pressure that it would exert if it were present  At constant volume the pressure of a fixed
alone in the same volume and temperature. mass of a gas is directly proportional to
temperature.
 Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + ... 𝑷
P𝜶T (OR) = Constant K
𝑻
2. State Graham’s law of diffusion/effusion.
(Pg.168) 8. What is Joule-Thomson effect?
 The rate of diffusion or effusion is inversely  The phenomenon of lowering of temperature
proportional to the square root of molar when a gas is made to expand adiabatically
mass. This statement is called Graham's law from a region of high pressure into a region of
of diffusion/effusion. low pressure is known as Joule-Thomson
𝒓𝑨 𝑴𝑩 effect.
 =
𝒓𝑩 𝑴𝑨
 rA and rB are the rates of diffusion of A and B 9. What is Inversion temperature?
 MA and MB are their respective molar masses.  The temperature below which a gas obeys
Joule-Thomson effect is called inversion
3. Derive Ideal gas equation. (Pg.165) temperature (T i) Ti =
𝟐𝒂
𝟏 𝑹𝒃
 Boyle‟s law V α
𝑷
 Charles law V 𝜶 T 10. Define Critical temperature.
 Avogadro‟s law V 𝜶 n  Critical temperature (T c) of a gas is defined as
 Combining these equations, we get the temperature above which it cannot be
𝒏𝑻 𝒏𝑹𝑻 liquefied even at high pressure.
V α V =
𝑷 𝑷  Critical temperature of CO2 is 31.10 C.
 R - Proportionality constant/ Universal gas
constant. 11. Define Critical pressure.
 On rearranging we get PV = nRT.  Critical pressure (Pc) of a gas is defined as the
minimum pressure required to liquefy 1 mole
4. State Boyle's law. (Pg.160) (BBQ NO: 26) of a gas at its critical temperature.
 At a given temperature the volume occupied
by a fixed mass of a gas is inversely 12. Define Critical volume.
proportional to its pressure.  Critical volume (Vc) is defined as the volume
occupied by 1 mole of a gas at its critical
𝟏
V α (T and n are fixed, T-temperature, n- temperature and critical pressure.
𝑷
number of moles)
13. What is Compressibility factor (Z)?
 The deviation of real gases from ideal
5. State Charles law. (Pg.162)
behaviour is measured in terms of a ratio of
 For a fixed mass of a gas at constant
PV to nRT. This is termed as Compressibility
pressure, the volume is directly proportional 𝑷𝑽
to its temperature (K). factor. Z=
𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝑽
V = kT (OR) = Constant
𝑻
14. What are the different methods used for
6. State Avogadro’s hypothesis. (Pg.165) liquefaction of gases?
 Equal volumes of all gases under the same 1. Linde’s method:- Joule-Thomson effect is
conditions of temperature and pressure used to get liquid air or any other gas.
contain equal number of molecules. 2. Claude’s process:- The gas is allowed to
𝑽 𝑽
V 𝜶 n (OR) 𝒏𝟏 = 𝒏𝟐 = Constant perform mechanical work in addition to Joule-
𝟏 𝟐

