ME222 MIDsemslide

ME222a
on
Nature and
Properties of Materials
Instructor : Prof. Bishakh Bhattacharya

Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Kanpur, India
e-mail: bishakh@iitk.ac.in
Mo: 9936335473
Motivation for Material evolution???
War
Survival
Universe Exploration
War taught us Engineering
• During World War II, 2,710 Liberty cargo ships were
mass-produced by the United States to supply food and
materials to the combatants in Europe. (1500 fractured).
• Experienced a ductile-to-brittle transition.
• Many were deployed to the frigid North Atlantic, where

the temperatures dropped to below the transition
temperature.
• The corner of each hatch (i.e., door) was square; these

corners acted as points of stress concentration where
cracks can form.
• Prefabricated steel sheets that were assembled by

welding rather than by the traditional time-consuming
riveting.
• Cracks in welded structures may propagate unimpeded

for large distances (catastrophic), while in riveted
structures, a crack ceases to propagate once it reaches
the edge of a steel sheet.
• Weld defects and discontinuities (i.e., sites where cracks

can form) were introduced by inexperienced operators.
The Liberty ship S.S. Schenectady, which, in 1943, failed before
leaving the shipyard.
Remedies
• Lowering the ductile-to-brittle temperature of the steel to an acceptable
level by improving steel quality (e.g., reducing sulphur and phosphorus
impurity contents).
• Rounding off hatch corners by welding a curved reinforcement strip on
each corner.
• Installing crack-arresting devices such as riveted straps and strong weld
seams to stop propagating cracks.
• Improving welding practices and establishing welding codes.
FUKUSIMA – DAICHI Tsunami induced
Nuclear Disaster
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mUBxtTEOiPI
Survival
Zirconium has very low absorption cross-section of thermal neutrons, high hardness,
ductility and corrosion resistance. One of the main uses of zirconium alloys is in nuclear
technology, as cladding of fuel rods in nuclear reactors, especially water reactors. A typical
composition of nuclear-grade zirconium alloys is more than 95 weight percent[1] zirconium
and less than 2% of tin, niobium, iron, chromium, nickel and other metals, which are added
to improve mechanical properties and corrosion resistance
At temperatures above 860 °C,

the zirconium–steam reaction proceeds
Exploration of the Universe:
The story of Carbon – Fullerene
In 1985, simulating the chemical reactions in the atmospheres of the red giant stars
demonstrated that stable C60 molecules could form spontaneously from a condensing
carbon vapour. Kroto’s co-investigators directed lasers at graphite and examined the
results. The C60 molecule is a molecule with the same symmetry pattern as a football,
consisting of 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons of carbon atoms. Kroto named the
molecule “Buckminsterfullerene“, often also referred to as “Buckyballs”, after American
architect, systems theorist, author, designer, inventor, and futurist Buckminster Fuller
who had conceived of the geodesic domes, as the dome concept had provided a clue to
the likely structure of the new species.
Module-I Introduction to Materials
• History & Evolution of Engineering Materials
• Material classification
ü Metals,
ü Non-metals
ü Polymers
ü Composites
• Advanced & Exotic materials
ü Smart materials
ü Bio-materials
ü Aerogel
• Material selection using Ashby chart

Module-II Mechanical Properties
• Concept of stress-strain
ü Hooke’s Law
ü Poisson’s ratio
ü Shear stress & Torsion
ü Tensors
• Mechanical Properties
ü Strength, Elasticity
ü Plasticity, Ductility, Malleability
ü Tensile strength
ü Toughness, Hardness Ductile failure - cup & cone
ü Resilience, Impact testing

ü Creep, Damping
• Atomic Bonding
ü Primary bonds (Ionic, Covalent and Metallic bond)
ü Secondary bonds (Van der Waals and Hydrogen bond) Brittle failure – flat surface
Module-III Crystal Structures
Crystal Structure
ü Crystalline and Amorphous solids
ü Unit Cell Geometries
ü SCC, BCC, FCC and HCP
§ Atomic Packing factor
Miller Indices
ü Significance of crystallographic direction and plane Name
Half-moon Bracket
Symbol
( )
Meaning
Individual Plane - (1 0 0)
ü Miller indices of Plane, direction Curly Bracket { } Family of Planes
ü Linear & Planar density Square bracket [ ]

{1 0 0} = (1 0 0), (0 1 0), (0 0 1)
Individual direction - [ 1 0 0]
Carrot Bracket < > Family of Directions
Crystal Defects
<1 0 0> = [1 0 0], [0 1 0], [0 0 1]
ü Point defects (Vacancy, Interstitial, Substitutional, Frenkel, Schottky defect)

ü Line defects (Edge and Screw dislocation)
ü Plane defects
§ Slip system and Twinning
ü Volume defects
Module-IV Metals
Ferrous Alloys
ü Classification of Ferrous alloys
ü Iron-Carbon diagram
ü Types of steel
ü Effect of impurities on steel properties
ü Cast Iron
Non-Ferrous Alloys
ü Aluminium, Titanium, Zinc, Copper, Nickel, Cobalt & its alloys
ü Bulk Metallic Glass
Strengthening & Corrosion in metals

ü Grain size reduction, strain hardening, Age hardening
ü Types and prevention of corrosion
Module-V Ceramics
Introduction
ü Classification (Natural, Abrasives, Refractories, Glasses, Piezo, etc.)
ü Bonding and Crystal structures
Manufacturing and Mechanical Properties

ü Processing of ceramics
ü Ceramic elastic modulus
ü Weibull modulus
ü Hardness
ü Fracture toughness
ü Failure in ceramics
Module-VI Polymers
Basics and Classification
ü Concept of monomer, dimer to polymer
ü Linear, Branched, Cross-linked, Network
ü Thermoplastics, Thermosets
ü Natural, Synthetic
ü Chain polymerization, Step polymerization
ü Advanced polymers
Polymeric Structure
ü Concept of molecular weight, % Crystallinity, Tacticity
Mechanical Properties
ü Glass Transition Temperature (DMA, DSC)
ü Factors affecting Tg (Chain Length, Chain stiffness, Plasticizers, Crosslinking, Co-polymers)
ü Stress-strain relation, KV & Maxwell model, fracture, fatigue, factors affecting mechanical
properties (temperature, molecular weight, drawing, crystallinity)
Module-VII Composites
• Classification of Composites
ü Particle-reinforced composites
ü Fibre-reinforced composites
ü Structural composites
• Calculation of Modulus
ü Longitudinal modulus ("# )longitudinal = "% &% + "' &' , “ Rule of Mixtures”
"% "'
ü Transverse modulus ("# ))*+,-./*-/ =
"% &' + "' &%
• Fibre reinforced composites: PMC, CMC, CCC
• Manufacturing of composites
ü Hand lay-up,
ü Spray up,
ü Pultrusion,
ü Resin Transfer Moulding,
ü Pressure & vacuum bag techniques
Module-VIII Smart Materials
Introduction
ü Types (Piezo, Magnetostrictive, SMA, ERF, MRF, etc.)
ü Applications of smart material
ü Direct and reverse effects
ü Smart systems using Smart Materials
Piezoelectric materials
ü History of Piezoelectricity
ü How to prepare a Piezoceramic Actuator?
ü Constitutive Relationship
ü Piezoceramic Polymers & Composites
ü Bimorphs & Piezostacks
Magnetostrictive Smart Materials

ü Constitutive relationships
ü Various actuators and sensors
ü Various effects (Joule, Wiedemann, Villari, Matteuci, Nagoka- Honda, etc.)
ü Magnetostrictive composites
Do you have the answer to these IITK placement questions?
1. Why some materials are ductile and some are brittle?
2. In a polymer, how do molecular chains, when aligned, improve strength?
3. What is crazing in polymers?
4. What is the Eutectic and Eutectoid temperature in Fe-C diagram? Draw the Fe-C diagram?
5. In a True stress-strain curve, why does stress continue to increase even after yielding?
6. What kind of microstructure makes a material brittle?
7. Is a brittle material also a stiff material and vice versa?
8. Is ductility same as tensile strength of a material?
9. Is it correct to say that a brittle material is always stiff (high E) because of ionic/covalent
bonds that they contain?
10. Why is the stiffness of a metal at room temperature is time-independent whereas that
for polymers is not?
11. Why for ceramics, strength increases if we increase toughness?
12. Difference between dispersion and precipitation hardening?
13. What is the main issue of using UHMWPE(bio-material) as acetabular cup for hip prosthesis?
14. Using a soft polymer does not necessary lead to high wear rate, why?
15. For stress-corrosion cracking, how does crack initiates at the surface? Is it by fatigue?
16. How to prevent cavitation?
17. Why metals with high grain boundary area not preferred in high temperature applications?
18. Which one gives higher strengthening during alloying, “soft” or “hard” atom?
History
and
Introduction: Engineering Materials
Materials : “Drivers” of our Society
ü Rooted in our culture and have
influence over virtually every segment
of our daily lives –
v Transportation
v Housing
P. K Kelkar library, IIT Kanpur Fighter Craft
v Clothing Image: Ontario sea plane association
v Communication
v Recreation, etc.
ü Early civilizations have been

designated by materials development:
v Stone Age
Home Antenna
v Bronze Age Image: www.goes-r.gov
v Iron Age World of materials

What is the extent of our Material Creation till
Today?
• At the start of the 20th century, the mass of

human-created stuff weighed in at 35 billion tons,
or roughly 3 percent of global biomass.
• Since then, anthropogenic mass has grown
exponentially to approximately 1.1 trillion tons
today.
• It’s now accumulating at a rate of 30 billion tons a
year, which corresponds to each person on Earth
generating more than his or her own weight in
manufactured stuff every week.
Global human-made mass exceeds all
living biomass – Nature October,
2020
How are we Different?
Stone Age
• The term “Stone Age”
was coined in the late
19th century by the
Danish scholar
Christian J. Thomsen.
• Roughly extended
Image: Canadian Anglo-Boer War Museum, Canada Image: Nubian Museum, Egypt
between 15000-2000
BC.
• Characterized by Bone tool
creation and use of

stone tools.
• Wood, bones and
other materials were
also used as tools but Image : Wesleyan University, USA Image: Government Museum, Chennai, India
have shorter life.

