L4: Emotions and Moods at Work
PSYC011 — Human Behavior in Organizations
Why were emotions excluded from OB study?
- Irrational, make work-emotion free.
- Disruptive to the workplace and therefore a
hindrance to productivity.
Affect, Mood, and Emotion
● Affect
- is a generic term that covers a broad range of
feelings people experience. This includes both
emotions and moods.
- is the various emotional experiences such as
emotions, moods and affective traits. This is the
emotion we express externally: can be a tone of
voice, smile, frown or any facial expression or
body movements that indicates emotion.
● Emotions
- are intense feelings that are directed at someone
or something.
- From the Latin verb “movare” means to move or
be upset or agitated. Defined by Smith (1973)
referring to variations in level of arousal, affective
state or mood, expressive movements, and
attitudes.
● Moods
- are the feelings that tend to be less intense than
emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus.
As the brain releases neurotransmitters like
dopamine and oxytocin, these activates your emotions
neurologically
- Neurotransmitter
– a substance in the body that carries a signal
from 1 nerve cell to another.
- Dopamine
– a monoamine that is a decarboxylated form of
dopa and that occurs especially as a
neurotransmitter in the brain
- Oxytocin
– a pituitary octapeptide hormone that stimulates
esp. the contraction of uterine muscle and
secretion of milk
The Basic Emotions
Anger Sadness Disgust
Fear Happiness Surprise
Are feelings and emotions the same?
According to him, Dr. Antonio R. Damasio (2005)
Neurologist, feeling arises from the brain as it interprets an
emotion, which is usually caused by physical sensations
experienced by the body as a reaction to a certain external
stimulus (event). An example of this would be the emotion
of being afraid, which produces a feeling of fear.
The Basic Moods
● Positive affect
- a mood dimension consisting of positive emotions
such as excitement, enthusiasm, and
cheerfulness at the high end (high positive affect)
and boredom, sluggishness, and tiredness at the
low end (low positive affect).
-
● Negative affect
- a mood dimension consisting of nervousness,
stress, and anxiety at the high end (high negative
affect) and relaxation, tranquility and serenity at
the low end (low negative affect).
Functions of Emotions and Moods
● Emotions and Rationality
- emotions are critical to rational thought: they help
us understand the world around us.
● Emotions and Ethics
- new research suggests that ethical behavior may
be based to some degree on emotions and
feelings.
● Strong emotion
- the person’s physical responses including faster
heartbeat, profuse sweating and dilation of eye
pupils, higher blood pressure, and muscular
tremors affecting the nervous system in general.
Sources of Emotions and Moods
● Personality
- Some people experience certain moods and
emotions more frequently than others. Affect
intensity: experiencing the same emotions with
different intensities.
● Time of day
- People vary in their moods by time of day.
● Day of the week
- People tend to be in their best mood on the
weekend.
- Weather - No impact according to research
- Stress - Increased stress worsens moods
- Social Activities - Physical (hiking), informal
(night party), and epicurean activities (eat out with
friends) increase positive mood
- Sleep - Lack of sleep increases negative
emotions and impairs decision making
- Exercise - Mildly enhances positive mood
- Age - Older people experience negative emotions
less frequently
- Gender - Women show greater emotional
expression, experience emotions more intensely,
and display more frequent expressions of
emotions. Could be due to socialization
Employee Emotions
● Emotional labor
- an employee’s expression of organizationally
desired emotions during interpersonal
transactions at work.
● Emotional dissonance
- when an employee has to project one emotion
while simultaneously feeling another
(inconsistencies between the emotions people
feel and the emotions they project)
Felt vs. Displayed Emotions
● Felt Emotions
- The individual’s actual emotions.
● Displayed Emotions
- The learned emotions that the organization
requires workers to show and considers
appropriate in a given job.
- Surface Acting - hiding one’s true emotions.
Deals with displayed emotions.
- Deep Acting- trying to change one’s feelings
based on display rules. Deals with felt emotions
Theory of Emotions
● Affective Events Theory
- employees react emotionally to things that happen
to them at work, and this reaction influences their
job performance and satisfaction.
- provides us with valuable insights into the role
emotions play in primary organizational outcomes
of job satisfaction and job performance.
- begins by recognizing that emotions are a
response to an event in the work environment.
● Emotional Intelligence
- Emotional Intelligence (otherwise known as
emotional quotient or EQ) is the ability to
understand, use, and manage your own emotions
in positive ways to relieve stress, communicate
effectively, empathize with others, overcome
challenges and diffuse conflict.
- helps you build stronger relationships, succeed at
school and work, and achieve your career and
personal goals.
- have a strong sense of self-awareness,