Thomson effect so that more cooling is
produced.
3. Adiabatic process:- Cooling is produced by
removing the magnetic property of magnetic
material such as gadolinium sulphate.
Temperature of 10-4 K can be achieved.
15. What is Boyle temperature or Boyle point?
 The temperature at which a real gas obeys
ideal gas law over an appreciable range of
pressure is called Boyle temperature or Boyle 20.
point.
16. What are Ideal gases? Under what
conditions gases behave ideally?
 Gases that obey the equation PV = nRT under
all conditions are called Ideal gases. But in
practice there is no ideal gas.
 Gases tend to behave ideally at high
temperataures and at low pressures.
17. What is diffusion and Effusion? (Pg.168)
 Gases have a tendency to occupy all the
available space. When two non -reactive gases
are allowed to mix, the gas molecules migrate
from region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration.
 The property of gas which involves the
movement of the gas molecules through
another gases is called diffusion.
 Effusion is another process in which a gas
escapes from a container through a very small
hole.
18. Distinguish between diffusion and
effusion.
Sl.No. Diffusion Effusion
1. The movement The escape of the
of molecules gas molecules
from the higher through the hole one
concentration to after the other
a lower without collision is
concentration is called effusion.
called diffusion
2. Diffusion takes Effusion takes place
place in all through a hole of
directions. molecular size
3. Example:- The Example:- Escape
smell of the rose of gas molecules
or a scent due to from punctured tyre.
diffusion.
S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 7
19. Aerosol cans carry clear warning of
heating of the can. Why?
 Aerosols are colloids in which air (gas) is
dispensed in liquid. On heating the kinetic
energy of particles increases and after
collision with wall they create high pressure
that can leads to explosion.
 Hence they carry clear warning that they
should not be heated or kept in near fire.
Explain the following observations
a) Aerated water bottles are kept under water
during summer
 As the temperature increase in summer the
pressure of the gas inside the bottle will
increase. Moreover the solubility of the
dissolved gas decreases with increase in
temperature. To avoid bottle bursting open as
a result of increase in pressure they are kept
in water.
UNIT 7 - THERMODYNAMICS
1. State Zeroth law of thermodynamics.
 „If two systems are separately in thermal
equilibrium with a third one, then they tend to
be in thermal equilibrium with themselves'.
2. State First law of thermodynamics (or) Law
of conservation of energy.
 “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed,
but may be converted from one form to
another. (OR)
 The total energy of an isolated system remains
constant though it may change from one form
to another.
3. Mention the various statements of second
law of thermodynamics.
1. Entropy statement:- “The entropy of an
isolated system increases during a
spontaneous process”.
2. Kelvin – Planck statement:- “It is
impossible to construct a machine that
absorbs heat from a hot source and converts
it completely into work by a cyclic process
without transferring a part of heat to a cold
sink.
3. Clausius statement:- “It is impossible to
transfer heat from a cold reservoir to a hot
reservoir without doing some work.
4. State Third law of thermodynamics.
 The entropy of pure crystalline substance at
absolute zero is zero. (or)

 It is impossible to lower the temperature of an
object to absolute zero in a finite number of
steps.
lim
 T 0 S = 0 for a perfectly ordered
crystalline state.
5. State Hess’s law of constant heat
summation.
 The enthalpy change of a reaction either at
constant volume or constant pressure is the
same whether it takes place in a single or
multiple steps provided the initial and final
states are same.
6. What are Extensive and Intensive
properties? Give examples.
 Extensive properties:- The property that
depends on the mass or the size of the system
is called an extensive property.
 Examples: Volume, Number of moles, Mass,
Internal energy, etc.,
 Intensive properties:- The property that is
independent of the mass or the size of the
system is called an intensive property.
 Examples : Refractive index, Surface
tension, density, temperature, Boiling point,
Freezing point, molar volume, etc.,
7. What are State function? Give examples.
 A state function is a thermodynamic property
of a system, which has a specific value for a
given state and does not depend on the path
(or manner) by which the particular state is
reached.
 Example : Pressure (P), Volume (V),
Temperature(T), Internal energy (U), Enthalpy
(H), free energy (G) etc.
8. What are Path functions? Give examples.
 A path function is a thermodynamic property
of the system whose value depends on the
path by which the system changes from its
initial to final states.
 Example: Work (w), Heat (q).
9. What is the usual definition of entropy?
What is the unit of entropy? (Pg.210, 211)
 Entropy is the measure of molecular disorder
(randomness) of a system.
 But thermodynamic definition of entropy is
concerned with the change in entropy that
occurs as a result of a process.
 dS = dqrev/T
 The SI unit of entropy is JK−1.
S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 8
10. Define Gibb’s free energy. (Pg.214)
 Gibbs originally termed this energy as the
“available energy” to do work in a system.
This quantity is the energy associated with a
chemical reaction that can be used to do work.
G = H – TS
11. Define Lattice energy/Lattice enthalpy.
(Pg.208)
 Lattice energy is defined as the amount of
energy required to completely remove the
constituent ions from its crystal lattice to an
infinite distance. It is also referred as lattice
enthalpy.
12. What are spontaneous reactions? What are
the conditions for the spontaneity of a
process? (Pg.213, 215)
 A reaction that occurs under the given set of
conditions without any external driving force
is called a spontaneous reaction.
 ∆S > 0, ∆H < 0, ∆G < 0,
Conditions / Criteria for the spontaneity of a
process:-
1. If the enthalpy change of a process is
negative, then the process is exothermic and
may be spontaneous. (ΔH is negative)
2. If the entropy change of a process is positive,
then the process may occur spontaneously.
(ΔS is positive)
3. The gibbs free energy which is the
combination of the above two (ΔH -TΔS)
should be negative for a reaction to occur
spontaneously.
13. Define enthalpy of combustion / Heat of
combustion. (Pg.200)
 The heat of combustion of a substance is
defined as “The change in enthalpy of a
system when one mole of the substance is
completely burnt in excess of air or oxygen”.
 Heat of combustion of CH4 is – 87.78 kJ mol-1.
14. Define Enthalpy of neutralization/Heat of
Neutralization. (Pg.206)
 Heat of neutralization is defined as “The
change in enthalpy when one gram equivalent
of an acid is completely neutralized by one
gram equivalent of a base or vice versa in
dilute solution”.
 Heat of neutralization of a strong acid and a
strong base = 57.32 KJ.

