CBRC LET MENTORSHIP 2023: GENERAL SCIENCE

BIOLOGY: Plant and Animal Biology

PLANT BIOLOGY (BOTANY)

o lIt is the study of plants

A. CELLS

CYTOLOGY
o It is the scientific study of cells.

CELL THEORY
The modern cell theory, one of the fundamental generalizations of biology, holds that:
All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
New cells come from pre-existing cells; lifeforms today have descended in
unbroken continuity from the first primitive cells that arose on earth more than 3.5
bilion years ago.
Hereditary information passes from parent cell to daughter cell.
The fundamental biochemical reactions of life take place within cells.

Typical Plant Cell

microtubulee
oil body vesicle
Golgi complex
actin filament- vacuole pit opening and
plasmodesmata
ribosomes
chloroplast
plasma membrane-
-nucleolus
cell wall chromatin
nucleus
nuclear envelope
peroxisomes with nuclear pore
mitochondrion

rough endoplasmic reticulum

with attached ribosomes
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
1. Cell wall Outer Iayer of plant cells; produced by the cytoplasm;
gives shape and rigidity to the cell; cellulose the basic constituent
2. Middle lamella - Intercellular Iayer (mostly pectin) between
primary walls of adjacent cells: binds them together
3. Primary Wall - First wall deposited by actively growing and dividing

cells
4. Secondary Wall Deposited inside primary wall after cell has
stopped growing: cellulose, lignin, other materials deposited in
layers give strength to plant; pits present-areas where no
secondary wall is deposited and through which plasmodesmata
extend
5. Plasmodesmata - Strands of cytoplasm that connect adjacent

cells; are pathways for material movement

6. Nucleus - Structure that contains the genetic information (DNA) in

eukaryotic cells; controls cellular activities

7. Nuclear envelope Pair offused membranes around the nucleus;
connected to the endoplasmic reticulum; contains pores through
which the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm connect
8. Chromatin - In non-dividing cells, threads of deoxyribonucleic acid

(DNA) plus associated proteins (histones) that are attached to

sites on the nuclear envelope; condenses into a compact mass
when cells divide, forming chromosomes that cary the genes
9. Cytoplasm - Living cellular material exclusive of the nucleus

10. Plasma membrane - Outer boundary of the cytoplasm; a lipid

bilayer with embedded proteins; differentially permeable and

regulates movement of materials into and out of cells;
coordinates synthesis of cell wall; recognizes and transmits internal
and external chemical signals
11. Cytosol- Liquid portion ofthe cytoplasm in which cellular
structures are suspended; also called the cyBoplasmic matrix
12. Plastids Semiautonomous, contain DNA and ribosomes and
reproduce by fission; have an elaborate internal structure: in
algae and plants
13. Chloroplast - Green (contain chlorophyll) sites of

photosynthesis i thylakoid membranes, amino acid and fatty

acid synthesis
14. Mitochondria Singular: mitochondrion: sites of aerobic
respiration and release of adenosine triphosphate (ATP); similar to
like plastids in being semiautonomouS and containing DNA and
ribosomes; also reproduce by fission; inner membrane with many
folds or cristae
 15. Vacuoles - Sac of liquid, the cell sap, surounded by a

membrane, the tonoplast: in mature cell may occupy 90 percent

of the cel; gives turgor (rigidity) to the cell; serves as temporary
storage site for Calcium and other materials; anthocyanin
pigments in cell sap give color (reds and, blues) to leaves and
flowers; some small vacuoles (like animal lysosomes) are sites of
digestion; others store wastes
16. Endoplasmic reticulum - An extensive membranous system of

flattened sacs ( cisternae) (ER) that extends throughout the

cytoplasm as a communication and transport system; rough ER is
cOvered with ibosomes and delivers proteins: smooth ER lacks
ribosomes, synthesizes lipids: rough ER is cisternal, smooth ER is
tubular
17. Golgi complex Collection of Golgi bodies (dictyosomes) that
are stacks of flattened cisternae associated with secretion: some
synthesize and export polysaccharides; others handle
glycoproteins
18. Vesicles - Small sacs of secretory material pinched off from the