recognizing their own emotions when
experienced. By understanding their own
emotions and those of others, they can manage
emotional cues and information to make
decisions.
- It can also help you connect with your feelings,
turn intention into action, and make informed
decisions about what matters most to you.
OB Application of Emotions and Moods
- Selection – Employers should consider EI a
factor in hiring for jobs that demand a high degree
of social interaction.
- Decision Making – Positive emotions can
increase problem-solving skills and help us
understand and analyze new information.
- Creativity – Positive moods and feedback may
increase creativity
- Motivation – Promoting positive moods may give
a more motivated workforce
- Leadership – Emotions help convey messages
more effectively
- Negotiation – Emotions may impair negotiator
performance
- Customer Service – Customers “catch” emotions
from employees, called emotional contagion
- Job Attitudes – Emotions at work get carried
home but rarely carry over to the next day
- Deviant Workplace Behaviors – Those who feel
negative emotions are more likely to engage in
deviant behavior at work
- Safety and Injury at Work – Bad moods can
contribute to injuries on the job
How Managers Can Influence Mood
- Managers can use humor and give their
employees small tokens of appreciation for work
well done.
- When leaders are in good moods, group members
are more positive, and as a result they cooperate
too.
- Selecting positive team members can have a
contagion effect as positive moods transmit from
team member to team member.
Experience, Interpretation, and Expression of
Emotions Across Culture
Emotions vary across cultures. People in most
cultures appear to experience certain positive and negative
emotions but the frequency and intensity varies in some
degrees. People from all over the world interpret negative
and positive emotions in much the same way. Though, it is
easier for people to accurately recognize emotions within
their own culture than in others. Thus, cultural factors
influence what manager’s think is emotionally appropriate.
Managers need to know the emotional norms in each
culture they do business in or they don’t send unintended
signals or misread the reactions of others.
L5: Personality and Values
PSYC011 — Human Behavior in Organizations
What is personality?
According to the American Psychiatric
Association, Personality refers to the enduring
characteristics and behavior that comprise a person’s
unique adjustment to life, including major traits, interest,
drives, values, self- concept, abilities, and emotional
patterns.
Personality Development and Characteristic
Types
Type A and B Personality
This type of personality concerns how people
respond to stress. However, although its name implies
a personality typology, it is more appropriately
conceptualized as a trait continuum, with extremes
Type-A and Type-B individuals on each end.
Type A personality is characterized by a constant
feeling of working against the clock and a strong sense
of competitiveness. Individuals with a type A personality
generally experience a higher stress level, hate failure
and find it difficult to stop working, even when they have
achieved their goals.
Type B personality is characterized by a relaxed,
patient, and easy-going nature. Individuals with a type
B personality work steadily, enjoying achievements, but
do not tend to become stressed when goals are not
achieved.
Type C personalities are detail oriented, people
pleasers, passive and patient. They suppress wants,
needs and feelings. Type C personalities has difficulty
expressing emotions and tend to suppress emotions,
particularly negative ones such as anger. This means
such individuals also display ‘pathological niceness’
conflict avoidance, high social desirability, over
compliance and patience.
The Big Five Personality Traits
It is important to note that each of the five
primary personality traits represents a range between
two extremes. For example, extraversion represents a
continuum between extreme extraversion an extreme
introversion. In the real world, most people lie
somewhere in between.
While there is a significant body of literature
supporting these primary personality traits, researchers
don’t always agree on the exact labels for each
dimension. That said, these five traits are usually
described as follows.
Openness
Openness (also referred to as openness to
experience) emphasizes imagination and insight the
most out of all five personality traits.
High
- Over very creative
- Open to trying new things
- Focused on tackling new challenges
- Happy to think about abstract concepts
Low
- Dislikes change
- Does not enjoy new things
- Resist new ideas
- Not very imaginative
- Dislike abstract or theoretical concepts
Conscientiousness
Among each of the personality traits,
consciousness is one defined by high levels of
thoughtfulness, good impulse control, and good
directed behavior.
High
- Spends time preparing
- Finished important tasks right away
- Pays attention to detail
- Enjoys having a set schedule
Low
- Dislikes structure and schedules
- Makes messes and doesn’t take care of things
- Fails to return things or put them back where
they belong
- Procrastinates important tasks
- Fails to complete necessary or assigned tasks