15. Define Molar heat capacity. Give its unit.
(Pg.201)
 Molar heat capacity is defined as “The amount
of heat absorbed by one mole of the
substance to raise its temperature by 1
kelvin”.
 S.I. unit of heat capacity is J K-1 mol-1.
16. Define the calorific value of food. What is
the unit of calorific value? (Pg.206)
 The calorific value is defined as the amount of
heat produced in calories (or joules) when one
gram of the substance is completely burnt.
 SI unit of calorific value is J Kg-1.
 It is usually expressed in Cal g -1.
17. Define Specific heat capacity.
 Specific heat capacity of a system is defined
as “The heat absorbed by one kilogram of a
substance to raise its temperature by one
Kelvin at a specified temperature”.
18. Define the following terms.
(a) Isothermal process. (Pg.190)
(b) Adiabatic process. (Pg.190)
(c) Isobaric process. (Pg.190)
(d) Isochoric process. (Pg.190)
(a) Isothermal process:- An isothermal
process is defined as one in which the
temperature of the system remains constant,
during the change from its initial to final state.
For an isothermal process dT = 0
(b) Adiabatic process:- Those processes in
which no heat can flow into or out of the
system are called adiabatic processes.
For an adiabatic process q = 0
(c) Isobaric process:- An isobaric process is
defined as one in which the pressure of the
system remains constant during its change from
the initial to final state.
For an isobaric process dP= 0 .
(d) Isochoric process:- An isochoric process is
defined as the one in which the volume of system
remains constant during its change from initial to
final state.
For an isochoric process, dV= 0.
19. Derive the relation between Cp and Cv for
3. If there is no change in concentration, why
an ideal gas. (Pg.201)
 Enthalpy H = U + PV ----(1)
 For 1 mole of an ideal gas PV = nRT ----- (2)
 Substituting (2) in (1) we get
H = U + nRT
Differentiating with respect to T,
S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 9
𝜹𝑯
=
𝜹𝑼
+ nR
𝜹𝑻
𝜹𝑻 𝜹𝑻 𝜹𝑻
Cp = Cv + nR (1)
Cp – Cv = nR
20. What are the appliactiions of bomb
calorimeter? (Pg.204)
1. It is used to determine the amount of heat
released in combustion reaction.
2. It is used to determine the calorific value of
food.
3. It is used in many industries such as
metabolic study, food processing, explosive
testing.
21. What is Internal energy? Give the
importance of internal energy. (Pg.219)
 Internal energy of a system is equal to the
energy possessed by all its constituents
namely atoms, ions and molecules. The
energy of a system of molecules is equal to
the sum of its translational energy, vibrational
energy, rotational energy, bond energy,
electronic energy and energy due to molecular
interactions.
 Importance of Internal energy:- The
internal energy possessed by a substance
differentiates its physical structure.
 Example:- The allotropes of carbon, namely,
graphite C(graphite) and diamond C(diamond),
differ from each other because they possess
different internal energies and have different
structures.
UNIT 8 - PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
EQUILIBRIUM
1. What are homogeneous equilibrium
reactions? Give examples. (Pg.5)
 In a homogeneous equilibrium, all the
reactants and products are in the same phase.
 Examples:- (i) H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
2. What are heterogeneous equilibrium
reactions? Give examples. (Pg.5)
 If the reactants and products of a reaction in
equilibrium, are in different phases,
then it is called as heterogeneous equilibrium.
 Examples:- (i) H2O(l) ⇌ H2O(g)
is the equilibrium state considered dynamic?
 At equilibrium the forward and the backward
reactions are proceeding at the same
rate and no macroscopic change is observed.
So chemical equilibrium is in a state of
dynamic equilibrium.