Stone Age Tools
The Olduvai Gorge,
Tanzania
The Journey of Humanity started
only with 3 materials: Flint, Obsidian
and Chert!
Chert
Obsidian
Flint
Flint and Chert are Cryptocrystalline Quartz and can
create Conchoidal fracture
A crystal:
is a geometrical solid bound by flat surfaces
has a regular and symmetrical pattern of atoms ('crystal lattice')
has physical and optical properties that may vary with direction
An amorphous solid has:
no definite shape ('not crystalline')
physical and optical properties that remain the same in every direction
Ideally, single crystals can be observed with the unaided eye, however, some crystals are so
small they cannot be detected without magnification. Often these small crystals bind together
to form a solid and this kind of solid is called polycrystalline (poly = many).
Formerly, polycrystalline structures were divided into microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline.
Microcrystalline bodies are composed of small crystals that can be individually observed with
magnification (such as a microscope).
Cryptocrystalline substances are made up of such small crystals that a microscope cannot
distinguish individual crystals.
Conchoidal fracture: a fracture with smooth, curved surfaces, typically slightly concave,
showing concentric undulations resembling the lines of growth of a shell".
Oldwan Technologies
Chopper and Flakes from
Hammer Stone from China
Kenya
Handaxe from India
As the time passed….
Projectile Bone Awls Burin
Points
Harpoons
Let’s hear from the Geology Professor
Tim Martin!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dZ1u-
zJxyVo
Bronze Age
• Roughly extend between
3500-500 BC.
• Beginning of metal working.
• Copper was mixed with tin,
to create a new alloy -
BRONZE, which was
Neck collar of Gold Daggers (kind of knife) and Swords
stronger than the other two Image: http://www.britishmuseum.org/
Image : The Archaeology Gallery at West Stow, England
metals individually.
• Used for tools, weapons,
armor, decoration, etc.
Axe Head
Image: Kenilworth Abbey Barn Museum, UK
Spartan Armor
Image: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Mundigak, Afghanistan
Bronze Age – India
• Begins around 3000 BC.
• Development of Indus valley Civilisation/ Harappa
Culture, first ever urban civilisation.
Indus valley civilization

• The famous Dancing Girl is a bronze statuette Image: NCERT
(10.5 cm high) casted using the lost wax

method and dating around 2500 B.C., from the
Mohenjo-daro site, Sindh (now in Pakistan) of
the Indus Valley Civilization.
• Found by Ernest Mackay in 1926.
• Although it is in standing position, it was
named "Dancing Girl" with an assumption of
her profession – 25 bangles in left and 4
bangles in her right hand. Ceramic Pot, Indus valley
Image: www.antiques.com
Dancing Girl
(Image: National Museum, New Delhi, India)
The Role of Charcoal in Smelting
Charcoal is produced by partially
burning organic matter (wood, bone,
etc.) while limiting the supply of oxygen.
One way of producing charcoal is to pile
a large amount of wood, as shown in
the figure, and covering it with soil to
limit the amount of oxygen feeding the
fire.
The temperatures obtainable by fire depend on the fuel used and the supply of air. If
wood is used as the fuel in an open fire, temperatures in the fire might range from
350 to 500° C. Charcoal, being a denser and drier fuel source, can provide
temperatures up to 800 °C under similar conditions. If the fire is confined, such as in
a kiln or a furnace, and air is forced into the fire, it is possible to obtain even higher
temperatures. For charcoal, it is possible to reach temperatures above 1000 °C.
Lime Mortar
Chalk and limestone are composed primarily of calcium carbonate

(CaCO3), which is the same mineral present in hard water. It often
shows up as a white residue on plumbing fixtures.
If chalk or limestone is heated above 800° C (obtainable with
charcoal), the gas carbon dioxide is released from the calcium
carbonate leaving lime (CaO).
Lime produced in this matter is referred to as quicklime or burnt
lime. If water is added, this quicklime or burnt lime hydrates to form
a white pasty substance known as slaked lime.
Mud-brick
Mudbricks were composed of a mixture that might have included

clay, mud, loam, sand, and water mixed with a material to inhibit
crumbling such as straw or rice husks. This was another example of
a composite material.
The ceramic material (clay, mud, loam, sand) by itself could support
compressive loads but could be easily pulled apart. The second
component of the composite, straw or rice husks, reinforced the
first material, making it more difficult to pull the mudbrick apart.
Water was used to allow the brick to be easily formed during
manufacturing.
Pottery
The development of pottery in Mesopotamia was important

for the storage of food protected from moisture and insects.
Pottery takes clay and water which, in the proper
proportions, form a mass that can be readily shaped. Once
in the desired shape, the piece is dried to remove the water
and then fired to improve mechanical stability. Clay was
readily available and thus an inexpensive material to use.
Iron Age
• It is the last stage of the archaeological sequence known as the three-age system
(Stone Age, Bronze Age, & Iron Age).
• The Iron Age began about 3000 years ago and continues till today. Use of iron and
steel has changed drastically the human development.
• Witnessed industrial revolution.

• Improved modes of transportation –Automobiles, Railways and aero planes.
Transportation modes
Image: www.pinterest.com
IRON PILLAR OF DELHI
• Iron age in South-Asia begins around 1200
B.C
• IRON PILLAR OF DELHI (around 1600 year
old) called as “a testament to the skill of
ancient Indian blacksmiths”.
• Solid shaft of wrought iron (high
phosphorous content) about 7m tall, 0.4 m
diameter weighing over 6,000 kg.
• High resistance to corrosion results from an
even layer of crystalline iron hydrogen
phosphate hydrate, which serves to protect
it from the effects of the local Delhi climate.
Iron Pillar, Qutab Minar Complex, New Delhi, India
In-depth study, book and papers published by Late Prof. R. Balasubramaniam, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, IIT Kanpur,
http://www.iitk.ac.in/infocell/Archive/dirnov1/iron_pillar.html
World's First Cast Iron Bridge
• Built over the River Severn in

Shropshire, England.
• First arch bridge in the world
to be made of Cast Iron.
• Opened in the year 1781.
• Longest span = 31m
The Iron Bridge, England
Image: Wikipedia
The Steel Story
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon (less than 2% by weight) added with other alloying
elements such as sulphur, phosphorous, manganese, chromium, etc. to achieve variety
of properties.
13th Century BC :Early blacksmiths discovered that iron became harder and stronger
when left in charcoal furnaces.
3rd Century BC : “Wootz Steel (Ancient India)”
The craftsmen of southern India used crucibles to smelt wrought iron
with charcoal to produce ‘Wootz’ steel – still admired today.
Roman Era : The Romans learned how to temper work-hardened steel to reduce its
brittleness
3rd century AD : Chinese created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron
Modern era in Steel making
1855 : Henry Bessemer, steel mass production began with Bessemer convertor – air blast
injected into molten pig iron (carbon 3.5-4.5%) to reduce its carbon content –
suitable for phosphorous free ores.
1860 : Gilchrist-Thomas process - improvement to the Bessemer process – used limestone
to remove phosphorous
1865 : Siemens-Martin/Open-hearth process - complemented the Bessemer process -
melting iron bar or steel scrap with pig iron until carbon content reduced by
dilution and oxidation
1953 : Basic oxygen steelmaking – used oxygen blast instead of air.
Latest : Electric arc furnace - highly efficient recycler of steel scrap
Steel can be recycled endlessly with no detrimental effects on its properties. All steel
created as long ago as 150 years can be recycled and used in new products and applications.
India’s Contribution in Steel making
Wootz steel: Born in ancient India
• In early 3rd century BC, the craftsmen of southern India used crucibles to smelt
wrought iron with charcoal to produce ‘Wootz steel’.
• Wootz steel characterized by a pattern of bands, which are formed by sheets of micro
carbides within a tempered martensite or pearlite matrix in high carbon steel.
• It was widely exported (as cakes) and traded throughout ancient Europe and the Arab
world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East for making Swords.
• Another sign of its reputation is seen in a Persian phrase – to give an "Indian answer",
means "a cut with an Indian sword”.
• The 12th century Arab traveler “Edrisi” mentioned the word "Hinduwani" or ‘Indian
steel as the best in the world’ then.
• Michael Faraday who contributed to the study of electricity and electromagnetism, also Wootz blade
spent 4 years studying the properties of Indian Wootz steel.
Image: Wikipedia
• The techniques for its making died out slowly. The research is underway to reproduce
it.
Steel lifeline – Rail track
• World has total rail network of about 16 lakh km length.
• India has 4th longest railway network (65,000 km) after
USA(2.5L), China(1.2L) and Russia(86k).
• Rail steel contains carbon(0.6-0.8%), and other alloying
elements such as Mn, Si, S, P, Mo, Cr, V to produce hard,
wear & corrosion resistant rails. Diamond Crossing, Nagpur*
*Place where India crosses from
East to West and North to South.
Samjhauta Express (Opened 1914, L = 2.4 km)

Scissor Rail track on World's 2nd most
corrosive environment
International rail track Pamban Rail Bridge, Rameshwaram, Tamil Nadu Dudhsagar falls track, Goa
(Atari, India - Lahore, Pakistan)
Source: Indian Railways gallery

Summary: Material Evolution
Reference: Ashby, Material Selection in Mechanical Design, 4 Ed.

Classification
Engineering Materials
Metals & Alloys Non-Metals Ceramics Polymers Composites
Gases(H2,He,N2,O2) Al2O3 Wool Wood

Ferrous Non-ferrous Bromine (Liquid) Silk Concrete
Solids- C, P, S, Se, I SiO2
Polyethylene Fiber glass
Iron Aluminum SiC PVC CFRP
Steel Copper Nylon GFRP
Diamond
Bakelite
Zinc
Titanium
Gold
Tungsten
43
Menu of Engineering materials

Metals
Metals are characterized by following properties: -
Physical Properties
ü Good electrical and heat conductors.
ü Malleable - can be beaten into thin sheets.
ü Ductile - can be stretched into wire.
ü Possess metallic luster.
ü Solid at room temperature (except Hg).
Chemical Properties
ü Usually have 1-3 electrons in their outer shell. Metals
Image: http://byjus.com/
ü Lose their valence electrons easily.
ü Form oxides that are basic.
ü Are good reducing agents (loses electrons).
ü Have lower electronegativity (tendency to attract electrons).
Non-Metals
Non-metals are characterized by the following properties: -
Physical Properties
ü Poor conductors of heat and electricity.
ü Brittle - if a solid.
ü Non - ductile.
ü Do not possess metallic luster.
ü Transparent as a thin sheet.
ü Solids, liquids or gases at room temperature.
Chemical Properties
ü Usually have 4-8 electrons in their outer shell.
ü Gain or share valence electrons easily.
ü Form oxides that are acidic.
Non-metals
ü Are good oxidizing agents.
ü Have higher electronegativity.
Image: http://byjus.com/
Ceramics
• Ceramic materials are inorganic materials made from compounds of metal and non-metal.
• They are formed by the action of heat and subsequent cooling.
• Brittle in nature and good insulator of heat and electricity.
• Excellent compressive strength.
Faculty building, IIT Kanpur
Roof tiles Bearings Bricks
Pottery Electric insulators

Ceramic coated turbine blades
Polymers
A polymer is a large molecule composed of many repeated subunits.
Natural Polymers – Shellac (bio-adhesive), amber, wool, silk and natural rubber, etc.
Synthetic polymers - Synthetic rubber, Bakelite, neoprene, nylon, polystyrene, polyethylene,
polyvinyl chloride
Natural rubber Shellac
Synthetic polymers
Image: Callister, 7th Ed.
Composites
• Two or more constituent materials with significantly different properties which after
combination produce a material with characteristics different from the individual
components.
• The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished
structure.
Aileron/Flap/Ruddar High Strength Carbon-