Extraversion
Extraversion (or extroversion) is a personality
trait characterized by excitability, sociability,
talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amount of
emotional expressiveness.
High
- Enjoys being the center of attention
- Likes to start conversations
- Enjoys meeting new people
- Has a wide social circle of friends and
acquaintances
- Finds it easy to make new friend
- Feels energized when around other people
- Say things before thinking about them
Low
- Prefers solitude
- Feels exhausted when having to socialize a lot
- Finds it difficult to start conversations
- Dislikes making small talk
- Carefully thinks things through before
speaking
- Dislike being the center of attention
Agreeableness
This personality traits includes attributes such
as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other pro
social behaviours.
High
- Has a great deal of interest in other people
- Care about others
- Feels empathy and concern for other people
- Enjoys helping and contributing to the
happiness of other people
- Assists others who are in need of help
Low
- Takes little interest in others
- Doesn’t care about how other people feel
- Has little interest in other people's problems
- Insults and belittles others
- Manipulates others to get what they want
Neuroticism
Neuroticism is a personality trait characterized
by sadness, moodiness, and emotional stability.
High
- Experiences a lot of stress
- Worries about many different things
- Gets upset easily
- Experiences dramatic shifts in mood
- Feels anxious
- Struggles to bounce back after stressful
events
Low
- Emotionally stable
- Deals well with stress
- Rarely feels sad or depressed
- Doesn’t worry much
- Is very relaxed
16 Personality Factors
Psychologist Raymond Cattell analyzed
Allport’s list and whittled it down to 171 characteristics,
mostly by eliminating terms that were redundant or
uncommon. He then used a statistical technique known
as Factor Analysis, to identify traits that are related to
one another. With this method, he was able to whittle
his list to 16 key personality factors.
Other Personality Tests
- The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
- The HEXACO Personality Inventory
- The Revised NEO Personality Inventory
- The Eysenck Personality Inventory
- The DISC Personality Test
Uses of Personality Tests
● Career development
- This assessment can provide insights that help
people determine which careers suit their
talents and interests.
● Industrial and organizational setting
- The questionnaire is sometimes used to
evaluate job candidates to determine if they
are a good fit for particular roles.
● Personality assessment
- The questionnaire can be useful for better
understanding different aspects of personality.
● Research
- Used as a research tool when investigating
different aspects of personality and behavior.
Values
Values are things that have worth for or are
important to the individual.
Values system - is the set of standards by which the
individual lives.
Spirituality in the workplace
Spirituality in the workplace is about people
seeing their work as a spiritual path, as an opportunity
to grow personally and to contribute to society in a
meaningful way.
Guidelines for Leading from a Spiritual Perspective
Here are five spiritual principles that have
been useful in personal and professional development:
1. Know Thyself. All spiritual growth processes
incorporate the principle of self-awareness.
2. Act with Authenticity. Be yourself.
3. Respect and honor the beliefs of others. Be
open to others’ beliefs and values.
4. Be as trusting as you can be. This means
trusting yourself and that there is a higher
power in your life and that if you ask, you will
receive guidance on important issues.
5. Maintain a spiritual practice. Examples
include spending time in nature, attending
religious services, meditating, praying, and
reading inspirational literature.
Person - Organization Fit
This idea can be further linked to the
workplace by looking at the person- organizational fit.
The employee’s personality needs to fit with the
organizational culture. When employees find
organizations that match their values, they are more
likely to be selected and correspondingly be more
satisfied with their work. The big five personality types
are often helpful in matching the individuals with
organizational culture.
International Values
There are global implications the personality
and values in the workplace. Frameworks such as the
Big Five are transferable across culture; in fact, it has
been used worldwide. However, the applicability is
higher in some cultures than others. Values, on the
other hand, differ to a great degree across cultures.
Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Culture Five
Factors:
1. Power Distance
2. Individualism vs. Collectivism
3. Masculinity vs. Femininity
4. Uncertainty Avoidance
5. Long term vs. short term orientation
Ethics
Level 1 – Preconventional
Self interest motivates behavior to meet one’s
own needs and to gain rewards while following rules
and being obedient to authority to avoid punishment.
“I lie to customers to sell more products and get higher
Commission checks”
The common leadership style is autocratic
toward others while using one’s position for personal
advantage.