4. State Law of mass action. (Pg.5)
 “At any instant, the rate of a chemical reaction
at a given temperature is directly proportional
to the product of the active masses of the
reactants at that instant”.
5. What is active mass? Give its unit. (Pg.5)
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒏 11. What is the effect of catalyst on
 Active mass = = equilibrium reaction? (Pg.18)
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝑽
 Unit of active mass:- mol dm-3 (or) mol L-1
6. Define equilibrium constant. (Pg.6)
 At a given temperature, the ratio of the
product of active masses of reaction products
raised to the respective stoichiometric
coefficients in the balanced chemical
equation to that of the reactants is a constant,
known as equilibrium constant.
7. What are the applications of equilibrium
constant. (Pg.10)
1. predict the direction in which the net reaction
will take place
2. predict the extent of the reaction and
3. calculate the equilibrium concentrations of the
reactants and products.
 It is to be noted that these constants do not
provide any information regarding the
rates of the forward or reverse reactions.
8. Define reaction quotient ‘Q’? How is it
 related to equilibrium constant. (Pg.11)
Under non-equilibrium conditions, reaction
quotient „Q‟ is defined as the ratio of the
product of active masses of reaction products
raised to the respective stoichiometric
coefficients in the balanced chemical equation
to that of the reactants.
 If Q = Kc, the reaction is in equilibrium state.
 If Q > Kc, the reaction will proceed in the
reverse direction i.e., formation of reactants.
 If Q < Kc, the reaction will proceed in the
forward direction i.e., formation of products.
9. State Le-Chatlier’s principle. (Pg.16)
 It states that “If a system at equilibrium is
disturbed, then the system shifts itself in a
direction that nullifies the effect of that
disturbance.”
10. What is the effect of added inert gas on
the reaction at equilibrium? (Pg.19)
 When an inert gas (i.e, a gas which does not
react with any other species involved in
equilibrium) is added to an equilibrium system
at constant volume, the total number
S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 10
of moles of gases present in the container
increases, that is, the total pressure of
gases increases. the partial pressure of the
reactants and the products are unchanged.
Hence at constant volume, addition of inert
gas has no effect on equilibrium.
 Addition of a catalyst does not affect the state
of the equilibrium. The catalyst
increases the rate of both the forward and the
reverse reactions to the same extent.
Hence, it does not change the equilibrium
composition of the reaction mixture.
 However, it speeds up the attainment of
equilibrium by providing a new pathway
having a lower activation energy.
UNIT 9 - SOLUTIONS
1. Define Molality (m). (Pg.32)
 Molality of a solution is defined as the number
of moles of solute dissolved in 1 Kg of
solvent.
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Molality =
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝑲𝒈
2. Define Molarity (M) (Pg.32)
 Molarity of a solution is defined as the number
of moles of solute dissolved in 1 litre of
solution
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Molality =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔
3. Define Normality. (Pg.32)
 Normality of a solution is defined as the
number of gram equivalents of solute
dissolved in 1 litre of the solution.
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Normality =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔
4. State Henry’s law. (Pg.38,39)
 “The partial pressure of the gas in vapour
phase (vapour pressure of the solute) is
directly proportional to the mole fraction(x) of
the gaseous solute in the solution at low
concentrations”. psolute α xsolute in solution
 psolute = KHXsolute in solution