Epoxy
Fuselage Aluminum alloy Al-
7075
Wing-box Al-2024 Aluminum
alloy
Cockpit Stretched Acrylic
Engine Superalloy
Landing Gear Titanium Alloy
Components of Solid Rocket
Boosters
https://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=Eis3A2Ll9_E
ADVANCED
&
EXOTIC MATERIALS
Bio-materials
• Substances (excluding food & drugs) introduced into a living body with the aim of
improving or replacing a diseased, damaged or lost tissue or whole organ.
Examples – Biomedical applications
ü Joint replacements
ü Bone plates
ü Bone cement
ü Artificial ligaments and tendons
ü Dental implants for tooth fixation
ü Blood vessel prostheses
ü Heart valves
ü Skin repair devices (artificial tissue)
ü Cochlear replacements
ü Contact lenses
ü Vascular grafts
ü Stents
ü Surgical sutures for wound closure
ü Pins and screws for fracture stabilisation
Metals as bio-materials
Metals : Co-Cr alloys, Stainless steel, Gold , Ti alloys, Vitallium (Co-Cr-Mo), Amalgams(Hg-Ag-Sn)
Shape memory alloys - Nitinol(Ni-Ti alloy) and Cu-Zn-Al.
Usages : Orthopedics, dentistry, stent, etc.
Self-expanding Nitinol stent in aortic heart valve

(Ref: www.heartlungdoc.com)
Fractured fore-arm Stainless steel implant

Ref: www.boneandspine.com
www.torth.com
Stainless steel screws

Ref: www.boneandspine.com
Amalgam filling
Hip implant stem - Vitallium/ Ti (Ref: www.dunadental.hu)
Polymers as bio-materials
Polymers : Silicones, Polyethylene(UHMWPE-ultra-high molecular weight PE),
polyurethanes, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA or bone cement - fill
space b/w bone & implant).
Usages : Orthopedics, artificial tendons, vascular grafts, facial and soft tissue
reconstruction
Resorbable polymers : Polylactic acid (PLA),polyglycolic acid for suture, scaffolds for building
tissues.
Hydrogel : pHEMA (Polyhydroxyethylmethacrylate) – wound dressing, retinal
implant, contact lens
PMMA as cement
UHMWPE liner Femoral prosthesis
UHMWPE lining on femoral prosthesis
Image: http://emedicine.medscape.com/
Ceramics as bio-materials
Ceramics: Alumina, calcium phosphate (bone grafting), synthetic hydroxyapatite (promote
bone ingrowth), pyrolytic carbon (lining on blood contacting prosthesis)
Alumina on UHMWPE
Ceramic as bearing
Image: http://emedicine.medscape.com/
Aerogels
• Aerogel is a material that is around 90-98 % porous.
• They are produced by extracting the liquid component
of a gel through supercritical drying.
• The air molecules trapped inside the gel would act as
insulators, and its heat conductivity is close to zero.
Applications Aerogel kept b/w Flower and Bunsen burner

Image: Wikipedia
• Capturing space dust from comets (NASA STARDUST mission -1999).
• Insulating material in spacesuits of NASA astronauts since 1960s.
Potential applications
• Thermal barrier – extreme cold region clothes such as for Siachen

(requires around 500 grams of gel to coat a
jacket).
• Thermal insulators for cryogenic fuel tank of rockets.
• Acoustic insulators, building and pipeline insulation.
Superconductors
ü An element , intermetallic alloy or compound that will conduct
electricity without resistance below a characteristic critical
temperature (TC ).
ü Costly due to cryogenic requirements.
Example: Hg, Lanthanum-Barium-Copper Oxide, Niobium-Tin, Superconductor(black) cooled by nitrogen
Yttrium-Barium-Copper Oxide and material being levitated
PROPERTIES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS
1. Meissner effect
When superconducting material cooled below its TC ,it becomes perfectly
diamagnetic (all magnetic flux expelled out).
2. Josephson effect
When 2 superconductors sheets are separated by small thin insulating
material the current can pass through without any voltage.
Meissner effect
Applications
• Magnetic-levitation
• SQUID's (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device) are capable of
sensing a change in a magnetic field over a billion times weaker than the
force that moves the needle on a compass . With this technology, the body
can be probed to certain depths without the need for the strong magnetic
fields associated with MRI's.
Josephson effect
Image: Wikipedia
Carbon Nanotubes (CNT)/ Fullerene
• Discovered in 1991.
• Composed of carbon atoms linked in hexagonal shapes,
with each carbon atom covalently bonded to three other
carbon atoms.
• Carbon nanotubes have diameters as small as 1 nm and
lengths up to several centimeters.
• Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest materials
yet discovered in terms of tensile strength and elastic
modulus respectively.
• CNT are at least 100 times stronger than steel, but only
one-sixth as heavy.
• Extremely high thermal conductivity (≈ 10 times of copper)
and electrical conductivity (≈100 times of copper).
• Combining carbon nanotubes with other materials into
composites can be used to reinforce and build lightweight
structures.
CNT
Image: Mstroeck
Smart Materials
A smart material are those which posses ability to change their physical properties in a specific
manner in response to specific stimulus input.
Commonly used smart materials are:-
1. Piezoelectric - Generate an electric charge in response to applied mechanical stress and vice versa.
2. Magnetostrictive – Change in dimension of ferromagnetic material in magnetic field and vice versa.
3. Phase-Transition dependent - “Remembers" its original shape and after being deformed returns to
its original shape when heated.
4. Electro/Magneto Rheological Materials – Change in viscosity in response to electric/magnetic

fluid.
Rheology
Piezoelectricity Terfenol-D
Course References
I. Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, William D. Callister (Jr.), Pub. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
II. Engineering Materials 1: An introduction to properties, application and Design, Michael F Ashby
and David R. H. Jones, Pub. Elsevier.
III. Materials Selection in Mechanical Design by Michael F. Ashby, Pub. Elsevier.
IV. Mechanics of Composite material, Robert M. Jones, Pub. Taylor & Francis.
V. Smart Structures Theory by Inderjit Chopra & Jayant Sirohi, Cambridge press.
VI. https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/behavior/primate-behavior
VII. https://www.e-education.psu.edu/matse81/node/2074
In the next lecture, we will learn:
• Concept of Stress and strain
ü Definition
ü Stress-strain curve
• Mechanical properties
ü Tensile strength
ü Ductility
ü Brittleness
ü Resilience
ü Toughness
ü Impact strength
of
Materials - I

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Kanpur
India
Contents
• Material Properties
• Concept of stress-strain
• Mechanical Properties
ü Tensile strength
ü Ductility
ü Brittleness
ü Resilience
ü Toughness
ü Impact strength
Classes of Property-affecting product design
Class Property Class Property
Price and availability 4. General physical Density
Recyclability Resistivity
1. Economic &
Sustainability 5. Electrical and
Environmental Dielectric constant
Magnetic
effect Carbon emission
Magnetic
Modulus permeability
Yield and Tensile Oxidation
strength 6. Environmental
Corrosion
Hardness interaction
2. Mechanical
Wear
Fracture Toughness
Ease of
Fatigue strength
7. Production manufacturing
Creep strength
Joining
Damping
Finishing
Thermal conductivity
Colour
Specific heat
3. Thermal 8. Aesthetic
Thermal expansion Texture
coefficient Feel
Reference: Engineering Materials 1: Ashby & Jones, 4th Ed.
Mechanical Properties determine the effect of applied forces on shape and size of material.
Some of the key mechanical properties are :-

1. Strength
2. Elasticity
3. Plasticity
4. Ductility
5. Malleability
6. Tensile strength
7. Toughness
8. Hardness
Tensile Testing, IIT Kanpur

Need to determine Mechanical Properties

Concept of Stress and Strain
Stress
• The internal resistance force per unit area acting
on a material.
• It uses original cross section area of the
specimen and also known as Engineering Stress
or Conventional Stress.
#
!=
$%
Unit : Pascal (Pa) or N/m2
1 kPa = 103 Pa (kPa = Kilo Pascal) Tensile force Compressive force
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 1 N/mm2 (MPa = Mega Pascal)

1 GPa = 109 Pa (GPa = Giga Pascal)
Reference: W.D Callister, 7Ed.
Concept of Stress and Strain
Strain
• Defined as change in length per original length.
• It is unit-less and also known as Engineering Strain
or Conventional Strain/Normal strain.
∆%
∈" =
%&
• Sometimes strain is expressed in micro strain.
(1 μstrain = 10-6 )
Strain
Shear Stress
• Shear stress is tangential to the area over which it acts.
!ℎ#$% +,%-#
!ℎ#$% &'%#&&, ) =
!ℎ#$% $%#$
89:;<9= >?@A=9B;C;D: (F)
!ℎ#$% &'%$56, γ = = tanθ
H?@:9DB; I;:J;;D K9B;@ (8)
≈ θ for small strain
Shear deformation

.
)= /
2
41
./2
)= /
12
4
Torsion
• Torsion is a variation of pure shear.
• A structural member is twisted in a manner that torsional
forces produce a rotational motion about the longitudinal
axis of one end of the member relative to the other end.
• Examples : Machine axles, drive shafts, and drills, etc. L
• The Torsion equation is given by:

! $ &∅
"
= %
= (
Torsional deformation
where T is applied torque, J is polar M.I (circular section
= π/32 d4 ) , G is shear modulus, R is the radial position
of the element, φ is the twist angle, and L is the
specimen length.
Reference: W.D Callister, 7Ed

Common States of Stress

Tensors
• Stresses are not vectors because they do not follow vector laws of addition. They are Tensors.
Stress, Strain, Moment of Inertia, etc. are all second order tensors.
• Tensors are merely a generalization of scalars and vectors.
• The rank (or order) of a tensor is defined by the number of directions (dimension of the array)
required to describe it.
• In N-dimensional space, tensor with ‘R’ simultaneous direction or rank (R) can be represented
by ‘C’ components, i.e. NR = C.
• Thus for 3-dimensional space, we have
Scalar : Tensor of rank 0 (magnitude only : 30 = 1 component)
Vector : Tensor of rank 1 (magnitude and one direction : 31 = 3 components)
Dyad : Tensor of rank 2 (magnitude and two direction : 32 = 9 components)
Triad : Tensor of rank 3 (magnitude and three directions : 33 = 27 components) & so on.
Therefore, we need nine components to define the state of stress at a point (3 normal and 6 shear stress).
σ,, -,. -,/
!"#$%% &$'%(#, *ij = -., σ.. -./
-/, -/. σ//
For a cube to be in static equilibrium
-,. = -.,
-./ = -/,
-./ = -/.
Thus, stress tensor become symmetric about leading diagonal.
Poisson’s Ratio
• A tensile force produces an extension along that
axis while it produces contraction along the
transverse direction.
!"#$%"& '#%"()
Poisson’s ratio, ʋ = - *$)'(&$ '#%"()
• If a piece of material neither expands nor

contracts in volume when subjected to stress, then
the Poisson’s ratio must be 0.
• Cork is used in a bottle as it is easily inserted and

removed, also withstand the pressure. It can
S. No. Material Poisson’s
compress to half its size, without bulging out the
ratio
other side or increasing its length from within the
1. Steel 0.25-0.33
bottle.
2. Cast iron 0.23-0.27
3. Concrete 0.2
4. Rubber 0.48-0.5
5. Cork Nearly zero
6. Novel Foam Negative
Champagne bottle
Hooke’s Law
• Within elastic limit (low strain value), the stress (!) is directly proportional to strain
("), i.e., the behavior of solid is linear elastic. The constant of proportion is called
the Elastic Modulus.
! = $"
It also holds good for stresses and strain in simple compression.
• In the same way shear stress (%) is proportional to shear strain (&) as:-
% = '& , where G is shear modulus
• The pressure is proportional to the negative of the
dilatation (volumetric strain), because positive
pressure causes a shrinkage of volume. Hence,
+
( = −* , where K is Bulk modulus
,
• All three moduli have the same dimension as

that of stress.