cisternae: move from the Golgi complex to the plasma

membrane (with the assistance of actin filaments) and liberate
their contents outside of the cell; process is called exocytosis-
secretion of materials caried in vesicles from the cell
19. Cytoskeleton - Matrix of protein fibers that gives support and on
which organelles, enzymes, macromolecules are attached;
composed of two kinds of protein filaments with similar functions
20. Ribosomes Sites of protein assembly in the cytoplasm or on
the rough ER: are small (17-23 m) particles assembled from a large
and a small subunit produced in the nucleolus; are half ribosomal
RNA (na) and half proteins in composition; messenger RNA
(mna) brings code from a gene, attaches to rna and inifiates
protein synthesis; at sites of active synthesis clusters of ribosomes
are called polysomes or polyribosomes
21. Flagella and cilia Singular: flagellum and cilium; extensions of
cytoplasm enclosed by the plasma membrane that project from
the cell wall; made of two microtubules surrounded by nine others
(a 9 +2 structure): cilia same structure but shorter: are used
locomotor structures by algae and protists; the only flagellated
cells in plants are the motile sperm of mosses, liverworts, ferns,
cycads, and gingko

TISSUE
.Histology
o It is the study of tissue.
.Growth and Development
o Growth - tis the irreversible change in size of cells and plant organs due to
both cell division and enlargement. Enlargement necessitates a change in the
elasticity of the cell walls together with an increase in the size and water content
of the vacuole. Growth can be determinate-when an organ or part or whole
organism reaches a certain size and then stops growing-orindeterminate
when cels continue to divide indefinitely. Plants in general have indeterminate
growth.

o Development ifis the progression from earlier to later stages in maturation,

e.g. a fertilized egg develops into a mature tree. It is the process whereby
tissues, organs, and whole plants are produced. It
involves: growth, morphogenesis (the acquisition of form and structure),
and differentiation. The interactions of the environment and the genetic
instructions inherited by the cells determine how the plant develops.

o Differentiation is the process in which generalized cells specialize into the

morphologically and physiologically different cells described in Table ].Since all
of the cells produced by division in the meristems have the same genetic
makeup, differentiation is a function of which particular genes are either
expressed or repressed. The kind of cell that ultimately develops also is a result of
its location: Root cells don't fom in developing flowers, for example, nor do
petals form on roots.

Meristematic Tissue
o are tissues in which the cells remain forever young and divide actively
throughout the life of the plant.
o A plant has four kinds of meristems:
apical meristem
three kinds of lateral-yascular cambium, cork cambium, and intercalary
meristemn

PLANT TISSUES
1. DERMAL TISSUE- protects the plant from water loss, regulated gas exchange and
absorbs nutrients and mineraals
2. VASCULAR TISSUE- transport food and water intemally throughout the plant
a.Xylem- for water transport
b. Phloem- for food transport
3. GROUND TISSUES
a. Parenchyma-function is for repair, photosynthesis, and storage
b. Collenchyma- for mechanical support and elasticity
c. Sclerenchyma-for mechanical support and aids in the water and food
transport
PARTS OF THE PLANT
1. ROOT- anchorage and absorption of water and nutrients from the soil
Types of root
a. Taproot- grows longer and deeper than fibrous root
b. Fibrous root- grows shorter and shallower than taproot
c. Modified roots- with different functions other than anchorage and absorption
Stilt roots- for added support; eg. bamboo
Aerial roots- found in aerial plants for added photosynthesis; eg. orchids
Floating roots- found in water plants for floating and respiration; eg. water
lily
Storage roots-for food storage; eg. carots, radish

2. STEM- Conduction of food and other nutrients throughout the different parts of the
plant
Types of stem
a. Woody stem- with bark on the outer part
b. Herbaceous stem-green stem
c. Modified stems- with different functions other food conduction
Bulb-underground stem surounded by fleshy leaves that stores food; eg.
onion
Corm-solid modified stem that has few fleshy leaves which stores food
eg. gabi
Tuber- swollen regions of stem that stores food; eg. potato
Rhizome- underground stem that stores food and grows near the surface
of the soil; eg. Ginger
Stolon- for vegetative reproduction; eg. strawbery
Tendril- for anchorage; eg. grape vine
Thorn- for protection; eg. Rose