As related to values, ethics refers to the moral

standard of right and wrong behavior.

Does Ethical Behavior Pay?

Generally, the answer is yes. Ethical or
Unethical behavior is linked directly to bottom line
performance

How personality traits and attitude, moral

development and the situation affect ethical
behavior?
Personality traits and attitude. The use of
ethical behavior is related to our individual needs and
personality traits.

Moral Development

A second factor affecting ethical behavior is

moral development which refers to understanding right
from wrong and choosing to do the right thing.

Levels of Moral Development

Level 3 – Post conventional

Behavior is motivated by universal principles
of right and wrong, regardless of the expectation of the
leader or group.

“I don’t lie to customers because it is wrong”

The common leadership style is visionary and

committed to serving others and a higher cause while
empowering followers to reach this level.

Level 2 – Conventional
Living up to expectations of acceptable
behavior defined by others motivates behaviors to fulfill
duties and obligations. It is common for followers to
copy the behavior of the leader and group. If the group
(this could be society, an organization or a department)
accepts lying, cheating, and stealing when dealing with
customers, suppliers, the government, or competitors,
so will the individual. On the other hand, if these
behaviors are not accepted, the individual will not do
them either. Peer pressure is used to enforce group
norms.

“I lie to the customers because the other sales

representative do it too”