Elastic/Young’s modulus
bar chart data
Bar chart – Elastic modulus

Room-Temperature Elastic and Shear Moduli, and Poisson’s Ratio
for Various Metal Alloys

Tensile Testing
• Used for determining Ultimate Tensile
Strength (UTS), yield strength, % age
elongation, and Young’s Modulus of
Elasticity.
• The ends of a test piece are fixed into grips,
one of which is attached to the load Synthetic
measuring device on the tensile machine Rubber
specimen
and the other to the straining device (load
cell).
Tensile Testing(UTM), IIT Kanpur

• Elastic limit: The greatest stress that material
can withstand without any measurable
permanent strain after unloading.
• Yield strength : Stress at which a material
begins to deform plastically.
Determined by the stress corresponding to
the intersection of the stress-strain curve
and a line parallel to the elastic line offset by
a strain of 0.2 % ( ε = 0.002).
• Tensile strength or Ultimate tensile strength
(UTS): It is the maximum load Pmax divided by
the original cross-sectional area Ao of the
specimen.
!"#$%& '!#$#(#%&
• % Elongation = !#$#(#%&
x 100
)#$#(#%& ')"#$%&
• % Reduction in Area = x 100
)#$#(#%& Typical stress-strain curve
True Stress - Strain curve or Flow Curve
• True stress-strain curve gives a true indication of deformation
characteristics because it is based on the instantaneous
dimension of the specimen.
• In engineering stress-strain curve, stress drops down after
necking since it is based on the original area.
• In true stress-strain curve, the stress however increases after
necking since the cross-sectional area of the specimen
decreases rapidly after necking.
True Stress-strain curve
• The flow curve of many metals in the region of uniform plastic
deformation can be expressed by the simple Power Law
σT = K (εT )n
Where, K is the strength coefficient

n is the strain hardening exponent
n = 0 perfectly plastic solid
n = 1 elastic solid
For most metals, 0.1< n < 0.5
Conventional Stress-strain curve
Reference: W.D Callister, 7 Ed.

!"#$
• True Stress , σT = = σ (1+.)
%&'(#&(#&)"*' +,)#
where σ , ε are Engineering Stress and Strain respectively.
! $2 !
• True strain,. T = ∫! = ln = ln(1+.)
" 2 !"
+" 5"
= 34 = 2ln
+ 5
or Engineering Strain (. ) = 6 78 - 1
The volume of the specimen is assumed to be constant during plastic

deformation. [∵ AoLo = AL]. It is valid till the neck formation.
Material Categories
Homogenous material: Isotropic material:
Properties independent of Properties independent of
point. direction
Homogenous
Isotropic
Orthotropic material:
Homogenous & Isotropic Different properties
Properties independent of in orthogonal direction
point & direction.
Homogenous & Isotropic

Orthotropic
Relationship between Elastic constants
Where, K = Bulk Modulus,

9)$ ' = Poisson’s Ratio,
! = 2$ 1 + ' = 3) 1 − 2' =
3) + $ E= Young’s modulus,
G= Modulus of rigidity
• For a linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material, the number of

elastic constants required to relate stress and strain is two. i.e. any two of the
four must be known.
• If the material is anisotropic then the elastic moduli will vary with additional
stresses appearing since there is a coupling between shear stresses and
normal stresses for an anisotropic material. There are 21 independent elastic
constants for anisotropic materials.
• If there are axes of symmetry in 3 perpendicular directions, material is called
Orthotropic materials. An orthotropic material has 9 independent elastic
constants.
Mechanical Properties (Contd.)
Ductility : Measure of the degree
of plastic deformation that has
been sustained at fracture.
• Strain at failure is, ε ≥ 0.05 , or
percent elongation greater than
5%.
• Well defined yield point.
Brittleness : A material that Ductile failure - cup & cone

experiences very little or no plastic Stress-Strain behaviour
deformation upon fracture. (W.D Callister, 7 Ed.)
• Strain at failure is, ε ≤ 0.05 or

percent elongation less than
5%.
• Do not exhibit an identifiable
yield point. Brittle failure – flat surface
Image courtesy: www.virginia.edu

Resilience
• Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy
when it is deformed elastically and then, recovering
same upon unloading.
• Modulus of resilience, which is the strain energy per
unit volume required to stress a material from an
unloaded state up to the point of yielding.
• S.I unit is J/m3 .
1 1 &' &*+
!" = &'(' = &' =
2 2 ) 2)
Resilience
• Resilient material have high yield strength and low (W.D Callister, 7 Ed.)
modulus of elasticity, example : Beryllium copper.
• Used in spring applications
Toughness
• It is a measure of the ability of a material to
absorb energy up to fracture.
• Represented by the total area under stress-
strain curve up to the fracture point.
• Brittle material has comparatively high yield
and tensile strength but low toughness due
to lack of ductility.
• Ductile material are tougher than brittle
ones.
Stress-Strain behaviour
(W.D Callister, 7 Ed.)
Impact Testing - Izod Test
• In these tests a load swings from a given height to

strike the specimen, and the energy dissipated in
the fracture is measured.
• Metallic samples tend to be square in cross
section, while polymeric test specimens are often
rectangular.
• Izod test sample have a V-notch cut into them.
• The test piece is clamped vertically with the notch
facing the striker.
• The impact energy is calculated based on the
height to which the striker would have risen if no
test specimen was in place, and this is compared
to the height to which the striker actually rises.
Izod Test
Impact Testing - Charpy Test
• The primary difference between the Charpy

and Izod technique lies in the manner of
specimen support.
• The test piece is fixed in place at both ends and
the striker impacts the test piece immediately
behind a machined notch.
Charpy Test
The Charpy and Izod impact
tests are typical measures of
toughness.

Factors Affecting Impact Energy
1. For a given material the impact energy will be seen to

decrease if the yield strength is increased.
2. The notch serves as a stress concentration zone and
some materials are more sensitive towards notches
than others.
3. Most of the impact energy is absorbed by means of
plastic deformation during the yielding. Therefore,
factors that affect the yield behavior (and hence
ductility) of the material such as temperature and
strain rate will affect the impact energy.
• Other mechanical properties
ü Hardness
ü Creep
ü Damping
• Atomic bonding
ü Ionic bond
ü Covalent bond
ü Metallic bond
ü Hydrogen bond
ü Vander wall bonds
• Effects of atomic bonding on mechanical properties

Numerical
A 10 mm diameter tensile specimen has a 50 mm gauge length. The load corresponding to the 0.2% offset is 55 kN and the
maximum load is 70 kN. Fracture occurs at 60 kN. The diameter after fracture is 8 mm and the gauge length at fracture is
65 mm. Calculate the following properties of the material from the tension test.
a) % Elongation
b) Reduction of Area (RA) %
c) Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
d) Yield strength
e) Fracture strength
f) If E = 200 GPa, the elastic recoverable strain at maximum load
g) If the elongation at maximum load (the uniform elongation) is 20%,
what is the plastic strain at maximum load?
ANS : Original area (A0) = π /4 x (0.01)2 = 7.854 x 10-5 m2 ,
Area at fracture(Af) = (π/4) × (0.008)2 = 5.027x10-5 m2
Original gauge length (L0) = 50 mm and Gauge length at fracture (L) = 65 mm
!"!#
a) % Elongation = !#
x 100% = 30%
(#"()
b) Reduction of area = (#
x 100% = 36%
-./0 234536
c) UTS, *+ = (1
= 2.89:;53<= = 891MPa
-? 994536
d) Yield Strength, *> = (1
= 2.89:;53<= = 700ABC
-EF/GHIFJ K3;53L
e) Fracture Strength *D = (1
= 2.89:;53<= = 764 MPa
8Q5;53K
e) Elastic recoverable strain at maximum load, MN = -./0 /(#ON = =0.0045
R33;53Q
f) Plastic strain, MB = MSTSCU − MW = 0.2000 − 0.0045 = 0.1955
• In a tensile test, a material fractured before necking.
The true stress and strain at fracture were 630MPa
and 0.18, respectively. What is the tensile strength of
the material?
Solution:
Since ε = ln(1 + e)
e = exp(!) – 1
e = exp(0.18) – 1
e = 0.197
Because s = σ/(1 + e), the tensile strength = 630/1.197
= 526MPa
Let us take two examples:
I. Only elongation, no neck formation
In the tension test of a rod, initial area Ao = 50mm2 and length Lo = 100mm. After application of load
final area, A = 40 mm2 and length, L = 125mm. Determine the true strain using changes in both length
and area.
Answer : First check for necking, AoLo = AL

50 x 100 = 40 x 125. So no neck formation is there.
# %& # ()*
Therefore True Strain,! T = ∫# = ln = ln = 0.223
$ & #$ (++
.$ *+
! T = ,- .
= ,- /+
= 0.223
II . Elongation with neck formation

A ductile material is tested and necking occurs. Let initial area Ao = 50mm2 and length Lo = 100mm. The
final area, A = 35 mm2 and length, L = 140 mm.
Answer : First check for necking, AoLo = AL, Here AoLo = 50x100 = 5000mm3, AL= 35x140 = 4200 mm3.
So, neck formation is there AoLo > AL
.$ *+
True Strain,! T = ,- .
= ,- 4*
= 0.357
# %& # (/+
True Strain,! T = ∫# & = ln # = ln (++ = 0.336 (wrong)
$ $
After necking, gauge length gives error but area and diameter can be used for calculation of true
strain at fracture and before fracture also.
• In a tensile test, the engineering stress s = 100MPa at an
engineering strain of e = 0.20. Find the corresponding values of σ
and !. At what engineering stress and strain in compression
would the values of |σ| and |ε| equal those values of σ and !?
Solution:
In the tensile test, σ = s(1 + e) = 100(1.2) = 120MPa
! = ln(1+e) = ln(1.2) = 0.182
At a true strain of −0.182 in compression, the engineering strain
would be:
ecomp = exp(−0.18) − 1 = −0.1667
and the engineering stress would be:
scomp = σ/(1 + e)=−120 MPa/(1 − 0.1667) = –144 MPa
of
Materials - II

IIT Kanpur
India
E-mail : bishakh@iitk.ac.in
Material Property/Ashby Charts
Performance of a component depends

not only on one property.
One of a 3-dimensional slice: The Elastic modulus–strength–density

2D Chart

Material Selection
for
Cantilever Design
Problem Statement: Select a cost effective material for a rectangular cross-section
cantilever beam loaded at its end having high stiffness and light weight.
Solution:
Free variable : Radius of circular beam cross section & Material choice
Constraint: Maximum deflection and beam length
ü CFRP is the best material in terms of
performance, but very expensive.
ü Hence, Wood is the best choice among

the given materials.
$ • The intercept of
!" = the inclined line is
%
adjustable to suit
our needs but
slope is fixed for a
Material E (GPa) Density (E1/2/ρ) Cost particular
(g/cm3) ($/ton) performance index.
Steel 200 7.8 1.81 450