5. What are the limitations of Henry’s law.
(Pg.40)
 Henry‟s law is applicable at moderate
temperature and pressure only.
 Only the less soluble gases obeys Henry‟s law
 The gases reacting with the solvent do not
obey Henry‟s law. For example, ammonia or
HCl reacts with water and hence does not
obey this law.
NH3 + H2O ⇌ 𝑵𝑯+ - 10. What is Osmosis? (Pg.55)/(Pg.61)
𝟒 + OH
 The gases obeying Henry‟s law should not
associate or dissociate while dissolving in the
solvent.
6. State Raoult’s law. (Pg.43) & (Pg.45)
 “In the case of a solution of volatile liquids,
the partial vapour pressure of each
component (A & B) of the solution is directly
proportional to its mole fraction”.
pA α x A pA = k xA when xA = 1, k = p°A
where p°A is the vapour pressure
(OR)
 “The relative lowering of vapour pressure of
an ideal solution containing the nonvolatile
solute is equal to the mole fraction of the
solute at a given temperature”
7. What are colligative properties?
(Pg.49)/(Pg.60)
 The properties, namely, relative lowering of
vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point,
depression in freezing point and osmotic
pressure do not depend on the chemical
nature of the solute but depends only on the
number of solute particles (ions/molecules)
present in the solution. These four properties
are known as colligative properties.
(OR)
 Colligative properties of solutions are those
properties which depend only upon the
number of solute particles in the solution and
not on their nature.
8. What is molal boiling point elevation
constant or Ebullioscopic constant. (Kb)
Give its unit. (Pg.53)
 Ebullioscopic constant (Kb) is defined as the
elevation in boiling point for 1 molal solution.
Unit:- K Kg mol . -1
S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 11
9. What is molal freezing point depression
constant or cryoscopic constant (Kf). Give
its unit. (Pg.54)
 Cryoscopic constant (Kf) is defined as the
depression in freezing point for 1 molal
solution.
 Unit:- K Kg mol-1.
 Osmosis is a spontaneous process by which
the solvent molecules pass through a semi
permeable membrane from a solution of lower
concentration to a solution of higher
concentration.
(OR)
 The spontaneous flow of solvent molecules
from a dilute solution into a concentrated
solution when the two are separated by a
perfect semipermeable membrane is called
osmosis.
11. What are Isotonic solutions? (Pg.56)
 Two solutions having same osmotic pressure
at a given temperature are called isotonic
solutions.
12. Define Osmotic pressure. (Pg.55,56)
/(Pg.61)
 Osmotic pressure can be defined as “the
pressure that must be applied to the solution
to stop the influx of the solvent (to stop
osmosis) through the semipermeable
membrane”
(OR)
 Osmotic pressure (π) is the pressure which
must be applied to the solution side (more
concentrated solution) to just prevent the
passage of pure solvent into it through a
semipermeable membrane.
13. What is Reverse osmosis?. Write its use.
(Pg.57)
 It can be defined as a process in which a
solvent passes through a semipermeable
membrane in the opposite direction of
osmosis, when subjected to a hydrostatic
pressure greater than the osmotic pressure.
 Use:- Reverse osmosis is used in the
desalination of sea water and also in the
purification of drinking water.