It is common for lower-level managers to use a

leadership style similar to that of the higher level
managers.
L6: Perception and Individual Decision-Making
PSYC011 — Human Behavior in Organizations
Perception
Perception is a process by which individuals
organize and interpret their sensory impressions in
order to give meaning to their environment. In relation
to decision making process, perception affects our way
of thinking on how we deal with situations like making a
decision. We may make decisions based on our
experiences because there are some that has already
the knowledge on how they will respond to that
situation. There are also some that they based their
decision making skills on their interest or their motives
with it. Perception affects our decision making process
because in order to make an accurate decision, you
need to think properly if this one will work or not. There
are a lot of things that should be consider in making a
decision. One thing that makes decision making difficult
is our perception to what will be the outcome after
making this decision.
PERCEPTION - A process by which individuals
organize and interpret their sensory impressions in
order to give meaning to their environment. The world
as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally
important
Factors Influencing Perception
● Attribution Theory
- Suggests that perceivers try to “attribute” the
observed behavior to a type of cause:
Internal – behavior is believed to be under the
personal control of the individual
External – the person is forced into the
behavior by outside events/causes.
Determinants of Attribution
- Distinctiveness – whether an individual
displays different behavior in different
situations (the uniqueness of the act)
- Consensus – does everyone who faces a
similar situation respond in the same way as
the individual did.
- Consistency – does the person respond the
same way over time.
This chart looks at the elements of the attribution theory
and helps us to make the connection between external
or internal driven factors.
● Attribution Errors
- Fundamental attribution error: Tendency to
underestimate the influence of external factors
and overestimate that of internal factors.
- Self-Serving Bias: Occurs when individuals
overestimate their own (internal) influence on
successes and overestimate the external
influences on their failures. The basic process
of attribution applies across cultures, but
Western cultures tend to be more individualist,
while Asian cultures are more group oriented.
Shortcuts Used in Judging Others
● Selective Perception: A perceptual filtering
process based on interests, background, and
attitude.
● Halo Effect: Drawing a general impression
based on a single characteristic
● Contrast Effects: Our reaction is influenced
by others we have recently encountered (the
context of the observation)
● Stereotyping: Judging someone on the basis
of the perception of the group to which they
belong
The Link Between Perception and
Decision-Making
In organizational behavior we are concerned
with how decisions are made, and perceptions play a
significant role in that process. Often decision making
occurs as a reaction to a problem or a perceived
discrepancy between the way things are and the way
we would like them to be. A decision is then made
based on various alternatives that have been
developed from the data collected. Perception
influences this entire process from problem recognition
to data selection to alternative chosen.
● Rational Decision-Making Model
This model is seldom actually used: it’s more
of a goal than a practical method. This model assumes
a perfect world in order to make decisions. It assumes
that there is complete information, that every option has
been identified and that there is a maximum payoff.
1. Define the problem
2. Identify the decision criteria
3. Allocate weights to the criteria
4. Develop the alternatives
5. Evaluate the alternatives
6. Select the best alternative
● Bounded Rationality
The limited information-processing capability
of human beings makes it impossible to assimilate and
understand all the information necessary to optimize.
People seek solutions that are satisfactory and
sufficient, rather than optimal (they “satisfice”).
Bounded rationality is constructing simplified models
that extract the essential features from problems
without capturing all their complexity.
Simpler than rational decision making,
decision making under bounded rationality is composed
of three steps:
1. Limited search for criteria and alternatives
– familiar criteria and easily found alternatives
2. Limited review of alternatives – focus on
alternatives, similar to those already in effect
3. Satisficing – selecting the first alternative that
is “good enough.”
● Intuitive Decision Making
The third model is based on intuition. This is
the non-conscious process that occurs as a result of
experiences that result in quick decisions.
1. Increases with experience
2. Can be a powerful complement to rational
analysis in decision making
Common Biases and Errors
1. Overconfidence Bias - As managers and
employees become more knowledgeable
about an issue, the less likely they are to
display overconfidence
2. Anchoring Bias - A tendency to fixate on
initial information and fail to adequately adjust
for subsequent information
3. Confirmation Bias - Seeking out information
that reaffirms our past choices and discounting
information that contradicts past judgments
4. Availability Bias - Basing judgments on
information that is readily available
5. Escalation of Commitment - Staying with a
decision even when there is clear evidence
that it is wrong
6. Risk Aversion - Preferring a sure thing over a
risky outcome
7. Hindsight Bias - Believing falsely that we
could have predicted the outcome of an event
after that outcome is already known.
Organizational Constraints in Decision-Making
There are many organizational constraints to
good decision making that create deviations from the
rational model defined earlier. Managers shape their
decisions on performance evaluations, reward systems,
and formal regulations. They also base decisions on
system-imposed time constraints and historical
precedents. All these factors may influence the
decisions that are made.
Ethical Frameworks for Decision Making
- Utilitarianism - Provide the greatest good for
the greatest number
- Rights - Make decisions consistent with
fundamental liberties and privileges
- Justice - Impose and enforce rules fairly and
impartially so that there is equal distribution of
benefits and costs
Common Biases and Errors
Better decisions are those that incorporate
novel and useful ideas, or creativity. An organization will
tend to make better decisions when creative people are
involved in the process. So, it is important to identify
people who have that creative potential. Some of the
methods and theories identified in earlier chapters can
help in this process. For example, those who score high
in openness to experience tend to be more creative.
CREATIVITY - The ability to produce novel and useful
ideas. Helps people:
- See problems others can’t see
- Better understand the problem
- Identify all viable alternatives
- Identify alternatives that aren’t readily
apparent
Three-Stage Model of Creativity
Creative behavior occurs in four steps, each of
which leads to the next. Problem formulation,
information gathering, idea generation, and idea
evaluation.
Steps:
1. Problem formulation: identify a problem or
opportunity that requires a solution as yet
unknown
2. Information gathering possible solutions
incubate in an individual’s mind
3. Idea generation: develop possible solutions
from relevant information and knowledge
4. Idea evaluation: evaluate potential solutions
and identify the best one. Cause of creative
behavior:
- Creative potential - Expertise is the single
most important predictor of creative potential
- Creative environment - Motivation and
Rewards and recognition
Off-the-wall solutions are creative only if they help
solve the problem. Creative ideas do not implement
themselves; translating them into creative outcomes is
a social process that requires utilizing other concepts
addressed in the text.