Wood 16 0.8 5.0 450
Concrete 50 2.8 2.53 300
Aluminium 69 2.7 3.08 2,000
CFRP 200 1.6 8.84 200,000
Homework
Problem Statement: Find out the performance index for a circular cross-section cantilever
beam loaded at its end having high strength and light weight.
Hint: Use Classical Bending Moment equation to find relation between mass and bending stress.
Contents
ü Hardness
§ Qualitative testing
§ Quantitative testing
ü Creep
ü Damping
HARDNESS
• It is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g.,
a small indentation or a scratch).
vAdvantages of Hardness testing

• Simple and inexpensive – no special specimen preparation is needed and
the apparatus is relatively cheaper.
• Non-destructive method – small indentation is the only deformation.
• Other mechanical properties like tensile strength (Su) can be obtained from
the hardness data (HB) by using the following Tabor relationship:
x = n-2, n varies between 2 to

2.7 and is known as Meyer
Index
Qualitative method – Mohs Scale
Mohs scale of hardness
• Old method Mohs Mineral Chemical formula Absolute

Hardness hardness
• Based on ability of one
1 Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 1
material to scratch another.
2 Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O 3
• Hardness measured on the
3 Calcite CaCO3 9
scale – 1 (softest)
4 Fluorite CaF2 21
5 Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH-,Cl-,F-) 48
6 Feldspar KAlSi3O8 72
7 Quartz SiO2 100
8 Topaz Al2SiO4(OH-,F-)2 200
9 Corundum Al2O3 400
10 Diamond C 1600
Quantitative - Hardness Tests
Ø Macro-Hardness test
• Rockwell Hardness Test
• Brinell Hardness test
• Vickers Hardness Test
Ø Micro-Hardness Test
• Knoop Micro-Hardness Test
• Vickers Micro-Hardness Test
Rockwell Hardness Test
• A minor load is first applied for good
contact between the indenter and
the sample surface followed by
major load and the depth of
indentation is recorded on a dial
gage after removing major load.
• A cone shaped indenter (for harder e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load
materials) or a small diameter steel
E = a constant depending on form of indenter- 100 units for
ball is pressed into a specimen.
diamond indenter, 130 units for steel ball indenter
HR = Rockwell hardness number = E - e
Rockwell Hardness Indentor Load Typical material tested

Scale Symbol (Kg)
A HRA Cone 60 Carbides, Ceramics
B HRB Steel ball 100 Non-ferrous metals
C HRC Cone 150 Ferrous metals, tool steels

Image courtsey: http://www.gordonengland.co.uk/hardness/rockwell.htm
Rockwell testing
Brinell Hardness Test
• Used for testing metals and non-metals of low
to medium hardness.
• A hardened steel (or cemented carbide) ball

of 10mm diameter (D) is pressed into the
surface of a specimen using load (P) of 500,
1500, or 3000 kg for a specified time
(between 10-30s) .
2%
!" =
&' [' − '2 − *2 ]
*1 + *2
,ℎ./., 1.23 43*.3525463 *421.5./ 11 , * =
2
Thumb rule for steel alloys , Tensile strength (MPa) = 3.45 X HB
Brinell testing
Vickers Hardness Test
• Vickers test uses a square-base diamond
pyramid indenter having an angle of 136o
between the opposite faces.
• The hardness is obtained by dividing the
load (1–120 kg) with the surface area of the
indentation.
• The surface area is calculated from the
diagonals length of the impression.
1.854 *
!"# =
+,
F = Applied load (kg) Vickers Hardness Test
L = Diagonal length of the impression made by
the indenter (mm)
Micro Hardness test
• Sometime hardness determination is needed over a very small

area. For example, hardness of carburized steel surface,
coatings or individual phases or constituents of a material.
• The load applied is much smaller compared to macro-hardness.
• The indentation is very small and an optical microscope is used
to observe it.
• Sample preparation is needed.
ü Two methods are used for micro-hardness testing.

q Knoop hardness
q Vickers Micro hardness
Knoop Hardness Test
• It is a micro-hardness test - a test for mechanical hardness used
particularly for very brittle materials or thin sheets.
• A pyramidal diamond point is pressed into the polished surface
of the test material with a known force, for a specified dwell
time, and the resulting indentation is measured using a
microscope
• Length-to-width ratio of the pyramid is 7:1
14.2 (
!" =
)*
• HK = Knoop hardness value; F = load (kg); l = long diagonal of the

impression (mm)
Vickers Micro-hardness
• This is same as Vickers hardness except that the applied

load is much smaller so as to cover a small area.
• The applied load range is 1 – 100 g.
Relating hardness to yield strength
Comparison of several hardness scales

Creep
• Permanent deformation under constant
load over a period of time.
• Dependent on temperature.
• A creep test involves a tensile specimen
under a constant load maintained at a
constant temperature.
• At relatively high temperatures creep
appears to occur at all stress levels, but the
creep rate increases with increasing stress
at a given temperature.
• Applications – studying material behavior at
elevated temperature such as turbine blades,
nuclear reactor components, jet engines, heat
exchangers, etc. Image: http://www.twi-global.com/
Creep occurs in three stages:
Primary Stage: Occurs at the beginning of the tests, Creep stages
and creep is mostly transient.
Secondary Stage: Creep rate roughly steady.
Tertiary Stage: Creep rate begins to accelerate as the
cross sectional area decreases due to necking,
followed by failure.
• At T< 0.4Tm and after the initial deformation, the

strain is virtually independent of time.
• With either increase in stress or temperature
ü Creep strain increases
ü Rupture life reduces
• Nimonic 75 has been certified by the European Union as a standard

creep reference material.
• Nimonics are nickel-based high-temperature low creep super alloys. Tm = melting temperature
They contain more than 50% nickel and 20% chromium with
additives such as titanium and aluminium

Damping
• Methods of vibration reduction
ü Increase damping capacity
ü Increase stiffness
• Damping refers to dissipation of energy from a vibrating system.
• Damping force magnitude is generally smaller than elastic and
inertia forces.
• Even if damping force is smaller, it is important for controlling
vibration particularly near resonance.
Advantages
ü Shock absorption.
ü Fatigue failure prevention.
ü Noise reduction.
Types of damping
1. Viscous Damping
• Represented by a viscous dashpot,
which shows a piston moving
relative to a cylinder containing a
fluid. = damping coefficient
Viscous damping model
• The damping force is taken to be
proportional to the velocity across
the damper, acting in the direction
opposite to that of the velocity.
• This ideal linear relationship holds
good so long as the relative velocity
is low, ensuring a laminar fluid flow
Viscous damper – seismic protection

Types of damping
2. Coulomb Damping
• Dry friction force between two solid
interfaces
• In this model, the magnitude of
damping force is assumed to be a
constant, (Fd) i.e., independent of
the relative velocity (or slip Coulomb damping slotted-bolted dampers
model
velocity) at the interface.
• "̇ represents slip velocity at
interface.
• Sgn(")
̇ = 1, for "̇ > 0
= -1 for "̇ < 0
Damping Ratio
3 Damping Ratio
• Damping Ratio is defied as the ratio
of damping constant to the critical
damping. For a single degree of
freedom model with mass m and
stiffness k, the damping ratio ζ is:
A typical response of single degree of freedom
system with varied damping ratio
C
V= , Cc = 2 k m Image Source:
Cc https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damping_ratio
• Thus, for a critically damped system
V =1 Another associated term is the Quality
factor, Q, which determines the degree of
• While for an under-damped system under-damping. It is typically the ratio of
V áá 1 bandwidth to the central frequency.
Loss-Factor
4 Loss-Factor
• Loss-Factor is defied as the ratio of
energy dissipated from the system
Material Approximate
to the energy stored in the system Loss Factor
for every oscillation. It is often
useful to relate the loss factor to Aluminum 0.007 - 0.005
the damping ratio such that viscous Steel 0.05 - 0.10
damping models can be used for Neoprene 0.1
analysis. At resonance, loss factor
(η) is related to the damping ratio Butyl 0.4
Rubber
by the following relationship:
V =1 /(2Q) = (1 / 2)[ 1 + h - 1 -h ]
• Atomic bonding and their effects on properties

üIonic bond
üCovalent bond
üMetallic bond
üHydrogen bond
üVander wall bonds
A Brief Discussion of
Design Process
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Classes of Materials
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
SMART MATERIALS & STRUCTURES (SMSS) LABORATORY
What is the material of

a Coke Can?
• The aluminum for beverage cans consists mostly
of aluminum, but it contains small amounts of
other metals as well. These are typically 1%
magnesium, 1% manganese, 0.4% iron, 0.2%
silicon, and 0.15% copper.
• Manganese – Corrosion Resistance (5+),
improves workability at high temperature
• Magnesium – light weight, Corrosion resistance
(2+)
• Iron – Strength & Stiffness
• Copper – Anti-microbial and anti-biofouling
element
• Silicon – Improve Performance in casting thin
sections
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Classes of Materials
• Metals & Alloys: Iron & Steels, Al & alloys, Copper

& Alloys, Nickel & Alloys, Titanium & Alloys
• Polymers: Polyethylene(PE), PMMA, Nylon, PS, PU,

PVC, Rubbers, PEK & PEEK
• Ceramics & Glasses: Alumina, Magnesia, Silica,

Silicon Carbide, Zirconia, Cement etc.
• Composites: Wood, CFRP, GFRP, CRC etc.
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Selection Properties
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Selection Properties
1. Price and Availability