3. LEAF- site of photosynthesis and transpiration Types of leaf

a. Simple leaf- a single leaf which is connected to the main stem by a single
stalk
b. Compound- with two or more leaflets which is cornnected by a single stalk
- Palmately compound- leaflets are aranged in a manner that looks like
the palm of our hands; eg. cassava
- Pinnately compound- leaflets are a r a n g e d altemately; eg. ipil ipil

c. Modified leaves-with different functions otherthan photosynthesis and

transpiration
Succulent-for water storage; eg. Cactus
Leaf tendril- for support; eg. bitter gourd
Leaf spine- for protecition; eg. aloe vera
Insect catching leaves- captures insects for nutrient requirement; eg.
pitcher plant

4. FLOWER-responsible for reproduction

Parts of a flower
a. Stamen- male part of the flower
 Anther-contains the pollen grains
Filament- stalk-like structure that holds the anther
Pollen grains-produces the spem for sexual reproduction
b. Pistil- female part of the flowver
Stigma-sticky tissue at the end of the pistil where pollen sticks
Style-connects stigma to the ovary
Ovary contains egg which mature into fruits
Ovule- mature into seeds
c. Petal-colorful leaflike structures that attract pllinators
d. Corolla- collective tem for all the petals present in a plant
e. Sepal- green leafike structures beneath the petals
f. Calyx- collective tem for all the sepals present in a plant

.Types offlower
a. Perfect flower- has both male and female parts
b. Imperfect flower- has either a male or a female part
Pistillate flower- with only female parts
Staminate flower-with only male parts
c. Monoeciousflower- has male and female parts ina single plant
d. Dioecious flower- has male and female parts in a separate plant
e. Complete flower- all floral parts and reproductive parts are present f. Incomplete
flower- lacks one or more floral or reproductive parts

5. FRUIT- matured ovary which contains the seed

Parts of a fruit
a. Pericarp- all outer structures that suround the seed

b. Seed-grows into another plant

PLANT HORMONES
1. Auxin- apical dominance; affect root growth differentiation and branching: retard
leaf abscission; stimulate stem elongation: development of fruit: phototropism and
gravitropism
2. Cytokinin- stimulate germination; delay leaf aging: stimulate cell division and
growth; affect root growth and differentiation
3. Gibberellins- stimulate floweñing, fruit development and seed gemination: promote
bud development, stem elongation and leaf growth
4. Abscisic Acid (ABA)- promotes leaf aging: closes stomata during dry spells; helps
maintain seed domancy: inhibit growth
5. Ethylene-promotes flowers in some species; opposes some auxin effects; promotes
fruit ripening and abscission: promotes root formation

MONOcOT vs DIcOT
Monocot
one cotyledon
fibrous root system
Parallel
Floral parts in multiples of 3
Vascular bundles scattered in a complex arangement
 Dicot
Two cotyledons
Taproot
Branches
Floral parts in multiples of 4 or 5
Vascular bundles aranged in rings

Cellular Process
1. Photosynthesis
food making process of plants requires water, carbon dioxide and sunlight
water enters through the xylem
carbon dioxide enters through the stomata and exits as oxygen sunlight is absorbed
by chlorophyll in units called as photons
-Has two phases
1. Light Dependent Phase
happens in the thylakoid membranes
captures light energy and stores it as ATP and NADPH in a series of
chemical reactions through four protein complexes (Photosystem ,
Cytochrome Complex, Photosystem l and ATP Synthase)
water is split into oxygen and hydrogen ions
products are ATP, NADPH, and oxygen
2. Light Independent Phase/ Calvin Cyclee
happens in the stroma
Uses the chemical energy [ATP and NADPH) from the light dependent phase to
fom glucose from carbon dioxide

TRANSPIRATION
- movement of water from the leaves to the atmosphere through the stomata - water

is transported from the roots to the leaves through xylem

ANIMAL BIOLOGY (ZOOLOGY)