14 What is meant by abnormal colligative
properties? (Pg.58)/(Pg.61)
 The dissociation or association of solute
molecules would alter the total number of
particles present in the solution and hence
affect the results of measured colligative
properties. In such solutions, the value of the
molar mass of the solute determined using
colligative properties would be different from
the actual molar mass, and it is called
abnormal molar mass.
(OR)
 If solutes undergo any association or
dissociation in a solution, they exhibit
abnormal colligative properties Van't Hoft
factor explains quantitatively the extent of
association or dissociation of soluts in
solvent.
15. Define Van’t Hoff factor. (Pg.58)
 It is defined as the ratio of the actual molar
mass to the abnormal (calculated) molar mass
of the solute.
𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
i=
𝑶𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒃𝒏𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑶𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒚
= room temperature enables to determine the
𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒚
16. What is an Ideal solution? Give examples.
(Pg.45,46)
 An ideal solution is a solution in which each
component i.e. the solute as well as the
solvent obeys the Raoult‟s law over the entire
range of concentration. Practically no solution 1. Define the following
is ideal over the entire range of concentration.
 Examples for ideal solutions: benzene &
toluene; n-hexane & n-heptane;
17. What are the conditions for an ideal
solution? (Pg.46)
i) there is no change in the volume on mixing
the two components (solute & solvents).
(ΔVmixing= 0)
ii) there is no exchange of heat when the
solute is dissolved in solvent (ΔHmixing = 0).
iii) escaping tendency of the solute and the
solvent present in it should be same as in pure
liquids.
S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 12
18. What are non ideal solution? Give
examples. (Pg.46)
 The solutions which do not obey Raoult‟s law
over the entire range of concentration, are
called non-ideal solutions. For a non-ideal
solution, there is a change in the volume and
enthalpy upon mixing.
 Examples for non-ideal solutions showing
positive deviations: Ethyl alcohol &
cyclohexane, Benzene & acetone, Carbon
tetrachloride & chloroform, Acetone & ethyl
alcohol, Ethyl alcohol and water.
19. What is hemolysis? (Pg.57)
 If the Intravenous solutions are too dilute that
is hypotonic, the solvent from outside of the
cells will flow into the cell to normalise the
osmotic pressure and this process which is
called hemolysis, causes the cells to burst.
20. What are the significances of osmotic
pressure over other colligative
properties? (Pg.56)
1. The magnitude of osmotic pressure is large.
2. Th e osmotic pressure can be measured at
molecular mass of biomolecules which are
unstable at higher temperatures.
3. Even for a very dilute solution, the osmotic
pressure is large.
UNIT – 10 CHEMICAL BONDING
i) Bond order
ii) Hybridisation iii) σ- bond
(i) Bond order:-
 The number of bonds formed between the two
bonded atoms in a molecule is called the
bond order. Bond order is equal to the number
of shared pair of electrons between the two
bonded atoms.
(ii) Hybridisation:-
 Hybridisation is the process of mixing of
atomic orbitals of the same atom with
comparable energy to form equal number of
new equivalent orbitals with same energy.