2. Density, Modulus, Damping, Yield
Strength, Tensile Strength, Hardness,
Fracture Toughness, Fatigue Strength,
Thermal Fatigue Resistance, Creep
Strength
3. Thermal, Optical, Magnetic & Electrical
Properties
4. Oxidation, Corrosion, Friction, Abrasion &
Wear
5. Ease of Manufacture, Joining
6. Appearance, Texture, Feel
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Relative Prices
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Reference: Engineering Materials 1: Ashby & Jones, 4
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Resource Availability
ü Current reserve is the known deposits that can be extracted profitably at today’s price using today’s
technology.
ü Resource base = Current reserve + (known & unknown deposits)
McElvey diagram
Energy Consumed to extract (GJ/Tonne)
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Doubling - Time
• Period of time required for a quantity to double in size or value.
• When the relative growth rate (not the absolute growth rate) is
constant, the quantity undergoes exponential growth and has a
constant Doubling time or period.
• Example: Applied to population growth, inflation, resource

extraction, consumption of goods, compound interest, the volume
of malignant tumors.
For a constant growth rate of r%, the formula for the doubling time Td is given by
$%(2) $+1(2) 70
!" = = * ≈
)*+,-ℎ */-0 log(1 + *
100)
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Bulk Mech. Prop. E, G, K
G= ,/0(( + !) + = ,/*(( − 0!)
*,
Usually, ! = #. *: 4 = ;+ = ,
5
()
Elastomer: ! = #. %; ' = ; K>>E
*
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Bulk Mech. Prop.: Stress-Strain for Polymer
and Ceramics
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Material Attributes
King- Family Class Sub Mem Attribute
dom Class
1000 5005- Density
O
Ceramics Steels 2000 5005- Modulus
H4
Glasses Cu- 3000 5005- Strength
alloys H6
Metals Al- 4000 5083- Tough-
alloys O ness
Material Polymers Ti- 5000 5083- Condu-
alloys H2 ctivity
Elastomer Ni- 6000 5083- Exp. Coeff
alloys H4
Composit Zn- 7000 5154- Resis-
e alloys O tivity
8000 5154- Cost
H2
Corrosion
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Oxidation
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Types of Al - alloys
• 1000 series: Pure • 6000 series
Al >99%, Ductile Al+Mg(.5%)+Si(.5
Elect Conductor, %): Age
Foil hardening,
• 2000 series: window frame
Al+Cu(4%),
Strong – Aircraft • 7000 series:
Skin, Rivet Al+Zn(6%),
• 3000 series: strong, age-
Al+Mn(1%), hardening, Spars
Corrosion • Al-Li (3%) alloys:
Resistant - Strong, very light,
Roofing Sheet, Aircraft Skin
Cooking Pan
• 5000 series:
Al+Mg(3%) , O – annealed, H-
Strong - Pressure strain hardened
Vessels
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Eg. Material Selection for Shaft
Primary Function –
• Strength, rigidity
• Light weight
• Fatigue Strength
• Low cost
Secondary Function –
• Fracture toughness
• Elongation
• Stress Concentration factor
• Thermal Expansion
Tertiary Function –
• Hardness
Constraints – Span L and spacing specified, material strength
must be greater than 300 Mpa
Free Variable – Choice of material
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Selection Process
Use
Performance Material has
Index/ Material attributes:
Index to further density, strength,
reduce the cost etc
number
Apply property
limits and Design
reduce the demands a
number of
candidates: profile low
working density, high
temperature strength etc
etc.
Begin with all

materials
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Performance Index &
Material Index
• The design of a structural
element involves minimization
or maximization of an index
given by p=f[F,G,M]
• F – Functional Requirement
G – Geometric Requirement
M – Material Requirement
• For certain designs – variable
separation exist : IΕ
p=f1[F] f2[G] f3[M]
• M – Material Index
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Some Material Indices
• Light Stiff Beam:
Free area – M = E1/2/ ρ
Free Height – M = E1/3/ρ
Free width – M = E/ρ
• Light Strong Beam:

M=σf3/2/ ρ
• Cheap Stiff Column

C=Cm Alρ, F<nπ2EI/l2
M = E1/2/ Cmρ
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Cost Analysis
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
#
! "$
Stiffness, length, shape specified; section area free
%
!
Stiffness, length, height specified; width free
%
#
! "&
Stiffness, length, width specified; height free
%
Material Density(') Young’s (
)"
*
(Mg/m3) Modulus (E) +
(GPa) (GPa0.5-m3/Mg)
Aluminium alloy 2.77 76 3.1472
Carbon fiber reinforced 1.5 150 8.16
Composite
Titanium alloy 4.79 120 2.28
Medium C steel 7.8 220 1.90
Ni alloy 8.66
Smart Materials,
220 1.71
Si Nitride 3.4 Structures and
318 5.24
Systems (SMSS)
Table: Density, Young’s Modulus based performance index
Laboratory
%$
Material "# & Cost(Cm) '*+
! =)
' (INR/Kg) ! %$ = )
"# &
2/3 3
(MPa) m /Mg Mg/(MPa)2/3m3× -./$01
Aluminium alloy 17.62 302 17.14

Carbon fiber 68.87 2630 38.18
reinforced Composite
Titanium alloy 23.44 1680 71.67
Medium C steel 14.39 53.4 3.71
Ni alloy 12.89 1350 104.73
Si Nitride 23.62 3410 144.36
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Fracture Toughness
The material's fracture toughness ( Kc ) can

be recognized as just the critical maximum
stress intensity ( K ) which the material can
withstand without catastrophic crack
propagation.
An additional subscript 'I' refers to the most
common tensile mode I loading.
σ= Kc/√πc
Critical value of Strain energy release rate is

known as Gc
σ=(Gc E /πc)1/2
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Material KIc Material KIc
Al alloys 20-160 Alumina 5
Steels 25-150 Silicon 4

Carbide
Titanium 40-150 Glass .7
Acrylic 2
Polystyrene 1
Polypropylen 3
e
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Constraint Equation #1
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Method #3 Systematic Selection
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Multiple Constraints & Objectives
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Systematic Methods
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Compound Objectives
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Determining Exchange Constants
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
An Example
Smart Materials,
Structures and
Systems (SMSS)
Laboratory
Metals – I
(Ferrous alloys)

IIT Kanpur
India
Content
ü Classification of Ferrous alloys
ü Types of steel
ü Effect of impurities
ü Cast Iron
Classification of Metal Alloys
Metal alloys
Ferrous Non-Ferrous
(Base metal - Iron)
Aluminium -
Magnesium,
(3003)
Copper-Zinc,
(Brass)
Steel Cast Iron
(< 2 wt.% C) (> 2 wt.% C)
Zinc-Al-Mg-Cu,
(Zamak)
Nickel, (NiTiNOL,
Inver, Monel)
Titanium
(Superalloy)
based alloys
Iron
• The Iron Age began about 3000 years ago and continues till today.
• Carbon forms an interstitial solid solution when added to iron to form Steel as
the atomic radius of the carbon (0.071 nm) atom is much less than that for iron
(0.124 nm).
• Use of iron and steel has changed drastically the human development.
• Iron posses allotropy - exist in two or more different forms in the same physical
state.
ü T < 770oC : Ferrite (α-iron), Ferromagnetic, BCC crystal structure.
ü T = 770 - 912oC : β–iron, paramagnetic, BCC crystal structure.
ü T = 912 -1394oC : γ-iron (austenite), FCC crystal structure.
ü T = 1394-1538oC : δ-iron, BCC crystal structure.
Interstitial
Impurity atom
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiferromagnetism

Another allotropic form called
Hexaferrum at 10GPa pressure
Iron becomes Anti-

ferromagnetic!
Molten Iron at the Earth’s outer core
https://www.nature.com/articles
/d41586-023-00167-1
Iron-Nickel Alloy at the
Core: Temp 54300C,
Pressure:330GPa
Iron Carbon Diagram
Microstructure of a plain carbon steel that contains 0.44 wt% C.

The diagram shows three horizontal lines which
indicate isothermal reactions:
1. Peritectic reaction (1493oC) : On

Cooling, a solid phase and liquid phase
will together form a new solid phase and
vice-versa. – Almost no Engineering
Importance.
2. Eutectic reaction (1147oC and 4.30 wt.% C) : On Cooling, a liquid transforms into two solid
phases at the same time and vice-versa. They are CAST IRONS.
Example: Ledeburite (in fig. ‘L’ means liquid) is the eutectic mixture of
austenite and cementite. It contains 4.3% C and is formed at
1130°C.
3. Eutectoid reaction (727oC and 0.76 wt.% C) : On Cooling, a solid transforms into two solid
phases at the same time and vice-versa. They are STEELS.
Cementite
Austenite, &
Ledeburite & Ledeburite
Cementite
Pearlite Cementite, Pearlite

Pearlite
& &
&
Transformed Ledeburite
Ferrite Cementite
Hypo Hyper-eutectoid
eutectoid Steel
Steel
STEEL CAST IRON
Pearlite
World Crude Steel Production (1950 - 2015)
Reference: World Steel Association Report - 2016
• World crude steel production
reached 1,621 million tonnes for
the year 2015, in which China
accounted for about 50 % of the
global market for steel (by
volume).
Million tonnes/annum
(2015)
CIS: Commonwealth of Independent States

NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement(USA, Canada, Mexico)
EU: European Union
Year
Top Steel Producing Countries
& Companies (2015) Million tonnes
Rank Company per annum
(2015)
Rank Country Million tonnes 1 Arcelor Mittal 97.14
per annum
2 Hesteel Group 47.75
1 China 803.8
3 NSSMC 46.37
2 Japan 105.2
4 POSCO 41.97
3 India 89.4
5 Baosteel Group 34.94
4 United States 78.8
6 Shagang Group 34.21
5 Russia 70.9
7 Ansteel Group 32.50
6 South Korea 69.7
8 JFE Steel Corporation 29.83
7 Germany 42.7
9 Shougang Group 28.55
8 Brazil 33.3
10 Tata Steel Group 26.31
9 Turkey 31.5
26 SAIL 14.34
10 Ukraine 23.0
30 Jindal Steel Limited 12.42
Reference: World Steel Association Report - 2016
Rank 10, 26 & 30 are held by Indian group of companies
Steel
(< 2 wt.% C)
Low Alloy Steel High Alloy Steel

(<10 wt.% alloying elements) (>10 wt.% alloying elements)
Low Carbon Steel Medium Carbon Steel Tool Steel Stainless Steel
(< 0.25 wt.% C) (0.25 - 0.6 wt.% C) ( >11 wt.% Cr)
High Carbon Steel

( 0.6 - 1.4 wt.% C)
Low alloy steel is further divided into Plain carbon steel and Alloy steel of respective category.
As per American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) definition for Plain carbon steel:
ü When no minimum content is specified for alloying element (Cr, Co, Mo, Ni, Ti, W, V, Zr, etc.)
to be added to obtain a desired effect.
OR
ü When the specified minimum amount for copper (Cu) does not exceed 0.40 percent.
OR
ü When the maximum content for any of the following elements does not exceed the
percentages: Manganese (1.65), Silicon (0.60), Copper (0.60).
• Effects of increasing carbon content in steel are:

ü Increase in hardness & strength.
ü Decrease in weldability.
ü Decrease in ductility.
ü Decreased machinability (about 0.2 to 0.25 wt.% C provides the best
machinability).
Low Carbon Steel
• Contain less than about 0.25 wt.% C (Mild steel).
• Relatively soft and weak.
• Outstanding ductility (25% EL) & toughness.
• Also, high machinability and weldability.
• Least expensive to produce.
• Tensile strength (415-550 MPa).
Low alloy steel:

• Contains alloys such as Cu, V, Ni & Mo up to 10 wt.%
• High strength & corrosion resistance than plain low carbon steel.
• Tensile strength up to 700 MPa.
Applications:
Beams, Channels, nuts, bolts, wires, tin cans, etc.
Medium Carbon Steel
• Contain 0.25 - 0.6 wt.% C.
• Stronger than low-C steels but of low ductility and toughness.
• Good wear resistance due to the presence of Bainite structure.
• Plain carbon steel (Tensile strength up to 850 MPa) & alloy steel (Tensile strength up to
1900 MPa)
• Applications: Railway wheels & tracks, gears, crankshafts, etc.
Rail wheels Gears Crankshaft

High Carbon Steel
• 0.6 - 1.4 wt. % C .
• Hardest, strongest and least ductile carbon steel.
• Can be alloyed with other metals to form very hard and wear resistance material
(e.g. Cr, Ni, W, Mo and V).
• Applications: Cutting tools, embossing dies, saws, concrete drills, etc.
Die Circular saw Concrete drill

High Alloy Steel(>10 wt.% alloys) - Tool Steel
ü Commonly used in drill bits & other rotating cutting tools.
ü It can withstand higher temperatures without losing its hardness & toughness.
ü Example
v 18-4-1 HSS: 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1% vanadium with a carbon content of
0.6 - 0.7%.
v Cobalt high speed steel – increased heat resistance
v Molybdenum high speed steel – Mo increases hardness and wear resistance.
Also cost effective replacement for tungsten in
tool steels.
www.worldindustrialreporter.com
High Alloy Steel - Stainless Steel
• Highly resistant to corrosion in a variety of environment.