- I t is the study of animals

.CHARACTERISTICS OFANIMALS (KINGDOM ANIMALIA)

o Eukaryotic
contain a clearly defined nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane and
membrane bound organelles; examples: plants, animals, fungi and protists

o Multicellular
organism that exists as specialized groups of cells; cells are organized into
tissues that perfom the same function; fissues fom organs and organs
make up an organ system
o Aerobic Respiration
requires the presence of oxygen
release of energy from the breakdown of glucose (or another organic
compound) in the presence of oxygen
 energy released is used to make ATP, which provides energy for bodily
processes takes place in almost all living things
o Consumer
Heterotrophic, cannot produce their own food, not able to undergo
photosynthesis
Herbivore eat plants, ex. deer
Carnivore - eat other animals, ex lion

Omnivore- eat plants and animals, ex. Human

Decomposer - break down dead organisms, ex. Bacteria and fungi
o Cellular Respiration
food molecules are converted to energy:; there are three stages to
cellular respiration; the first stage is called glycolysis and is anaerobic (no
oxygen is required): the next two stages are called the citric acid cycle
and the elecfron fransport chain and are aerobic (oxygen is required)

C6H1206+602 6Co2 +6H2O+ENERGY (36 ATP)

o Invertebrates
-

Three types of symmetry

1. No symmetry (disorganized)
2. Radial symmetry (around a central point)
3. Bilateral symmetry (equal on both sides) Specialized bodily functions
No backbone, usually outer covering (exoskeleton)
May be hydrostatic (water-based, aquatic)

1. Sponges (Porifera)
No symmery
2. Cnidarians (Coelenterata)
Jellyfish, hydrostatic., radial symmetry
Specialized stinging cells in tentacles

3. Flatworms (Platyhelminthes)
Leeches, bilateral symmetry
Suckers for removing fluids from host

4. Roundworms (Nematoda)
Parasites, radialsymmetry

5. Segmented worms (Annelida)

earthworms
decomposers
6. Mollusks (Mollusca)
-

Clams, oysters (bivalves)

Hard outershell (calcium carbonate)
Food source

7. Arthropods (Arthropoda)
 Crabs, insects (segmented body)
Pollinators, bilateral symmetry

8. Echinoderms (Echinodermata)
starfishn
radial symmetry

o Vertebrates
Have a coelom (true body cavity)
Skeletal systems (endoskeleton)
Strong. flexible backbone (support)
Bilateral symmetry
Aquatic or terrestrial environments
Organized systems
a. Jawless fishes
Lampreys
b. Cartilaginous fishes
SharkS, Cartilage
C. Bony fishes
Bass, trout
Scales, paired fins, gills, bone
External fertilization
d. Amphibians
Salamanders, frogs
Moist skin and lack scales
Have gills as young, lungs and limbs as adults
External fertilization
e. Reptiles
Snakes, turtles
Dry, scaly skin
Internal fertilization
Terrestrial eggs (leathery shells
Developed lungs, strong limbs
f. Birds
Hawks, eagles, robin
Feathers, hollow bones, strong muscles
Efficient heart and lungs for flying
Intenal fertilization (terrestrial amniotic egg
g. Mammals
Humans, monkeys, whales
Hair or fur
Internal fertilization (internal development)
CLASSIFICATION OF HUMANS:
o Kingdom Animalia (multicellular organisms that eat food)
O Phylum Chordata (dorsal hollow nerve cord, notochord, pharyngeal slits)
o Class Mammalia (hair, mammary glands, endothermy, four-chambered heart)
 o Order Primates (nails, clavicle, orbits encircled with bone, enlarged cerebrum,
opposable digits)
o Family Homidae (bipedal - walk erect on two feet, advanced tool use)

o Genus Homo ("human" like)

o Species Homo sapiens

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS (for plants and animals)

require food for energy to cary out life processes

Use energy to maintain homeostasis (internal balance)
respond to stimuli in the environment (iritability)

grow (size) and develop (complexity)

reproduce similar offspring (asexual or sexual)
pass genetic information to their offspring
composed of cells

composed of organic based compounds