(iii) 𝝈 - bond:-
 When two atomic orbitals overlap linearly
along the axis, the resultant bond is called a
sigma (𝝈) bond. This overlap is also called
„head-on overlap‟ or „axial overlap‟.
2. What is a pi bond?
 When two atomic orbitals overlaps sideways,
the resultant covalent bond is called a pi (𝝅)
bond.
3. Describe Fajan's rule.
(i) To show greater covalent character, both
the cation and anion should have high charge
on them. Higher the positive charge on the
cation, greater will be the attraction on the
electron cloud of the anion. Similarly higher
the magnitude of negative charge on the
anion, greater is its polarisability. Hence, the
increase in charge on cation or in anion
increases the covalent character.
(ii) The smaller cation and larger anion show
greater covalent character due to the greater
extent of polarisation.
2 6 10
(iii) Cations having ns np nd configuration
show greater polarising power than the
cations with ns2 np6 configuration. Hence, they
show greater covalent character.
4. What is Octet rule? (Pg.69)
 “The atoms transfer or share electrons so that
all atoms involved in chemical bonding obtain
8 electrons in their outer shell (valence shell)”.
5. What is bond length? (Pg.76)
 The distance between the nuclei of the two
covalently bonded atoms is called bond
length.
6. What is bond angle? (Pg.77)
 Covalent bonds are directional in nature and
are oriented in specific directions in space.
This directional nature creates a fixed angle
between two covalent bonds in a molecule
and this angle is termed as bond angle.
7. In CH4, NH3 and H2O, the central atom
undergoes sp3 hybridisation - yet their
bond angles are different. why?
S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 13
 In CH4, the central atom is C which is in sp3
hybridization state. The four H-atoms are
situated at the four corners of the
tetrahedron. The bond angle between H – C –
H is 109.50 which is called the tetrahedral
angle.
 But in the case of NH3 and H2O molecules,
their central atoms N and O have a lone pair of
electrons. This lone pair causes repulsion of
electrons and hence the causes the decrease
in the normal tetrahedral angle which gets
reduced to 1070 in NH3 and 104.50 in H2O
8. Define bond energy. (or) Bond enthalpy.
 The bond enthalpy is defined as the minimum
amount of energy required to break one mole
of a particular bond in molecules in their
gaseous state.
 The unit of bond enthalpy is kJ mol-1.
9. What is dipolment?
 The polarity of a covalent bond can be
measured in terms of dipole moment which is
defined as 𝝁 = q x 2d
𝝁 - Dipole moment q – Charge
2d - Distance between the two charges.
 Unit of dipole moment:- Coulomb meter
(C m)
10. Linear form of carbondioxide molecule has
two polar bonds. yet the molecule has
Zero dipolement why?
 In CO2, the dipole moments of two polar bonds
(CO) are equal in magnitude but have opposite
direction. Hence, the net dipole moment of the
CO2 is 𝝁 = 𝝁𝟏 + 𝝁𝟐 = 𝝁𝟏 + (-𝝁𝟏 ) = 0
11. What is Polar Covalent bond? Explain with
example.
 Polar covalent bond:- It is a type of
chemical bond where a pair of electron is
unequally shared between two atoms due to
difference in their electro-negativities.
 S.Jebez.M.Sc.M.ed.M.Phil., 14

 Example:- Consider the covalent bond There is no substitute for hard work.
between hydrogen and fluorine in hydrogen
fluoride. The electro negativities of hydrogen
and fluorine on Pauling's scale are 2.1 and 4
respectively. It means that fluorine attracts
the shared pair of electrons approximately
twice as much as the hydrogen which leads to
partial negative charge on fluorine and partial
positive charge on hydrogen. Hence, the H-F  In case of water net dipole moment is the
bond is said to be polar covalent bond. vector sum of 𝝁𝟏 + 𝝁𝟐 .

12. Which bond is stronger σ or π? Why?  Dipole moment of water is found to be 1.85 D.
 The strength of a covalent bond depends upon
the extent of overlap of atomic orbitals.
Greater the overlap, larger is the energy
released and stronger will be the bond
formation.
 A 𝝈 bond is formed by the axial overlap of the
atomic orbitals which are oriented along the 16. Explain resonance with reference to
inter nuclear axis, hence the extent of
carbonate ion?
overlap is maximum.
 A 𝝅 bond is formed by the lateral overlap
of the atomic orbitals which are oriented
perpendicular to the inter nuclear axis.
Hence the extent of orbital overlapping in
a sideways manner is less. Hence the 𝝈 bond
is stronger than the 𝝅 bond.

13. What is electrovalent bond/Ionic bond?

Give an example. (Pg.74)
 The complete transfer of electron between the
two combining atoms leads to the formation of
a cation and an anion. Both these ions are
held together by the electrostatic attractive
force which is known as Ionic bond.
 Example:- Formation of NaCl

14. What is a covalent bond?

 This type of mutual sharing of one or more
pairs of electrons between two combining
atoms results in the formation of a chemical
bond called a covalent bond.

15. CO2 and H2O both are triatomic molecule

but their dipole moment values are
different. Why?
 In CO2, the dipole moments of two polar bonds
(CO) are equal in magnitude but have opposite
direction. Hence, the net dipole moment of the
CO2 is 𝝁 = 𝝁𝟏 + 𝝁𝟐 = 𝝁𝟏 + (-𝝁𝟏 ) = 0