• Predominant alloy: Chromium (at least 11 wt.%).
• Example: 18/8 stainless steel - 18% chromium and 8% nickel.
• Applications:
ü Cryogenic vessels. Passivation
ü Food processing equipment's.
ü Gas turbines parts.
ü High-temperature steam boilers.
ü Heat-treating furnaces.
ü Nuclear power generating units.
Reference: www.surfox.com Christian Friedrich

Schönbein
Effect of alloying elements on Steel
S.No. Element Effects
1. Boron (B) ü Improves hardenability without the loss of machinability.
2. Chromium (Cr) ü Improves oxidation (at high temperature) and corrosion resistance.
ü Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by Ni and Mo additions.
3. Cobalt (Co) & ü Improves strength and hardness at elevated temperatures.
Tungsten (W)
4. Sulphur (S) ü Improves machinability when combined with manganese.
ü Alone it increases brittleness & lowers impact strength and ductility.
5. Manganese (Mn) ü Improves hardenability & wear resistance.
ü Counteracts the brittleness caused by Sulphur.
6. Molybdenum (Mo) ü Improves hardenability, toughness.
ü Improves elevated-temperature strength, creep resistance.
7. Nickel (Ni) ü Increases strength and hardness without sacrificing ductility and toughness.
8. Vanadium ü Increases strength, hardness, wear resistance and resistance to shock impact at
high temperature.
9. Titanium ü Improves strength.
ü Deoxidizes steels.
Relative effect on Steel
Cr Mn Mo Ni Ti W V
Hardenability ++ ++ ++ + ++ ++ +++
High temperature Strength + ++ ++ + ++ ++
Ductility & Toughness + ++
Wear resistance + + + ++ +
Promote fine grain size + ++ + +++
Corrosion resistance ++ + +
Hardness is a material property & is a resistance to penetration, scratching, etc.
Hardenability is a way to indicate a material’s potential to be hardened by heat

treatment.
Cast Iron Types
(> 2 wt.% C)
1. Grey Cast Iron
ü Carbon content varies from 2.5 – 4.0 wt.%.

ü Graphite exists in the form of flakes.
ü Graphite flakes gives self-lubricating property and vibration
damping capability.
ü Strength and ductility are much higher under compressive
loads.
ü Tensile strength = 120 – 280 MPa.
ü Application: Base structures for machines and heavy Grey Cast Iron microstructure
equipment that are exposed to vibration.
Steel
Grey C.I
Damping capacity

2. White/Chilled Cast Iron
ü No graphite, carbon in the form of carbide (cementite –
hardest constituent of iron)
ü Formed by rapidly cooling molten iron.
ü Very hard, wear and corrosion resistant.
ü Almost non - machinable.
ü Application: Rollers in rolling mills.
White Cast Iron microstructure
3. Malleable Cast Iron
ü Formed by heating white C.I between 800-900oC for a
prolonged time in a neutral atmosphere (to prevent
oxidation) leads to the decomposition of the cementite,
forming graphite in the form of clusters.
ü Highly shock resistant or tough.
ü Tensile strength = 350 – 450 MPa.
ü Can be hammered to small thickness.
ü Applications: Connecting rods, transmission gears, and Malleable Cast Iron microstructure
differential cases for the automotive industry and flanges,
pipe fittings, and valve parts.
4. Ductile/Nodular/Spheroidal Cast Iron
ü Obtained by adding small amount of Magnesium (0.1-0.8%) to molten Grey C.I
leading to the formation of graphite in the forms of spheres.
ü High fluidity.
ü High Tensile strength (400 – 900 MPa).
ü Tough, wear resistant.
ü Good machinability and weldability.
ü Designated as SG 900/2 representing tensile strength
and % elongation.
5. Mottled/Compacted Cast Iron

Ductile Cast Iron microstructure
ü Product in between Grey and ductile C.I
ü Carbon partly free and combined form.
ü Graphite has worm-like appearance.
ü Higher thermal conductivity.
ü Better resistance to thermal shock
ü Lower oxidation at elevated temperatures
ü Application: diesel engine blocks, exhaust manifolds,
gearbox housings, flywheels, etc.
Compact Cast Iron microstructure

Effect of Impurities on Cast Iron
1. Silicon (Si)
ü Facilitates formation of free graphite, makes iron soft and easily machinable.
ü Produces sound casting free from blow-holes as having high affinity for oxygen.
2. Sulphur (S)
ü Makes C.I hard and brittle.
ü Above 0.1% makes gives unsound casting.
3. Manganese (Mn)
ü Makes C.I hard by formation of carbide.
ü Keeps control over harmful effects of sulphur.
4. Phosphorous (P)
ü Imparts fusibility & fluidity but induces brittleness.
• Metals (Non-Ferrous alloys)
üClassification
üProperties
Metals - II
(Non-ferrous alloys)

IIT Kanpur
India
Contents
ü Classification
ü Aluminium & its alloys
ü Titanium & its alloys
ü Zinc & its alloys
ü Copper & its alloys
ü Nickel & its alloys
ü Cobalt & its alloys
ü Bulk Metallic Glass
Limitations of Ferrous alloys
ü Relatively high density.

ü Comparatively low electrical conductivity.
ü An inherent susceptibility to corrosion in certain environments.
Classification of Metal Alloys
Metal alloys
Ferrous Non-Ferrous
(Base metal - Iron)
Light Alloys Heavy Alloys

Steel Cast Iron
(< 2 wt.% C) (> 2 wt.% C)
Aluminium, Copper,
Zinc, Titanium, Nickel, Cobalt,
etc. & their alloys etc. & their alloys
Light
Non-ferrous alloys
Aluminium
• Crystal structure: Face centred cubic (FCC)
• Melting point: 660 oC
• Density: 2700 kg/m3 (Light)
Aluminium
• Elastic modulus = 70 GPa Image: Wikipedia
• Silvery grey lustrous metal.

• High thermal & electrical conductivity.
Beverage can
Sheets Fins
Wires
The Success Story of Aluminium
Reduced Fuel Consumption

• Lower energy consumption and gas
emissions through reduced weight.
• Extensive use of Aluminium can result in
up to 300 kg weight reduction in a
medium size vehicle (1400kg).
For every 100 kg reduction in the

automotive sector there is
ü 20% lower exhaust gas emissions
ü Proportionally reduced operating costs.
Current transport policies in the European Union (EU) define Jaguar XJ Saloon (made from Al alloy)
Ref: http://kosovotimes.net/
targets for average emissions of new cars. These should not be
greater than 95 g CO2 km−1 by 2021. However, this average is
weighted, giving additional credits to cars with emissions https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih
smaller than 50 g CO2 km−1—mainly electric cars. .gov/pmc/articles/PMC54
15645/
Wing ribs of an A340 Airbus wing
box are made from Aluminium
alloy plate
Aerospace industry demands include:
ü Improved toughness,
ü Lower weight,
ü Increased resistance to fatigue and corrosion.
Manufacturer: British Aluminium Plate (BAP),

The Luxfer Group
Reference: http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=502
Aluminium Alloys
• Common alloying elements - Copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, and zinc.
Wrought Alloy Cast Alloy

Series Alloying element Series Alloying element
1xxx series Pure aluminium (min. 99%) 1xx.x series Pure aluminium (min. 99%)
2xxx series alloyed with copper (Duralium) 2xx.x series alloyed with copper
3xxx series alloyed with Manganese 3xx.x series alloyed with Si, Cu &/or Mn
4xxx series alloyed with silicon 4xx.x series alloyed with silicon
5xxx series alloyed with Mg 5xx.x series alloyed with Magnesium
6xxx series alloyed with Mg & Si 7xx.x series alloyed with Zn
7xxx series alloyed with Zn 8xx.x series alloyed with Tin (Sn)
8xxx series others elements such as Li 9xx.x series others elements
T- series Heat treated Initial xx – min. % of Al
Digit after decimal is x = 0(casting) or 1(ingot)
Titanium
• Pure Titanium – low density (4500 kg/m3)
• High Melting point (1660 oC)
Titanium
• Elastic modulus = 107 GPa Image: Wikipedia
• Tensile Strength = 150-500Mpa

• Appearance : Silvery grey-white metallic lustre
• Alloying required to reduce cost, increase strength & control
phase.
• Applications – High strength & temperature components,
biomedical, jewelry, etc.
• Two crystal forms – below 883oC alpha structure (HCP) and
beyond 883oC beta (BCC)
Titanium Ring
• Four alloys: Alpha, Near Alpha, Alpha-Beta, Beta
• Alpha phase stabilizers: Al, Ga, Ge, C, N
• Beta phase stabilizers: Mo, V, Ta, Nb, Mn, Fe, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Si
Titanium alloys
a) Alpha Titanium Alloys
• Contains alpha-phase stabilizers only.
• Low to medium strength.
• Good notch toughness.
• Reasonably good ductility.
• Excellent mechanical properties at cryogenic temperatures.
• Non-heat treatable and are generally very weldable.
• Example: Ti-8AL-1MO-1V (Tensile strength = 950MPa) - jet
Jet Engine
engine components.
b) Near alpha Titanium alloy

• Besides alpha-phase stabilizers, near-alpha alloys are alloyed
with 1–2% of beta phase stabilizers
• Offer high temperature creep strength and oxidation
resistance.
• Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo (Tensile strength = 1100MPa) used for
creating high temperature jet engines components and high
performance automotive valves
Titanium alloys (contd.)
c) Alpha Beta Titanium Alloys
• Metastable and generally include some combination of both alpha and beta stabilizer's.
• Weldable with the risk of some loss of ductility in the weld area.
• Strength levels are medium to high.
• Hot forming qualities are good but cold forming often presents difficulties.
• Creep strength is not usually as good as in most alpha alloys.
• Example: Ti-6Al-4V (Tensile strength = 940MPa) used where low density and good corrosion
resistance is necessary such as aerospace industry and bio-implants and prostheses applications.
d) Beta Titanium Alloys

• Metastable and which contain sufficient beta stabilizers.
• Fully heat treatable.
• Generally weldable.
• Capable of high strength.
• Possess good creep resistance up to intermediate temperatures.
Landing gear
• Cold formability is generally excellent.
• Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al (Tensile strength = 1200MPa) used for critical aircraft structures, such as landing gear.
Zinc
• Crystal structure: Hexagonal close packed (hcp)
• Melting point: 420°C
• Density: 7140 kg/m3
• Silver grey lustrous appearance.
• Easy castability
Applications of Zn alloys
• Galvanic coating on steel (hot-dip)
• Corrosion protection of structures by Steel dip in hot Zn bath Battery – Zn as anode
attaching as sacrificial anode.
• Zinc-carbon dry battery
• Dietary intake – deficiency leads to weak
immunity, slow brain growth, diarrhoea and
pneumonia - found in spinach, cashew, sea
food, cocoa, beans
Galvanized sheets
Heavy
Non-ferrous alloys
Copper
Copper (Cu)
• Crystal structure: Face Centered Cubic (FCC)
• Melting point: 1085°C
• Distinctive reddish orange color
• Good corrosion resistance.
• Soft, malleable, ductile and very tough.
• Good machinability.
• High electrical and thermal conductivity.
ü Thermal conductivity order: Ag > Cu > Al
ü 99.99% pure copper used for wiring application.
ü Possess around 97% conductivity of Silver(Ag) at 1/8th cost.
Copper
Copper alloys
Brass – Contains Zinc (Zn) as a main substitutional impurity up to 45 wt.%
• Sn, Al, Si, Mg, Ni, and Pb are also added.
• As Zn content increases, the strength, hardness, ductility increases while conductivity reduces.
• Commercially used Brass is divided in two categories
1. α Brass (containing up to 30% Zn)
ü Gun metal (~2% Zn) - bearings, bushes
ü Gliding Metal (~5% Zn) – coins, medals, jewellery
ü Admiralty brass (~28% Zn,1% Sn) – Condenser, Evaporator and Heat Exchanger tubes
ü Cartridge brass (~30% Zn) - Ammunition cartridge cases, automotive radiators, lamp fixtures
2. α+β Brass (more than 30% Zn)
ü Muntz metal (~40% Zn) – valve stem, architectural works
ü Naval brass (39.25% Zn, 0.75% Sn) – marine construction, propeller shaft
www.occasionalbrass.com
Copper alloys
Bronze – Contains Tin (Sn) as a main substitutional impurity.
•Posses superior mechanical properties and corrosion resistance than brass.
•Comparatively hard and resist surface wear.
Commercially used bronze are:
• Phosphor bronze (up to 10% Sn, 1% P) – Phosphorous improves castability.
ü used in music instruments, springs
• Aluminium bronze (up to 11% Al, 3.5% Sn) - higher strength and corrosion
resistance as compared to other bronze alloys.
ü Bearings, landing gear components in aircraft
• Silicon bronze (up to 3% Si) – self-lubricating, high strength and toughness.
ü Bearing cage
Wrench
Other important Copper alloys are:
Ø Beryllium copper (upto 3% Be) – highest resilience – spring, screwdrivers, pliers, wrenches.
Ø German silver ( 60% Cu, 20% Ni and 20% Zn) – Silvery appearance but not no silver -
Ni increases electrical resistivity, improves strength and corrosion resistance – condenser tubes, cutlery
Nickel (Ni)
• Crystal structure: Face centered cubic (FCC)
• Melting point: 1455oC
• Silvery - white lustrous metal with a slight golden colour. Nickel
Image: Wikipedia
Applications
• Nickel metal hydride rechargeable batteries
• Monel metal
üPrimarily composed of Ni & Cu - with traces of Fe, Mn, Si, C.
üStrong corrosion resistant.
üHeat exchanger tubes, food processing plant, marine Nickel metal hydride battery
Image: Wikipedia
applications
• Super alloys (Ni-Cr) - high creep and oxidation resistance at
elevated temperatures (approx. 1100°C) - turbine blades
Ni superalloy jet engine blade

Image: Wikipedia
Muscles in the New Age
Muscles in
the New
Age
Muscle based Flexible Robots
4-finger EAP gripper grabbing a 10.5-g rock
Mckibben Pneumatic Artificial

Muscles (PAM)
Video
IPMC based 4-bar mechanism

Mobile Soft Robotics
a, Caterpillar-inspired locomotion20. b, A multi-gait quadruped29. c, Active camouflage35. d,

Walking in hazardous environments10. e, Worm-inspired locomotion88. f, Particle-jamming-
based actuation42. g, Rolling powered by a pneumatic battery28. h, A hybrid hard–soft robot89. i,
Snake-inspired locomotion8. j, Jumping powered by internal combustion58. k, Manta-ray
inspired locomotion100. l, An autonomous fish11
Smart Muscles based
on Shape Memory
Alloys
What is Shape Memory Effect?
The recovery of strains imparted to
the material at a lower temperature,
as a result of heating, is called the
Shape Memory Effect (SME).
One-way SME: Remembers shape at Austenite phase
Reference: Bhaskar et al. (2020), Smart Mat. Struc.

Two-way SME: Remembers shape at both phases
Metallic Alloys that show SME
• SME was first observed in 1932 in Gold Cadmium Alloy.
• Three types of SMA are currently popular

§ Cu Zn Al
§ Cu Al Ni
§ Ni Ti (1962)
• The last one is commercially available as NiTiNOL.
(NOL – Naval Ordinance Laboratory, USA)
Two crystal structures of SMA
High Energy Low Energy

Source: Smart Structures Theory by I. Chopra and J. Sirohi (2013)
Competitive Advantage of SMA
Max. Specific Actuation Stress Actuation

(MN-m/kg) Strain
SMA 0.1 0.1
PZT 0.001 0.0001
Human Muscle 0.005 0.9
SMA wire
SMA coiled spring
Stress and Temperature Induced Effects of
SMA
Seo et al. (2015), Applied Sciences (doi:10.3390/app5030187)

Reference: Bhaskar et al. (2020), Smart Mat. Struc.
SMA Actuated
Prosthetic Hand
Reference: Lee et al., Computer Technology and Application (2012)

A SMA based Sensor
“A New Shape Memory Alloy based Smart Encoder for Sensing of Direction and Angular Motion”, Sensors and Transducers ,
Vol. 4, No. 127, pp.45- 56, 2011; B. Bhattacharya and O.P. Patel
Path-generation using Two-link Mechanism
Fabricated Two-link Mechanism

Banerjee A., Bhattacharya B. and Mallik A.K. (2010): Optimum discrete location of a shape memory
alloy wire for discrete actuation of a compliant link, Journal of Mechanical Design , Vol.132, Issue 2.
Inverse analysis
Theoretically obtained figure of
‘8’ from inverse analysis of the
two-link mechanism
Theoretically calculated voltage profiles

to be applied to the SMA wires to obtain
the figure of ‘8’
Reference: PhD Thesis, Atanu Banerjee (2009), IIT Kanpur supervised by

Prof. Bishakh Bhattacharya
Cobalt
• Crystal Structure : Hexagonal close packing
• Density – 8900 kg/m3
• Melting point – 1495oC Cobalt
Image: Wikipedia
• Lustrous silver grey metal
• Elastic modulus – 209 GPa
• Main application – production of high performance alloys
• Cobalt-based alloys are also corrosion and wear-resistant.
• Some high speed steels also contain cobalt for increased
heat and wear-resistance. High temperature application
• Also used in medical orthopedic implants (Vitallium: Co-Cr-Mo alloy).

• Alloyed with 95% platinum for jewelry.
• Cobalt-based blue pigments impart a distinctive blue tint to glass.
Cobalt-blue glass
Amorphous Metal
Amorphous metals can only be produced

by rapid cooling from the liquid state.
Until recently, the cooling rates required
were on the order of 105-106 K/s, which
limits the thickness of a fully amorphous
alloy to fractions of a millimeter. The
resulting ribbons and wires are used
extensively as transformer cores and
magnetic sensors.
SMART MATERIALS & STRUCTURES

(SMSS) LABORATORY
Bulk Metallic Glass
The recent development of bulk metallic

glasses (BMG's) has opened the door for
use of these fascinating materials in
structural applications.
These alloys require cooling rates of only
1-100 K/s, so fully amorphous castings
up to a centimeter thick can be
manufactured using conventional
casting methods.

(SMSS) LABORATORY
BULK METALLIC
GLASS
POLYCRYSTALLINE
METALLIC STRUCTURE
(SMSS) LABORATORY
For a Zr-Ti-Ni-Cu-Be bulk amorphous
alloy, tensile strengths of 2 GPa and fracture
toughness values of ~20 MPaÖm have been
reported.
With a density of 6.1 g/cm3, this BMG has a
higher strength to weight ratio than steels and
most titanium alloys.
The alloy exhibits almost no plastic strain at
failure, but typically shows up to 2.5% elastic
strains. This ability to elastically store large
amounts of energy per unit volume makes the
alloy an excellent spring. In fact, it's first
commercial application is as a golf club head.

(SMSS) LABORATORY
(SMSS) LABORATORY
ü Metal strengthening
ü Metal corrosion

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ME222a

Instructor : Prof. Bishakh Bhattacharya

• Experienced a ductile-to-brittle transition.

• Many were deployed to the frigid North Atlantic, where

• The corner of each hatch (i.e., door) was square; these

• Prefabricated steel sheets that were assembled by

• Cracks in welded structures may propagate unimpeded

• Weld defects and discontinuities (i.e., sites where cracks

At temperatures above 860 °C,

• Material selection using Ashby chart

ü Resilience, Impact testing

ü Linear & Planar density Square bracket [ ]

Carrot Bracket < > Family of Directions

ü Point defects (Vacancy, Interstitial, Substitutional, Frenkel, Schottky defect)

Strengthening & Corrosion in metals

Manufacturing and Mechanical Properties

Magnetostrictive Smart Materials

ü Early civilizations have been

v Iron Age World of materials

• At the start of the 20th century, the mass of

creation and use of

have shorter life.

Indus valley civilization

(10.5 cm high) casted using the lost wax

Chalk and limestone are composed primarily of calcium carbonate

Mudbricks were composed of a mixture that might have included

The development of pottery in Mesopotamia was important

• Witnessed industrial revolution.

Iron Pillar, Qutab Minar Complex, New Delhi, India

• Built over the River Severn in

The Iron Bridge, England

Samjhauta Express (Opened 1914, L = 2.4 km)

Source: Indian Railways gallery

Reference: Ashby, Material Selection in Mechanical Design, 4 Ed.

Metals & Alloys Non-Metals Ceramics Polymers Composites

Gases(H2,He,N2,O2) Al2O3 Wool Wood

Reference: Ashby, Material Selection in Mechanical Design, 4 Ed.

Roof tiles Bearings Bricks

Pottery Electric insulators

Natural rubber Shellac

Aileron/Flap/Ruddar High Strength Carbon-

Self-expanding Nitinol stent in aortic heart valve

Fractured fore-arm Stainless steel implant

Stainless steel screws

UHMWPE liner Femoral prosthesis

UHMWPE lining on femoral prosthesis

Applications Aerogel kept b/w Flower and Bunsen burner

• Thermal barrier – extreme cold region clothes such as for Siachen

4. Electro/Magneto Rheological Materials – Change in viscosity in response to electric/magnetic

III. Materials Selection in Mechanical Design by Michael F. Ashby, Pub. Elsevier.

Instructor : Prof. Bishakh Bhattacharya

Some of the key mechanical properties are :-

Tensile Testing, IIT Kanpur

Reference: Ashby, Material Selection in Mechanical Design, 4 Ed.

1 kPa = 103 Pa (kPa = Kilo Pascal) Tensile force Compressive force

1 MPa = 106 Pa = 1 N/mm2 (MPa = Mega Pascal)

Reference: Engineering Materials 1: Ashby & Jones, 4th Ed.